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@-@ day Herzegovina and southern Dalmatia ) . According to Orbin , Mrnjava 's sons were born in Livno in western Bosnia , where he may have moved after Zachlumia was annexed from Serbia by Bosnia in 1326 . The Mrnjavčević familyn.b.1 may have later supported Serbian Emperor ( tsar ) Stefan Dušan in his preparations to invade Bosnia as did other Zachlumian nobles , and , fearing punishment , emigrated to the Serbian Empire before the war started . These preparations possibly began two years ahead of the invasion , which took place in 1350 . From that year comes the earliest written reference to Marko 's father Vukašin , describing him as Dušan 's appointed župan ( district governor ) of Prilep , which was acquired by Serbia from Byzantium in 1334 with other parts of Macedonia . In 1355 , at about age 47 , Stefan Dušan died suddenly of a stroke .
Dušan was succeeded by his 19 @-@ year @-@ old son Uroš , who apparently regarded Marko Mrnjavčević as a man of trust . The new Emperor appointed him the head of the embassy he sent to Ragusa ( now Dubrovnik , Croatia ) at the end of July 1361 to negotiate peace between the empire and the Ragusan Republic after hostilities earlier that year . Although peace was not reached , Marko successfully negotiated the release of Serbian merchants from Prizren who were detained by the Ragusans and was permitted to withdraw silver deposited in the city by his family . The account of that embassy in a Ragusan document contains the earliest @-@ known , undisputed reference to Marko Mrnjavčević . An inscription written in 1356 on a wall of a church in the Macedonian region of Tikveš , mentions a Nikola and a Marko as governors in that region , but the identity of this Marko is disputed .
Dušan 's death was followed by the stirring of separatist activity in the Serbian Empire . The south @-@ western territories , including Epirus , Thessaly , and lands in southern Albania , seceded by 1357 . However , the core of the state ( the western lands , including Zeta and Travunia with the upper Drina Valley ; the central Serbian lands ; and Macedonia ) , remained loyal to Emperor Uroš . Nevertheless , local noblemen asserted more and more independence from Uroš ' authority even in the part of the state that remained Serbian . Uroš was weak and unable to counteract these separatist tendencies , becoming an inferior power in his own domain . Serbian lords also fought each other for territory and influence .
Vukašin Mrnjavčević was a skilful politician , and gradually assumed the main role in the empire . In August or September 1365 Uroš crowned him king , making him his co @-@ ruler . By 1370 Marko 's potential patrimony increased as Vukašin expanded his personal holdings from Prilep further into Macedonia , Kosovo and Metohija , acquiring Prizren , Pristina , Novo Brdo , Skopje and Ohrid . In a charter he issued on 5 April 1370 Vukašin mentioned his wife ( Queen Alena ) and sons ( Marko and Andrijaš ) , signing himself as " Lord of the Serb and Greek Lands , and of the Western Provinces " ( господинь зємли срьбьскои и грькѡмь и западнимь странамь ) . In late 1370 or early 1371 Vukašin crowned Marko " Young King " , a title given to heirs presumptive of Serbian kings to secure their position as successors to the throne . Since Uroš was childless Marko could thus become his successor , beginning a new — Vukašin 's — dynasty of Serbian sovereigns , and ending the two @-@ century Nemanjić dynasty . Most Serbian lords were unhappy with the situation , which strengthened their desire for independence from the central authority .
Vukašin sought a well @-@ connected spouse for Marko . A princess from the Croatian House of Šubić of Dalmatia was sent by her father , Grgur , to the court of their relative Tvrtko I , the ban of Bosnia . She was supposed to be raised and married by Tvrtko 's mother Jelena . Jelena was the daughter of George II Šubić , whose maternal grandfather was Serbian King Dragutin Nemanjić . The ban and his mother approved of Vukašin 's idea to join the Šubić princess and Marko , and the wedding was imminent . However , in April 1370 Pope Urban V sent Tvrtko a letter forbidding him to give the Catholic lady in marriage to the " son of His Magnificence , the King of Serbia , a schismatic " ( filio magnifici viri Regis Rascie scismatico ) . The pope also notified King Louis I of Hungary , nominal overlord of the ban , of the impending " offence to the Christian faith " , and the marriage did not occur . Marko subsequently married Jelena ( daughter of Radoslav Hlapen , the lord of Veria and Edessa and the major Serbian nobleman in southern Macedonia ) .
During the spring of 1371 , Marko participated in the preparations for a campaign against Nikola Altomanović , the major lord in the west of the Empire . The campaign was planned jointly by King Vukašin and Đurađ I Balšić , lord of Zeta ( who was married to Olivera , the king 's daughter ) . In July of that year Vukašin and Marko camped with their army outside Scutari , on Balšić 's territory , ready to make an incursion towards Onogošt in Altomanović 's land . The attack never took place , since the Ottomans threatened the land of Despot Jovan Uglješa ( lord of Serres and Vukašin 's younger brother , who ruled in eastern Macedonia ) and the Mrnjavčević forces were quickly directed eastward . Having sought allies in vain , the two brothers and their troops entered Ottoman @-@ controlled territory . At the Battle of Maritsa on 26 September 1371 , the Turks annihilated the Serbian army ; the bodies of Vukašin and Jovan Uglješa were never found . The battle site , near the village of Ormenio in present @-@ day eastern Greece , has ever since been called as Sırp Sındığı ( " Serbian rout " ) in Turkish . The Battle of Maritsa had far @-@ reaching consequences for the region , since it opened the Balkans to the Turks .
= = = After 1371 = = =
When his father died , " young king " Marko became king and co @-@ ruler with Emperor Uroš . The Nemanjić dynasty ended soon afterwards , when Uroš died on 2 ( or 4 ) December 1371 and Marko became the formal sovereign of Serbia . Serbian lords , however , did not recognise him , and divisions within the state increased . After the two brothers ' deaths and the destruction of their armies , the Mrnjavčević family was left powerless . Lords around Marko exploited the opportunity to seize significant parts of his patrimony . By 1372 Đurađ I Balšić took Prizren and Peć , and Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović took Pristina . By 1377 Vuk Branković acquired Skopje , and Albanian magnate Andrea Gropa became virtually independent in Ohrid ; however , he may have remained a vassal to Marko as he had been to Vukašin . Gropa 's son @-@ in @-@ law was Marko 's relative , Ostoja Rajaković of the clan of Ugarčić from Travunia . He was one of Serbian noblemen from Zachlumia and Travunia ( adjacent principalities in present @-@ day Herzegovina ) who received lands in the newly conquered parts of Macedonia during Emperor Dušan 's reign .
The only sizable town kept by Marko was Prilep , from which his father rose . King Marko became a petty prince ruling a relatively small territory in western Macedonia , bordered in the north by the Šar mountains and Skopje ; in the east by the Vardar and the Crna Reka rivers , and in the west by Ohrid . The southern limits of his territory are uncertain . Marko shared his rule with his younger brother , Andrijaš , who had his own land . Their mother , Queen Alena , became a nun after Vukašin 's death , taking the monastic name Jelisaveta , but was co @-@ ruler with Andrijaš for some time after 1371 . The youngest brother , Dmitar , lived on land controlled by Andrijaš . There was another brother , Ivaniš , about whom little is known . When Marko became an Ottoman vassal is uncertain , but it was probably not immediately after the Battle of Maritsa .
At some point Marko separated from Jelena and lived with Todora , the wife of a man named Grgur , and Jelena returned to her father in Veria . Marko later sought to reconcile with Jelena but he had to send Todora to his father @-@ in @-@ law . Since Marko 's land was bordered on the south by Hlapen 's , the reconciliation may have been political . Scribe Dobre , a subject of Marko 's , transcribed a liturgical book for the church in the village of Kaluđerec , n.b.2 and when he finished , he composed an inscription which begins as follows :
Marko 's fortress was on a hill north of present @-@ day Prilep ; its partially preserved remains are known as Markovi Kuli ( " Marko 's towers " ) . Beneath the fortress is the village of Varoš , site of the medieval Prilep . The village contains the Monastery of Archangel Michael , renovated by Marko and Vukašin , whose portraits are on the walls of the monastery 's church . Marko was ktetor of the Church of Saint Sunday in Prizren , which was finished in 1371 , shortly before the Battle of Maritsa . In the inscription above the church 's entrance , he is called " young king " .
The Monastery of St. Demetrius , popularly known as Marko 's Monastery , is in the village of Markova Sušica ( near Skopje ) and was built from c . 1345 to 1376 ( or 1377 ) . Kings Marko and Vukašin , its ktetors , are depicted over the south entrance of the monastery church . Marko is an austere @-@ looking man in purple clothes , wearing a crown decorated with pearls . With his left hand he holds a scroll , whose text begins : " I , in the Christ God the pious King Marko , built and inscribed this divine temple ... " In his right hand , he holds a horn symbolizing the horn of oil with which the Old Testament kings were anointed at their coronation ( as described in 1 Samuel 16 : 13 ) . Marko is said to be shown here as the king chosen by God to lead his people through the crisis following the Battle of Maritsa .
Marko minted his own money , in common with his father and other Serbian nobles of the time . His silver coins weighed 1 @.@ 11 grams , and were produced in three types . In two of them , the obverse contained a five @-@ line text : ВЬХА / БАБЛГОВ / ѢРНИКР / АЛЬМА / РКО ( " In the Christ God , the pious King Marko " ) . In the first type , the reverse depicted Christ seated on a throne ; in the second , Christ was seated on a mandorla . In the third type , the reverse depicted Christ on a mandorla ; the obverse contained the four @-@ line text БЛГО / ВѢРНИ / КРАЛЬ / МАРКО ( " Pious King Marko " ) , which Marko also used in the church inscription . He omitted a territorial designation from his title , probably in tacit acknowledgement of his limited power . Although his brother Andrijaš also minted his own coins , the money supply in the territory ruled by the Mrnjavčević brothers primarily consisted of coins struck by King Vukašin and Tsar Uroš . About 150 of Marko 's coins survive in numismatic collections .
By 1379 , Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović , the ruler of Moravian Serbia , emerged as the most @-@ powerful Serbian nobleman . Although he called himself Autokrator of all the Serbs ( самодрьжць вьсѣмь Србьлѥмь ) , he was not strong enough to unite all Serbian lands under his authority . The Balšić and Mrnjavčević families , Konstantin Dragaš ( maternally a Nemanjić ) , Vuk Branković and Radoslav Hlapen continued ruling their respective regions . In addition to Marko , Tvrtko I was crowned King of the Serbs and of Bosnia in 1377 in the Mileševa monastery . Maternally related to the Nemanjić dynasty , Tvrtko had seized western portions of the former Serbian Empire in 1373 .
On 15 June 1389 Serbian forces led by Prince Lazar , Vuk Branković , and Tvrtko 's nobleman Vlatko Vuković of Zachlumia , confronted the Ottoman army led by Sultan Murad I at the Battle of Kosovo , the best @-@ known battle in medieval Serbian history . With the bulk of both armies wiped out and Lazar and Murad killed , the outcome of the battle was inconclusive . In its aftermath the Serbs had insufficient manpower to defend their lands , while the Turks had many more troops in the east . Serbian principalities which were not already Ottoman vassals became such over the next few years .
In 1394 , a group of Ottoman vassals in the Balkans renounced their vassalage . Although Marko was not among them , his younger brothers Andrijaš and Dmitar refused to remain under Turkish dominance . They emigrated to the Kingdom of Hungary , entering the service of King Sigismund . They travelled via Ragusa , where they withdrew two @-@ thirds of their late father 's store of 96 @.@ 73 kilograms ( 213 @.@ 3 lb ) of silver , leaving the remaining third for Marko . Although Andrijaš and Dmitar were the first Serbian nobles to emigrate to Hungary , the Serbian northward migration would continue throughout the Ottoman occupation .
In 1395 the Turks attacked Wallachia to punish its ruler , Mircea I , for his incursions into their territory . Three Serbian vassals fought on the Ottoman side : King Marko , Lord Konstantin Dragaš , and Despot Stefan Lazarević ( son and heir of Prince Lazar ) . The Battle of Rovine , on 17 May 1395 , was won by the Wallachians ; Marko and Dragaš were killed . After their deaths the Turks annexed their lands , combining them into an Ottoman province centred in Kyustendil . Thirty @-@ six years after the Battle of Rovine , Konstantin the Philosopher wrote the Biography of Despot Stefan Lazarević and recorded what Marko said to Dragaš on the eve of the battle : " I pray the Lord to help the Christians , no matter if I will be the first to die in this war . "
= = In folk poetry = =
= = = Serbian epic poetry = = =
Marko Mrnjavčević is the most popular hero of Serbian epic poetry , in which he is called " Kraljević Marko " ( with the word kraljević meaning " prince " or " king 's son " ) . This informal title was attached to King Vukašin 's sons in contemporary sources as a surname ( Marko Kraljević ) , n.b.3 and it was adopted by the Serbian oral tradition as part of Marko 's name .
Poems about Kraljević Marko do not follow a storyline ; what binds them into a poetic cycle is the hero himself , with his adventures illuminating his character and personality . The epic Marko had a 300 @-@ year lifespan ; 14th- to 16th @-@ century heroes appearing as his companions include Miloš Obilić , Relja Krilatica , Vuk the Fiery Dragon and Sibinjanin Janko and his nephew , Banović Sekula . Very few historical facts about Marko can be found in the poems , but they reflect his connection with the disintegration of the Serbian Empire and his vassalage to the Ottomans . They were composed by anonymous Serbian poets during the Ottoman occupation of their land . According to American Slavicist George Rapall Noyes , they " combine tragic pathos with almost ribald comedy in a fashion worthy of an Elizabethan playwright . "
Serbian epic poetry agrees that King Vukašin was Marko 's father . His mother in the poems was Jevrosima , sister of voivode Momčilo , the lord of the Pirlitor Fortress ( on Mount Durmitor in Old Herzegovina ) . Momčilo is described as a man of immense size and strength with magical attributes : a winged horse and a sabre with eyes . Vukašin murdered him with the help of the voivode 's young wife , Vidosava , despite Jevrosima 's self @-@ sacrificing attempt to save her brother . Instead of marrying Vidosava ( the original plan ) , Vukašin killed the treacherous woman . He took Jevrosima from Pirlitor to his capital city , Skadar , and married her according to the advice of the dying Momčilo . She bore him two sons , Marko and Andrijaš , and the poem recounting these events says that Marko took after his uncle Momčilo . This epic character corresponds historically with Bulgarian brigand and mercenary Momchil , who was in the service of Serbian Tsar Dušan ; he later became a despot and died in the 1345 Battle of Peritheorion . According to another account , Marko and Andrijaš were mothered by a vila ( Slavic mountain nymph ) married by Vukašin after he caught her near a lake and removed her wings so she could not escape .
As Marko matured , he became headstrong ; Vukašin once said that he had no control over his son , who went wherever he wanted , drank and brawled . Marko grew up into a large , strong man , with a terrifying appearance , which was also somewhat comical . He wore a wolf @-@ skin cap pulled low over his dark eyes , his black moustache was the size of a six @-@ month @-@ old lamb and his cloak was a shaggy wolf @-@ pelt . A Damascus sabre swung at his waist , and a spear was slung across his back . Marko 's pernach weighed 66 okas ( 85 kilograms ( 187 lb ) ) and hung on the left side of his saddle , balanced by a well @-@ filled wineskin on the saddle 's right side . His grip was strong enough to squeeze drops of water from a piece of dry cornel wood . Marko defeated a succession of champions against overwhelming odds .
The hero 's inseparable companion was his powerful , talking piebald horse Šarac ; Marko always gave him an equal share of his wine . The horse could leap three spear @-@ lengths high and four spear @-@ lengths forward , enabling Marko to capture the dangerous , elusive vila Ravijojla . She became his blood sister , promising to help him in dire straits . When Ravijojla helped him kill the monstrous , three @-@ hearted Musa Kesedžija ( who almost defeated him ) , Marko grieved because he had slain a better man than himself .
Marko is portrayed as a protector of the weak and helpless , a fighter against Turkish bullies and injustice in general . He was an idealised keeper of patriarchal and natural norms : in a Turkish military camp , he beheaded the Turk who dishonourably killed his father . He abolished the marriage tax by killing the tyrant who imposed it on the people of Kosovo . He saved the sultan 's daughter from an unwanted marriage after she entreated him , as her blood brother , to help her . He rescued three Serbian voivodes ( his blood brothers ) from a dungeon and helped animals in distress . Marko was a rescuer and benefactor of people , and a promoter of life ; " Prince Marko is remembered like a fair day in the year " .
Characteristic of Marko was his reverence and love for his mother , Jevrosima ; he often sought her advice , following it even when it contradicted his own desires . She lived with Marko at his mansion in Prilep , his lodestar guiding him away from evil and toward good on the path of moral improvement and Christian virtues . Marko 's honesty and moral courage are noteworthy in a poem in which he was the only person who knew the will of the late Tsar Dušan regarding his heir . Marko refused to lie in favour of the pretenders — his father and uncles . He said truthfully that Dušan appointed his son , Uroš , heir to the Serbian throne . This almost cost him his life , since Vukašin tried to kill him .
Marko is represented as a loyal vassal of the Ottoman sultan , fighting to protect the potentate and his empire from outlaws . When summoned by the sultan , he participated in Turkish military campaigns . Even in this relationship , however , Marko 's personality and sense of dignity were apparent . He occasionally made the sultan uneasy , and meetings between them usually ended like this :
Marko 's fealty was combined with the notion that the servant was greater than his lord , as Serbian poets turned the tables on their conquerors . This dual aspect of Marko may explain his heroic status ; for the Serbs he was " the proud symbol expressive of the unbroken spirit that lived on in spite of disaster and defeat , " according to translator of Serbian epic poems David Halyburton Low .
In battle , Marko used not only his strength and prowess but cunning and trickery . Despite his extraordinary qualities he was not depicted as a superhero or a god , but as a mortal man . There were opponents who surpassed him in courage and strength . He was occasionally capricious , short @-@ tempered or cruel , but his predominant traits were honesty , loyalty and fundamental goodness .
With his comic appearance and behaviour , and his remarks at his opponents ' expense , Marko is the most humorous character in Serbian epic poetry . When a Moor struck him with a mace , Marko said laughingly , " O valiant black Moor ! Are you jesting or smiting in earnest ? " Jevrosima once advised her son to cease his bloody adventures and plough the fields instead . He obeyed in a grimly humorous way , ploughing the sultan 's highway instead of the fields . A group of Turkish Janissaries with three packs of gold shouted at him to stop ploughing the highway . He warned them to keep off the furrows , but quickly wearied of arguing :
Marko , age 300 , rode the 160 @-@ year @-@ old Šarac by the seashore towards Mount Urvina when a vila told him that he was going to die . Marko then leaned over a well and saw no reflection of his face on the water ; hydromancy confirmed the vila 's words . He killed Šarac so the Turks would not use him for menial labor , and gave his beloved companion an elaborate burial . Marko broke his sword and spear , throwing his mace far out to sea before lying down to die . His body was found seven days later by Abbot Vaso and his deacon , Isaija . Vaso took Marko to Mount Athos and buried him at the Hilandar Monastery in an unmarked grave .
= = = Epic poetry of Bulgaria and Macedonia = = =
" Krali Marko " has been one of the most popular characters in Bulgarian folklore for centuries . Bulgarian epic tales in general ( and those about Marko in particular ) seem to originate from the southwestern part of the Bulgarian region , primarily in the present @-@ day Republic of Macedonia . Therefore , the tales are also part of the ethnic heritage of present @-@ day Macedonia .
According to local legend Marko 's mother was Evrosiya ( Евросия ) , sister of the Bulgarian voivoda Momchil ( who ruled territory in the Rhodope Mountains ) . At Marko 's birth three narecnitsi ( fairy sorceresses ) appeared , predicting that he would be a hero and replace his father ( King Vukašin ) . When the king heard this , he threw his son into the river in a basket to get rid of him . A samodiva named Vila found Marko and brought him up , becoming his foster mother . Because Marko drank the samodiva 's milk , he acquired supernatural powers and became a Bulgarian freedom fighter against the Turks . He has a winged horse named Sharkolia ( " dappled " ) and a stepsister , the samodiva Gyura . Bulgarian legends incorporate fragments of pagan mythology and beliefs , although the Marko epic was created as late as the 14 – 18th centuries . Among Bulgarian epic songs , songs about Krali Marko are common and pivotal . Bulgarian folklorists who collected stories about Marko included educator Trayko Kitanchev ( in the Resen region of western Macedonia ) and Marko Cepenkov of Prilep ( throughout the region ) .
= = In legend = =
South Slavic legends about Kraljević Marko or Krali Marko are primarily based on myths much older than the historical Marko Mrnjavčević . He differs in legend from the folk poems ; in some areas he was imagined as a giant who walked stepping on hilltops , his head touching the clouds . He was said to have helped God shape the earth , and created the river gorge in Demir Kapija ( " Iron Gate " ) with a stroke of his sabre . This drained the sea covering the regions of Bitola , Mariovo and Tikveš in Macedonia , making them habitable . After the earth was shaped , Marko arrogantly showed off his strength . God took it away by leaving a bag as heavy as the earth on a road ; when Marko tried to lift it , he lost his strength and became an ordinary man .
Legend also has it that Marko acquired his strength after he was suckled by a vila . King Vukašin threw him into a river because he did not resemble him , but the boy was saved by a cowherd ( who adopted him , and a vila suckled him ) . In other accounts , Marko was a shepherd ( or cowherd ) who found a vila 's children lost in a mountain and shaded them against the sun ( or gave them water ) . As a reward the vila suckled him three times , and he could lift and throw a large boulder . An Istrian version has Marko making a shade for two snakes , instead of the children . In a Bulgarian version , each of the three draughts of milk he suckled from the vila 's breast became a snake .
Marko was associated with large , solitary boulders and indentations in rocks ; the boulders were said to be thrown by him from a hill , and the indentations were his footprints ( or the hoofprints of his horse ) . He was also connected with geographic features such as hills , glens , cliffs , caves , rivers , brooks and groves , which he created or at which he did something memorable . They were often named after him , and there are many toponyms — from Istria in the west to Bulgaria in the east — derived from his name . In Bulgarian and Macedonian stories , Marko had an equally strong sister who competed with him in throwing boulders .
In some legends , Marko 's wonder horse was a gift from a vila . A Serbian story says that he was looking for a horse who could bear him . To test a steed , he would grab him by the tail and sling him over his shoulder . Seeing a diseased piebald foal owned by some carters , Marko grabbed him by the tail but could not move him . He bought ( and cured ) the foal , naming him Šarac . He became an enormously powerful horse and Marko 's inseparable companion . Macedonian legend has it that Marko , following a vila 's advice , captured a sick horse on a mountain and cured him . Crusted patches on the horse 's skin grew white hairs , and he became a piebald .
According to folk tradition Marko never died ; he lives on in a cave , in a moss @-@ covered den or in an unknown land . A Serbian legend recounts that Marko once fought a battle in which so many men were killed that the soldiers ( and their horses ) swam in blood . He lifted his hands towards heaven and said , " Oh God , what am I going to do now ? " God took pity on Marko , transporting him and Šarac to a cave ( where Marko stuck his sabre into a rock and fell asleep ) . There is moss in the cave ; Šarac eats it bit by bit , while the sabre slowly emerges from the rock . When it falls on the ground and Šarac finishes the moss , Marko will awaken and reenter the world . Some allegedly saw him after descending into a deep pit , where he lived in a large house in front of which Šarac was seen . Others saw him in a faraway land , living in a cave . According to Macedonian tradition Marko drank " eagle 's water " , which made him immortal ; he is with Elijah in heaven .
= = In modern culture = =
During the 19th century , Marko was the subject of several dramatizations . In 1831 the Hungarian drama Prince Marko , possibly written by István Balog , was performed in Budim and in 1838 , the Hungarian drama Prince Marko – Great Serbian Hero by Celesztin Pergő was staged in Arad . In 1848 Jovan Sterija Popović wrote the tragedy The Dream of Prince Marko , in which the legend of sleeping Marko is its central motif . Petar Preradović wrote the drama Kraljević Marko , which glorifies southern Slav strength . In 1863 Francesco Dall 'Ongaro presented his Italian drama , The Resurrection of Prince Marko .
Of all Serbian epic or historical figures , Marko is considered to have given the most inspiration to visual artists ; a monograph on the subject lists 87 authors . His oldest known depictions are 14th @-@ century frescoes from Marko 's Monastery and Prilep . An 18th @-@ century drawing of Marko is found in the Čajniče Gospels , a medieval parchment manuscript belonging to a Serbian Orthodox church in Čajniče in eastern Bosnia . The drawing is simple , unique in depicting Marko as a saint and reminiscent of stećci reliefs . Vuk Karadžić wrote that during his late @-@ 18th @-@ century childhood he saw a painting of Marko carrying an ox on his back .
Nineteenth @-@ century lithographs of Marko were made by Anastas Jovanović , Ferdo Kikerec and others . Artists who painted Marko during that century include Mina Karadžić , Novak Radonić and Đura Jakšić . Twentieth @-@ century artists include Nadežda Petrović , Mirko Rački , Uroš Predić and Paja Jovanović . A sculpture of Marko on Šarac by Ivan Meštrović was reproduced on a Yugoslavian banknote and stamp . Modern illustrators with Marko as their subject include Alexander Key , Aleksandar Klas , Zuko Džumhur , Vasa Pomorišac and Bane Kerac .
Motifs in multiple works are Marko and Ravijojla , Marko and his mother , Marko and Šarac , Marko shooting an arrow , Marko plowing the roads , the fight between Marko and Musa and Marko 's death . Also , several artists have tried to produce a realistic portrait of Marko based on his frescoes . In 1924 Prilep Brewery introduced a light beer , Krali Marko .
= Major General John A. Logan =
Major General John A. Logan , also known as the General John A. Logan Monument and Logan Circle Monument , is an equestrian statue in Washington , D.C. that honors politician and Civil War general John A. Logan . The monument is sited in the center of Logan Circle , a traffic circle and public park in the Logan Circle neighborhood . The statue was sculpted by artist Franklin Simmons , whose other prominent works include the Peace Monument and statues in the National Statuary Hall Collection . The architect of the statue base was Richard Morris Hunt , designer of prominent buildings including the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City and The Breakers in Newport , Rhode Island . Prominent attendees at the dedication ceremony in 1901 included President William McKinley , members of his cabinet , Senator Chauncey Depew , Senator Shelby Moore Cullom , and General Grenville M. Dodge .
The sculpture is one of eighteen Civil War monuments in Washington , D.C. , which were collectively listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 . The bronze sculpture rests on a bronze and granite base adorned with two reliefs depicting historically inaccurate moments in Logan 's life . The monument and surrounding park are owned and maintained by the National Park Service , a federal agency of the Interior Department .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
John A. Logan ( 1826 – 1886 ) was a native of Illinois who served as a second lieutenant in the Mexican – American War before studying at the University of Louisville to become a lawyer . Originally a member of the Democratic Party , he was elected state senator and later a member of the U.S. House of Representatives . During the onset of the Civil War , Logan denounced what he considered extremists on both sides , but eventually volunteered to fight with the Union Army during the First Battle of Bull Run . He then resigned from Congress and was made colonel after he organized the 31st Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment . Logan was wounded twice while serving in the war and considered an outstanding field commander . He was promoted to brigadier general following the victory at Fort Donelson . Logan played a significant role in the Union success at Vicksburg and served as that district 's military governor . Following the death of General James B. McPherson , Logan was given command of the Army of the Tennessee , but was soon relieved by General Oliver O. Howard after Logan became too involved with the 1864 presidential election . He left the army in 1865 and resumed his career in politics .
Logan was elected as a Republican to the U.S. House of Representatives and later to the U.S. Senate . In the 1884 presidential election , Logan unsuccessfully ran with Senator James G. Blaine as his vice presidential candidate , narrowly losing the race . During his time in office , Logan was considered one of the most vocal advocates for military veterans . He helped organize two veteran fraternal organizations , the Grand Army of the Republic ( GAR ) and the Society of the Army of the Tennessee ( SAT ) , and was instrumental in the federal government recognizing Memorial Day ( originally called Decoration Day ) as an official holiday , first celebrated in 1868 .
Soon after Logan 's death in 1886 , the SAT began work on erecting a monument to the military hero . The organization worked closely with the GAR and Logan 's widow , Mary , to raise funds and lobby Congress for a monument . It would be the second equestrian monument in Washington , D.C. commissioned by the SAT , the first being the Major General James B. McPherson statue . Erection of the monument was approved by an act of Congress on March 2 , 1889 . A memorial commission was created to select a sculptor and site for the statue . Members of the commission asked sculptor Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens who he would recommend . He suggested Franklin Simmons ( 1839 – 1913 ) , an American artist working in Rome . Simmons had previously sculpted several Civil War monuments , including the Peace Monument in Washington , D.C. His other works in the city include several statues in the National Statuary Hall Collection and the United States Senate Vice Presidential Bust Collection .
The commission considered models by several sculptors before selecting Simmons in December 1892 , whose model was the " most agreeable to Mrs. Logan . " She admired not only the posture of Simmon 's model , but his idea to have the statue rest on a bronze base , unlike other monuments in the city that featured granite bases . Mary also liked that Simmons and members of the commission would follow her recommendations for the reliefs to be found on the statue base . Simmons was paid $ 65 @,@ 000 for his work ; around $ 13 @,@ 000 from the SAT and the remainder from the federal government . Sculpting the piece proved more difficult than Simmons had expected since the Logan statue was his first and only equestrian work . He was forced to ask for several extensions beginning in 1896 . Simmons paid founder Fonderia Nelli extra money to work around the clock on the base , designed by prominent architect Richard Morris Hunt , whose other works include the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City and The Breakers in Newport Rhode Island .
It only took Nelli three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months to complete the process instead of the planned year . The Cranford Paving Company was contracted to prepare the site and lay the granite foundation . Simmons was not pleased with the company 's work and new stone was ordered in September 1897 . Following the new stone 's placement , the base was installed on April 18 , 1898 . It wasn 't until 1900 that Simmons completed the sculpture and it was cast in Rome . Upon its completion , a ceremony attended by King Umberto I of Italy and his wife , Queen Margherita , was held at the foundry where Simmons was honored with knighthood . The sculpture was shipped to the United States and arrived in Brooklyn in December 1900 . Because the sculpture was too large to be transported by train , it was placed onto a two @-@ masted schooner and arrived in Washington , D.C. on January 16 , 1901 . It was installed on top of the base one week later .
The site chosen for the monument was the center of Iowa Circle , a park in an upscale neighborhood in the city 's northwest quadrant . The park was completely redesigned in 1891 to make room for the monument . By the time it was dedicated in 1901 , nearby Dupont Circle was lined with mansions and had become more popular with the city 's wealthy residents while Iowa Circle , surrounded by stately row houses , had become a middle @-@ class neighborhood .
= = = Dedication = = =
The monument was formally dedicated on April 9 , 1901 . Temporary platforms for invited and distinguished guests were built near the base . Guests included President William McKinley , members of his cabinet , Senator Chauncey Depew , Senator Shelby Moore Cullom , General Grenville M. Dodge , Mary Logan and several members of the Logan family , representatives from the GAR and SAT , and Simmons . Prior to the ceremony , there was a large military parade led by Colonel Francis L. Guenther . The parade consisted of soldiers , marines , seamen from the nearby Navy Yard , the District of Columbia militia , and GAR and SAT veterans . Dodge , who was president of the SAT and the only living general depicted on one of the relief panels , presided over the ceremonies . George Tucker , a grandson of Logan , pulled a cord , parting the flags that had draped over the statue . This was followed by cheers and applause from the crowd while the Fourth Artillery fired a national salute .
McKinley , the last Civil War veteran to occupy the White House , gave an address which included the following remarks : " It is a good token when patriots are honored and patriotism exalted . Monuments which express the nation 's gratitude for great deeds inspire great deeds . The statue unveiled today proclaims our country 's appreciation of one of her heroic sons whose name is dear to the American people , the ideal volunteer soldier of two wars , the eminent senator and commoner , General John A. Logan . " Following the president 's speech , Depew also gave an address . His remarks included : " The history of our country is condensed in the Revolutionary and civil wars . As Washington stands out in the first of our crucial contests , so does Lincoln in the second . About Lincoln cluster Grant , Sherman , Sheridan , Logan , McPherson , and a host of other heroes ... Among those successful Americans in many lines who have won and held the public eye and died mourned by all their countrymen , there will live in the future in the history of the Republic no nobler figure , in peace and in war , in the pursuits of the citizen , and in work for the welfare of his fellow citizens , than General John A. Logan . " Cullom then read a letter from Illinois governor Richard Yates Jr . , who was unable to attend , which paid tribute to Logan and noted how proud the state 's citizens were of the Illinois native . The ceremony concluded following the benediction by Reverence J. G. Butler .
= = = Reception = = =
Initial reception to the statue was very positive . The New York Times described it as producing " an impression of dignity , beauty , and power . " But in the weeks following the dedication ceremony , praise turned to criticism and reporters noted " absurdities " in the relief panels . They noted that the relief depicting Logan gathered with other Civil War leaders plotting strategy together was very unlikely . The second panel , depicting Logan being sworn in as senator by Vice President Chester A. Arthur was called " impossible " and " ridiculous . " Logan was sworn into the Senate in 1879 and Arthur himself was not sworn in as vice president until 1881 . Two of the senators depicted in that relief were not sworn in until 1882 and 1884 , respectively , and another one died in 1877 . Mary Logan initially took credit for selecting the scenes depicted in the reliefs and received all of the blame when the errors were discovered . In a heated letter to the Evening Star , she said the reliefs were not meant to be historically accurate : " Of course , we knew all this , but we disregarded it because we wanted these panels to portray the most prominent men of the history of the country who were in the Senate during the 16 years that my husband was Senator . " She added to reproduce historically accurate scenes would have been " absurd . "
= = = Later history = = =
In 1930 , Congress renamed Iowa Circle in honor of Logan , who had briefly lived at 4 Logan Circle in 1885 . The statue is one of eighteen Civil War monuments in Washington , D.C. , that were collectively listed on the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) on September 20 , 1978 , and the District of Columbia Inventory of Historic Sites on March 3 , 1979 . It is also designated a contributing property to the Logan Circle Historic District , listed on the NRHP on June 30 , 1972 , and the Fourteenth Street Historic District , listed on the NRHP on November 9 , 1994 . The monument and surrounding park are owned and maintained by the National Park Service , a federal agency of the Interior Department .
= = Design and location = =
The monument is sited in the center of Logan Circle , a 1 @.@ 8 acre ( 0 @.@ 73 ha ) public park and traffic circle in the Logan Circle neighborhood at the convergence of 13th Street , P Street , Rhode Island Avenue and Vermont Avenue NW . Sidewalks lead from the edge of the circle to the monument on axis with the surrounding streets . Around twenty oak trees are planted throughout the circle and a small , ornamental iron fence surrounds the statue base .
The bronze equestrian statue measures 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) tall , 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) long , and 4 @.@ 05 ft ( 1 @.@ 23 m ) wide . It weighs approximately 11 @,@ 000 lb ( 5 @,@ 000 kg ) . Logan is depicted with collar @-@ length hair and a moustache while wearing his Civil War military uniform ; a long belted jacket , boots , gloves , and a hat . He is holding the horse 's reins with his left hand and his right hand his holding his sword pointed downward . The horse is striding forward with its right foot raised . The inscriptions " FOND . NELLI ROMA 1897 " and " FRANKLIN SIMMONS " are found on the statue .
The statue rests on a rectangular bronze base which is itself on top of a low granite base . The base is 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) high , 22 ft ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) long , and 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) wide . It weights approximately 35 @,@ 000 lb ( 16 @,@ 000 kg ) . A bald eagle symbolizing Patriotism adorns the upper section of each corner of the bronze base . Around the inscription " LOGAN " are palm leaves symbolizing Victory . These are located on the east and west sides of the lower portion of the bronze base . The relief on the west side of the base depicts Logan surrounded by fellow officers discussing the Civil War . The officers include Generals Francis Preston Blair , Jr . , Dodge , William Babcock Hazen , Mortimer Dormer Leggett , Joseph A. Mower , and Henry Warner Slocum , and Captain Bill Strong . On Logan 's proper right is a map spread on a table with three of the officers studying it . The remaining officers are looking towards Logan who has his left hand resting on the map . The relief on the east side of the base depicts Logan being sworn into office as a senator by Vice President Arthur . Logan 's right arm is raised while Arthur 's left hand is raised and holding a book . Other senators depicted in the relief include Roscoe Conkling , Cullom , William M. Evarts , John F. Miller , Oliver P. Morton , Allen G. Thurman , and Daniel W. Voorhees . A female allegorical figure is on the north and south sides of the base . The figure on the north side , representing Peace or Victory , is holding a laurel wreath in her right hand and a fasces in her left hand . She is wearing long robes and has a laurel wreath on her head . The figure on the south side , representing War , is holding a shield with her left hand and a sword with her right hand . She is wearing a dress adorned with armor details and a crown @-@ shaped helmet .
= Wilfred Talbot Smith =
Wilfred Talbot Smith ( born Frank Wenham ; 8 June 1885 – 27 April 1957 ) was an English occultist and ceremonial magician known as a prominent advocate of the religion of Thelema . Living most of his life in North America , he played a key role in propagating Thelema across the continent .
Born the illegitimate son of a domestic servant and her employer in Tonbridge , Kent , Smith migrated to Canada in 1907 , where he went through a variety of jobs and began reading about Western esotericism . Through Charles Stansfeld Jones he was introduced to the writings of Thelema 's founder , Aleister Crowley . He subsequently joined Crowley 's Thelemite order , the A ∴ A ∴ , and the Thelemite wing of the Ordo Templi Orientis ( O.T.O. ) . In 1915 , he joined the O.T.O. ' s British Columbia Lodge No. 1 , based in Vancouver , and rose to become one of its senior members .
In 1922 Smith moved to Los Angeles in the United States , where he , Jane Wolfe , and Regina Kahl tried to establish a new Thelemite community . They founded an incorporated Church of Thelema which gave weekly public performances of the Gnostic Mass from their home in Hollywood . Seeking to revive the inactive North American O.T.O. , in 1935 Smith then founded the O.T.O. Agape Lodge , which subsequently relocated to Pasadena . He brought a number of prominent Thelemites into the O.T.O. , including Jack Parsons and Grady Louis McMurtry , but he had a strained relationship with both Crowley and Crowley 's North American deputy , Karl Germer , who eventually ousted him from his position as Agape Lodge leader , replacing him with Parsons . Smith retreated to Malibu , where he continued to practice Thelema until his death .
= = Early life = =
= = = Youth : 1885 – 1914 = = =
Smith was born as Frank Wenham in Tonbridge , Kent , on 9 June 1885 . He was the illegitimate son of Oswald Cox , a member of a prominent local family who resided at Marl Field House , and one of his domestic servants , Minnie Wenham , whom Frank would never come to know . Considered an embarrassment by the wealthy Cox family , from an early age he was sent away to live with relatives , and aged four sent to a boarding school where he was physically abused by staff before being removed from the institution by his paternal grandmother , who took him for a year in Switzerland . From 1899 to 1901 , he studied at Bedales School , where he developed his lifelong hobby of book binding , before becoming the apprentice to a cabinet maker in Kendal until 1906 .
With few ties in Britain , he decided to emigrate to Canada , arriving in Nova Scotia in 1907 , where he gained work on a farm in Saskatchewan . From 1909 to 1911 he worked at a confectioner 's warehouse , and then for a further nine months at a logging camp , before gaining a job as an accounting clerk at the British Columbia Electric Railway in April 1912 . He had come to loath Christianity and the Victorian moral systems that he associated with it ; instead he began reading about Eastern religion , yoga , and Western esotericism . While at work , he met Charles Stansfeld Jones , a Thelemite who shared Smith 's interest in these subjects and who lent him copies of Aleister Crowley 's Book 4 and volume one , number one of The Equinox . Intrigued , Smith paid to join Crowley 's Britain @-@ based magical order , the A ∴ A ∴ , in doing so obtaining more of Crowley 's writings . He began performing many of the practices encouraged by the group , including yoga and the keeping of a diary recording his magical endeavours .
Smith entered into a relationship with a woman twenty years his senior , Emily Sophia " Nem " Talbot Smith , although it remains unclear whether they ever married . With Nem and her daughter Katherine , Smith moved into a specially @-@ constructed house designed by the Thelemite architect Howard E. White . Located at 138 13th Street East , North Vancouver , Smith converted the attic into a temple for Thelemic rituals .
= = = O.T.O. British Columbia Lodge No. 1 : 1915 – 1922 = = =
Smith also decided to join the Ordo Templi Orientis ( O.T.O. ) , an occult organisation whose British branch , the Mysteria Magica Maxima ( MMM ) , was run by Crowley , who used it to promote Thelema . In January 1915 , Smith signed up to the MMM , and in April went through the Minerval degree initiation at the British Columbia Lodge No. 1 . In May , he took part in the Lodge 's public performance of the Rites of Isis , which it was hoped would attract further members . In a private capacity , he meanwhile continued performing his A ∴ A ∴ practices , and also began experimenting with the entheogenic properties of anhalonium . In October 1915 , Crowley visited the Lodge , where he met with Smith . Soon after , Smith would be upgraded to the position of Master Magician within the Lodge , and in March 1916 received the Probationer level in the A ∴ A ∴ , adopting as his personal magical motto the Latin words Nubem Eripiam ( " I will snatch away the cloud " ) .
Smith 's relationship with Nem was strained , and he began an affair with his step @-@ daughter , Katherine . In November 1916 , the three of them tried to resign from the O.T.O. lodge so as to prevent their problems affecting the group . Their resignations were rejected , and by January 1917 they were once again active within the lodge . Nevertheless , in March the lodge shut down for 13 months , during which time Crowley and Jones scrutinised Smith 's diaries to ascertain his magical progress . Katherine became pregnant with Smith 's child , who was born in December 1917 , and named Noel Talbot @-@ Smith . Jones proclaimed that Noel represented " the Crowned and Conquering Child " prophecised in the main Thelemite holy book , The Book of the Law . Jones was soon named O.T.O. Viceroy for Canada , and in April he re @-@ initiated the lodge at Smith 's home , with Smith himself being appointed the lodge 's Right Worshipful Master . Jones himself claimed that he had undergone a " Great Initiation " and was now an Ipsissimus ; his relationship with Crowley broke down , and he subsequently resigned from the O.T.O. , deeply disappointing Smith .
Smith meanwhile continued working towards the A ∴ A ∴ grade of Zelator , while the British Columbia Lodge No. 1 became increasingly moribund following the death of White , a key member , who had succumbed to Spanish Flu aged 33 in November 1918 . Jones had rejoined the O.T.O. and relocated to Detroit in the United States . When Smith was fired from his job following a bout of flu in February 1920 , he decided to join Jones in Detroit , where there was a small O.T.O. community ; there he gained work as a clerk with the Detroit City Gas Company . In his absence , Nem was appointed Right Worshipful Master of the Vancouver lodge . In March 1921 , Jones and Smith proceeded to Chicago , but in June Smith returned to North Vancouver to see his family . That year , Jones convinced Smith to join an esoteric organisation known as the Universal Brotherhood ( UB ) . Smith however was unnerved that rather than expressing a Thelemic viewpoint , the UB adhered to Roman Catholicism , and he also considered its literature purposeless , vague , and grandiose ; he soon dropped out . Back in Vancouver , Smith aided one his initiates , Frank Page , in founding the British Columbia Lodge No. 3 in Kamloops , creating all the furniture for their temple . Nevertheless , the lodge closed after a year , with Smith 's own British Columbia Lodge No. 1 also becoming defunct in February 1922 .
= = = Los Angeles : 1922 – 1935 = = =
Unable to find work in Vancouver , Smith headed to Los Angeles in California , United States . On the way he stopped at San Francisco , where he met with Cecil Frederick Russell , a Thelemite who had departed from the Crowleyan orthodoxy to found his own group , the Choronzon Club . Smith however disliked Russell , and later claimed that he had been unnerved when Russell began expressing a sexual interest in children . After settling in Los Angeles , Smith gained a job at the Southern California Gas Company , entered into a relationship with a woman named Ann Barry , and began attending occasional meetings of the United Lodge of Theosophists , an esoteric organisation centred in the city . Jones meanwhile had united Thelema with auto @-@ suggestion to found his own group , the Psychomagian Society ( PMS ) , and he appointed Smith to be its Local Recorder for Los Angeles ; out of friendship to Jones , Smith did so , but was uninterested in the PMS ' teachings . Through their correspondences , Crowley came to reject the PMS and relations between himself and Jones once again broke down , this time permanently . Smith retained much affection for Jones , whom he saw as his mentor and friend , but nevertheless agreed with Crowley over the PMS and also rejected Jones ' ongoing fascination with the UB , which Smith considered incompatible with Thelema ; their relationship too came to an end in 1926 .
Now based in Los Angeles , Smith applied for US citizenship but was rejected , due to the fact that in his application he had claimed to be married but he was unable to prove with paperwork . Seeking to promote Thelema in the city , he adopted his own student , Oliver Jacobi , whom he mentored in the A ∴ A ∴ system , and in the autumn of 1927 , he developed a close friendship with fellow Thelemite and Hollywood actress Jane Wolfe . Although he continued to have sexual relationships with other women , Smith retained his love for Katherine , who came to visit him in Los Angeles , where they were legally married on 24 August 1927 at the Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale , the day before she returned to Montreal . She tried to get Smith to abandon occultism and Thelema and return to her in Canada , but he refused , leading her to file for divorce in May 1930 , taking sole custody of their child . Smith continued to have sexual and romantic relationships with other women , and – influenced by Crowley 's bisexuality – also experimented with same @-@ sex sexual relations , but felt no attraction to men . From July to September 1929 , a married woman named Leota Schneider moved in with Smith , and they had an affair , but she soon returned to her husband , while from July to December 1930 , Smith began undertaking sex magic rituals with Wolfe , although their relationship remained platonic . Smith soon met Regina Kahl and her sister Leona " Lee " Watson , whom he initiated into the O.T.O. in early 1931 , with Regina also joining the A ∴ A ∴ . Smith had sexual relations with both sisters , but while Regina – with whom his activity became sadomasochistic – became romantically attached to him , Lee soon abandoned Thelema .
In 1932 , Crowley , now based back in England , fell seriously ill , and believing his death to be immanent , he sent Smith a testament proclaiming that in the event of his death , Smith would become Frater Superior and Outer Head of the Order ( OHO ) of the O.T.O. ; he soon however recovered . In May of that year , Smith and Kahl began renting the large house at 1746 Winona Boulevard in Hollywood , and began to take in lodgers to help pay for it . Kahl and Wolfe began using the attic for Thelemic rituals , and in March 1933 they performed their first public Gnostic Mass in the room , hoping to attract interested persons to Thelema . Crowley was pleased with their progress , and asked them to raise funds so that he could afford to visit . The weekly performances of the Gnostic Mass began to attract increasingly large crowds , with their " Crowley Nights " attracting around 150 guests , among them the film star John Carradine . In April 1934 , Smith incorporated the Church of Thelema under US law , although retained the North American O.T.O. as an unincorporated secret society . Crowley however was confused , and believed that Smith had incorporated the O.T.O. , something which angered him ; he subsequently complained about Smith in letters to other initiates . After an argument , Crowley and Smith ceased correspondence for a time . Smith also attempted to revive the largely defunct North American O.T.O. , attracting 15 initial initiates , many of whom were dissatisfied members of the Choronzon Club , which was now in decline .
= = Later life = =
= = = The Agape Lodge : 1935 – 1944 = = =
With the O.T.O. now being revived in North America , Smith founded the Agape Lodge No. 1 , based at his Hollywood home , and brought in 7 initiates to the Minerval level in September 1935 . He advertised the foundation of his group through an advert in American Astrology magazine and printed a pamphlet explaining what the O.T.O. was . The Agape Lodge held regular meetings , lectures , and study classes , as well as social events and a weekly Gnostic Mass open to the public . In February 1936 they held a Mass in honour of Wayne Walker , a proponent of New Thought who ran a group known as The Voice of Healing ; they had hoped to attract Walker and his supporters to Thelema , but they were put off by the Lodge 's sexual openness . Later that year , Smith and Jacobi 's employer , the Southern California Gas Company , discovered their involvement in the Lodge , demoting Smith to bookkeeper and firing Jacobi . Angered , Jacobi left the Lodge altogether , while Smith shut down the group 's private ritual activities for the next three years . As a result , the public attendance of the Gnostic Mass plummeted .
Activities picked up again when Kahl , who worked as a drama teacher , brought three of her interested students into the group , among them Phyllis Seckler , and other individuals also joined the group , among them Louis T. Culling and Roy Leffingwell . However , the rising number of members caused schisms and arguments , and the Lodge again ceased its private activities from March 1940 to March 1941 . They returned to their activities to initiate a couple who had become interested in the O.T.O. through attending the Gnostic Mass , rocket scientist Jack Parsons and his wife Helen . Parsons became enamored with Thelema , although initially expressed both " repulsion and attraction " for Smith . Smith wrote to Crowley , claiming that Parsons was " a really excellent man ... He has an excellent mind and much better intellect than myself ... JP is going to be very valuable " . The Parsons would help bring new members into the group ; Grady McMurtry and his fiancee Claire Palmer , and Helen 's sister Sara Northrup . In February 1939 a young college student who had attended the mass , Ayna Sosoyena , was murdered ; although police drew no connection to the Lodge , sensationalist local tabloids connected the two , although were unaware that the Lodge was involved with Crowley or Thelema . A sympathetic local radio reporter allowed Smith to explain the purpose of the Mass to allay fears of the group , but the interview was never aired in an agreement with local press that they would drop the story .
By this point , the Agape Lodge was fully operational once more , although Crowley had remained highly critical of Smith , believing that he was failing to raise sufficient funds for Crowley 's personal use . He appointed Karl Germer , a German Thelemite recently arrived in the US , to be his representative on the continent , and instructed Germer to oversee the payment of dues to himself . He also specified that it would now be Germer , and not Smith , who was his chosen successor . Attempting to placate Crowley , in December 1941 Smith stated that all Lodge members now had to contribute 5 % of their earnings as an " Emergency Fee " that went to Crowley . Crowley 's criticisms nevertheless continued , and Smith suffered a mild heart attack , retiring prematurely from work at the age of 56 before undergoing an operation to remove haemorroids in February 1942 .
Smith decided to relocate Agape Lodge to a larger premises , renting the large house at 1003 South Orange Grove Avenue in Pasadena from June 1942 for $ 100 a month , moving many of the lodge members in to the house , living as a form of commune and raising livestock and vegetables in the grounds . Parsons had begun a relationship with Sara Northrup , while Smith consoled Helen , who would become his partner for the rest of his life ; nevertheless the four remained friends . Although they had ceased to publicly perform the Gnostic Mass , membership of the lodge continued to grow . A number of prominent members however left , among them Regina Kahl and Phyllis Seckler . Soon , both the FBI and the Pasadena police department began to investigate the O.T.O. and Agape Lodge , particularly as Germer , now leader of the North American O.T.O. , was German ; ultimately , they decided that the group was no threat to national security , describing it as a probable " love cult " . Crowley however had remained highly critical of Smith 's leadership of the lodge , and ordered Wolfe to send him on a personal magical retreat ; she felt conflicted , but eventually conceded to Crowley 's demands . Both Crowley and Germer wanted to see Smith ousted permanently , believing that he had become a bad influence on the other lodge members ; many of the members , including Jack and Helen Parsons , wrote to them to defend their mentor , but Germer nevertheless ordered him to stand down , with Parsons appointed head of the lodge .
In April Helen gave birth to Smith 's son , who was named Kwan Lanval Parsons . In May , Smith and Helen left for a two @-@ room cabin in Rainbow Valley with their baby , where Smith undertook his magical retirement . Back in England , Crowley undertook an astrological analysis of Smith 's birth chart , and came to the conclusion that he was the incarnation of a god , greatly altering his estimation of him ; Smith however remained sceptical . Refusing to take orders from Germer any more , Smith resigned from the O.T.O. , while Parsons – who remained sympathetic and friendly to Smith during the conflict – ceased lodge activities and resigned as its head . In a letter informing Crowley of this decision , Smith remarked " Would to God you knew your people better . " Germer subsequently appointed Max Schneider head of the Agape Lodge , which remained inactive , while Crowley , Germer , and Schneider began spreading lies about Smith , including that he was responsible for raping initiates , claims that were denied by many Lodge members .
= = = Final years : 1944 – 1957 = = =
In September 1944 Smith went on a second magical retirement , during which he performed pranayama and the lesser banishing ritual of the pentagram , invoked Thoth , and recited the Holy Books of Thelema from memory . During the retreat he learned that Kahl , his former lover , had died , which greatly upset him . Returning to his Pasadena home , he was welcomed by Parsons , but Crowley insisted that Smith be shunned by the lodge members , and so he moved back to Hollywood . Increasingly alienated by Crowley 's attitude , Parsons resigned from the O.T.O. in August 1946 . Now renting a house , Smith sought out various handyman jobs , when he learned that Crowley had died and been succeeded as OHO of the O.T.O. by Germer . He became good friends with the art dealer Baron Ernst von Harringa , who commissioned Smith to construct Asian @-@ style furniture for his gallery . Smith 's own health was deteriorating , and in 1948 he suffered from a number of mild heart attacks . He nevertheless continued to believe in Thelema , and hoped to revive the Church of Thelema through performing the Gnostic Mass once more . Following Parsons ' death in an explosion – which Smith suspected was a case of suicide – Smith was invited to perform the Gnostic Mass in his memory .
Although they had long disliked each other , Germer recognised that Smith was the only living individual with a good practical knowledge of the O.T.O. degree system , and so put him in contact with Kenneth Grant , who was then trying to revive the O.T.O. in London . Smith and Germer would only meet in person for the first time in June 1956 , when the latter was visiting California , and soon after Germer introduced him to young Brazilian Thelemite Marcelo Ramos Motta , who would later grow to despise Smith . Smith purchased a plot of land in Malibu where he built his own house for himself , Helen , and their son , which he named " Hoc Id Est " ( " This Is It " ) . Construction was interrupted in February 1955 when he underwent surgery for an enlarged prostate . This developed into prostate cancer , and mistrusting of conventional medicine , he sought out an alternative treatment at the Hoxsey Clinic in Dallas , Texas , which he visited in December 1956 , but they were unable to help him . Smith died as a result of the disease at home on 27 April 1957 , subsequently being cremated at the Grandview Memorial Park in Glendale .
= = Legacy and influence = =
The Unknown God was reviewed by Robert Ellwood of the University of Southern California for the peer @-@ reviewed journal Nova Religio : The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions . Ellwood described it as " the definitive work on American Crowleyanity " , noting that it was the product of 15 years of " careful and documented " research . He praised " Starr 's lucid style and the inherent fascination of the material , replete with vivid characters , epic rows , and sexual intrigue " .
= Red Skelton =
Richard Bernard " Red " Skelton ( July 18 , 1913 – September 17 , 1997 ) was an American entertainer . He was best known for his national radio and television acts between 1937 and 1971 , and as host of the television program The Red Skelton Show . Skelton , who has stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his work in radio and television , also appeared in vaudeville , films , nightclubs , and casinos , all while he pursued an entirely separate career as an artist .
Skelton began developing his comedic and pantomime skills from the age of 10 , when he became part of a traveling medicine show . He then spent time on a showboat , worked the burlesque circuit , then entered into vaudeville in 1934 . The Doughnut Dunkers , a pantomime sketch of how different people ate doughnuts written by Skelton and his wife launched a career for him in vaudeville , in radio and in films . Skelton 's radio career began in 1937 with a guest appearance on The Fleischmann 's Yeast Hour which led to his becoming the host of Avalon Time in 1938 . He became the host of The Raleigh Cigarette Program in 1941 where many of his comedy characters were created and had a regularly scheduled radio program until 1957 . Skelton made his film debut in 1938 alongside Ginger Rogers and Douglas Fairbanks , Jr. in Alfred Santell 's Having Wonderful Time , and he went on to appear in numerous musical and comedy films throughout the 1940s and early 1950s , with starring roles in Ship Ahoy ( 1941 ) , I Dood It ( 1943 ) , Ziegfeld Follies ( 1946 ) and The Clown ( 1953 ) .
He was most eager to work in television , even when the medium was in its infancy . The Red Skelton Show made its television premiere on September 30 , 1951 , on NBC . By 1954 , Skelton 's program moved to CBS , where it was expanded to one hour and renamed The Red Skelton Hour in 1962 . Despite high ratings , his television show was cancelled by CBS in 1970 as the network believed more youth @-@ oriented programs were needed to attract younger viewers | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
and their spending power . Skelton moved his program to NBC , where he completed his last year with a regularly scheduled television show in 1971 . After he no longer had a television program , Skelton 's time was spent making up to 125 personal appearances a year and on his artwork .
Skelton 's artwork of clowns remained a hobby until 1964 when his wife , Georgia , convinced him to have a showing of his work at the Sands Hotel in Las Vegas while he was performing there . Sales of his originals were successful and Skelton also sold prints and lithographs of them , earning $ 2 @.@ 5 million yearly on lithograph sales . At the time of his death , his art dealer believed that Skelton had earned more money through his paintings than from his television work .
Skelton believed his life 's work was to make people laugh ; he wanted to be known as a clown because he defined it as being able to do everything . He had a 70 @-@ year career as a performer and entertained three generations of Americans during this time . Many of Skelton 's personal and professional effects , including prints of his artwork , were donated to Vincennes University by his widow , where they are part of the Red Skelton Museum of American Comedy .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years , the medicine show and the circus ( 1913 – 29 ) = = =
Born on July 18 , 1913 , in Vincennes , Indiana , Richard Skelton was the fourth and youngest son of Ida Mae ( née Fields ) and Joseph Elmer Skelton . Joseph , a grocer , died two months before Richard was born ; he had once been a clown with the Hagenbeck @-@ Wallace Circus . During Skelton 's lifetime there was some dispute about the year of his birth . Author Wesley Hyatt suggests that since he began working at such an early age , Skelton may have claimed he was older than he actually was in order to gain employment . Vincennes neighbors described the Skelton family as being extremely poor ; a childhood friend remembered that her parents broke up a youthful romance between her sister and Skelton because they thought he had no future .
Because of the loss of his father , Skelton went to work as early as the age of seven , selling newspapers and doing other odd jobs to help his family , who had lost the family store and their home . He quickly learned the newsboy 's patter and would keep it up until a prospective buyer bought a copy of the paper just to quiet him . According to later accounts , Skelton 's early interest in becoming an entertainer stemmed from an incident that took place in Vincennes around 1923 , when a stranger , supposedly the comedian Ed Wynn , approached Skelton , who was the newsboy selling papers outside a Vincennes theater . When the man asked Skelton what events were going on in town , Skelton suggested he see the new show in town . The man purchased every paper Skelton had , providing enough money for the boy to purchase a ticket for himself . The stranger turned out to be one of the show 's stars , who later took the boy backstage to introduce him to the other performers . The experience prompted Skelton , who had already shown comedic tendencies , to pursue a career as a performer .
Skelton discovered at an early age that he could make people laugh . Skelton dropped out of school around 1926 or 1927 , when he was 13 or 14 years old , but he already had some experience performing in minstrel shows in Vincennes , and on a showboat , " The Cotton Blossom " , that plied the Ohio and Missouri rivers . He enjoyed his work on the riverboat , moving on only after he realized that showboat entertainment was coming to an end . Skelton , who was interested in all forms of acting , took a dramatic role with the John Lawrence stock theater company , but was unable to deliver his lines in a serious manner ; the audience laughed instead . In another incident , while performing in Uncle Tom 's Cabin , Skelton was on an unseen treadmill ; when it malfunctioned and began working in reverse , the frightened young actor called out , " Help ! I 'm backing into heaven ! " He was fired before completing a week 's work in the role . At the age of 15 , Skelton did some early work on the burlesque circuit , and reportedly spent four months with the Heganbeck @-@ Wallace Circus in 1929 , when he was 16 years old .
Ida Skelton , who held multiple jobs to support her family after the death of her husband , did not suggest that her youngest son had run away from home to become an entertainer , but " his destiny had caught up with him at an early age " . She let him go with her blessing . Times were tough during the Great Depression , and it may have meant one less child for her to feed . Around 1929 , while Skelton was still a teen , he joined " Doc " R.E. Lewis 's traveling medicine show as an errand boy who sold bottles of medicine to the audience . During one show , when Skelton accidentally fell from the stage , breaking several bottles of medicine as he fell , people laughed . Both Lewis and Skelton realized one could earn a living with this ability and the fall was worked into the show . He also told jokes and sang in the medicine show during his four years there . Skelton earned ten dollars a week , and sent all of it home to his mother . When she worried that he was keeping nothing for his own needs , Skelton reassured her : " We get plenty to eat , and we sleep in the wagon . "
= = = Burlesque to vaudeville ( 1929 – 37 ) = = =
As burlesque comedy material became progressively more ribald , Skelton moved on . He insisted that he was no prude ; " I just didn 't think the lines were funny " . He became a sought @-@ after master of ceremonies for dance marathons ( known as " walkathons " at the time ) , a popular fad in the 1930s . The winner of one of the marathons was Edna Stillwell , an usher at the old Pantages Theater . She approached Skelton after winning the contest and told him that she did not like his jokes ; he asked if she could do better . They married in 1931 in Kansas City , and Edna began writing his material . At the time of their marriage Skelton was one month away from his 18th birthday ; Edna was 16 . When they learned that Skelton 's salary was to be cut , Edna went to see the boss ; he resented the interference , until she came away with not only a raise , but additional considerations as well . Since he had left school at an early age , his wife bought textbooks and taught him what he had missed . With Edna 's help , Skelton received a high school equivalency degree .
The couple put together an act and began booking it at small midwestern theaters . When an offer came for an engagement in Harwich Port , Massachusetts , some 2 @,@ 000 miles from Kansas City , they were pleased to get it because of its proximity to their ultimate goal , the vaudeville houses of New York City . To get to Massachusetts they bought a used car and borrowed five dollars from Edna 's mother , but by the time they arrived in St. Louis they had only fifty cents . Skelton asked Edna to collect empty cigarette packs ; she thought he was joking , but did as he asked . He then spent their fifty cents on bars of soap , which they cut into small cubes and wrapped with the tinfoil from the cigarette packs . By selling their products for fifty cents each as fog remover for eyeglasses , the Skeltons were able to afford a hotel room every night as they worked their way to Harwich Port .
= = = = " Doughnut Dunkers " = = = =
Skelton and Edna worked for a year in Camden , New Jersey , and were able to get an engagement at Montreal 's Lido Club in 1934 through a friend who managed the chorus lines at New York 's Roxy Theatre . Despite an initial rocky start , the act was a success , and brought them more theater dates throughout Canada .
Skelton 's performances in Canada lead to new opportunities and the inspiration for a new , innovative routine that brought him recognition in the years to come . While performing in Montreal , the Skeltons met Harry Anger , a vaudeville producer for New York City 's Loew 's State Theatre . Anger promised the pair a booking as a headlining act at Loew 's , but they would need to come up with new material for the engagement . While the Skeltons were having breakfast in a Montreal diner , Edna had an idea for a new routine as she and Skelton observed the other patrons eating doughnuts and drinking coffee . They devised the " Doughnut Dunkers " routine , with Skelton 's visual impressions of how different people ate doughnuts . The skit won them the Loew 's State engagement and a handsome fee .
The couple viewed the Loew 's State engagement in 1937 as Skelton 's big chance . They hired New York comedy writers to prepare material for the engagement , believing they needed more sophisticated jokes and skits than the routines Skelton normally performed . However , his New York audience did not laugh or applaud until Skelton abandoned the newly written material and began performing the " Doughnut Dunkers " and his older routines . The doughnut @-@ dunking routine also helped Skelton rise to celebrity status . In 1937 , while he was entertaining at the Capitol Theater in Washington , D.C. , President Franklin D. Roosevelt invited Skelton to perform at a White House luncheon . During one of the official toasts , Skelton grabbed Roosevelt 's glass , saying , " Careful what you drink , Mr. President . I got rolled in a place like this once . " His humor appealed to FDR and Skelton became the master of ceremonies for Roosevelt 's official birthday celebration for many years afterward .
= = = Film work = = =
Skelton 's first contact with Hollywood came in the form of a failed 1932 screen test . In 1938 he made his film debut for RKO Pictures in the supporting role of a camp counselor in Having Wonderful Time . He appeared in two short subjects for Vitaphone in 1939 : Seeing Red and The Broadway Buckaroo . Actor Mickey Rooney contacted Skelton , urging him to try for work in films after seeing him perform his " Doughnut Dunkers " act at President Roosevelt 's 1940 birthday party . For his MGM screen test , Skelton performed many of his more popular skits , such as " Guzzler 's Gin " , but added some impromptu pantomimes as the cameras were rolling . " Imitation of Movie Heroes Dying " were Skelton 's impressions of the cinema deaths of stars like George Raft , Edward G. Robinson and James Cagney .
Skelton began appearing in numerous films for MGM . In 1940 he provided comic relief as a lieutenant in Frank Borzage 's war drama Flight Command , opposite Robert Taylor , Ruth Hussey and Walter Pidgeon . In 1941 he also provided comic relief in Harold S. Bucquet 's Dr. Kildare medical dramas , Dr. Kildare 's Wedding Day and The People vs. Dr. Kildare . Skelton was soon starring in comedy features as inept radio detective " The Fox " , the first of which was Whistling in the Dark ( 1941 ) in which he began working with director S. Sylvan Simon , who would become his favorite director . He reprised the same role opposite Ann Rutherford in Simon 's other pictures , including Whistling in Dixie ( 1942 ) and Whistling in Brooklyn ( 1943 ) . In 1941 , Skelton began appearing in musical comedies , starring opposite Eleanor Powell , Ann Sothern and Robert Young in Norman Z. McLeod 's Lady Be Good . In 1942 Skelton again starred opposite Eleanor Powell in Edward Buzzell 's Ship Ahoy , and alongside Ann Sothern in McLeod 's Panama Hattie .
In 1943 , after a memorable role as a nightclub hatcheck attendant who becomes King Louis XV of France in a dream opposite Lucille Ball and Gene Kelly in Roy Del Ruth 's Du Barry Was a Lady , Skelton starred as Joseph Rivington Reynolds , a hotel valet besotted with Broadway starlet Constance Shaw ( Powell ) in Vincente Minnelli 's romantic musical comedy , I Dood It . The film was largely a remake of Buster Keaton 's Spite Marriage ; Keaton , who had become a comedy consultant to MGM after his film career had diminished , began coaching Skelton on set during the filming . Keaton worked in this capacity on several of Skelton 's films , and his 1926 film The General was also later rewritten to become Skelton 's A Southern Yankee ( 1948 ) , under directors S. Silvan Simon and Edward Sedgwick . Keaton was convinced enough of Skelton 's comedic talent that he approached MGM studio head Louis B. Mayer with a request to create a small company within MGM for himself and Skelton , where the two could work on film projects . Keaton offered to forgo his salary if the films made by the company were not box office hits ; Mayer chose to decline the request . In 1944 , Skelton starred opposite Esther Williams in George Sidney 's musical comedy Bathing Beauty , playing a songwriter with romantic difficulties . He next had a relatively minor role as a " TV announcer who , in the course of demonstrating a brand of gin , progresses from mild inebriation through messy drunkenness to full @-@ blown stupor " in the " When Television Comes " segment of Ziegfeld Follies , which featured William Powell and Judy Garland in the main roles . In 1946 , Skelton played boastful clerk J. Aubrey Piper opposite Marilyn Maxwell and Marjorie Main in Harry Beaumont 's comedy picture The Show @-@ Off .
Skelton 's contract called for MGM 's approval prior to his radio shows and other appearances . When he renegotiated his long @-@ term contract with MGM , he wanted a clause that permitted him to remain working in radio and to be able to work on television , which was then largely experimental . At the time , the major work in the medium was centered in New York ; Skelton had worked there for some time and was able to determine that he would find success with his physical comedy through the medium . By 1947 , Skelton 's work interests were focused not on films , but on radio and television . His MGM contract was rigid enough to require the studio 's written consent for his weekly radio shows , as well as any benefit or similar appearances he made ; radio offered less restrictions , more creative control and a higher salary . Skelton asked for a release from MGM after learning he could not raise the $ 750 @,@ 000 needed to buy out the remainder of his contract . He also voiced frustration with the film scripts he was offered while on the set of The Fuller Brush Man , saying , " Movies are not my field . Radio and television are . " He did not receive the desired television clause nor a release from his MGM contract . In 1948 , columnist Sheilah Graham printed that Skelton 's wishes were to make only one film a year , spending the rest of the time traveling the U.S. with his radio show .
Skelton 's ability to successfully ad @-@ lib often meant that the way the script was written was not always the way it was recorded on film . Some directors were delighted with the creativity , but others were often frustrated by it . S. Sylvan Simon , who became a close friend , allowed Skelton free rein when directing him . MGM became annoyed with Simon during the filming of The Fuller Brush Man , as the studio contended that Skelton should have been playing romantic leads instead of performing slapstick . Simon and MGM parted company when he was not asked to direct retakes of Skelton 's A Southern Yankee ; Simon asked that his name be removed from the film 's credits .
Skelton was willing to negotiate with MGM to extend the agreement provided he would receive the right to pursue television . This time the studio was willing to grant it , making Skelton the only major MGM personality with the privilege . The 1950 negotiations allowed him to begin working in television beginning September 30 , 1951 . During the last portion of his contract with the studio , Skelton was working in radio and on television in addition to films . He would go on to appear in films such as Jack Donohue 's The Yellow Cab Man ( 1950 ) , Roy Rowland and Buster Keaton 's Excuse My Dust ( 1951 ) , Charles Walters ' Texas Carnival ( 1951 ) , Mervyn LeRoy 's Lovely to Look At ( 1952 ) , Robert Z. Leonard 's The Clown ( 1953 ) and The Great Diamond Robbery ( 1954 ) , and Norman Z. McLeod 's poorly received Public Pigeon No. 1 ( 1957 ) , his last major film role , which originated incidentally from an episode of the television anthology series Climax ! . In a 1956 interview , he said he would never work simultaneously in all three media again . As a result , Skelton would make only a couple of minor appearances in films after this , including playing a saloon drunk in Around the World in Eighty Days ( 1956 ) , a gambler in Ocean 's 11 ( 1960 ) , and a Neanderthal man in Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines ( 1965 ) .
= = = Radio , divorce and remarriage ( 1937 – 51 ) = = =
Performing the " Doughnut Dunkers " routine led to Skelton 's first appearance on Rudy Vallée 's The Fleischmann 's Yeast Hour on August 12 , 1937 . Vallée 's program had a talent show segment and those who were searching for stardom were eager to be heard on it . Vallée also booked veteran comic and fellow Indiana native Joe Cook to appear as a guest with Skelton . The two Hoosiers proceeded to trade jokes about their home towns , with Skelton contending to Cook , an Evansville native , that the city was a suburb of Vincennes . The show received enough fan mail after the performance to invite both comedians back two weeks after Skelton 's initial appearance and again in November of that year .
On October 1 , 1938 , Skelton replaced Red Foley as the host of Avalon Time on NBC ; Edna also joined the show 's cast , under her maiden name . She developed a system for working with the show 's writers : selecting material from them , adding her own and filing the unused bits and lines for future use ; the Skeltons worked on Avalon Time until late 1939 . Skelton 's work in films led to a new regular radio show offer ; between films , he promoted himself and MGM by appearing without charge at Los Angeles area banquets . A radio advertising agent was a guest at one of his banquet performances and recommended Skelton to one of his clients .
Skelton went on the air with his own radio show , The Raleigh Cigarette Program , on October 7 , 1941 . The bandleader for the show was Ozzie Nelson ; his wife , Harriet , who worked under her maiden name of Hilliard , was the show 's vocalist and also worked with Skelton in skits .
= = = = " I dood it ! " = = = =
Skelton introduced the first two of his many characters during The Raleigh Cigarette Program 's first season . The character of Clem Kadiddlehopper was based on a Vincennes neighbor named Carl Hopper , who was hard of hearing . Skelton 's voice pattern for Clem was similar to the later cartoon character , Bullwinkle ; there was enough similarity to cause Skelton to contemplate filing a lawsuit against Bill Scott , who voiced the cartoon moose . The second character , The Mean Widdle Kid , or " Junior " , was a young boy full of mischief , who typically did things he was told not to do . " Junior " would say things like , " If I dood it , I gets a whipping . " , followed moments later by the statement , " I dood it ! " Skelton performed the character at home with Edna , giving him the nickname " Junior " long before it was heard by a radio audience . While the phrase was Skelton 's , the idea of using the character on the radio show was Edna 's . Skelton starred in a 1943 movie of the same name , but did not play " Junior " in the film .
The phrase was such a part of national culture at the time that , when General Doolittle conducted the bombing of Tokyo in 1942 , many newspapers used the phrase " Doolittle Dood It " as a headline . After a talk with President Roosevelt in 1943 , Skelton used his radio show to collect funds for a Douglas A @-@ 20 Havoc to be given to the Soviet Army to help fight World War II . Asking children to send in their spare change , he raised enough money for the aircraft in two weeks ; he named the bomber " We Dood It ! " In 1986 the Soviet newspaper Pravda offered praise to Skelton for his 1943 gift , and in 1993 , the pilot of the plane was able to meet Skelton and thank him for the bomber .
Skelton also added a routine he had been performing since 1928 . Originally called " Mellow Cigars " , the skit entailed an announcer who became ill as he smoked his sponsor 's product . Brown and Williamson , the makers of cigarettes , asked Skelton to change some aspects of the skit ; he renamed the routine " Guzzler 's Gin " , where the announcer became inebriated while sampling and touting the imaginary sponsor 's wares . While the traditional radio program called for its cast to do an audience warm @-@ up in preparation for the broadcast , Skelton did just the opposite . After the regular radio program had ended , the show 's guests were treated to a post @-@ program performance . He would then perform his " Guzzler 's Gin " or any of more than 350 routines for those who had come to the radio show . He updated and revised his post @-@ show routines as diligently as those for his radio program . As a result , studio audience tickets for Skelton 's radio show were in high demand ; there were times where up to 300 people needed to be turned away for lack of seats .
= = = = Divorce from Edna , marriage to Georgia = = = =
In 1942 , Edna announced that she was leaving Skelton but would continue to manage his career and write material for him . He did not realize she was serious until Edna issued a statement about the impending divorce through NBC . They were divorced in 1943 , leaving the courtroom arm in arm . The couple did not discuss the reasons for their divorce and Edna initially prepared to work as a script writer for other radio programs . When the divorce was finalized , she went to New York , leaving her former husband three fully prepared show scripts . Skelton and those associated with him sent telegrams and called her , asking her to come back to him in a professional capacity . Edna remained the manager of the couple 's funds because Skelton spent money too easily . An attempt at managing his own checking account that began with a $ 5 @,@ 000 balance , ended five days later after a call to Edna saying the account was overdrawn . Skelton had a weekly allowance of $ 75 , with Edna making investments for him , choosing real estate and other relatively stable assets . She remained an advisor on his career until 1952 , receiving a generous weekly salary for life for her efforts .
The divorce meant that Skelton had lost his married man 's deferment ; he was once again classified as 1 @-@ A for service . He was drafted into the army in early 1944 ; both MGM and his radio sponsor tried to obtain a deferment for the comedian , but to no avail . His last Raleigh radio show was on June 6 , 1944 , the day before he was formally inducted as a private ; he was not assigned to the entertainment corps at that time . Without its star , the program was discontinued , and the opportunity presented itself for the Nelsons to begin a radio show of their own , The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet .
By 1944 , Skelton was engaged to actress Muriel Morris , who was also known as Muriel Chase ; the couple had obtained a marriage license and told the press they intended to marry within a few days . At the last minute , the actress decided not to marry him , initially saying she intended to marry a wealthy businessman in Mexico City . She later recanted the story about marrying the businessman , but continued to say that her relationship with Skelton was over . The actress further denied that the reason for the breakup was Edna 's continuing to manage her ex @-@ husband 's career ; Edna stated that she had no intention of either getting in the middle of the relationship or reconciling with her former husband . He was on army furlough for throat discomfort when he married actress Georgia Maureen Davis in Beverly Hills , California , on March 9 , 1945 ; the couple met on the MGM lot . Skelton traveled to Los Angeles from the eastern army base where he was assigned for the wedding . He knew he would possibly be assigned overseas soon and wanted the marriage to take place first . After the wedding , he entered the hospital to have his tonsils removed . The couple had two children ; Valentina , a daughter , was born May 5 , 1947 , and a son , Richard , was born May 20 , 1948 .
= = = = A cast of characters = = = =
Skelton served in the United States Army during World War II . After being assigned to the entertainment corps , Skelton performed as many as ten to twelve shows per day before troops in both the United States and in Europe . The pressure of his workload caused him to suffer exhaustion and a nervous breakdown . His nervous collapse while in the army left him with a serious stuttering problem . While recovering at an army hospital in Virginia , he met a soldier who had been severely wounded and was not expected to survive . Skelton devoted a lot of time and effort to trying to make the man laugh . As a result of this effort , his stuttering problem was cured ; his army friend 's condition also improved and he was no longer on the critical list . He was released from his army duties in September 1945 . His sponsor was eager to have him back on the air , and Skelton 's program began anew on NBC on December 4 , 1945 .
Upon returning to radio , Skelton brought with him many new characters that were added to his repertoire : Bolivar Shagnasty , described as a " loudmouthed braggart " ; Cauliflower McPugg , a boxer ; Deadeye , a cowboy ; Willie Lump @-@ Lump , a fellow who drank too much ; and San Fernando Red , a conman with political aspirations . By 1947 , Skelton 's musical conductor was David Rose , who would go on to television with him ; he had worked with Rose during his time in the army and wanted Rose to join him on the radio show when it went back on the air .
On April 22 , 1947 , Skelton was censored by NBC two minutes into his radio show . When he and his announcer Rod O 'Connor began talking about Fred Allen being censored the previous week , they were silenced for 15 seconds ; comedian Bob Hope was given the same treatment once he began referring to the censoring of Allen . Skelton forged on with his lines for his studio audience 's benefit ; the material he insisted on using had been edited from the script by the network before the broadcast . He had been briefly censored the previous month for the use of the word " diaper " . After the April incidents , NBC indicated it would no longer pull the plug for similar reasons .
Skelton changed sponsors in 1948 ; Brown & Williamson , owners of Raleigh cigarettes , withdrew due to program production costs . His new sponsor was Procter & Gamble 's Tide laundry detergent . The next year he changed networks , going from NBC to CBS , where his radio show aired until May 1953 . After his network radio contract was over , he signed a three @-@ year contract with Ziv Radio for a syndicated radio program in 1954 . His syndicated radio program was offered as a daily show ; it included segments of his older network radio programs as well as new material done for the syndication . He was able to use portions of his older radio shows because he owned the rights for rebroadcasting them .
= = = Television ( 1951 – 70 ) = = =
Skelton was unable to work in television until the end of his 1951 MGM movie contract ; a renegotiation to extend the pact provided permission after that point . He signed a contract for television on NBC with Procter and Gamble as his sponsor on May 4 , 1951 , and said he would be performing the same characters on television as he had been doing on radio . The MGM agreement with Skelton for television performances did not allow him to go on the air before September 30 , 1951 . His television debut , The Red Skelton Show , premiered on that date : at the end of his opening monologue , two men backstage grabbed his ankles from behind the set curtain , hauling him offstage face down . A 1943 instrumental hit by David Rose , called " Holiday for Strings " , became Skelton 's TV theme song . The move to television allowed him to create two non @-@ human characters , seagulls Gertrude and Heathcliffe , which he performed while the pair were flying by tucking his thumbs under his arms to represent wings and shaping his hat to look like a bird 's bill . He patterned his meek , henpecked television character of George Appleby after his radio character , J. Newton Numbskull , who had similar characteristics . His " Freddie the Freeloader " clown was introduced on the program in 1952 , with Skelton copying his father 's makeup for the character . He learned how to duplicate his father 's makeup and perform his routines through his mother 's recollections . A ritual became established at the end of every program , with Skelton 's shy boyish wave and words of , " Good night and may God bless . "
During the 1951 – 52 season , the program was broadcast from a converted NBC radio studio . The first year of the television show was done live ; this led to problems as there was not enough time for costume changes ; Skelton was on camera for most of the half @-@ hour , including the delivery of a commercial which was written into one of the show 's skits . In early 1952 , Skelton had an idea for a television sketch about someone who had been drinking not being able to know which way is up . The script was completed and he had the show 's production crew build a set that was perpendicular to the stage , so it would give the illusion that someone was walking on walls . The skit , starring his character Willie Lump @-@ Lump , called for the character 's wife to hire a carpenter to re @-@ do the living room in an effort to teach her husband a lesson about his drinking . When Willie wakes up there after a night of drinking , he realizes he is not lying on the floor but on the living room wall . Willie 's wife goes about the house normally , but to Willie , she appears to be walking on a wall . Within an hour after the broadcast , the NBC switchboard had received 350 calls regarding the show , and Skelton had received more than 2 @,@ 500 letters about the skit within a week of its airing .
Skelton was delivering an intense performance live each week , and the strain showed in physical illness . In 1952 , he was drinking heavily from the constant pain of a diaphragmatic hernia and marital problems ; he thought about divorcing Georgia . NBC agreed to film his shows in the 1952 – 53 season at Eagle Lion Studios , next to the Sam Goldwyn Studio , on Santa Monica Boulevard in Hollywood . Later the show was moved to the new NBC television studios in Burbank . Procter & Gamble was unhappy with the filming of the television show , and insisted that Skelton return to live broadcasts . The situation caused him to think about leaving television at that point . Declining ratings prompted sponsor Procter & Gamble to cancel his show in the spring of 1953 , with Skelton announcing that any future television shows of his would be variety shows , where he would not have the almost constant burden of performing . Beginning with the 1953 – 54 season , he switched to CBS , where he remained until 1970 . For the initial move to CBS , he had no sponsor . The network gambled by covering all expenses for the program on a sustaining basis ; his first CBS sponsor was Geritol . He curtailed his drinking and his ratings at CBS began to improve , especially after he began appearing on Tuesday nights for co @-@ sponsors Johnson 's Wax and Pet Milk Company .
By 1955 , Skelton was broadcasting some of his weekly programs in color , which was the case approximately 100 times between 1955 and 1960 . He tried to encourage CBS to do other shows in color at the facility , but CBS mostly avoided color broadcasting after the network 's television set manufacturing division was discontinued in 1951 . By 1959 , Skelton was the only comedian with a weekly variety television show ; others who remained on the air , such as Danny Thomas , were performing their routines as part of situation comedy programs . He performed a preview show for a studio audience on Mondays , using their reactions to determine which skits needed to be edited for the Tuesday program . For the Tuesday afternoon run @-@ through prior to the actual show , he ignored the script for the most part , ad @-@ libbing through it at will . The run @-@ through was well attended by CBS Television City employees Sometimes during sketches , both live telecasts and taped programs , Skelton would break up or cause his guest stars to laugh .
= = = = Richard 's illness and death = = = =
At the height of Skelton 's popularity , his nine @-@ year @-@ old son Richard was diagnosed with leukemia and was given a year to live . While the network told him to take as much time off as necessary , Skelton felt that until he went back to his television show , he would be unable to be at ease and make his son 's life a happy one . He returned to his television show on January 15 , 1957 , with guest star Mickey Rooney helping to lift his spirits . In happier times , he frequently mentioned his children on his program , but found it extremely difficult to do so after Richard became ill . Skelton resumed this practice only after his son had asked him to do so . After his son 's diagnosis , Skelton took his family on an extended trip , so Richard could see as much of the world as possible . When they arrived in London , there were press accusations that the trip was more about publicity than his seriously ill son . There were also newspaper reports about Richard 's illness being fatal , which were seen by the boy . The family returned to the United States after the British press stories .
The Skelton family received support from CBS management and from the public following the announcement of Richard 's illness . Skelton himself was beset by a serious illness and by a household accident which kept him off the air . He suffered a life @-@ threatening asthma attack on December 30 , 1957 , and was taken to St. John 's Hospital in Santa Monica , where his doctors said that " if there were ten steps to death , Red Skelton had taken nine of them by the time he had arrived " . Initially hospitalized for an indeterminate length of time , Skelton later said he was working on some notes for television and the next thing he remembered , he was in a hospital bed ; he did not know how serious his illness was until he read about it himself in the newspapers . His illness and recovery kept him off the air for a full month ; Skelton returned to his television show on January 28 , 1958 .
Richard died on May 10 , 1958 ; it was ten days before the child 's tenth birthday . Skelton was scheduled to do his weekly television show on the day his son was buried . Though there were recordings of some older programs available which the network could have run , he asked that guest performers be used instead . Calling themselves The Friends of Red Skelton , his friends in the television , film and music industries organized The Friends Of Red Skelton Variety Show , which they performed to replace The Red Skelton Show for that week ; by May 27 , 1958 , Skelton had returned to his program . The death of Richard profoundly affected the family ; by 1961 Richard 's model trains had been moved to a storeroom in the Bel Air mansion , but Skelton refused to have them dismantled . In 1962 , the Skelton family moved to Palm Springs , and Skelton used the Bel Air home only on the two days a week when he was in Los Angeles for his television show taping .
= = = = The Red Skelton Hour = = = =
In early 1960 , Skelton purchased the old Charlie Chaplin Studios and updated it for videotape recording . With a recently purchased three @-@ truck mobile color television unit , he recorded a number of his series episodes and specials in color . Even with his color facilities , CBS discontinued color broadcasts on a regular basis and Skelton shortly thereafter sold the studio to CBS and the mobile unit to local station , KTLA . Prior to this , he had been filming at Desilu Productions . Skelton then moved back to the network 's Television City facilities , where he resumed taping his programs until he left the network . In the fall of 1962 , CBS expanded his program to a full hour , retitling it The Red Skelton Hour . While a staple of his radio programs , he did not perform his " Junior " character on television until 1962 , after extending the length of his program .
Skelton frequently employed the art of pantomime for his characters : a segment of his weekly program was called the " Silent Spot " and the sketch was performed in pantomime . He attributed his use of pantomime and few props to his early days when he did not want to have a lot of luggage , so he crafted routines that used few of them . He explained that the right hat was the key to his being able to get into character .
Skelton 's season premiere for the 1960 – 61 television season was a tribute to the United Nations . Six hundred people from the organization , including diplomats , were invited to be part of the audience for the show . The program was entirely done in pantomime , as UN representatives from 39 nations were in the studio audience . One of the sketches he performed for the UN was that of the old man watching the parade . The sketch had its origins in a question Skelton 's son , Richard , asked his father about what happens when people die . He told his son , " They join a parade and start marching . " In 1965 , Skelton did another show in complete pantomime . This time he was joined by Marcel Marceau ; the two artists alternated performances for the hour @-@ long program , sharing the stage to perform Pinocchio . The only person who spoke during the hour was Maurice Chevalier , who served as the show 's narrator .
In 1969 , Skelton performed a self @-@ written monologue about the Pledge of Allegiance . In the speech , he commented on the meaning of each phrase of the pledge . He credited one of his Vincennes grammar school teachers , Mr. Laswell , with the original speech . The teacher had grown tired of hearing his students monotonously recite the pledge each morning ; he then demonstrated to them how it should be recited , along with comments about the meaning behind each phrase . CBS received 200 @,@ 000 requests for copies ; the company subsequently released the monologue as a single on Columbia Records . A year later , he performed the monologue for President Richard Nixon at the first " Evening at the White House " , a series of entertainment events honoring the recently inaugurated president .
= = = Off the air and bitterness ( 1970 – 83 ) = = =
As the 1970s began , the networks began a major campaign to discontinue long @-@ running shows that they considered stale or lacking youth appeal . Despite Skelton 's continued strong ratings , CBS saw his show as fitting into this category and cancelled the program along with other comedy and variety shows hosted by veterans such as Jackie Gleason and Ed Sullivan . Performing in Las Vegas when he got the news of his CBS cancellation , Skelton said , " My heart has been broken . " His program had been one of the top ten highest rated shows for 17 of the 20 years he was on television . Skelton moved to NBC in 1970 in a half @-@ hour Monday night version of his former show . Its cancellation after one season ended his television career , and he returned to live performances . In an effort to prove the networks wrong , he gave many of these at colleges and proved popular with the audience . Skelton was bitter about CBS 's cancellation for many years afterwards . Believing the demographic and salary issues to be irrelevant , he accused CBS of bowing to the anti @-@ establishment , anti @-@ war faction at the height of the Vietnam War , saying his conservative political and social views caused the network to turn against him . He had invited prominent Republicans , including Vice President Spiro Agnew and Senate Republican Leader Everett Dirksen , to appear on his program .
There were personal as well as professional changes taking place in Skelton 's life at this time . He divorced Georgia in 1971 and married Lothian Toland , daughter of cinematographer Gregg Toland , on October 7 , 1973 . While he disassociated himself from television soon after his show was cancelled , his bitterness had subsided enough for him to appear on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson on July 11 , 1975 ; it was his first television appearance since he no longer had a television program . Johnny Carson , one of his former writers , began his rise to network television prominence by substituting for Skelton after his dress rehearsal injury in 1954 . Skelton was also a guest on The Merv Griffin Show in October of the same year . Any hopes he may have had to ease back into television through the talk show circuit came to an abrupt halt on May 10 , 1976 , when Georgia Skelton committed suicide by gunshot on the 18th anniversary of Richard Skelton 's death . Georgia was 54 and had been in poor health for some time . He put all professional activities on hold for some months as he mourned his former wife 's death .
Skelton made plans in 1977 to sell the rights to his old television programs as part of a package which would bring him back to regular television appearances . The package called for him to produce one new television show for every three older episodes ; this appears to not have materialized . In 1980 , he was taken to court by 13 of his former writers over a story that his will called for the destruction of recordings of all his old television shows upon his death . Skelton contended his remarks were made at a time when he was very unhappy with the television industry and were taken out of context . He said at the time , " Would you burn the only monument you 've built in over 20 years ? " As the owner of the television shows , Skelton initially refused to allow them | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
issued the following statement upon his death : " Red 's audience had no age limits . He was the consummate family entertainer — a winsome clown , a storyteller without peer , a superb mime , a singer and a dancer . "
The Red Skelton Performing Arts Center was dedicated in February 2006 on the campus of Vincennes University , one block from the home in Vincennes where Skelton was born . The building includes an 850 @-@ seat theater , classrooms , rehearsal rooms , and dressing rooms . Its grand foyer is a gallery for Skelton 's paintings , statues , and film posters . The theater hosts theatrical and musical productions by Vincennes University , as well as special events , convocations and conventions . The adjacent Red Skelton Museum of American Comedy opened on July 18 , 2013 , on what would have been Skelton 's 100th birthday . It houses his personal and professional materials , which he had collected since the age of ten , in accordance with his wishes that they be made available in his hometown for the public 's enjoyment . Skelton 's widow , Lothian , noted that he expressed no interest in any sort of Hollywood memorial . The museum is funded jointly by the Red Skelton Museum Foundation and the Indiana Historical Society . Other Foundation projects include a fund that provides new clothes to Vincennes children from low @-@ income families . The Foundation also purchased Skelton 's birthplace and continues to finance its restoration . Restoration continues as well at the historic Vincennes Pantheon Theatre , where Skelton performed during his youth .
The town of Vincennes has held an annual Red Skelton Festival since 2005 . A " Parade of a Thousand Clowns " , billed as the largest clown parade in the Midwest , is followed by family @-@ oriented activities and live music performances .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Features = = =
= = = Short subjects = = =
= = = Box office ranking = = =
For a number of years US exhibitors voted Skelton among the most popular stars in the country :
1944 – 16th
1949 – 13th
1951 – 14th
1952 – 21st most popular
= = Published works = =
Red Skelton 's Favorite Ghost Stories . 1965 . OCLC 3695410 .
A Red Skeleton in Your Closet ; Ghost Stories Gay and Grim . 1965 . OCLC 1744491 .
Gertrude & Heathcliffe . 1974 . OCLC 1129973 .
The Ventriloquist . 1984 . OCLC 144598647 .
Old Whitey . 1984 . OCLC 144598636 .
The Great Lazarus . 1986 .
= Battle of Amiens ( 1918 ) =
The Battle of Amiens , also known as the Third Battle of Picardy ( French : 3ème Bataille de Picardie ) , which began on 8 August 1918 , was the opening phase of the Allied offensive later known as the Hundred Days Offensive that ultimately led to the end of the First World War . Allied forces advanced over 11 kilometres ( 7 mi ) on the first day , one of the greatest advances of the war , with Henry Rawlinson 's British Fourth Army playing the decisive role . The battle is also notable for its effects on both sides ' morale and the large number of surrendering German forces . This led Erich Ludendorff to describe the first day of the battle as " the black day of the German Army " . Amiens was one of the first major battles involving armoured warfare and marked the end of trench warfare on the Western Front ; fighting becoming mobile once again until the armistice was signed on 11 November 1918 .
= = Prelude = =
On 21 March 1918 , the German Empire had launched Operation Michael , the first in a series of attacks planned to drive the Allies back along the length of the Western Front . With the signing of the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk with revolutionary @-@ controlled Russia , the Germans were able to transfer hundreds of thousands of men to the Western Front , giving them a significant , if temporary , advantage in manpower and material . These offensives were intended to translate this advantage into victory . Operation Michael was intended to defeat the right wing of the British Expeditionary Force , but a lack of success before Arras ensured the ultimate failure of the offensive . A final effort was aimed at the town of Amiens , a vital railway junction , but the advance had been halted at Villers @-@ Bretonneux by British and Australian troops on 4 April .
Subsequent German offensives — Operation Georgette ( 9 – 11 April ) , Operation Blücher @-@ Yorck ( 27 May ) , Operation Gneisenau ( 9 June ) and Operation Marne @-@ Rheims ( 15 – 17 July ) — all made advances elsewhere on the Western Front , but failed to achieve a decisive breakthrough .
By the end of the Marne @-@ Rheims offensive , the German manpower advantage had been spent and their supplies and troops were exhausted . The Allied generalissimo , General Ferdinand Foch , ordered a counteroffensive which led to the Second Battle of the Marne , after which victory he was promoted to Marshal of France . The Germans , recognising their untenable position , withdrew from the Marne to the north . Foch now tried to move the Allies back onto the offensive .
= = = Plan = = =
Foch disclosed his plan on 23 July 1918 , following the Franco @-@ American victory at the Battle of Soissons . The plan called for reducing the Saint @-@ Mihiel salient ( which would later see combat in the Battle of Saint @-@ Mihiel ) and freeing the railway lines that ran through Amiens from German shellfire .
The commander of the British Expeditionary Force , Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig , already had plans in place for an attack near Amiens . When the British retreat had ended in April , the headquarters of the British Fourth Army under General Sir Henry Rawlinson had taken over the front astride the Somme . Its left hand corps was the British III Corps under Lieutenant General Richard Butler , while the Australian Corps under Lieutenant General John Monash held the right flank and linked up with French armies to the south . On 30 May , all the Australian infantry divisions were united under the corps HQ , for the first time on the Western Front . The Australians had mounted a number of local counter @-@ attacks which both revealed the suitability of the open and firm terrain south of the Somme for a larger offensive and also established and refined the methods which were to be used .
Rawlinson had submitted Monash 's proposals to Haig in July and Haig had forwarded them to Foch . At a meeting on 24 July , Foch agreed to the plan but insisted that the French First Army , which held the front to the south of the British Fourth Army , should participate . Rawlinson opposed this as his and Monash 's plans depended on the large @-@ scale use of tanks ( now finally available in large numbers ) to achieve surprise , by avoiding a preliminary bombardment . The French First Army lacked tanks and would be forced to bombard the German positions before the infantry advance began , thus removing the element of surprise . Eventually , it was agreed that the French would participate , but not launch their attack until 45 minutes after the Fourth Army . It was also agreed to advance the proposed date of the attack from 10 August to 8 August , to strike the Germans before they had completed their withdrawal from the Marne salient .
Rawlinson had already finalised his plans in discussion with his Corps commanders ( Butler , Monash , Sir Arthur Currie of the Canadian Corps and Lieutenant General Charles Kavanagh of the Cavalry Corps ) on 21 July . For the first time , the Australians would attack side by side with the Canadian Corps . Both had a reputation for aggressive and innovative tactics and a strong record of success over the past two years .
The tactical methods had been tested by the Australians in a local counter @-@ attack at the Battle of Hamel on 4 July . The German defenders of Hamel were deeply dug in , and their position commanded a very wide field of fire . Similar positions had resisted capture for two months in the Battle of the Somme . The Australians had used surprise rather than weight at Hamel . The artillery had opened fire only at the moment the infantry and tanks advanced , and the Germans were rapidly overrun .
A key factor in the final plan was secrecy . There was to be no pre @-@ battle bombardment , only artillery fire immediately prior to the advance of Australian , Canadian , and British forces . The final plan for the Fourth Army involved 1 @,@ 386 field guns and howitzers and 684 heavy guns , making up 27 medium artillery brigades and thirteen heavy batteries , in addition to the infantry divisions ' artillery . The fire plan for the Fourth Army 's artillery was devised by Monash 's senior artillery officer , Major General C.E.D. Budworth . British sound ranging advances in artillery techniques and aerial photographic reconnaissance made it possible to dispense with " ranging shots " to ensure accurate fire . Budworth had produced a timetable which allowed 504 out of 530 German guns to be hit at " zero hour " , while a creeping barrage preceded the infantry . This method was similar to the Feuerwalze which the Germans themselves had used in their Spring Offensive , but its effectiveness was increased by the surprise achieved .
There were also to be 580 tanks . The Canadian and Australian Corps were each allocated a brigade of four battalions , with 108 Mark V fighting tanks , 36 Mark V " Star " , and 24 unarmed tanks intended to carry supplies and ammunition forward . A single battalion of Mark V tanks was allocated to III Corps . The Cavalry Corps were allocated two battalions each of 48 Medium Mark A Whippet tanks .
The Allies had successfully moved the Canadian Corps of four infantry divisions to Amiens without them being detected by the Germans . This was a noteworthy achievement and reflected well on the increasingly efficient staffwork of the British armies . A detachment from the Corps of two infantry battalions , a wireless unit and a casualty clearing station had been sent to the front near Ypres to bluff the Germans that the entire Corps was moving north to Flanders . The Canadian Corps was not fully in position until 7 August . To maintain secrecy , the Allied commanders pasted the notice " Keep Your Mouth Shut " into orders issued to the men , and referred to the action as a " raid " rather than an " offensive " .
= = = Preliminaries = = =
Although the Germans were still on the offensive in late July 1918 , the Allied armies were growing in strength , as more American units arrived in France , and British reinforcements were transferred from the Home Army in Britain and the Sinai and Palestine Campaign . The German commanders realized in early August that their forces might be forced onto the defensive , though Amiens was not considered to be a likely front . The Germans believed the French would probably attack the Saint @-@ Mihiel front east of Rheims , or in Flanders near Mount Kemmel , while they believed the British would attack along either the Lys or near Albert . The Allies had indeed mounted a number of local counter @-@ offensives in these sectors , both to gain local objectives to improve their defensive positions and to distract attention from the Amiens sector . German forces began to withdraw from the Lys and other fronts in response to these theories . The Allies maintained equal artillery and air fire along their various fronts , moving troops only at night , and feigning movements during the day to mask their actual intent .
The German front east of Amiens was held by their Second Army under General Georg von der Marwitz , with six divisions in line ( and two facing the French 1st Army ) . There were only two divisions in immediate reserve . There was some concern among the Allies on 6 August when the German 27th Division actually attacked north of the Somme on part of the front on which the Allies planned to attack two days later . The German division ( a specially selected and trained Stosstruppen formation ) penetrated roughly 800 yards ( 730 m ) into the one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half mile front . This attack was made in retaliation for a trench raid by the 5th Australian Division north of the Somme on the night of 31 July , which had gained many prisoners , before the Australian Corps was concentrated south of the river . The German division moved somewhat back to its original position on the morning of 7 August , but the movement still required changes to the Allied plan .
= = Battle = =
The battle began in dense fog at 4 : 20 am on 8 August 1918 . Under Rawlinson 's Fourth Army , the British III Corps attacked north of the Somme , the Australian Corps to the south of the river in the centre of Fourth Army 's front , and the Canadian Corps to the south of the Australians . The French 1st Army under General Debeney opened its preliminary bombardment at the same time , and began its advance 45 minutes later , supported by a battalion of 72 Whippet tanks . Although German forces were on the alert , this was largely in anticipation of possible retaliation for their incursion on the sixth and not because they had learned of the preplanned Allied attack . Although the two forces were within 460 metres ( 500 yd ) of one another , gas bombardment was very low , as the bulk of the Allied presence was unknown to the Germans . The attack was so unexpected that German forces only began to return fire after five minutes , and even then at the positions where the Allied forces had assembled at the start of the battle and had long since left .
In the first phase , seven divisions attacked : the British 18th ( Eastern ) and 58th ( 2 / 1st London ) , the Australian 2nd and 3rd , and the Canadian 1st , 2nd and 3rd Divisions . Parts of the American 33rd Division supported the British attackers north of the Somme .
The attackers captured the first German position , advancing about 3 @.@ 7 km ( 4 @,@ 000 yd ; 2 @.@ 3 mi ) by about 7 : 30 am . In the centre , supporting units following the leading divisions attacked the second objective a further 3 @.@ 2 km ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) distant . Australian units reached their first objectives by 7 : 10 am , and by 8 : 20 am , the Australian 4th and 5th Divisions and the Canadian 4th Division passed through the initial breach in the German lines . The third phase of the attack was assigned to infantry @-@ carrying Mark V * tanks . However , the infantry was able to carry out this final step unaided . The Allies penetrated well to the rear of the German defences and cavalry now continued the advance , one brigade in the Australian sector and two cavalry divisions in the Canadian sector . RAF and armoured car fire kept the retreating Germans from rallying .
The Canadian and Australian forces in the centre advanced quickly , pushing the line 4 @.@ 8 km ( 3 @.@ 0 mi ) forward from its starting point by 11 : 00 am . The speed of their advance was such that a party of German officers and some divisional staff were captured while eating breakfast . A gap 24 km ( 15 mi ) long was punched in the German line south of the Somme by the end of the day . There was less success north of the river , where the British III Corps had only a single tank battalion in support , the terrain was rougher and the German incursion of 6 August had disrupted some of the preparations . Although the attackers gained their first objectives , they were held up short of the Chipilly Spur , a steep wooded ridge .
The British Fourth Army took 13 @,@ 000 prisoners while the French captured a further 3 @,@ 000 . Total German losses were estimated to be 30 @,@ 000 on 8 August . The Fourth Army 's casualties , British , Australian and Canadian infantry , were approximately 8 @,@ 800 , exclusive of tank and air losses and those of their French allies .
German Army Chief of Staff Paul von Hindenburg noted the Allies ' use of surprise and that Allied destruction of German lines of communication had hampered potential German counter @-@ attacks by isolating command positions . The German General Erich Ludendorff described the first day of Amiens as the " Schwarzer Tag des deutschen Heeres " ( " the black day of the German Army " ) , not because of the ground lost to the advancing Allies , but because the morale of the German troops had sunk to the point where large numbers of troops began to capitulate . He recounted instances of retreating troops shouting " You 're prolonging the war ! " at officers who tried to rally them , and " Blackleg ! " at reserves moving up . Five German divisions had effectively been engulfed . Allied forces pushed , on average , 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) into enemy territory by the end of the day . The Canadians gained 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) , Australians 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) , British 3 @.@ 2 km ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) , and the French 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) .
= = = Later fighting = = =
The advance continued on 9 August , though not with the same spectacular results of the first day . The battle was widened on the north and the south of the initial attack ( with the southern part of the battle ( involving French forces ) called Battle of Montdidier ( French : Bataille de Montdidier ) .
The infantry had outrun the supporting artillery and the initial force of more than 500 tanks that played a large role in the Allied success was reduced to six tanks fit for battle within four days . The Germans on Chipilly Spur commanded a wide field of fire to the south of the Somme , and their flanking fire held up the left units of the Australian Corps until late on 9 August , when a small Australian party slipped across the river and captured the village of Chipilly itself , together with a renewed attack by III Corps . On the Canadian front , congested roads and communication problems prevented the British 32nd Division being pushed forward rapidly enough to maintain the momentum of the advance .
On 10 August , there were signs that the Germans were pulling out of the salient from Operation Michael . According to official reports , the Allies had captured nearly 50 @,@ 000 prisoners and 500 guns by 27 August . Even with the lessened armour the British drove 19 km ( 12 mi ) into German positions by 13 August .
Field Marshal Haig refused the request of Marshal Foch to continue the offensive , preferring instead to launch a fresh offensive by Byng 's Third Army between the Ancre and Scarpe .
= = Aftermath = =
The Battle of Amiens was a major turning point in the tempo of the war . The Germans had started the war with the Schlieffen Plan before the Race to the Sea slowed movement on the Western Front and the war devolved into trench warfare . The German Spring Offensive earlier that year had once again given Germany the offensive edge on the Western Front . Armoured support helped the Allies tear a hole through trench lines , weakening once impregnable trench positions . The British Third Army with no armoured support had almost no effect on the line while the Fourth , with fewer than a thousand tanks , broke deep into German territory . Australian commander John Monash was knighted by King George V in the days following the battle .
British war correspondent Philip Gibbs noted Amiens ' effect on the war 's tempo , saying on 27 August that , " the enemy ... is on the defensive " and , " the initiative of attack is so completely in our hands that we are able to strike him at many different places . " Gibbs also credits Amiens with a shift in troop morale , saying , " the change has been greater in the minds of men than in the taking of territory . On our side the army seems to be buoyed up with the enormous hope of getting on with this business quickly " and that , " there is a change also in the enemy 's mind . They no longer have even a dim hope of victory on this western front . All they hope for now is to defend themselves long enough to gain peace by negotiation . "
= = = Books = = =
Blaxland , Gregory ( 1981 ) . Amiens 1918 . London : W.H. Allen & Co . ISBN 0 @-@ 352 @-@ 30833 @-@ 8 .
Christie , Norm ( 1999 ) . For King & Empire : The Canadians at Amiens , August 1918 . Ottawa : CEF Books . ISBN 9781896979205 .
Dancocks , Daniel G. ( 1987 ) . Spearhead to Victory : Canada and the Great War . Edmonton : Hurtig Publishers . ISBN 9780888303103 .
Hart , Peter ( 2008 ) . 1918 : A Very British Victory . London : Weidenfeld & Nicolson . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 297 @-@ 84652 @-@ 9 .
Kearsey , A. ( 2004 ) [ 1950 ] . The Battle of Amiens 1918 ( Reprinted ed . ) . Uckfield , East Sussex : Naval & Military Press . ISBN 9781845740979 .
Mccluskey , Alistar ( 2008 ) . Amiens 1918 : The Black Day of the German Army . Campaign # 197 . Osprey Publishing . ISBN 9781281952844 .
McWilliams , James ; Steel , R. James ( 2001 ) . Amiens : Dawn of Victory . Dundurn Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 55002 @-@ 342 @-@ X.
Riley , Jonathan ( 2010 ) . Decisive Battles . Continuum . ISBN 1 @-@ 8472 @-@ 525 @-@ 08 .
Schreiber , Shane B. ( 2004 ) . Shock Army of the British Empire : The Canadian Corps in the Last 100 Days of the Great War . Ontario : Vanwell Publishing . ISBN 9781551250960 .
= Sad ( Maroon 5 song ) =
" Sad " is the ninth track from American band Maroon 5 's fourth studio album Overexposed ( 2012 ) . It was written by Adam Levine and James Valentine ; they produced the song together with Noah " Mailbox " Passovoy . Valentine started composing the song on his home piano , before introducing the melody to Levine , who wrote the lyrics and called the song his most personal track on the album . " Sad " is a piano ballad that is similar to the works by British singer @-@ songwriter Adele . It received generally mixed reviews from music critics ; some of them called it a standout track on Overexposed , however , others criticized Levine 's voice on the song . Following the release of the album , due to strong digital downloads , the song peaked at number 12 on the singles chart in South Korea .
= = Background and production = =
" Sad " was written by Maroon 5 's lead singer Adam Levine together with band 's guitarist , Valentine . According to Valentine , the development of the song began one morning , " before he was even awake " he was dreaming of his living room 's piano playing the melody . He further stated that it was cool and he liked the chords to the verse . He later went to the studio where Levine had a concept for the song including couple of lines for the chorus . It was produced by Levine and Valentine together with Noah " Mailbox " Passovoy . For an interview with MTV News , Levine told that " Sad " is his most personal track on the album , although not revealed the inspiration behind it . The song was recorded at Conway Studios in Los Angeles by Noah Passovoy while Eric Eylands served as engineering assistant . Serbian Ghanea mixed it at Mixstar Studios in Virginia Beach together with John Hanes and Phil Seaford who served as mixing engineer and mixing assistant respectively .
= = Composition = =
" Sad " is a piano ballad with a length of three minutes and fourteen seconds . It is written in the key of E minor , in common time , with a tempo of 116 beats per minute . Levine 's vocal range spans from the low note of D4 to the high note of G5 . " Sad " highlights Levine 's soulful tone that his voice possesses . Nick Levine of NME labeled the song as " an Adele @-@ apeing weepie " . Similarly , The New York Times ' Nate Chinen compared " Sad " to Adele 's 2011 single " Someone Like You " . Rick Florino of Artistdirect wrote that it " echoes Elton John in terms of epic scope and shows just how vulnerable Levine can get . " Lyrically , " Sad " is a song on which Levine " achingly " declares the end of his relationship and his heartbreak . According to Jacqui Swift , it was inspired by the singer 's break up with Victoria 's Secret model Anne Vyalitsyna . The song begins with the lyrics , " Man , it 's been a long day stuck thinking ' bout it . " The chorus is simple and consists of Levine singing " I 'm so Sad " .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received generally mixed reviews from music critics . Both Vivecka Nair of The UrbanWire and Suzanne Byrne of RTÉ.ie called the song a standout track on Overexposed . Jacqui Swift of The Sun labeled " Sad " together with " Beautiful Goodbye " and " Love Somebody " as an emotive moments on the album . Alex Lai of Contactmusic.com called the song " bearable " . Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey stated that the track lacks the honest and raw emotion of the band 's 2004 single " She Will Be Loved " . Evan Sawdey of PopMatters called the song a " coldly calculated " moment on Overexposed and further wrote that it doesn 't match well with Levine 's voice . According to him his vocals are too " showy " to make the " Sad " ' s chorus sound genuine . Similarly , Bruce Dennill of The Citizen criticized Levine 's voice and wrote that he " doesn ’ t adapt his voice to change the mood – it 's as high and shrill as it is in the songs with fuller arrangements . " Rolling Stone 's Rob Sheffield labeled " Sad " as a " boring moment " on the album with a " droll " title . Nate Chinen of The New York Times criticized the song 's chorus and further stated , " no one bothered to upgrade a place @-@ holder lyric during the process of songwriting . No machine is perfect . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording and mixing
Recorded at Conway Studios , Los Angeles , California ; mixed at Mixstar Studios , Virginia Beach .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Overexposed , A & M / Octone Records .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Overexposed , due to strong digital downloads " Sad " debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 12 on June 24 , 2012 , with sales of 28 @,@ 107 digital copies . The next week , it fell to number 19 and sold additional 13 @,@ 044 copies . It stayed on the chart for total of six weeks .
= The Power of Madonna =
" The Power of Madonna " is the fifteenth episode of the American television series Glee . The episode premiered on the Fox network on April 20 , 2010 . When cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) demands that Madonna 's music be played over the school intercom system , glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) sets the club a Madonna @-@ themed assignment , hoping to empower the female club members . " The Power of Madonna " was written and directed by series creator Ryan Murphy , and serves as a musical tribute to Madonna , featuring cover versions of eight of her songs , with the singer having granted Glee the rights to her entire catalogue of music . Glee : The Music , The Power of Madonna , an album containing studio recordings of songs performed in the episode , was released on April 20 , 2010 .
The episode was watched by 12 @.@ 98 million American viewers , and was generally well received by critics . Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly and Aly Semigran of MTV both deemed it the best episode of the show thus far , and the Houston Chronicle 's Bobby Hankinson called it potentially " the most @-@ enjoyable hour of television of all time . " Other reviews were more mixed , with Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club criticizing the increasing number of musical performances for disrupting the tonal balance of the show , and IGN 's Eric Goldman questioning the series ' writing . Madonna herself approved of the episode , calling it " brilliant on every level " .
The episode won " Outstanding Sound Mixing For A Comedy Or Drama Series ( One Hour ) " at the Creative Arts Emmy Awards , while Jane Lynch won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for her performance in this episode .
= = Plot = =
Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) has the Cheerios emulate Madonna , so that they will be more empowered in their cheerleading routines . Continuing her blackmail of Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , Sue has Madonna tracks played over the school intercom throughout the day . Glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) overhears the girls in the club discussing difficulties they are having in relationships and life . Rachel ( Lea Michele ) asks the other girls for advice on a boy pressuring her to have sex , while Tina ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) tells them that Artie ( Kevin McHale ) has asked her to start wearing more revealing clothes if she wants to be with him . When Will observes the Cheerios performing a routine with stilts to " Ray of Light " , he is inspired to set a Madonna @-@ themed assignment to restore the girls to equal status . Most of the male club members are unimpressed , even when the girls perform " Express Yourself " . Club co @-@ captains Rachel and Finn ( Cory Monteith ) practice performing a mash @-@ up of " Borderline " and " Open Your Heart " .
When Will ridicules Sue 's fashion sense , Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) and Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) give her a makeover , recreating Madonna 's " Vogue " video . Guidance counsellor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) is inspired by Madonna 's example , and tells Will that she intends to lose her virginity to him that evening . Santana ( Naya Rivera ) offers to take Finn 's virginity , and Rachel and her boyfriend Jesse St. James ( Jonathan Groff ) also decide to have sex , leading to a dream performance of " Like a Virgin " between all three couples . Ultimately , Emma and Rachel do not go through with it , but Finn does have sex with Santana . He later hides this from Rachel , having concluded that the sex was meaningless , and that he truly regretted it , in contrasted with Rachel , who despite not going through with it , claims she did as she said and it was no big deal .
Jesse transfers to William McKinley High School , leaving the Vocal Adrenaline glee club to join New Directions , so that he and Rachel can be openly together . There is resistance from the group , who believe that this will result in them getting even fewer solos than they had been , and they suspect that Jesse is a spy for his former club . Kurt and Mercedes are recruited by Sue to join the Cheerios and perform " 4 Minutes " with them during a school assembly . They tell Will that they are unhappy about never being given solos , and will be in both groups . The boys sing " What It Feels Like for a Girl " , and decide to treat the girls better . Artie apologizes to Tina for his prior behavior , and they kiss . Finn formally welcomes Jesse into New Directions and tells him and Rachel that he won 't interfere in their relationship . The entire glee club sings " Like a Prayer " backed by a gospel choir , and Kurt and Mercedes each have a solo in the song .
= = Production = =
In 2009 , Madonna granted Glee the rights to her entire catalogue of music , and the producers planned an episode which would feature Madonna songs exclusively . Series creator Ryan Murphy had worked with Madonna in the past , and wished to produce a Glee tribute to her . Madonna agreed and " cooperated in every way possible . " The episode was filmed in January 2010 . Lynch performed Madonna 's " Vogue " , her first vocal performance on the show . Rehearsals for the routine began in December 2009 . It was filmed in black and white , with the original video playing in front of the performers as they worked . Lynch also wore a conical bra in the episode , emulating Madonna 's image .
Before the episode 's track listing was announced , Morrison hoped that his character , glee club director Will Schuester , would sing " Like a Virgin " , believing it befit Will 's relationship with guidance counsellor Emma Pillsbury . TV Guide 's William Keck later confirmed that Emma would be involved in the staging of " Like a Virgin " , with Mays ' agreement that the song is " very appropriate and fitting " for her character .
Glee : The Music , The Power of Madonna , an EP containing studio recordings of songs performed in the episode , was released on April 20 , 2010 . Its tracklist encompasses " Express Yourself " , a mash @-@ up of " Borderline " and " Open Your Heart " , " Vogue " , " Like A Virgin " , " 4 Minutes " , " What it Feels Like for a Girl " , and " Like a Prayer " . The iTunes edition features a bonus track , " Burning Up " , which was not performed in the episode . Although they were not performed by the show 's cast , Madonna 's " Ray of Light " , " Burning Up " , " Justify My Love " , and " Frozen " were also used as backing tracks in the episode . All songs on the EP apart from the bonus track were also released as singles , available for digital download . In its first week of release , Glee : The Music , The Power of Madonna reached number one on the Billboard 200 , with 98 @,@ 000 copies sold .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " The Power of Madonna " was watched by 12 @.@ 98 million American viewers and attained a 5 @.@ 3 / 13 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . In the United Kingdom , the episode was watched by 1 @.@ 98 million viewers , and was the most @-@ watched show of the week on the non @-@ terrestrial channels . It attained the highest audience share in the 16 – 34 demographic in its timeslot . In Canada , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 096 million viewers and was the sixth most @-@ viewed program of the week . In Australia , Glee attained a new ratings high , winning its timeslot in all key demographics . It was watched by 1 @.@ 42 million viewers , making Glee the eleventh most @-@ viewed show of the week .
Lynch received the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for her performance in the episode . At the 2010 Creative Arts Emmy Awards , Phillip W. Palmer , Doug Andham and Joseph H. Earle won the " Outstanding Sound Mixing For A Comedy Or Drama Series ( One Hour ) " award . Lou A. Eyrich and Marisa Aboitiz were additionally nominated for the " Outstanding Costumes for a Series " award . Competing against the Glee episode " Hairography " , Stacey K. Black , Mary G. Stultz , Roxanne N. Sutphen and Gina Bonacquisti were nominated for " Outstanding Hairstyling for a Single @-@ Camera Series " , and competing against the episode " Theatricality " , Eryn Krueger Mekash , Kelley Mitchell , Jennifer Greenberg , Robin Neal @-@ Luce , Kelcey Fry and Zoe Haywas were nominated for " Outstanding Makeup For A Single @-@ Camera Series ( Non @-@ Prosthetic ) " .
Madonna approved of the episode , telling Us Weekly that she found it " brilliant on every level " , praising the scripting and the message of equality . The episode also received positive reviews from critics . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly called it " one of the best hours of TV you ’ re likely to see all year " , writing that the episode pays Madonna " the highest compliment possible " in not just expressing admiration for the singer , but " demonstrat [ ing ] a potent understanding of why Madonna matters . " Fellow Entertainment Weekly writer Tim Stack deemed it the best episode of Glee thus far , grading each of the songs performed " B + " through to " A + " . Stack felt that the episode lived up to its hype , an opinion concurred with by Aly Semigran of MTV , who also deemed " The Power of Madonna " the show 's best episode to date . Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle went further in his praise , calling " The Power of Madonna " potentially " the most @-@ enjoyable hour of television of all time . " Kevin Coll of Fused Film felt that the episode redeemed the series following its " dismal comeback " with " Hell @-@ O " , calling it " a great story that explored the characters of Glee in much better depth than they ever have . "
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club graded the episode " B " , however was less positive than other critics . While he stated that the musical numbers were " among the best things the show has ever done " , he felt that " just about everything else around them gets short shrift " , criticizing the increase in performances on the first half of the season for upsetting the balance of the series . Eric Goldman of IGN rated the episode 8 / 10 , observing that while he was in the minority of reviewers for not " absolutely loving it " , he found " The Power of Madonna " to be " a bit messy in the writing department , even while it delivered several really great scenes and moments along the way . "
= Super Bowl XLI =
Super Bowl XLI was an American football game between the American Football Conference ( AFC ) champion Indianapolis Colts and the National Football Conference ( NFC ) champion Chicago Bears to decide the National Football League ( NFL ) champion for the 2006 season . The Colts defeated the Bears by the score of 29 – 17 . The game was played on February 4 , 2007 , at Dolphin Stadium in Miami Gardens , Florida .
This game featured two teams ending long Super Bowl appearance droughts . Indianapolis , who finished with a 12 – 4 regular season record , were making their first Super Bowl appearance since winning Super Bowl V in the 1970 season during the team 's tenure in Baltimore ; they had moved to Indianapolis in 1984 . Meanwhile , the Bears , who posted an NFC @-@ best 13 – 3 regular season record , were making their first appearance since winning Super Bowl XX in the 1985 season . In addition , the Bears ' Lovie Smith and the Colts ' Tony Dungy both became the first African @-@ American head coaches to coach in the Super Bowl .
In the first Super Bowl played in rainy conditions , the Colts overcame a 14 – 6 first @-@ quarter deficit to outscore the Bears 23 – 3 in the last three quarters . Chicago posted the then @-@ earliest lead in Super Bowl history when returner Devin Hester ran back the opening kickoff 92 yards for a touchdown after 14 seconds had elapsed ( a record later broken in Super Bowl XLVIII when the Seattle Seahawks scored a safety 12 seconds into the game ) . The Colts forced five turnovers , including cornerback Kelvin Hayden 's 56 @-@ yard interception return for a touchdown . Indianapolis kicker Adam Vinatieri also scored three field goals . Colts quarterback Peyton Manning was named the game 's Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) , completing 25 of 38 passes for 247 yards and a touchdown , with one interception for a passer rating of 81 @.@ 8 .
CBS ' broadcast of the game was watched by an estimated average of 93 @.@ 2 million viewers , making it at the time the fifth most watched program in U.S. television history . The halftime show , headlined by the musician Prince , peaked at 140 million television viewers , and was widely acclaimed by music critics .
= = Background = =
= = = Host selection process = = =
Dolphin Stadium won the bid to host Super Bowl XLI on September 17 , 2003 after a campaign against Phoenix , Tampa , New York City , and Washington , D.C. With this game , the Miami Metropolitan Area tied New Orleans , Louisiana as the city to host the most Super Bowls ( 9 ) .
This was the fourth Super Bowl at Dolphin Stadium , which has also been known as " Joe Robbie Stadium " and " Pro Player Stadium " . The venue previously hosted Super Bowls XXIII ( broadcast on NBC ) , XXIX ( on ABC ) , and XXXIII ( on FOX ) . Super Bowls II , III , V , X , and XIII were also in Miami , but held at the Miami Orange Bowl . This was the first Super Bowl played at the stadium since the city of Miami Gardens where the stadium is located was incorporated on May 13 , 2003 .
In February 2006 , the NFL and the South Florida Super Bowl XLI Host Committee unveiled the slogan " one game , one dream " for the game , referring to the entire South Florida region working together to present the event . The Super Bowl XLI logo was also unveiled , featuring the colors orange ( to represent the sun ) and blue ( for the ocean ) . The " I " in the Roman numeral " XLI " was drawn to resemble a pylon placed at each corner of an end zone because " the goal is to get to the game . " This year 's logo has the same shade of orange as the logo of the host city 's home team , the Miami Dolphins . The " XL " part is similar to that of Super Bowl XL 's logo .
= = = Teams = = =
= = = = | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Adams married his third cousin Abigail Smith ( 1744 – 1818 ) on October 25 , 1764 . Her parents were Elizabeth Quincy and Rev. William Smith , a Congregational minister at Weymouth , Massachusetts . They had six children ; Abigail " Nabby " in 1765 , future president John Quincy Adams in 1767 , Susanna in 1768 , Charles in 1770 , Thomas in 1772 , and Elizabeth ( who was stillborn ) in 1777 .
= = Career before the Revolution = =
= = = Opponent of Stamp Act 1765 = = =
Adams first rose to prominence leading widespread opposition to the Stamp Act of 1765 , imposed by the British Parliament without consulting the American legislatures , and requiring payment of a direct tax by the colonies for various stamped documents . Adams in 1765 authored the " Braintree Instructions " , a letter sent to the representatives of Braintree in the Massachusetts legislature , which served as a model for other towns ' instructions . In the piece he explained that the Stamp Act should be opposed since it denied two fundamental rights guaranteed to all Englishmen , and which all free men deserved : rights to be taxed only by consent and to be tried only by a jury of one 's peers . The instructions were a succinct and forthright defense of colonial rights and liberties .
In August 1765 , reprising his pen name " Humphrey Ploughjogger " , he contributed four articles to the Boston Gazette ( republished in The London Chronicle in 1768 as True Sentiments of America , also known as A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law ) . He delivered a speech in December before the governor and council in which he pronounced the Stamp Act invalid on the ground that Massachusetts , being without representation in Parliament , had not given its assent to it . He later observed that many protests were sparked by an oft @-@ reprinted sermon of the Boston minister , Jonathan Mayhew , invoking Romans 13 to justify insurrection . In 1766 , a town meeting of Braintree elected John Adams as a selectman .
He moved the family to Boston in April of 1768 , renting a clapboard house on Brattle Street , a place known locally as the " White House . " He and Abigail and the children lived there for a year , then moved to Cold Lane ; still later they moved again , to a larger house in Brattle Square in the center of the city .
= = = Counsel for the British – Boston Massacre = = =
On March 5 , 1770 , a street confrontation , known as the Boston Massacre , resulted in British soldiers killing five civilians . The accused soldiers were arrested on criminal charges and expectedly had trouble finding legal representation . Adams ultimately agreed to defend them , though he feared it would hurt his reputation . In arguing their case , Adams made his legendary statement regarding jury decisions : " Facts are stubborn things ; and whatever may be our wishes , our inclinations , or the dictates of our passion , they cannot alter the state of facts and evidence . " He also expounded upon Blackstone 's Ratio : " It is more important that innocence be protected than it is that guilt be punished , for guilt and crimes are so frequent in this world that they cannot all be punished . But if innocence itself is brought to the bar and condemned , perhaps to die , then the citizen will say , ' whether I do good or whether I do evil is immaterial , for innocence itself is no protection , ' and if such an idea as that were to take hold in the mind of the citizen that would be the end of security whatsoever . " Adams won an acquittal for six of the soldiers . Two of them who had fired directly into the crowd were charged with murder but were convicted only of manslaughter . Adams was paid a small sum by his clients .
Biographer John Ferling opines that Adams made the most of juror selection during the Voir dire stage of the trial , saying that Adams , " ... expertly exercised his right to challenge individual jurors and contrived what amounted to a packed jury . Not only were several jurors closely tied through business arrangements to the British army , but five ultimately became Loyalist exiles . " Indeed , Hiller B. Zobel , a scholar who has most closely studied the trial , concluded , " we can be fairly sure that before a single witness had been sworn , the outcome of the trial was certain . " Ferling also surmises that Adams was likely encouraged to take the case in exchange for political office – when one of Boston 's seats in the Massachusetts legislature opened three months later , Adams was the town 's first choice to fill the vacancy .
His law practice increased greatly from this exposure , as did the demands on his time . In 1771 he moved Abigail and the children to Braintree , but he kept his office in Boston , saying , " I shall spend more Time in my Office than ever I did . " He also noted on the day of the family 's move , " Now my family is away , I feel no Inclination at all , no Temptation , to be any where but at my Office . I am in it by 6 in the Morning – I am in it at 9 at night . . . . In the Evening , I can be alone at my Office , and no where else . I never could in my family . " Nevertheless , after some time in the capital , he became disenchanted with the rural and " vulgar " Braintree as a home for his family . In August 1772 , therefore , Adams moved his family back to Boston . He purchased a large brick house on Queen Street , not far from his office . In 1774 , due to the increasingly unstable situation in Boston , Adams and Abigail returned the family to the farm , and Braintree remained their permanent Massachusetts home .
= = = Objections to British Parliament 's authority = = =
Governor Thomas Hutchinson and his judges until 1772 received their salaries from the Massachusetts legislature . The Coercive Acts and the Tea Act were then passed by Parliament , and the British Crown assumed payment of those wages , drawn from customs revenues imposed upon that colony . According to biographer Ferling , the British government thus singled out Massachusetts for reprisals of previous rebellion and hoped in the process to force the other colonies into line . Boston radicals protested and asked John Adams to proclaim their objections . In " Two Replies of the Massachusetts House of Representatives to Governor Hutchinson " Adams argued that the colonists had never been under the sovereignty of Parliament . Their original charter , as well as their allegiance , was exclusively with the king . If a workable line could not be drawn between parliamentary sovereignty and the total independence of the colonies , he continued , the colonies would have no other choice but independence from England .
Adams authored Novanglus ; or , A History of the Dispute with America , From Its Origin , in 1754 , to the Present Time ; he repudiated the essays by Daniel Leonard which in turn defended Hutchinson 's arguments for the absolute authority of Parliament over the colonies . In Novanglus ( " New Englander " ) Adams gave a point @-@ by @-@ point refutation of Leonard 's essays , and then provided one of the most extensive and learned arguments made by the colonists against British imperial policy . It was a systematic attempt by Adams to describe the origins , nature , and jurisdiction of ( unwritten ) British concepts of constitutionality . Adams used his wide knowledge of English and colonial legal history to argue that the provincial legislatures were fully sovereign over their own internal affairs , and that the colonies were connected to Great Britain only through the king .
The Boston Tea Party – a historic demonstration against the British enactments – took place in December 1773 . The British schooner Dartmouth , loaded with tea to be traded subject to the new tea tax , had previously dropped anchor . By 9 : 00 PM on the night of the 16th , the work of the protesters was done – they had demolished 342 chests of tea worth about ten thousand pounds – today 's equivalent of about $ 1 million . Adams was briefly retained by the Dartmouth owners regarding the question of their liability for the destroyed shipment . Adams applauded the destruction of the tea . There had been no choice , he thought , and he called the defiant boarding of the vessels and the quick obliteration of the dutied beverage the " grandest Event " in the history of the colonial protest movement . He wrote the following day that the destruction of the dutied tea by the protesters had been an " absolutely and indispensably " necessary action .
John Adams vehemently supported the right of all Americans to jury trials . Adams protested the 1765 passage of the Stamp Act , which gave jurisdiction to British Vice Admiralty Courts , rather than common law courts . Many colonists , including Adams , believed these courts , which operated without a jury , were corrupt and unfair .
= = Member of Continental Congress = =
Massachusetts sent Adams to the first and second Continental Congresses in 1774 and from 1775 to 1777 respectively . The Massachusetts delegation resolved to assume a largely passive role in the first Congress . But Adams felt strongly that the conservatives of 1774 , men like Joseph Galloway and James Duane , were no different than Hutchinson and Peter Oliver , and he denigrated such men , telling Abigail that " Spiders , Toads , Snakes , are their only proper Emblems . " Yet at that point his views were similar to those of conservative John Dickinson . He sought repeal of objectionable policies , but at the early stage he continued to see positive benefits for America remaining part of the British empire .
In 1774 , as a delegate to the First Constitutional Congress , John Adams renewed his push for the right to a jury trial , stating " Representative government and trial by jury are the heart and lungs of liberty . Without them , we have no other fortification against being ridden like horses , fleeced like sheep , worked like cattle , and fed and clothed like swines and hounds . ”
By early 1775 , Adams became convinced that Congress was moving in the proper direction – away from its relationship with Great Britain . " Reconciliation if practicable , " he said publicly , yet he agreed with Benjamin Franklin 's confidential observation that independence was inevitable . In the fall of 1775 no one in Congress labored more ardently than Adams to hasten America 's separation from Great Britain .
In June 1775 , with a view of promoting union among the colonies , he nominated George Washington of Virginia as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the army then assembled around Boston . His influence in Congress was great , and he then argued in favor of permanent severance from Britain . In October 1775 , he was also appointed the chief judge of the Massachusetts Superior Court , but he never served , and resigned in February 1777 .
Over the next decade , Americans from every state gathered and deliberated on new governing documents , employing many of Adams ' innovative positions . Prior tradition suggested that a society 's form of government need not be codified in a single document . As radical as it was to write constitutions , what was equally profound was the revolutionary nature of American political thought as the summer of 1776 dawned .
= = = Thoughts on Government = = =
A number of delegates sought Adams ' advice about forming new governments , and found his views so convincing they urged him to commit them to paper . He did so in separate letters to these colleagues , each missive a bit longer and more thoughtful . So impressed was Richard Henry Lee that , with Adams 's consent , he had the most comprehensive letter printed . Published anonymously just after mid @-@ April 1776 , it was titled simply Thoughts on Government and styled as " a Letter from a Gentleman to his Friend . " Many historians agree that none of Adams ' other compositions rivaled the enduring influence of this pamphlet .
Adams advised that the form of government should be chosen to attain the desired ends – the happiness and virtue of the greatest number of people . He wrote that , " There is no good government but what is republican . That the only valuable part of the British constitution is so because the very definition of a republic is an empire of laws , and not of men . " The treatise also defended bicameralism , for " a single assembly is liable to all the vices , follies and frailties of an individual " . He also suggested that there should be a separation of powers between the executive , the judicial and the legislative branches , and further recommended that if a continental government were to be formed then it " should sacredly be confined " to certain enumerated powers . Thoughts on Government was referenced as an authority in every state @-@ constitution writing hall .
= = = Declaration of Independence = = =
Adams in the 1776 session of Congress drafted the preamble to the Lee resolution of colleague Richard Henry Lee ( Virginia ) , which called on the colonies to adopt new independent governments . On June 7 , 1776 he seconded the resolution , which stated , " These colonies are , and of right ought to be , free and independent states . " Adams also championed the measure until it was adopted by Congress on July 2 . Once the resolution passed , independence became inevitable , though it still had to be declared formally . The commitment was , as Adams put it , " independence itself " .
A Committee of Five was charged with drafting the Declaration , and included Adams , along with Thomas Jefferson , Benjamin Franklin , Robert R. Livingston and Roger Sherman . The Committee , after discussing the general outline that the document should follow , decided that Jefferson would write the first draft . Jefferson particularly thought Adams should write the document ; but Adams persuaded the Committee to choose Jefferson while agreeing to consult with Jefferson personally . Adams recorded his exchange with Jefferson on the question : Jefferson asked , " Why will you not ? You ought to do it . " To which Adams responded , " I will not – reasons enough . " Jefferson replied , " What can be your reasons ? " And Adams responded , " Reason first , you are a Virginian , and a Virginian ought to appear at the head of this business . Reason second , I am obnoxious , suspected , and unpopular . You are very much otherwise . Reason third , you can write ten times better than I can . " " Well , " said Jefferson , " if you are decided , I will do as well as I can . " Adams concluded , " Very well . When you have drawn it up , we will have a meeting . " The Committee left no minutes , and the drafting process itself is uncertain – accounts written many years later by Jefferson and Adams , although frequently cited , are otherwise contradictory . Although the first draft was written primarily by Jefferson , Adams assumed a primary role in its completion . After editing the document further , Congress approved it on July 4 . Many years later Jefferson hailed Adams as " the pillar of [ the Declaration 's ] support on the floor of Congress , [ its ] ablest advocate and defender against the multifarious assaults it encountered . "
= = = Government during revolution = = =
After defeating the Continental Army at the Battle of Long Island on August 27 , 1776 , British Admiral Richard Howe mistakenly assumed a strategic advantage to be at hand , and requested the Second Continental Congress send representatives in an attempt to negotiate peace . A delegation , including Adams and Benjamin Franklin , met with Howe at the Staten Island Peace Conference on September 11 . Howe 's authority was premised on the Colonists ' submission , so no common ground was to be found . When Lord Howe unhappily stated he could view the American delegates only as British subjects , Adams replied , " Your lordship may consider me in what light you please , ... except that of a British subject . " Adams learned many years later that his name was on a list of people specifically excluded from Howe 's pardon @-@ granting authority . Being quite unimpressed with General Howe , and also after payments to colonial volunteers were increased , Adams in September of 1776 said about the war , " We shall do well enough . " Indeed , if Washington got his men , the British would be " ruined " .
In 1777 , Adams began serving as the head of the Board of War and Ordnance ; in fact , he sat on no less than ninety committees , chairing twenty @-@ five . No other congressman approached the assumption of such a work load . As Benjamin Rush reported , he was acknowledged " to be the first man in the House . " He was also referred to as a " one man war department " , working eighteen @-@ hour days and mastering the details of raising , equipping and fielding an army under civilian control . He also authored the " Plan of Treaties , " laying out the Congress 's requirements for the crucial treaty with France .
= = Diplomat in Europe = =
= = = Commissioner to France and Minister Plenipotentiary = = =
In the spring of 1776 Adams advocated in Congress that independence was necessary in order to establish trade , and conversely trade was essential for the attainment of independence ; he specifically urged negotiation of a commercial treaty with France . He was then appointed , along with Franklin , Dickinson , Benjamin Harrison V of Virginia and Robert Morris of Pennsylvania , " to prepare a plan of treaties to be proposed to foreign powers " . Indeed , while Jefferson was laboring over the Declaration of Independence , Adams worked on the Model Treaty .
Adams joined Franklin and Arthur Lee in 1778 as a commissioner to France , replacing Silas Deane . He sailed for France with his 10 @-@ year @-@ old son John Quincy aboard the frigate Boston early that year . The stormy trip was treacherous , with lightning injuring 19 sailors and killing one . Adams ' ship was later pursued by several British frigates in the mid @-@ Atlantic , but evaded them . Near the coast of Spain , Adams himself took up arms to help capture a heavily armed British merchantman ship , the Martha . Later , a cannon malfunction killed one and injured five more of the crew before the ship arrived in France .
Adams did not speak French , the international language of diplomacy at the time . He therefore assumed a less visible role , but emerged as the commission 's chief administrator , imposing order and methods lacking in his delegation 's finances and record @-@ keeping affairs . His first stay in Europe , between April 1 , 1778 , and June 17 , 1779 , was otherwise unremarkable , and he returned to his home in Braintree in early August 1779 . Back home , Adams became one of the founders and charter members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1780 .
In the fall of 1779 Adams was unanimously appointed a Minister Plenipotentiary , charged with negotiating a " treaty of peace , amity and commerce " with peace commissioners from Britain . Following the conclusion of the Massachusetts constitutional convention , he departed for Europe in November aboard the French frigate Sensible – accompanied by John Quincy and 9 @-@ year @-@ old son Charles . In France , constant disagreement between Lee and Franklin eventually resulted in Adams assuming the role of tie @-@ breaker in almost all votes on commission business ; Adams also increased his usefulness by mastering the French language . In time Lee was recalled and Adams later developed his own enmity towards the older Franklin , whom the younger , more aggressive Adams felt was overly deferential to the French .
The French foreign minister , Charles Gravier disapproved of Adams , so Franklin , Thomas Jefferson , John Jay , and Henry Laurens were appointed to collaborate with Adams ; nevertheless , Jefferson did not go to Europe and Laurens was posted to the Dutch Republic . Jay , Adams , and Franklin played the major part in the final negotiations . Overruling Franklin and distrustful of Vergennes , Jay and Adams decided not to consult with France ; instead , they dealt directly with the British commissioners .
Throughout the negotiations , Adams successfully demanded that the right of the United States to the fisheries along the Atlantic coast be recognized . The American negotiators were able to secure a favorable treaty securing most lands east of the Mississippi , and the document was signed on September 3 , 1783 .
= = = Ambassador to Holland = = =
In July 1780 Adams replaced Laurens as the ambassador to the Dutch Republic , then one of the few other Republics in the world . With the aid of the Dutch Patriot leader Joan van der Capellen tot den Pol , Adams secured the recognition of the United States as an independent government at The Hague on April 19 , 1782 . In February 1782 the Frisian states was the first Dutch province to recognize the United States , while France had been the first European country to grant diplomatic recognition in 1778 . He also negotiated a loan of five million guilders financed by Nicolaas van Staphorst and Wilhelm Willink . By 1794 a total of eleven loans were granted in Amsterdam to the United States with a value of 29 million guilders . In October 1782 , he negotiated with the Dutch a treaty of amity and commerce , the first such treaty between the United States and a foreign power following the 1778 treaty with France . The house that Adams bought during this stay in The Netherlands became the first American @-@ owned embassy on foreign soil .
In 1784 and 1785 , he was one of the architects of extensive trade relations between the United States and Prussia . The Prussian ambassador in The Hague , Friedrich Wilhelm von Thulemeyer , was involved , as were Jefferson and Franklin , who were in Paris .
= = = Ambassador to Great Britain = = =
Adams was appointed in 1785 the first American minister to the Court of St. James 's ( ambassador to Great Britain ) . When asked by a counterpart if he had any British relatives , Adams replied , " Neither my father or mother , grandfather or grandmother , great grandfather or great grandmother , nor any other relation that I know of , or care a farthing for , has been in England these one hundred and fifty years ; so that you see I have not one drop of blood in my veins but what is American " .
During her visit to Washington to mark the bicentennial of American independence in 1976 , Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom gave historical perspective to Adam 's service : " John Adams , America 's first ambassador , said to my ancestor , King George III , that it was his desire to help with the restoration of ' the old good nature and the old good humor between our peoples . ' That restoration has long been made , and the links of language , tradition , and personal contact have maintained it " .
Adams was joined by his wife while in London ; they suffered the stares and hostility of the Court , and chose to escape it when they could by seeking out Richard Price , minister of Newington Green Unitarian Church and instigator of the Revolution Controversy .
= = Conceptions of constitutional government = =
Adams ' preoccupation with political and governmental affairs – which caused considerable separation from his wife and children – ironically had a distinct familial context , which he articulated in 1780 : " I must study Politicks and War that my sons may have the liberty to study Mathematicks and Philosophy . My sons ought to study Geography , natural History , Naval Architecture , navigation , Commerce and Agriculture , in order to give their children a right to study Painting , Poetry , Musick , Architecutre , Statuary , Tapestry , and Porcelaine . "
The Massachusetts Constitution of that year , to which Adams was a primary contributor , structured its government closely on his views of politics and society ; in 1779 , he drafted the document together with Samuel Adams and James Bowdoin . It was the first constitution written by a special committee , then ratified by the people ; and was also the first to feature a bicameral legislature . Included were a distinct executive – though restrained by an executive council – with a partial ( two @-@ thirds ) veto , and a separate judicial branch .
While in London , Adams published a work entitled A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States ( 1787 ) . In it he repudiated the views of Turgot and other European writers as to the viciousness of state government frameworks . In the book , Adams suggested that " the rich , the well @-@ born and the able " should be set apart from other men in a senate — that would prevent them from dominating the lower house . Adams ' Defence is described as an articulation of the classical republican theory of mixed government . Adams contended that social classes exist in every political society , and that a good government must accept that reality . For centuries , dating back to Aristotle , a mixed regime balancing monarchy , aristocracy , and democracy — that is , the king , the nobles , and the people — was required to preserve order and liberty .
Wood ( 2006 ) has maintained that Adams ' political philosophy had become irrelevant by the time the Federal Constitution was ratified . By then , American political thought , transformed by more than a decade of vigorous debate as well as formative experiential pressures , had abandoned the classical perception of politics as a mirror of social estates . Americans ' new understanding of popular sovereignty was that the citizenry were the sole possessors of power in the nation . Representatives in the government enjoyed mere portions of the people 's power and only for a limited time . Adams was thought to have overlooked this evolution and revealed his continued attachment to the older version of politics . Yet Wood ignored Adams ' peculiar definition of the term " republic , " and his support for a constitution ratified by the people . He also underestimated Adams ' belief in checks and balances , such as Adams ' statement that , " Power must be opposed to power , and interest to interest . " This sentiment was later echoed by James Madison 's famous statement that , " [ a ] mbition must be made to counteract ambition " , in The Federalist No. 51 , explaining the separation of powers established under the new Constitution . Adams was unsurpassed in his dedication to establishing checks and balances as a governing strategem .
On the government 's role in education Adams offered unambiguously that , " The whole people must take upon themselves the education of the whole people and be willing to bear the expenses of it . There should not be a district of one mile square , without a school in it , not founded by a charitable individual , but maintained at the public expense of the people themselves .
= = Vice Presidency = =
When Washington won the presidential election of 1789 with 69 votes in the electoral college , Adams came in second with 34 votes and became Vice President ; in that capacity , he became under the Constitution the President of the United States Senate . Due to a delay in the decision of the electoral college , Adams first presided over the Senate on April 21 . Washington was officially sworn in and gave his inaugural address on April 30 . Beyond Adams ' nominal position in the Senate ( he was allotted a vote as tie breaker when required ) , he otherwise played a minor role in the politics of the early 1790s . He was reelected Vice President in 1792 . Washington seldom asked Adams for advice on policy and legal issues during his tenure as vice president .
At the start of Washington 's administration , Adams became deeply involved in a month @-@ long Senate controversy over the official title of the President . Adams favored grandiose titles derived from British Crown tradition , such as " His Majesty the President " or " His High Mightiness , the President of the United States and Protector of Their Liberties . " Jefferson described Adams ' proposed titles as " superlatively ridiculous . " The plain " President of the United States " eventually won the debate . The perceived pomposity of his stance , along with his being overweight , led to Adams earning the nickname " His Rotundity . "
As president of the Senate , Adams cast a historic 31 tie @-@ breaking votes . He thus protected the president 's sole authority over the removal of appointees and influenced the location of the nation 's capital . But his views did not always align with Washington , who joined Franklin as the object of Adams ' ire , as shown in this quote : " The History of our Revolution will be one continued lie . . . . The essence of the whole will be that Dr. Franklin 's electrical Rod smote the Earth and out sprung General Washington . That Franklin electrized him with his Rod — and henceforth these two conducted all the Policy , Negotiations , Legislatures and War . " On at least one occasion , he persuaded senators to vote against legislation that he opposed , and he frequently lectured the Senate on procedural and policy matters . Adams ' political views and his attempt to assume a more active role in the Senate made him a natural target for critics of the Washington administration . Toward the end of his first term , as a result of a threatened resolution that would have silenced him except for procedural and policy matters , he began to exercise more restraint . When the nation 's first two opposing political parties formed , he joined the Federalist Party , though he was consistently in opposition to its dominant leader Alexander Hamilton .
Adams ' two terms as Vice President were frustrating experiences for him . He complained to his wife Abigail , " My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived . "
= = Presidential Election of 1796 = =
The 1796 election was the premier contest under the First Party System . Adams was the presumptive presidential nominee of the Federalist Party ; the other Federalist candidate was Thomas Pinckney , the Governor of South Carolina , considered electable as the vice @-@ president . At that time there was no formal practice of naming a vice @-@ presidential nominee – the result was left to the electoral college in determining the vice @-@ president as the second @-@ place winner of electoral votes .
Adams ' and Pinckney 's opponents , of the Democratic @-@ Republican Party , were former Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson of Virginia , who was joined by Senator Aaron Burr of New York as the party 's second nominee . Many Federalists would have preferred Hamilton to be a candidate . Although Hamilton supported Adams , his more austere background made him somewhat resentful ; some suspected Hamilton of supporting Pinckney over Adams , though this was later demonstrated to be false – Hamilton was more determined to defeat Jefferson . Hamilton and his supporters did however believe that Adams lacked the seriousness and popularity that had caused Washington to be successful , and feared that Adams was too vain , opinionated , unpredictable and stubborn to follow their directions . Adams vowed he would resign if elected to the second place spot of vice @-@ president under Jefferson .
Burr was the only active campaigner in the group . In keeping with the current practice , Adams stayed in his home town ( as did the others ) rather than actively campaign for the Presidency . He specifically wanted to stay out of what he called the " silly and wicked game " . His party , however , campaigned for him , while the Democratic @-@ Republicans campaigned for Jefferson . It was expected that Adams would dominate the votes in New England , while Jefferson was expected to win the Southern states . In the end , Adams won the election by a narrow margin of 71 electoral votes to 68 for Jefferson ( who became the vice president ) , including one crucial vote from Jefferson 's own Virginia and also one from North Carolina .
= = Presidency : 1797 – 1801 = =
Adams followed Washington 's lead in using the presidency to exemplify republican values and civic virtue ; and his service was free of scandal . He continued to strengthen the central government by expanding the navy and army . In July 1798 Adams signed into law the Act for the Relief of Sick and Disabled Seamen , which authorized the establishment of a government @-@ operated marine hospital service .
Historians debate his decision to retain en masse the members of Washington 's cabinet . Many felt he was oblivious to the political danger of such a decision , in light of the cabinet 's loyalty to Hamilton . The " Hamiltonians who surround him , " Jefferson soon remarked , " are only a little less hostile to him than to me . " Although aware of the Hamilton factor , Adams was convinced their retention ensured a smoother succession . Adams ' economic programs maintained those of Hamilton , who indeed had regularly consulted with key cabinet members , especially the powerful Secretary of the Treasury , Oliver Wolcott , Jr . Adams was in other respects quite independent of his cabinet , often making decisions despite strong opposition from it . Such self @-@ reliance enabled him to avoid war with France , despite a strong desire among his cabinet secretaries for the conflict . The Quasi @-@ War with France resulted in the detachment from European affairs that Washington had sought . It also had psychological benefits , allowing America to view itself as holding its own against a European power .
Historian George Herring argues that Adams was the most independent @-@ minded of the founders . Though he aligned with the Federalists , he was somewhat a party unto himself , disagreeing with the Federalists as much as he did the Democratic @-@ Republicans . He was often described as " prickly " , but his tenacity was fed by good decisions made in the face of universal opposition . Adams was often combative , which diminished presidential decorum , as Adams himself admitted in his old age : " [ As president ] I refused to suffer in silence . I sighed , sobbed , and groaned , and sometimes screeched and screamed . And I must confess to my shame and sorrow that I sometimes swore . " Adams ' resolve to advance peace with France , rather than to continue hostilities , especially reduced his popularity . This played an important role in his reelection defeat , however he was so pleased with the outcome that he had it engraved on his tombstone . Adams spent much of his term at home in Massachusetts , ignoring the details of political patronage nursed by other office holders .
= = = Quasi @-@ War and peace with France = = =
The president 's term was marked by disputes concerning the country 's role , if any , in the expanding conflict in Europe , where Britain and France were at war . Hamilton and the Federalists supported Britain , while Jefferson and the Democratic @-@ Republicans favored France . The French had supported Jefferson for president and became even more belligerent at his loss . When Adams entered office , he decided to continue Washington 's policy of staying out of the European war . The intense battle over the Jay Treaty in 1795 had previously polarized politics throughout the nation . The French saw America as Britain 's junior partner and began seizing American merchant ships that were trading with the British . Nevertheless , most Americans were initially pro @-@ French due to France 's assistance during the Revolutionary War , and would not have sufficiently rallied behind anyone to stop France .
Sentiments changed with the XYZ Affair , in which the French demanded huge bribes before any discussions could begin regarding American complaints ; this substantially weakened popular American support of France . The pro @-@ French Jeffersonians lost support and quickly became the minority as many began to demand full @-@ scale war . The affair heightened fears of sedition by the administration 's opponents and legislation was introduced in response . The president knew that America would be unable to win a conflict , as France at the time was dominating the fight in most of Europe . Adams therefore pursued a strategy whereby American ships harassed French ships in an effort sufficient to stem the French assaults on American interests . This was the undeclared naval war between the U.S. and France – the Quasi @-@ War which broke out in 1798 .
There was danger of invasion from the more powerful French forces , so Adams and the Federalist congress built up the army , bringing back Washington as its commander . Washington wanted Hamilton to be his second @-@ in @-@ command and Adams reluctantly accommodated . It became apparent that Hamilton was truly in charge due to Washington 's advanced years . The angered president remarked at the time , " Hamilton I know to be a proud Spirited , conceited , aspiring Mortal always pretending to Morality , " he wrote , but " with as debauched Morals as old Franklin who is more his Model than anyone I know . "
Adams also rebuilt the Navy , adding six fast , powerful frigates , most notably the USS Constitution . To pay for the military buildup , Congress imposed new taxes on property : the Direct Tax of 1798 . It was the first ( and last ) such federal tax . Taxpayers were angered , especially in southeast Pennsylvania , where the bloodless Fries 's Rebellion broke out among rural German @-@ speaking farmers who protested what they saw as a threat to their republican liberties and to their churches .
Hamilton assumed control in the War department , and the rift between Adams ' and Hamilton 's supporters widened . Many sought to vest Hamilton with command authority over the army , and they also resisted giving prominent Democratic @-@ Republicans positions in the army , which Adams wanted to do in order to gain bipartisan support . By building a large standing army , Hamilton 's supporters raised popular alarms and played into the hands of the Democratic @-@ Republicans . They also alienated Adams and his large personal following . They shortsightedly viewed the Federalist party as their own tool and ignored the need to pull together the entire nation in the face of war with France . Overall , however , patriotic sentiments and a series of naval victories , popularized the war as well as the president .
In February 1799 , Adams surprised many by sending diplomat William Vans Murray on a peace mission to France . Napoleon , realizing that the conflict was pointless , signaled his readiness for friendly relations . At the Convention of 1800 the Treaty of Alliance of 1778 was superseded and the United States was then free of foreign entanglements , as Washington had advised in his farewell address . Adams brought in John Marshall as Secretary of State and demobilized the emergency army . Adams proudly avoided war , but deeply split his party in the process .
= = = Alien and Sedition Acts = = =
Despite the discredit of the XYZ Affair , the Democratic @-@ Republicans ' opposition persisted . In the midst of war , which included the reign of terror during the French Revolution , political tensions were incendiary . Some pro @-@ French Democratic @-@ Republicans even fostered a movement in America , similar to the French Revolution , to overthrow the Federalists . When Democratic @-@ Republicans in some states refused to enforce federal laws , some Federalists voiced the intention to send in an army and force them to capitulate . As the hostility sweeping Europe bled over into America , calls for secession began to reach new heights . Some Federalists accused the French and their associated immigrants of provoking civil unrest . In an attempt to quell the uprising , the Federalists introduced , and the Congress passed , a series of laws collectively referred to as the Alien and Sedition Acts , which were signed by Adams in 1798 .
Congress specifically passed four measures – the Naturalization Act , the Alien Friends Act , the Alien Enemies Act and the Sedition Act . These statutes were designed to mitigate the threat of secessionists by disallowing their most extreme firebrands . The Naturalization Act increased to 14 years the period of residence required for an immigrant to attain American citizenship ( naturalized citizens tended to vote for the Democratic @-@ Republicans . ) The Alien Friends Act and the Alien Enemies Act allowed the president to deport any foreigner ( from friendly and hostile nations , respectively ) which he considered dangerous to the country . The Sedition Act made it a crime to publish " false , scandalous , and malicious writing " against the government or its officials . Punishments included 2 – 5 years in prison and fines of up to $ 5 @,@ 000 . Although Adams had not promoted any of these acts , he signed them into law .
The acts became controversial from prosecution thereunder of a Congressman and a number of newspaper editors . Indeed , the Federalist administration initiated fourteen or more indictments under the Sedition Act , as well as suits against five of the six most prominent Democratic @-@ Republican newspapers . The majority of the legal actions began in 1798 and 1799 , and went to trial on the eve of the 1800 presidential election – timing that hardly appeared coincidental , according to biographer Ferling . Other historians have cited evidence that the Alien and Sedition Acts were rarely enforced , namely : 1 ) only 10 convictions under the Sedition Act have been identified ; 2 ) Adams never signed a deportation order ; and 3 ) the sources of expressed furor over the acts were Democratic @-@ Republicans . However , other historians have emphasized that the Acts were employed for political targeting from the outset , causing many aliens to leave the country . The Acts as well allowed for prosecution of many who opposed the Federalists , even on the floor of Congress . In any case , the election of 1800 in fact became a bitter and volatile contest , with each side expressing extraordinary fear of the other and its policies ; after Democratic @-@ Republicans prevailed in the elections of 1800 , they used the acts against Federalists before the laws finally expired .
= = = Election of 1800 = = =
The death of Washington in 1799 weakened the Federalists , as they lost the one man who united the party . In the presidential election of 1800 , Adams and his fellow Federalist candidate , Charles Cotesworth Pinckney , opposed the Republican ticket of Jefferson and Burr . Hamilton tried his hardest to sabotage Adams ' campaign in the hope of boosting Pinckney 's chances of winning the presidency . In the end , Adams lost narrowly to Jefferson by 65 to 73 electoral votes , with New York providing the decisive margin .
Adams ' defeat resulted from 1 ) the stronger organization of the Democratic @-@ Republicans , 2 ) Federalist disunity , 3 ) the controversy of the Alien and Sedition Acts , 4 ) the popularity of Jefferson in the south and 5 ) the effective politicking of Aaron Burr in New York State , where the legislature shifted from Federalist to Democratic @-@ Republican on the basis of a few wards in New York City controlled by Burr 's machine .
In the closing months of his term Adams became the first president to occupy the new , but unfinished President 's Mansion ( later known as the White House ) beginning November 1 , 1800 . " I pray Heaven to bestow the best of Blessings on this House and all that shall hereafter inhabit it , " Adams wrote on his second night in the mansion . " May none but honest and wise Men ever rule under this roof . "
After his defeat in the hotly contested election , Adams was depressed when he left office . His son Charles had also recently died from alcoholism , and he was anxious to rejoin his wife Abigail , who had left for Massachusetts months before the inauguration . As a result , he did not attend Jefferson 's inauguration , departing the White House at 4 : 00 a.m. that day , and making him one of only four presidents surviving in office not to attend his successor 's inauguration . Adams ' correspondence with Jefferson at the time is not indicative of the animosity and resentment that scholars have attributed to him .
= = = Administration and cabinet = = =
= = = Judicial appointments = = =
= = = = Supreme court = = = =
Adams named John Marshall as the fourth Chief Justice of the United States to succeed Oliver Ellsworth , who had retired due to ill health . Marshall 's long tenure represents the most lasting influence of the Federalists , as he infused the Constitution with a judicious and carefully reasoned nationalistic interpretation and established the Judicial Branch as the equal of the Executive and Legislative branches .
= = = = Other judicial appointments = = = =
The lame @-@ duck session of Congress in late 1800 enacted the Judiciary Act of 1801 , which created a set of federal appeals courts between the district courts and the Supreme Court . The purpose of the statute was twofold – first , to remedy the defects in the federal judicial system inherent in the Judiciary Act of 1789 , and second , to enable the defeated Federalists to staff the new judicial offices with loyal Federalists in the face of the party 's defeat in 1800 – the party had lost control of both houses of congress in addition to the White House . Adams filled the vacancies created in this statute by appointing a series of judges , whom his opponents called the " Midnight Judges " because most of them were appointed just days before his presidential term expired . Most of these judges lost their posts when the Jeffersonian Republicans enacted the Judiciary Act of 1802 , abolishing the courts created by the Judiciary Act of 1801 and returning the federal courts to their original structure as specified in the 1789 statute .
= = Retirement = =
Adams resumed farming at his home Peacefield in the town of Quincy ; he also began work on an autobiography ( which he never finished ) and resumed correspondence with such old friends as Benjamin Waterhouse and Benjamin Rush .
After Jefferson 's retirement from public life in 1809 , Adams became more vocal . He published a three @-@ year marathon of letters in the Boston Patriot newspaper , refuting line @-@ by @-@ line an 1800 pamphlet by Hamilton which attacked his conduct and character . Though Hamilton had died in 1804 in a duel with Aaron Burr , Adams felt the need to vindicate his character against the New Yorker 's vehement charges .
The years of retirement in the Adams ' household were not without some temporary financial adversity ; in 1803 the bank holding his cash reserves of about $ 13 @,@ 000 collapsed . Son John Quincy came to the rescue by purchasing from him his properties in Weymouth and Quincy , including Peacefield , for the sum of $ 12 @,@ 800 .
Daughter Abigail ( " Nabby " ) was married to Representative William Stephens Smith , but she returned to her parents ' home after the failure of the marriage ; she died of breast cancer in 1813 . His wife Abigail died of typhoid on October 28 , 1818 . His son Thomas and wife Ann , along with seven children , lived with Adams to the end of Adams ' life , as well as Louisa Smith ( Abigail 's niece by her brother William ) . Sixteen months before John Adams ' death , his son , John Quincy Adams , became the sixth president of the United States in 1825 , the only son to succeed his father as President until George W. Bush in 2001 .
= = Correspondence with Jefferson = =
In early 1812 , Adams reconciled with Jefferson . Their mutual friend Benjamin Rush , a fellow signer of the Declaration of Independence who had been corresponding with both , encouraged them to reach out to the other . On New Year 's Day Adams sent a brief , friendly note to Jefferson to accompany the delivery of " two pieces of homespun , " a two @-@ volume collection of lectures on rhetoric by John Quincy Adams . Jefferson replied immediately with a cordial letter , and the two men revived their friendship , which they sustained by mail . The correspondence that they resumed in 1812 lasted the rest of their lives , and has been hailed as among their great legacies of American literature .
Their letters represent an insight into both the period and the minds of the two revolutionary leaders and Presidents . The missives lasted fourteen years , and consisted of 158 letters – 109 from Adams and 49 from Jefferson . The two men discussed " natural aristocracy . " Jefferson said , " The natural aristocracy I consider as the most precious gift of nature for the instruction , the trusts , and government of society . And indeed it would have been inconsistent in creation to have formed man for the social state , and not to have provided virtue and wisdom enough to manage the concerns of society . May we not even say that the form of government is best which provides most effectually for a pure selection of these natural [ aristocrats ] into the offices of government ? " Adams wondered if it ever would be so clear who these people were , " Your distinction between natural and artificial aristocracy does not appear to me well founded . Birth and wealth are conferred on some men as imperiously by nature , as genius , strength , or beauty . . . . When aristocracies are established by human laws and honour , wealth , and power are made hereditary by municipal laws and political institutions , then I acknowledge artificial aristocracy to commence . " It would always be true , Adams argued , that fate would bestow influence on some men for reasons other than true wisdom and virtue . That being the way of nature , he thought such " talents " were natural . A good government , therefore , had to account for that reality .
= = Death = =
Less than a month before his death , Adams issued a statement about the destiny of the United States , which historians such as Joy Hakim have characterized as a " warning " for his fellow citizens : " My best wishes , in the joys , and festivities , and the solemn services of that day on which will be completed the fiftieth year from its birth , of the independence of the United States : a memorable epoch in the annals of the human race , destined in future history to form the brightest or the blackest page , according to the use or the abuse of those political institutions by which they shall , in time to come , be shaped by the human mind . "
On July 4 , 1826 , the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence , Adams died at his home in Quincy , at approximately 6 : 20 PM . Jefferson died earlier the same day . Adams ' crypt lies at United First Parish Church in Quincy , Massachusetts , with his wife Abigail and son John Quincy Adams . When Adams died , his last words included an acknowledgement of his longtime friend and rival : " Thomas Jefferson survives " , though Adams was unaware that Jefferson had died several hours before .
= = Political philosophy and views = =
= = = Slavery = = =
Adams never bought a slave and declined on principle to utilize slave labor , saying , " I have , through my whole life , held the practice of slavery in such abhorrence , that I have never owned a negro or any other slave , though I have lived for many years in times , when the practice was not disgraceful , when the best men in my vicinity thought it not inconsistent with their character , and when it has cost me thousands of dollars for the labor and subsistence of free men , which I might have saved by the purchase of negroes at times when they were very cheap . " Adams generally tried to keep the issue out of national politics , because of the anticipated southern response during a time when unity was needed to achieve independence . He spoke out in 1777 against a bill to emancipate slaves in Massachusetts , saying that the issue was presently too divisive , and so the legislation should " sleep for a time . " He also was against use of black soldiers in the Revolution , due to opposition from southerners . Slavery was abolished in Massachusetts about 1780 , when it was forbidden by implication in the Declaration of Rights that John Adams wrote into the Massachusetts Constitution . Abigail Adams , on the other hand , vocally opposed slavery .
= = = Accusations of monarchism = = =
Throughout his lifetime Adams expressed controversial and shifting views regarding the virtues of monarchical and hereditary political institutions . At times he conveyed substantial support for these approaches , suggesting for example that " hereditary monarchy or aristocracy " are the " only institutions that can possibly preserve the laws and liberties of the people . " Yet at other times he distanced himself from such ideas , calling himself " a mortal and irreconcilable enemy to Monarchy " and " no friend to hereditary limited monarchy in America . " Such denials did not assuage his critics , and Adams was often accused of being a Monarchist .
Many of these attacks are considered to have been scurrilous , including suggestions that he was planning to " crown himself king " and " grooming John Quincy as heir to the throne " . However , Peter Shaw has argued that : " [ T ] he inevitable attacks on Adams , crude as they were , stumbled on a truth that he did not admit to himself . He was leaning toward monarchy and aristocracy ( as distinct from kings and aristocrats ) at the time he wrote ' Davila ' , though he did not directly reveal this in its essays . Decidedly , sometime after he became vice @-@ president , Adams concluded that the United States would have to adopt a hereditary legislature and a monarch ... and he outlined a plan by which state conventions would appoint hereditary senators while a national one appointed a president for life . " In contradiction to such notions , Adams asserted in a letter to Thomas Jefferson : " If you suppose that I have ever had a design or desire of attempting to introduce a government of King , Lords and Commons , or in other words an hereditary Executive , or an hereditary Senate , either into the government of the United States , or that of any individual state , in this country , you are wholly mistaken . There is not such a thought expressed or intimated in any public writing or private letter of mine , and I may safely challenge all of mankind to produce such a passage and quote the chapter and verse . "
= = Religious views = =
Adams was raised a Congregationalist , since his ancestors were Puritans . According to biographer McCullough , " as his family and friends knew , Adams was both a devout Christian , and an independent thinker " . In a letter to Benjamin Rush , Adams credited religion with the success of his ancestors since their migration to the New World in the 1630s . Adams was educated at Harvard when the influence of deism was growing there , and sometimes used deistic terms in his speeches and writing . He also believed that regular church service was beneficial to man 's moral sense . Everett ( 1966 ) concludes that " Adams strove for a religion based on a common sense sort of reasonableness " and maintained that religion must change and evolve toward perfection . Fielding ( 1940 ) argues that Adams ' beliefs synthesized Puritan , deist , and humanist concepts . Adams at one point said that Christianity had originally been revelatory , but was being misinterpreted and misused in the service of superstition , fraud , and unscrupulous power . Goff ( 1993 ) acknowledges Fielding 's " persuasive argument that Adams never was a deist because he allowed the suspension of the laws of nature and believed that evil was internal , not the result of external institutions . "
Frazer ( 2004 ) notes that while Adams shared many perspectives with deists , " Adams clearly was not a deist . Deism rejected any and all supernatural activity and intervention by God ; consequently , deists did not believe in miracles or God 's providence .... Adams , however , did believe in miracles , providence , and , to a certain extent , the Bible as revelation . " Frazer further argues that Adams ' " theistic rationalism , like that of the other Founders , was a sort of middle ground between Protestantism and deism . " By contrast , David L. Holmes has argued that Adams , beginning as a Congregationalist , ended his days as a Christian Unitarian , accepting central tenets of the Unitarian creed , but also accepting Jesus as the redeemer of humanity and the biblical account of his miracles as true . Like many of his Protestant contemporaries , Adams criticized the claims to universal authority made by the Roman Catholic Church . In 1796 , Adams denounced political opponent Thomas Paine 's deistic criticisms of Christianity in The Age of Reason , saying , " The Christian religion is , above all the religions that ever prevailed or existed in ancient or modern times , the religion of wisdom , virtue , equity and humanity , let the Blackguard Paine say what he will . "
= = Biographies = =
Adams ' grandson Charles Francis Adams , Sr. edited the first two volumes of The Works of John Adams , Esq . , Second President of the United States . This was published between 1850 and 1856 by Charles C. Little and James Brown in Boston . The first seven chapters were produced by Adams ' son John Quincy Adams .
The premier modern biography was Honest John Adams , a 1933 biography by the noted French specialist in American history Gilbert Chinard , who came to Adams after writing his acclaimed 1929 biography of Thomas Jefferson . For a generation , Chinard 's work was regarded as the best life of Adams , and it is still an important text in illustrating the themes of Adams ' biographical and historical scholarship . Following the opening of the Adams family papers in the 1950s , Page Smith published the first major biography to use these previously inaccessible primary sources ; his biography won a 1962 Bancroft Prize but was criticized for its scanting of Adams ' intellectual life and its diffuseness . In 1975 , Peter Shaw published The Character of John Adams , a thematic biography noted for its psychological insight into Adams ' life . The 1992 character study by Joseph J. Ellis , Passionate Sage : The Character and Legacy of John Adams , was Ellis 's first major publishing success and remains one of the most useful and insightful studies of Adams ' personality . In 1992 , the Revolutionary War historian and biographer John E. Ferling published his acclaimed John Adams : A Life , also noted for its psychological sensitivity .
In 2001 , historian David McCullough published a biography entitled John Adams , that won various awards . McCullough 's biography was the basis for a 2008 TV miniseries .
= Murray Chotiner =
Murray M Chotiner ( October 4 , 1909 – January 30 , 1974 ) was an American political strategist , attorney , government official , and close associate and friend of President Richard Nixon during much of the 37th President 's political career . He served as campaign manager for the future president 's successful runs for the United States Senate in 1950 and for the vice presidency in 1952 , and managed the campaigns of other California Republicans . He was active in each of Nixon 's two successful runs for the White House in low @-@ profile positions .
Chotiner was born in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania ; his father moved the family to California and then abandoned his wife and children . Murray Chotiner attended UCLA , and graduated from the Southwestern School of Law . He practiced law in Los Angeles , and branched out into public relations . Involving himself in Republican politics , he played an active part in several political campaigns and made an unsuccessful run for the California State Assembly in 1938 .
Nixon retained Chotiner as a consultant to his first congressional campaign in 1946 . In an era when the perceived threat of communism was a major domestic issue , Chotiner advised the future president to link his liberal opponent , Representative Jerry Voorhis , to a political organization which was believed to be communist @-@ dominated . Nixon was elected , and hired Chotiner to run his 1950 Senate campaign against Representative Helen Gahagan Douglas . Chotiner used a similar strategy in that campaign , stressing Douglas ' liberal voting record and printing the accusations on pink paper to hint at communist sympathy . Congressman Nixon easily defeated Douglas , and Chotiner next managed Nixon 's 1952 vice presidential campaign and counseled Nixon through allegations of antisemitism and revelations that there were privately run funds to pay Nixon 's political expenses — revelations that the candidate decisively overcame with his televised Checkers speech .
After Congress investigated Chotiner in 1956 , suspecting he was using his connections to Nixon for influence peddling to benefit his private legal clients , the vice president and his former campaign manager temporarily parted ways . Nixon recalled him to work on his unsuccessful 1962 campaign for Governor of California , and again for his successful 1968 presidential bid . After Nixon was inaugurated in 1969 , Chotiner received a political appointment to a government position and , in 1970 , became a member of the White House staff . He returned to private practice a year later , but was involved in Nixon 's 1972 re @-@ election campaign . Chotiner described the Watergate break @-@ in that occurred during Nixon 's 1972 campaign and that eventually brought down the Nixon administration as " stupid " , and when a newspaper accused him of organizing it , he sued for libel and won a substantial settlement . He remained an informal adviser to Nixon until he died in Washington , D.C. , following an auto accident in January 1974 , and Nixon mourned the loss of a man he described as a counselor and friend .
= = Early life and career = =
Chotiner was born on October 4 , 1909 , in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , the son of Albert Hyman Chotiner and Sarah Chotiner . The family moved to Columbus , Ohio , soon after Murray 's birth , and relocated to California in 1920 . Albert Chotiner , a cigar maker by trade , managed a chain of movie theaters in California , and soon abandoned his wife and children .
After attending the University of California , Los Angeles , Chotiner enrolled at the Southwestern School of Law , graduating at age 20 , the youngest graduate in the school 's history . However , he had to wait until he was 21 to be eligible to take the bar exam . He initially practiced law with his older brother , Jack — they had a general practice in which they defended a number of bookmakers — but eventually the Chotiners dissolved the partnership , and Murray Chotiner opened a law practice on his own in Los Angeles . He later described many of his clients as " unsavory , to say the least " . In the early 1940s , he branched out into public relations .
Chotiner initially registered to vote as a Democrat , but soon switched parties , joining the Republicans . He involved himself in Republican politics , working on Herbert Hoover 's unsuccessful presidential re @-@ election campaign in 1932 . In 1938 , the young attorney ran against longtime Republican incumbent Charles W. Lyon for the California State Assembly . Lyon cross @-@ filed and secured his re @-@ election by winning both primaries , defeating Chotiner in the Republican poll , and narrowly beating Robert A. Heinlein ( who subsequently turned to writing science fiction ) in the Democratic contest .
When Earl Warren successfully ran for Governor of California in 1942 , Chotiner served as his field director . However , he alienated Warren when , hoping for a favor in light of his 1942 support , he asked the newly inaugurated governor to decline to approve the extradition of one of his clients to another state . Warren had Chotiner thrown out of his office , and the future chief justice refused to let him have anything to do with his re @-@ election campaign in 1946 . According to Nixon biographer Earl Mazo , Chotiner stated that while people remembered him for " making " Richard Nixon , " the real man I created was Earl Warren " .
Chotiner served as counsel to state committees investigating violence in motion picture strikes and conditions in children 's boarding homes and in homes for the elderly . In 1944 , Chotiner was elected president of the conservative California Republican Assembly , a grassroots organization of party activists ; he had previously served as president of the Los Angeles Republican Assembly . In addition to his political involvement , he was active in the Los Angeles Jewish Community Relations Committee .
= = Rise of Richard Nixon ( 1946 – 1952 ) = =
= = = Congressional races = = =
One of the first professional campaign managers ; Chotiner was retained as a political consultant by Nixon 's 1946 campaign for Congress against incumbent Representative Jerry Voorhis . He advised linking Voorhis with a political action committee , believed to be communist @-@ dominated , run by the Congress of Industrial Organizations . The consultant was only able to devote a limited amount of time to the Nixon campaign since he was the Southern California campaign manager for the successful re @-@ election bid of Republican Senator William F. Knowland . Chotiner coined the campaign slogan , " We will not surrender " for Knowland , implying that Democratic challenger Will Rogers , Jr. would permit communism to take over the country . Both Republican candidates defeated their opponents . Two years later , Chotiner served as Southern California campaign manager for the unsuccessful 1948 presidential bid of New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey .
In September 1949 , Nixon hired Chotiner as campaign manager for his upcoming 1950 run for the United States Senate . Helen Gahagan Douglas defeated Manchester Boddy for the Democratic nomination in a primary that badly splintered the Democratic Party , while Nixon had little effective competition for the Republican slot . Chotiner realized that Nixon could not beat Douglas by advocating more social welfare programs , so he advised his candidate to attack Douglas on the issue of communism , seen as a Democratic vulnerability . Echoing a theme used by Boddy in the primary , Chotiner linked Representative Douglas with leftist Congressman Vito Marcantonio of the socialist American Labor Party , listing the matters in which the two had voted the same way in a leaflet printed on pink paper — the " Pink Sheet " — and popularizing a label for Douglas which had been first coined by Boddy — the " Pink Lady " . However , the Northern California campaign chairman for Nixon , John Dinkenspiel , and his paid assistant , Harvey Hancock , declined to use the Pink Sheet in their territory . With the Korean War raging , Douglas also tried to depict Nixon as soft on communism , stating this in her first speech of the general election campaign , but that strategy was not successful , and Chotiner noted , " She made the fatal mistake of attacking our strength instead of sticking to attacking our weakness . "
Chotiner had parted ways with Governor Warren , and the popular governor , who was running for a third term , " wanted no part " of the Nixon campaign . Nonetheless , Chotiner sought to maneuver the future chief justice into an endorsement of Representative Nixon . Chotiner instructed Young Republicans head and future congressman Joseph F. Holt to follow Douglas from appearance to appearance and demand to know who she was supporting for governor . Douglas repeatedly avoided the question , but with four days to go before the election and the Democratic candidate " close to collapse " from the bitter campaign , she responded to the latest Holt needle with her " hope and pray [ er ] " that Democratic gubernatorial candidate James Roosevelt would be elected . A delighted Chotiner had a reporter ask Warren about Douglas 's reply , and the governor commented , " In view of her statement , I might ask her how she expects I will vote when I mark my ballot for United States senator on Tuesday . " Chotiner publicized this response as an endorsement of Nixon , which Warren did not deny . Both Warren and Nixon won overwhelming victories on Election Day .
Chotiner 's strategy in the Nixon congressional races remains controversial . Former congressman Voorhis dubbed himself " the first victim of the Nixon @-@ Chotiner formula for political success " . Democrats labeled him a master of dirty tricks who ruthlessly destroyed Douglas 's political career by intimating that she was soft on communism . Chotiner 's son Kenneth later stated , " I think he really believed [ Douglas ] was evil ... He would equate a liberal or a Democrat with a communist . " Chotiner himself said of the campaign against Douglas , " We only stated the facts . The interpretation of the facts was the prerogative of the electorate . "
= = = 1952 campaign = = =
In 1952 , Chotiner served as campaign manager for Knowland . Knowland cross @-@ filed and won both major party primaries , virtually assuring his re @-@ election . The strategist also served as Holt 's campaign manager in the California 22nd Congressional district Republican primary . Senator Nixon endorsed Holt over State Senator Jack Tenney , and Chotiner asked Nixon to supply him with Tenney 's House Un @-@ American Activities Committee file — the state senator had once had communist leanings , though he had long renounced them . Nixon arranged for Chotiner to get the file , which was supposed to be for Congressional use only , though he apparently made no public use of the file in the campaign . Holt defeated Tenney in the primary , and went on to win the general election .
With the primary completed , Chotiner 's attention turned to the 1952 Republican National Convention in Chicago . While the California delegation was pledged to Governor Warren , ( who hoped to gain the Republican nomination for president in a brokered convention ) , the strategist realized that Nixon 's best chance for advancement was in the nomination of General Dwight D. Eisenhower , who was in a close battle with Senator Robert A. Taft for the party 's nomination .
Chotiner was quietly designated an alternate delegate to the convention as an original alternate had dropped out , and when Governor Warren learned of his selection , he " erupted ... furiously " . Chotiner had volunteered to take care of many of the convention arrangements for the California delegation , and for the Warren campaign headquarters at the Conrad Hilton Hotel . Seeking to avoid a split with Nixon , who assured Warren that Chotiner was merely there to handle physical arrangements , the governor grudgingly allowed Chotiner to retain his roles . When the California delegation 's train arrived in Chicago , the Warren campaign found that the buses which Chotiner had arranged to transport the delegation to its hotel were covered with " Eisenhower for President " banners — which the governor 's supporters hastily replaced with Warren signs . Chotiner had an extra phone surreptitiously installed in the Warren headquarters so he could quietly communicate the latest developments to Nixon . He also remained in close contact with Eisenhower aide and future Attorney General , Herbert Brownell . Warren paid a courtesy call on Eisenhower , and later wrote in his memoirs , " Imagine my surprise when the doorkeeper who admitted me to the general 's suite was Murray Chotiner . " Eisenhower was nominated over Taft and Warren in a close , first @-@ ballot victory . As a final indignity to Warren , it developed that Chotiner had overspent his budget , forcing the governor and others to pay hotel expenses from their own pockets .
Despite Chotiner 's maneuvering for Nixon , the senator was still uncertain if he should take the vice @-@ presidential slot if offered . Pat Nixon wanted her husband to decline it . Chotiner argued to the Nixons that if the Republicans lost , Nixon would retain his seat in the Senate , that if he served as Vice President and re @-@ entered private life , he would have a lucrative legal career , but that if Nixon did not move up to the Vice Presidency , with Senator Knowland relatively young and in good health , Nixon was likely to remain merely the junior senator from California for many years to come . Eisenhower offered Nixon the position , the senator accepted , and with Knowland 's re @-@ election bid all but won , Chotiner became Nixon 's campaign manager .
Soon after Nixon 's selection , controversy erupted over the senator 's 1951 purchase of a home with a restrictive covenant that forbade resale or rental to Jews . Chotiner , a Jew , successfully appealed to the Anti @-@ Defamation League and the Jewish press for support for Nixon in the controversy , providing them with a list of Jewish causes which he had favored . Nixon 's staff pointed out that the covenant was , in any event , invalid because of the U.S. Supreme Court 's 1948 ruling in Shelley v. Kraemer . The controversy " failed to gain fatal traction " but repeatedly surfaced in later Nixon campaigns .
When the media discovered that Nixon had received reimbursement for political expenses from a fund set up by a private group , the nominee was severely criticized , and he was pressured to give up his place on the ticket . Warren supporters , still smarting from the convention , had told reporters about the fund . Chotiner told Nixon that if he were forced off the ticket , Chotiner would hold a press conference and reveal the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes machinations that led to the candidate 's departure , the ensuing furor being of no consequence to them , as both Nixon and Chotiner would be through in politics . His spirits revived by Chotiner 's loyalty , Senator Nixon delivered the televised Checkers speech , during which he defended himself and emotionally stated he would not return a black and white dog that had been given to his children . Nixon received an outpouring of public support after the speech , but was angered at Eisenhower 's hesitance to issue a statement backing him . He dictated a telegram to his secretary , Rose Mary Woods , giving up his place on the ticket , but Chotiner took the telegram and ripped it up , unsent . Nixon later praised him for his support , " In the whole fund matter , Chotiner was the strongest of all — like a rock . " Eisenhower eventually supported Nixon , and the Republican ticket won a landslide victory in November .
= = " Man of influence " , investigations ( 1953 – 1960 ) = =
With Nixon as Vice President , Chotiner , " who loved politics and hated his bail bonds law practice in Beverly Hills " , moved part of his legal practice to Washington . The Californian was popular with many lawyers , reporters and politicians , and displayed a quick , though sardonic sense of humor . In November 1955 , Chotiner 's wife , Phyllis Lee , divorced him , stating that Chotiner was often gone for weeks at a time because of his business commitments . On November 17 , 1956 , Chotiner married his longtime assistant , Ruth Arnold .
Despite his success in advancing Nixon 's career , Chotiner was respected , but was not universally popular among the Vice President 's backers . Frank Jorgensen , one of Nixon 's first backers in the Voorhis race , said of the attorney , " I knew that Murray was very impatient with people who didn 't have the IQ that he had . He had the habit of a man like that of tramping on them . He 'd move ahead . He 'd just leave the wreckage behind him , but he would get the job done . " Nixon family friend and Whittier College trustee Herman Perry stated , " When Murray develops a little more of the techniques of public relations , I will be one of the first to recognize it and one of the first to give him credit ... The one thing I do not want him to do is be the quarterback and call the plays on the team on which I play . "
In 1955 , Chotiner lectured at the Republican national campaign school . He described his campaign philosophy :
I believe in all sincerity that if you do not deflate the opposition candidate before your own campaign gets started , the odds are you are doomed to defeat . I believe it is a smear to attack an individual on matters that have no relationship whatsoever to the campaign ... but it is not a smear if you point out the record of your opponent .
Chotiner was slated to play a major role in the Eisenhower / Nixon re @-@ election bid . However , he had represented two Atlantic City clothing manufacturers , the Kravitz brothers , who had been fined and barred from further government contracts for fraud , and on April 25 , 1956 , a subcommittee of the Senate Permanent Committee on Investigations , looking into military procurement , subpoenaed him to appear before it . The senators wanted to inquire why a New Jersey firm which already had six attorneys would hire a California lawyer , especially one with close ties to Vice President Nixon .
When Chotiner appeared before the subcommittee on May 2 , he testified that he had been retained by the firm when it was seeking to expand to California , that he had conferred with Justice Department attorneys regarding the criminal charges , and that no special favors had been asked or given . Under questioning by subcommittee counsel Robert F. Kennedy , the younger brother of committee member and future president John F. Kennedy , Ch | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
otiner also disclosed that he had been retained by New Jersey mobster Marco Regnelli in an attempt to stave off a deportation order . He testified that he never discussed his clients with Nixon , and had not used the Vice President 's offices for business purposes . In a press release , Chotiner fired back at Kennedy , suggesting that he had been subpoenaed for political reasons . Denying any influence peddling , Chotiner asked whether the subcommittee counsel could " explain whether any influence was used in connection with his own appointment as attorney for a subcommittee of a committee of which his brother ... is a member . " Patrick Murphy Malin , head of the American Civil Liberties Union concurred that requiring Chotiner to testify had " overtones of political harassment . " Time magazine summed up the hearings , " At week 's end two points were clear : 1 ) Murray Chotiner had been sought out by , and had gone to work for , unsavory clients who obviously regarded him as a man of influence ; and 2 ) on the basis of evidence so far adduced , he had been remarkably unsuccessful in wielding any . "
On June 2 , 1956 , the Republican National Committee announced that Chotiner would have no role in the upcoming campaign . On June 6 , a House subcommittee disclosed that the California attorney had written to President Eisenhower asking the President to intercede on behalf of Stanley Weiss 's low @-@ cost charter line North American Airlines ( NAA ) before the Civil Aeronautics Board ( CAB ) . The attorney admitted inquiring of White House aides concerning the case , but denied using any influence on behalf of any client . White House officials said that they had done no more than ask the CAB when a decision might be expected in NAA 's case , and that NAA had lost before the CAB anyway .
Congress 's investigations of Chotiner continued through much of 1956 , and were eventually postponed until after the election . The Senate subcommittee finally issued its report on September 5 , 1957 , placing no blame on Chotiner . The House investigation dragged on until 1958 , by which time the focus of the investigation was on White House Chief of Staff Sherman Adams , who had sent Chotiner two letters regarding the airline matter . Nixon parted ways with Chotiner after the Senate testimony , calling his predicament " a tragedy " , but by 1959 , the two were friends again . Senator Knowland considered hiring Chotiner to manage his 1958 run for governor , but did not do so , and lost to Edmund G. " Pat " Brown . Chotiner would play no visible role in the unsuccessful 1960 Nixon presidential campaign . Despite his status as a political outcast , Nixon 's former campaign manager remained loyal to him , and remained convinced Nixon would one day be president .
= = Political wilderness and return ( 1960 – 1968 ) = =
Chotiner ran for the House of Representatives in 1960 , proclaiming himself " vindicated and exonerated " by the fact that no adverse report had been issued against him by the Senate . Chotiner claimed to have Nixon 's backing in the run ; however , Nixon declined to make an endorsement , and the attorney was defeated by Alphonzo E. Bell in the Republican primary .
In early 1962 , Chotiner managed the unsuccessful primary campaign of conservative California Senate candidate Loyd Wright , who was easily defeated by incumbent Senator Thomas H. Kuchel in the Republican primary . In August 1962 , he joined Nixon 's campaign for Governor of California against incumbent Democratic Governor Pat Brown as an unpaid volunteer . Chotiner and Nixon had a major disagreement , with the consultant opposing the candidate 's decision to denounce the conservative John Birch Society . In its final weeks , the Brown @-@ Nixon battle became an " alley fight " , with legal battles over " smear " pamphlets distributed by each side . Chotiner 's involvement and the alleged use of his techniques were issues in the campaign , with one bitter Republican describing him as " a millstone around our neck " . Brown defeated Nixon by five percentage points .
Five days after the election , Chotiner appeared as a Nixon defender on Howard K. Smith 's News and Comment program on ABC in the episode entitled " The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon " . Nixon nemesis Alger Hiss also appeared on the broadcast , and Hiss 's participation led to such an uproar that sponsors pulled back from underwriting the program , and News and Comment left the air in the spring of 1963 .
Chotiner continued to practice law . In 1962 , his wife Ruth obtained an interlocutory divorce decree against him . After the decree became final , Chotiner married again in 1965 . In January 1966 , attorney and land developer Charles W. Hinman was arrested and charged with plotting to have Chotiner murdered . Chotiner had represented Hinman 's wife in a contested divorce case , and Hinman had been jailed for eleven days for failure to pay his fees . No actual attempt on his life took place . Hinman was sentenced to between one and five years in prison . In 1957 , one of Chotiner 's divorce clients had been killed along with her daughter by the client 's estranged husband in the attorney 's Beverly Hills office .
Chotiner was involved in Nixon 's successful 1968 presidential bid , but kept out of the public eye as special assistant to Nixon campaign manager John Mitchell . He served as liaison between the campaign and 14 Republican state organizations . He was able to place a " mole " on the Humphrey campaign press plane ; the agent sent back almost daily reports on off @-@ the @-@ record or unreported comments made by the Democratic candidate and his staff , and evaluations of their morale . Kevin Phillips said of Nixon 's 1968 presidential run ,
[ Mitchell ] and Murray Chotiner were the real people in the campaign , not the artificial public relations phonies who called Nixon " the product " as if he were some kind of underarm deodorant .
= = Presidential adviser ( 1969 – 1974 ) = =
= = = Federal lawyer ( 1969 – 1971 ) = = =
The day after Nixon 's election as President in November 1968 , he asked Chotiner what job he would like , and Chotiner indicated that he wanted to be chairman of the Republican National Committee ( RNC ) , but was told that was impossible . However , Mitchell and soon @-@ to @-@ be White House Chief of Staff H.R. Haldeman wished to see Chotiner given a position outside the White House , as they saw him as a rival . Accordingly , they proposed that Chotiner be made RNC executive director , to wield the real power with the chairman as figurehead . A reluctant Nixon , who was worried about Chotiner 's hatchet @-@ man reputation , finally agreed , and Chotiner wrapped up his affairs in California .
Chotiner was given an office at the RNC , nominally as the official in charge of tickets for the inauguration . RNC chairman Ray Bliss and his aides were disturbed by his presence , and were told he would be gone after January 20 . Meanwhile , Nixon and his aides considered a new RNC chairman finally settling on Maryland Congressman Rogers Morton , who agreed to take the position once Bliss left , though Morton was not told of the promise to Chotiner . When the President @-@ elect met with Bliss on January 10 , 1969 , he could not bring himself to fire the chairman . With the situation unresolved , and Morton 's appointment unannounced , Chotiner sat in his RNC office for a month after the inauguration with nothing to do , as the RNC staff wondered at his presence .
Nixon , Haldeman , and Mitchell did nothing to clear up the situation , and Chotiner finally took action on his own and told Bliss that he was to take control . A shaken Bliss called Haldeman , who backed up Chotiner 's account , and Bliss immediately resigned . Bliss 's aides publicized the reasons for his resignation , and reporter David Broder contacted Chotiner , who confirmed the story . Morton refused to be a figurehead for Chotiner , or indeed to have Chotiner at the RNC in any capacity , and so stated to the media . Mitchell dispatched his subordinate , John Sears , to tell Chotiner he would have no place at the RNC . Chotiner took the bad news philosophically , stating that it was not the first time he had been treated badly , and that his estranged wife had predicted that Nixon would " screw " him .
However , some job still had to be found for Chotiner , who had wound up his California practice and sold his home . Haldeman refused to have him in the White House , and Nixon 's aides deemed that the Democratic @-@ controlled Senate was unlikely to confirm Chotiner for any post requiring its approval . On April 10 , 1969 , acting Special Representative for Trade Negotiations Theodore R. Gates appointed Chotiner as General Counsel to his office , as almost simultaneously , the White House announced Gates ' replacement , Carl J. Gilbert . On April 1 , Nixon had issued Executive Order 11463 , making the position of general counsel in that office a Schedule C , or political appointment , and significantly raising the salary of the position . Nixon press secretary Ron Ziegler stated that the salary had been raised because the new incumbent was expected to play a more active role than had previous holders of the position .
On January 13 , 1970 , Nixon appointed Chotiner as a special counsel to the President , reporting to White House Chief of Staff Haldeman , a move the chief of staff described in his diaries as a " mixed blessing " . Ziegler indicated that the new staffer would be handling " special projects of a wide variety " , and The New York Times speculated that in view of his past , his duties would most likely be political . Haldeman noted in his diaries that his new subordinate was to serve as the " inside White House man for political campaigns " . Chotiner served as liaison between the White House and Republican organizations in 31 states . Chotiner taught at a March 1970 seminar for Young Republican leaders where he suggested that the Republican running against Senator Edward Kennedy mention the Chappaquiddick incident at every opportunity , while insisting that it was not an issue in the campaign . Chotiner stated , " If he says it enough times , I think the voters of Massachusetts will understand all about Chappaquiddick . "
Chotiner was involved in recruiting Republican candidates in the unsuccessful attempt to get a Republican Senate majority in the 1970 elections . Some of Chotiner 's friends stated that Nixon involved him in this project after news reports claimed that Nixon had abandoned his former campaign manager , however , Chotiner himself denied that and stated he had been made special counsel because some people in the White House had decided he could be useful . The special counsel also coordinated Vice President Spiro Agnew 's campaign against " radic lib " senatorial candidates , including New York Republican Senator Charles Goodell , who was subsequently defeated by Conservative Party candidate James L. Buckley . Chotiner stated that his twenty @-@ year association with Nixon made it possible for him to move on matters without needing to consult the President on every detail .
= = = Final years ( 1971 – 1974 ) = = =
In January 1971 , Chotiner and his third wife , Mimi , divorced on the ground of irreconcilable differences , after five years of marriage and a bitter , contested trial . Mimi Chotiner testified that the couple 's matrimonial difficulties began when he left California to work for the Nixon campaign , while Murray Chotiner retorted that his wife had said that his government job in the Nixon Administration " wasn 't good enough for her " . Mrs. Chotiner had refused to accompany her husband to Washington , stating at trial that she remained because her children were in California schools . Murray Chotiner married again on May 30 .
In March 1971 , Chotiner resigned from his White House job and returned to the private practice of law . He represented former Teamsters president Jimmy Hoffa , who had been informally promised early parole from his jury tampering sentence . Chotiner wrote to Haldeman in November 1971 , noting that no action on Hoffa 's release seemed to be taking place , and President Nixon granted Hoffa clemency later that month . When Chotiner 's role became public in 1973 , he stated that he was proud of his actions on behalf of Hoffa . Chotiner also lobbied the White House on behalf of milk producers , who were seeking increased price supports and who were major contributors to the Republican Party .
During the 1972 presidential election , Chotiner served as head of the Ballot Security Task Force for the Nixon campaign , a job that The Washington Post described as " largely token " . At the instructions of Mitchell , in March 1971 , he hired out @-@ of @-@ work reporter Seymour Friedin to present himself as a working journalist and travel with the campaigns of various Democratic presidential hopefuls . Friedin sent reports back to Chotiner , who edited them , had them typed by his secretary , and forwarded them to Mitchell ( who had resigned as Attorney General in 1972 to manage Nixon 's re @-@ election bid ) and Haldeman . When Friedin secured other employment in August 1972 , Chotiner replaced him with Lucianne Goldberg , who remained in that capacity for the remainder of the presidential campaign . The two journalists were collectively code @-@ named " Chapman 's Friend " , and were paid $ 1 @,@ 000 per week plus expenses from Chotiner 's law office account , with the account reimbursed by the Committee to Re @-@ elect the President ( CRP ) . The Committee reported the payments as reimbursement of his expenses , which the General Accounting Office opined was a violation of federal election law . Chotiner , however , stated that there was " nothing underhanded or illegal " about the arrangement , and Watergate prosecutors later chose not to prosecute CRP officials concerning the payments , deciding they could not prove criminal intent .
In April 1973 , the Manchester Union Leader accused Chotiner of having organized the Watergate break @-@ in . He responded by bringing suit for libel against the Union Leader and its lead investigator . In December 1973 , the parties reached a settlement by which Chotiner received an undisclosed , but substantial , sum of money and the newspaper printed a front page apology and retraction of its accusations in its December 31 , 1973 edition . Chotiner described Watergate in January 1973 as " a stupid , useless , inane experiment by people who have seen too many TV shows and especially too many productions of Mission Impossible " . According to The Washington Post , Chotiner was not close to Haldeman , John Ehrlichman , and most other staffers at the White House and CRP . In a taped discussion of the fallout from Watergate , Haldeman told Nixon that his former campaign manager was not " wired in " , and the President expressed strong opposition to Chotiner being used as a White House contact . At the suggestion that Chotiner could defend him , Nixon worried that the attorney might not be willing to do so .
Chotiner advised President Nixon to fire Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox in October 1973 in what became known as the Saturday Night Massacre , telling Nixon , " This guy Cox will use anything and everybody . It has to be taken away from him . " According to Nixon biographer and Chotiner friend Earl Mazo , he was convinced that " Dick wouldn 't have had anything to do with [ the Watergate break @-@ in ] " and was also convinced that the President would put the scandal behind him by the spring of 1974 . According to his brother Jack , " [ h ] e always considered Nixon a genius . "
= = Death and legacy = =
On January 23 , 1974 , Chotiner was involved in an automobile accident on Virginia State Route 123 in McLean , Virginia , by the home of Massachusetts Democratic Senator Edward M. Kennedy , who heard the collision and called for an ambulance . Chotiner had suffered a broken leg , and appeared to be recovering . The evening before he was due to be discharged from the hospital , he started gasping uncontrollably , and X @-@ rays revealed a blood clot near the lungs . Treatment was unsuccessful and he died of a pulmonary embolism at the Washington Hospital Center in Washington , D.C. Gerald R. Warren , Nixon 's deputy press secretary , stated that President Nixon was " deeply saddened " by the news .
Nixon described Chotiner as a " valued counselor and a trusted colleague . But above all , Murray Chotiner was my friend . " Chotiner was survived by his fourth wife , Nancy , his son , Kenneth , from his first marriage , two stepdaughters , Renee and Julie , and his brother . The President attended his funeral , and emotionally told Nancy Chotiner that her husband was a " great guy " .
Chotiner is buried at National Memorial Park in Falls Church , Virginia . The adage known as " Chotiner 's Law " is named for the former Nixon adviser . It holds that if an incumbent is seriously challenged in a primary election , he will be unable to recover and will lose the general election . Chotiner 's Law has held true in every presidential election since his death .
Chotiner was known to his friends as " the perfect political technician " and to his foes as " the complete political hatchet man " , but often said that he had done nothing in politics that he was not proud of . Rowland Evans and Robert Novak summed up Chotiner :
Chotiner was in many ways the most interesting personality in Nixon 's political camp : aggressive , egocentric , a professional among amateurs , brilliant , overbearing , ruthless , engaging , habitually guilty of overkill , constantly enlarging his area of operation . Painted in sinister colors by the press , he was both a public relations problem for Nixon and an invaluable campaign strategist .
= 45th Infantry Brigade Combat Team ( United States ) =
The 45th Infantry Brigade Combat Team ( " Thunderbird " ) is a modular infantry brigade combat team of the United States Army headquartered in Norman , Oklahoma . It is a part of the Oklahoma Army National Guard .
Formed from elements of the disbanded 45th Infantry Division which saw action during World War II and the Korean War , along with the 45th Field Artillery Group ( today 's 45th Fires Brigade ) and 90th Troop Command , the 45th Infantry Brigade was activated in 1968 and assigned to training duties for active duty army units until 1994 when the 45th was selected as one of 15 " enhanced brigades " . The brigade deployed as part of the UN peacekeeping force in the wake of the Bosnian War , with C Company , 1 @-@ 179th Infantry being among the first National Guard units to see duty there . In 2003 , A Co 1 @-@ 179 deployed to Saudi Arabia while B 1 @-@ 179 deployed to Kuwait to provide security for Patriot missile sites . During the invasion of Iraq , B Co 1 @-@ 179 pushed North of Baghdad establishing a foothold in Taji Iraq . Later that year , the 45th deployed to Afghanistan to train soldiers of the Afghan National Army which was followed by a deployment to Iraq to assist in the turning over of American military bases to Iraqi forces . A second brigade deployment to Afghanistan in 2011 assigned the brigade to full @-@ spectrum operations for the first time since the 1950s .
The brigade received all heraldry , lineage and honors from the 45th Infantry Division , including its shoulder sleeve insignia and campaign streamers for combat in World War II and Korea . It has since received several of its own decorations for participation in the subsequent conflicts .
= = Organization = =
The brigade is a subordinate unit of the Oklahoma Army National Guard , headquartered in Norman , OK . The brigade commands six battalions . These units are the 1st Squadron , 180th Cavalry Regiment , 700th Brigade Support Battalion , 1st Battalion , 179th Infantry Regiment , 1st Battalion , 160th Field Artillery Regiment , 1st Battalion , 279th Infantry Regiment , and 45th Brigade Special Troops Battalion .
= = 45th Infantry Division = =
The history of the 45th Brigade Combat Team can be traced back to 1890 with the formation of the Militia of the Territory of Oklahoma . That militia was mobilized in 1898 during the Spanish – American War but never deployed . In 1916 the First Oklahoma Infantry Regiment deployed for border security duty during the Mexican Border Conflict . In 1917 , the First Oklahoma Infantry Regiment , reassigned as part of the 142nd Infantry Regiment of the 36th Division fought in the final month of World War I.
On 19 October 1920 , the Oklahoma State militia was organized as the 45th Infantry Division of the Oklahoma Army National Guard and organized with troops from Arizona , Colorado , New Mexico , and Oklahoma . The division was organized and federally recognized as a US Army unit on 3 August 1923 in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma . Prior to World War II , the division was called on many times to maintain order in times of disaster and to keep peace during periods of political unrest . Oklahoma Governor John C. Walton used division troops to prevent the State Legislature from meeting when they were preparing to impeach him in 1923 . Governor William H. Murray called out the guard several times during the depression to close banks , distribute food and once to force the State of Texas to keep open a free bridge over the Red River which Texas intended to collect tolls for , even after federal courts ordered the bridge not be opened .
The division would go on to see combat in World War II as one of four national guard divisions active during the war . The division was active for over five years , participating in eight campaigns , four amphibious assaults , for a total of 511 days of combat . Following World War II the division became an all @-@ Oklahoma organization . In 1950 , the division was also called into service during the Korean War , participating in four campaigns and fighting for 429 days .
= = Cold War years = =
In 1968 , the division was disbanded and the 45th Infantry Brigade ( Separate ) was formed in its place . The 45th Brigade assumed all of the 45th Division 's lineage and campaign participation credit , including its shoulder sleeve insignia featuring a Thunderbird , a common Native American symbol , as a tribute to the south @-@ western United States region which had a large population of Native Americans . The brigade also assumed the division 's nickname , " Thunderbirds " . The division 's three subordinate brigades were disbanded as a part of the organization , and were not affiliated with the 45th Infantry Brigade ( Separate ) . The brigade 's headquarters was subsequently relocated to Edmond , Oklahoma . In 1971 the brigade received its distinctive unit insignia .
The brigade did not participate in any overseas combat operations through the 1970s or 1980s , as the size of the active duty force negated the need for National Guard formations to be deployed during the relatively small contingencies of that period . The 45th did participate in REFORGER ( Certain Strike ) in September 1987 . Instead , the brigade was primarily used to train active duty units , and other general peacetime missions within the United States . In 1991 , the brigade became affiliated with the 1st Cavalry Division , providing training services for the division soldiers .
= = Desert Storm = =
On 19 September 1990 the 2120th Supply and Service Company located in Wewoka , Oklahoma was called up for active duty in support of Desert Shield . This was the first of fourteen units from the Oklahoma National Guard called up in support of the action . Many of the units were sent to Saudi Arabia to provide support for the regular army in Desert Shield and Desert Storm .
= = Enhanced brigade = =
In 1994 , the brigade was selected as one of fifteen " enhanced " separate brigades of the Army National Guard , featuring authorization to recruit 10 % above required manning levels and a requirement to attend one of the Combat Training Centers not less than once every eight years , and ready to deploy within 90 days in case of emergencies . In 1997 , the brigade was integrated under the command structure of the 7th Infantry Division , allowing the 7th Division to provide oversight and support for the brigade 's activities should it be deployed , and potentially command and control when deployed , but that was never tested . In 1996 , the brigade 's garrison was relocated back to Oklahoma City .
In 2000 – 2001 several hundred soldiers of the brigade were deployed to Bosnia in support of NATO forces seeking to stabilize the country in the wake of the Bosnian War . Soldiers of the brigade were among the first National Guard units to see front @-@ line patrolling duty in the conflict , a job held exclusively by active duty units until that time .
The brigade trained for a rotation in the Joint Readiness Training Center at Fort Polk , Louisiana throughout 2000 and 2001 , before deploying to the center throughout 2002 and early 2003 . The brigade received praise from center commanders as performing the mission better than many brigades before it . After its rotation , the brigade trained the 39th Infantry Brigade of the Arkansas Army National Guard , which saw the next rotation in the JRTC . The 39th Brigade was also under the command of the 7th Infantry Division .
= = Iraq and Afghanistan = =
In January 2003 , components of the 45th Infantry Brigade were deployed to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait . Approximately 230 light infantry soldiers from A Company and B Company , 1st Battalion , 179th Infantry Regiment comprised Task Force Ironhorse under the United States Army Central Command ( ARCENT ) . Their primary mission leading up to the invasion of Iraq was to provide security for Patriot missile sites defending the respective countries from impending SCUD missile attacks . In March 2003 , Company A was ordered from the area in and around Riyadh to the northern border cities of Tabuk and Arar , Saudi Arabia in defense of Iraqi retaliation and security of strategically redeployed Patriot Missile sites . Company B was ordered to advance into Iraq from the Kuwaiti border to provide security for ammo caches and forward operating Patriot missile sites . Task Force Ironhorse was the first deployment of Oklahoma National Guard infantry soldiers to a combat zone since the Korean War ( members of the Oklahoma National Guard deployed during Desert Storm as Field Artillery units ) . Task Force Ironhorse completed their mission and returned in August 2003 .
In fall of 2003 , the 45th Infantry Brigade was deployed to Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom , assuming command of Task Force Phoenix II from 2nd Brigade , 10th Mountain Division . The purpose of the soldiers ' deployment was to assist in training Afghan security forces . Over the next few years , soldiers of the 45th Infantry Brigade , including its Headquarters and Headquarters Company , would deploy in support of this mission . In April 2004 , 350 soldiers from the brigade 's 1st Battalion , 279th Infantry Regiment also deployed to Joint Task Force Phoenix . During this rotation , the brigade grew the size of the Afghan National Army to over 14 @,@ 000 as well as fielding a corps @-@ sized force ahead of schedule . In August 2004 , the brigade was replaced in this mission by the 76th Infantry Brigade , and subsequently returned home to the United States . The brigade spent three years back home , and in that time transformed into an infantry brigade combat team as a part of a new transformation plan for the Army .
In March 2006 , the 180th Cavalry ( still infantry in ' 06 ) deployed as part of Task Force Phoenix V. They were attached to the 41st BCT ( Oregon ARNG ) . They returned in June 2007 . In April 2007 , the brigade was alerted that it could be deployed to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom by the end of the year . Four months later they were alerted that they would be heading to Iraq in 2008 . The brigade mobilized in October of that year and trained in infantry techniques at army posts in Oklahoma and Arkansas . The 39th Infantry Brigade was also alerted for deployment during this time and deployed to Iraq in late 2007 . During its rotation , the brigade was charged with turning over military facilities and Forward Operating Bases to the Iraqi Army as well as the Iraqi Police Force . The brigade returned to the United States in October 2008 . The 45th IBCT deployed to Afghanistan in 2011 and reunited with the 201st Corps of the ANA , as partners this time , in combined combat operations against insurgent forces in Eastern Afghanistan suffering the loss of 14 Soldiers but making significant progress in disrupting and destroying insurgent operations while continuing to mentor the ANA and progressively handing off security missions to them . The full brigade mobilized in April 2011 , but a late change in the mission diverted the 180th Cavalry and 160th Field Artillery to separate missions to support Iraq operations from Kuwait .
Additionally , elements of the 45th Brigade have deployed to Egypt ( 1 – 180th Infantry Multinational Force and Observers ( MFO ) ) , Kuwait ( 245th Military Intelligence Co OIF ) , and for separate rotations to Iraq ( 245th Engineer Co OIF ) and Afghanistan ( 1 – 180th Infantry Task Force Phoenix V ) as well as various homeland security missions .
= = Brigade commanders = =
MG David C. Matthews 1 February 1968 to 30 June 1970
BG George M. Donovan 1 July 1970 to 11 September 1973
BG James C. Duaghtery 12 September 1973 to 31 January 1976
BG Buster E. Smith 1 February 1976 to 24 June 1978
BG Lawrence F. Roy 25 June 1978 to 30 June 1983
BG Curtis W. Miligan 1 July 1983 to 15 February 1984
BG James J. Wasson 16 February to 28 August 1987
BG Donald G. Smith 29 August 1987 to 13 March 1991
BG Allan F. Mc Gilbra 14 March 1991 to 6 December 1993
BG James E. Walker 7 December 1994 to 10 February 1995
BG Bradley D. Gambill 11 February 1995 to 10 July 1998
MG Jerry W. Grizzle 11 July 1998 to 12 May 2001
BG Thomas P. Mancino 13 May 2001 to 2 December 2004
BG Myles L. Deering 3 December 2004 to 12 November 2008
COL Lawrence I. Fleishman 13 November 2008 to 5 February 2010
COL Joel P. Ward 6 February 2010 to 2 June 2012
COL Van L. Kinchen 3 June 2012 to 2 August 2015
COL David Jordan . 3 August 2015 to Present
= = Lineage and Honors = =
= = = Lineage = = =
Constituted 19 October 1920 as Headquarters , 45th Division ( to be organized with troops from Arizona , Colorado , New Mexico , and Oklahoma ) .
Organized and federally recognized 3 August 1923 at Oklahoma City , Oklahoma ; Headquarters Detachment organized and federally. recognized 1 July 1924 at Oklahoma City , Oklahoma .
Headquarters and Headquarters Detachment , 45th Division , inducted into federal service 16 September 1940 at Oklahoma City .
Redesignated 23 February 1942 as the 45th Infantry Division .
Reorganized and redesignated 23 February 1942 as Headquarters , 45th Infantry Division .
Inactivated 7 December 1945 at Camp Bowie , Texas .
Reorganized and federally recognized 5 September 1946 in the Oklahoma National Guard at Oklahoma City .
Ordered into active federal service 1 September 1950 at Oklahoma City .
( Headquarters , 45th Infantry Division [ NGUS ] , organized and federally recognized 15 September 1952 at Oklahoma City ) .
Released from active federal service 30 April 1954 and reverted to state control ; federal recognition concurrently withdrawn from Headquarters , 45th Infantry Division ( NGUS ) .
Reorganized and redesignated 1 February 1968 as Headquarters , 45th Infantry Brigade , and location changed to Edmond ( Headquarters Company , 45th Infantry Brigade , concurrently reorganized and redesignated from Headquarters Company , 1st Battalion , 179th Infantry ) .
Location changed 1 October 1996 to Oklahoma City .
Ordered into active Federal service 19 September 2003 at Oklahoma City ; released from active Federal service 17 September 2004 and reverted to state control .
Ordered into active Federal service 19 October 2007 at Oklahoma City .
Reorganized and redesignated 1 September 2008 as Headquarters , 45th Infantry Brigade Combat Team .
Released from active Federal service 21 November 2008 and reverted to state control .
Location changed 1 July 2010 to Norman .
Ordered into active Federal service 27 March 2011 at Norman ; released from active Federal service 29 April 2012 and reverted to state control .
= = = Honors = = =
The brigade received all of the honors previously accorded to the 45th Infantry Division , including its campaign streamers , which give credit for participation in combat . Additionally , several of these streamers contain the Arrowhead device , signifying the division 's participation in amphibious assaults .
As the 45th Infantry Division :
As 45th Infantry Brigade Combat Team
= Interstate 84 in Utah =
Interstate 84 ( I @-@ 84 ) is a part of the Interstate Highway System that links Portland , Oregon to I @-@ 80 near Echo , Utah . The 119 @.@ 77 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 192 @.@ 75 km ) segment in the U.S. state of Utah is the shortest of any of the three states the western portion of the Interstate Highway passes through , and contains the eastern terminus of the highway . I @-@ 84 enters Box Elder County near Snowville before becoming concurrent with I @-@ 15 in Tremonton . The concurrent highways travel south through Brigham City and Ogden and separate near the Ogden @-@ Hinckley Airport . Turing east along the Davis County border , I @-@ 84 intersects U.S. Route 89 ( US @-@ 89 ) and enters Weber Canyon as well as Morgan County . While in Morgan County , I @-@ 84 passes the Devil 's Gate @-@ Weber Hydroelectric Power Plant and Devil 's Slide rock formation . Past Morgan , the highway crosses into Summit County , past the Thousand Mile Tree before reaching its eastern terminus at I @-@ 80 near Echo .
Construction of the controlled @-@ access highway was scheduled in late 1957 under the designations Interstate 82S and Interstate 80N . The I @-@ 82S designation was only applied on paper for about a year , but the I @-@ 80N designation was the highway 's official designation until 1977 when it was renumbered I @-@ 84 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials . By 1978 , construction of the freeway had been completed across Utah , as well as Oregon and most of Idaho . I @-@ 84 is unusual as there are two noncontiguous segments : Oregon , Idaho , and Utah as well as Pennsylvania , New York , Connecticut , and Massachusetts . Average traffic in 2012 , along the non @-@ concurrent parts of I @-@ 84 , ranged from as few as 6 @,@ 655 vehicles traveling along I @-@ 84 at the interchange with SR @-@ 86 in Henefer , and as many as 18 @,@ 945 vehicles used the highway at the SR @-@ 26 interchange in Riverdale .
= = Route description = =
Out of the three states that the western portion of I @-@ 84 passes through , the 119 @.@ 77 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 192 @.@ 75 km ) segment in Utah is the shortest . By comparison , the longest stretch of western I @-@ 84 through a single state is the 375 @.@ 17 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 603 @.@ 78 km ) segment in Oregon . I @-@ 84 also has a noncontiguous eastern segment that passes through Pennsylvania , | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
parents , Peter and Lesley , were season ticket holders and Milner later became a ball boy for the club .
When Milner was 10 years old , he joined the Leeds United Academy after being spotted by a scout while playing for Westbrook Juniors in Horsforth . At the academy , Milner played against contemporaries from other clubs in the north , including future Manchester United striker Wayne Rooney . His role model was Leeds @-@ born Alan Smith , who was then a Leeds United striker . Milner believed playing with Smith put him through a learning curve , as Smith had done what Milner aspired to do ; that is , to come through the academy and play for the first team . Having made good progress at the Academy , Milner was taken on as a trainee after leaving school . However , his father insisted that he attend college once a week to continue his education . Milner remarked later that he did not want to get excited and think that he " had already made it " . He also said he could hardly believe he was playing alongside first @-@ team Leeds players such as David Batty and Olivier Dacourt . He continued to excel in the youth team , and played for England at under @-@ 15 and − 17 levels . He helped the England under @-@ 17 team win the 2002 Nationwide summer tournament against Italy , Czech Republic and Brazil , scoring a goal against the latter . Milner claims to have never consumed alcohol throughout his life , despite pressures from those around him when he was growing up .
= = Club career = =
= = = Leeds United = = =
Milner 's first @-@ team debut for Leeds came on 10 November 2002 , in a game against West Ham United , when he came on as a substitute for Jason Wilcox for the last six minutes . The appearance made him the second youngest player ever to play in the Premier League , at the age of 16 years and 309 days . On 26 December 2002 , he became at 16 years and 356 days the youngest player to score in the Premier League , with a goal in a 2 – 1 win against Sunderland . His record was broken by James Vaughan of Everton .
In a match against Chelsea a month later , Milner scored again , with a deft first touch of the ball and manoeuvre , in order to avoid a tackle from Chelsea defender Marcel Desailly , that won widespread praise from commentators . The manoeuvre created a yard of space for him to deliver a curling shot from 18 yards ( 16 m ) . Reporters were impressed by his overall performance in the game , especially by his desire , confidence , and ability with both feet . Chelsea manager Claudio Ranieri remarked after the game that Milner had performed like a much more experienced player . The performance prompted comparisons to England internationals Michael Owen and Wayne Rooney , who had also come to footballing prominence as teenagers .
After more appearances for Leeds , Milner signed a five @-@ year contract with them on 10 February 2003 . At the start of the 2003 – 04 season , Milner was sent on a one @-@ month loan to Second Division side Swindon Town to gain experience as a first @-@ team player . Before the stint , he saw it as a valuable experience as a player . He spent a month with Swindon , playing in six games and scoring two goals against Peterborough United and Luton Town .
However , Leeds ' fortunes were on the decline ; the team became the subject of numerous negative stories in the media , and several first @-@ team players were sold . Milner said he believed that this experience made him emotionally stronger and taught him how to deal with team problems . Leeds 's eventual relegation to the Championship led to speculation over Milner 's future at the club . Tottenham Hotspur , Aston Villa and Everton all expressed an interest in signing him . Ultimately , Villa and Everton did not make offers and Milner rejected an offer from Tottenham as they were based too far from his family home , where he still lived . Leeds insisted that he would not be sold and the chairman of the club at the time even referred to him as " the future of Leeds " . Nonetheless , financial problems eventually forced Leeds to sell Milner to Newcastle United for an initial price of £ 3 @.@ 6 million . Although Milner was not happy to be leaving the club he had supported as a child , he wished to do what was " in the club 's best interest " and in July 2004 , he agreed a five @-@ year contract with Newcastle .
= = = Newcastle United = = =
Milner made his first appearance for Newcastle United during their pre @-@ season tour of Asia , scoring his first goal for the club in a 1 – 1 draw against Kitchee , in Hong Kong . During this tour , he took the opportunity to observe how Newcastle striker Alan Shearer dealt with attention from fans and the media . He said that his association with people like Shearer gave him a better idea of how to deal with the media .
Milner 's first Premier League game for Newcastle came against Middlesbrough on 18 August 2004 , in which he played on the extreme right of the field as a winger , despite having featured regularly on the left for Leeds . When asked about this after the match , Milner said he had no preference where on the pitch he played . A month later he made his debut in European competition , when Newcastle played in the UEFA Cup against Bnei Sakhnin from Israel , after coming on as a substitute for Shola Ameobi . In the same month , he scored his first competitive goal for the club , also as a substitute , in a 3 – 1 win against West Bromwich Albion . It looked probable he would soon start a game .
However , the situation changed for Milner after Newcastle manager Bobby Robson , whom Milner considered his mentor , was sacked and replaced by Graeme Souness . Under Souness , he started 13 league games , but did not play his first full Premier League game for Newcastle until April 2005 . By the end of the season , he had made 41 appearances in all competitions and scored once . Souness did not make Milner a regular in the Newcastle side and controversially remarked that the club would not win " with a team of James Milners " . Milner 's response to this statement was reported as " mature " . He did however confirm that he was frustrated at not being used as a starter for most of the season .
At the start of the 2005 – 06 season , Milner scored in Newcastle 's 3 – 1 away win against FK ZTS Dubnica in the UEFA Intertoto Cup , and also set up Alan Shearer for the team 's third goal . His good run of form in this competition continued when he scored in the next round against Deportivo La Coruña . Despite these goals , a clause in Newcastle 's purchase of Nolberto Solano from Aston Villa resulted in Milner being loaned to Villa for the rest of the season . Villa manager David O 'Leary , who had managed Milner at Leeds , was happy to acquire Milner in this deal , saying that he believed Villa got the better of the deal and that he hoped to improve him as a player .
= = = = Aston Villa ( loan ) = = = =
Milner made his Villa debut on 12 September 2005 in a Premier League match against West Ham United . Five days later , he scored his first goal for the club in a 1 – 1 draw against Tottenham Hotspur . In a League Cup game less than a week later , he helped his side recover from being 3 – 1 down at half @-@ time to win 8 – 3 against Wycombe Wanderers , scoring two goals in the second half comeback . Throughout the season Milner was positive about his team . He remained confident that Villa would recover from a poor start to the season and praised the quality of the squad .
Milner was generally seen as a positive signing in a season that was disappointing for Villa . Milner himself also received the loan move positively , saying that he would like to join Villa permanently because of the probability of becoming a regular starter , but admitted that the possibility of this happening was beyond his control . Manager David O 'Leary confirmed during the season that he would like Milner to join the club permanently , but doubted he would be given the opportunity to sign him . He even pulled out of signing Robert Huth so that he would have the funds to sign Milner permanently if the opportunity arose . Shortly before the end of his loan period , negotiations between Villa and Newcastle began .
The newly appointed Newcastle manager Glenn Roeder appeared to appreciate Milner 's ability more than Souness and expressed a desire that he remain a Newcastle player . This , as well as the departure of O 'Leary and the shortage of transfer funds at Villa , meant that a deal to sign Milner permanently seemed unlikely . In June , it became even less likely when Villa rejected an offer of Milner as part of a trade for Gareth Barry . However , the deal was resurrected when Villa were taken over by American billionaire Randy Lerner , and Martin O 'Neill was appointed as new Villa manager . Villa made an improved offer on 30 August , which was accepted by Newcastle chairman Freddy Shepherd . Media sources quoted the transfer fee as being £ 4 million . A move to Villa appeared to have been agreed , but at the last moment Newcastle recalled Milner and the talks broke down .
= = = = Return to Newcastle United = = = =
Newcastle 's players and manager Glenn Roeder reacted positively to Milner 's return at the start of the 2006 – 07 season . Roeder praised Milner for the way he had handled the failed Villa transfer , although Roeder 's own handling of the negotiations was criticised . Roeder confirmed that he would play Milner in " plenty of games " during the season . This proved to be the case , as Milner was a starter in the Newcastle side for the entire season .
Newcastle made a poor start in the Premier League , but in European competition , Milner played a key role in helping Newcastle advance through the group stage of the UEFA Cup . Shortly after , rumours began to spread that he would be sold during the transfer window in January , although both Milner and Roeder dismissed these rumours .
On 1 January 2007 , Milner scored his first goal of the season in a 2 – 2 draw with Manchester United . The goal came from a " stunning " shot from 25 yards ( 23 m ) away . He scored two more goals during the next three weeks , against Birmingham City and then against West Ham United . Both of these were scored from at least 20 yards ( 20 m ) away . Later in the season , Roeder praised the progress Milner had made and said that he believed him to be the hardest @-@ training player at the club . Also during the season , Milner displayed his ability to play comfortably in a range of different positions by scoring and setting up goals with both feet from both sides . As a result , Milner signed a new contract at Newcastle in January , which secured his future at the club until 2011 . He signed another four @-@ year contract in May 2007 , when Sam Allardyce took over as manager of Newcastle . Milner said later in the year that he was happy about his future at the club and its new manager saying that the training sessions were " the best since I have been here " . Allardyce said during the season that Milner was so keen to play , that he was concerned he would " burn out mentally [ and ] physically " . As a result , Milner played mainly as a substitute in the early part of the season .
In late October , he scored Newcastle 's 500th home Premier League goal in a 3 – 1 win over Tottenham Hotspur . A second Premier League goal of the season came fortuitously in the Tyne – Wear derby from a shot intended as a cross . Allardyce praised Milner highly during the season , saying he was " a hugely experienced Premier League player " .
After missing the final nine games of the season due to a foot injury , it was rumoured in May 2008 that he would be part of a transfer between Newcastle and Liverpool . Despite starting the season for Newcastle and scoring in a League Cup win over Coventry City , it was revealed after the game that Milner had handed in a written transfer request the week before .
= = = Aston Villa = = =
Milner signed for Aston Villa on 29 August 2008 for a fee of £ 12 million , and signed a four @-@ year contract with the club . Milner made his debut for Villa on 31 August 2008 as a second @-@ half substitute against Liverpool . His first goals in his second spell at Villa came in a third round FA Cup tie against Gillingham at Priestfield Stadium on 4 January 2009 on his 23rd birthday , where he scored both goals in a 2 – 1 win for Villa .
On 9 January 2009 , Milner scored both goals as Villa beat Gillingham 2 – 1 in the third round of the FA Cup . Milner 's first Premier League goal in his second spell at Villa came on 17 January 2009 in a 2 – 1 win against Sunderland at the Stadium of Light . On 7 February 2009 , Milner was named to the England senior team squad for the first time , after a run at club level that had impressed England manager Fabio Capello . Milner continued to impress and scored his second league goal of the season against Blackburn Rovers on 7 February and scored a free @-@ kick from outside the penalty area at home against Everton as Villa came back from a 3 – 1 deficit to draw 3 – 3 on 12 April . He stated that his time at Villa is the " most settled " period of his career so far , having played under thirteen managers and caretakers despite being only 23 .
At the start of the 2009 – 10 season , Milner moved into the centre of midfield after the sale of captain Gareth Barry to Manchester City . On 28 February 2010 , he scored the opening goal in the 2010 League Cup Final with a penalty . However , Villa were eventually beaten 2 – 1 by Manchester United . Milner ended the season with 12 goals and was named Aston Villa 's Fan 's Player of the Year and PFA Young Player of the Year .
On 19 May 2010 , Manchester City made a £ 20 million offer for Milner which was rejected . On 22 July 2010 , Villa manager Martin O 'Neill said that Milner had shown a desire to leave Villa for City , but would only be sold at Villa 's valuation . On 14 August despite being on the verge of a move to Manchester City , Milner played in Villa 's first game of the season against West Ham United , scoring Villa 's third goal . Milner was given a standing ovation when he was substituted near the end of the game .
= = = Manchester City = = =
On 17 August 2010 , it was reported that Aston Villa had agreed a deal with Manchester City to sell Milner subject to a medical . The deal was reported to be worth around £ 26 million , including a player exchange of Stephen Ireland . Milner made his debut for City on 23 August 2010 in a 3 – 0 home win against Liverpool , where he set up the first goal for former Villa teammate Gareth Barry . Milner scored his first competitive goal for Manchester City in an FA Cup third @-@ round match at Leicester City which ended in a 2 – 2 draw . The Leicester match was the start of a cup run that saw Manchester City reach the 2011 FA Cup Final . Milner was an unused substitute as Manchester City beat Stoke City 1 – 0 to win the cup .
Milner scored his first Premier League goal for Manchester City against Everton on 24 September 2011 . Two matches later , he scored his second , against former club Aston Villa in a 4 – 1 win . The following week , Milner had a hand in two goals as Manchester City won the Manchester derby at Old Trafford 6 – 1 , inflicting Manchester United 's heaviest home league defeat since 1930 . On 3 January 2012 , Milner scored his third goal of the season , a penalty , against Liverpool . Manchester City won the match 3 – 0 . Over the course of the 2011 – 12 season , Milner made 26 Premier League appearances as Manchester City won the league title for the first time in 44 years .
On 6 October 2012 , Milner scored his first goal of the 2012 – 13 season from a free @-@ kick to seal a 3 – 0 win against Sunderland . On 20 October , he received his first Premier League red card in a 2 – 1 win at West Bromwich Albion . On 28 November , he scored away at Wigan Athletic in a 2 – 0 win for City . On 13 January 2013 , he scored City 's opening goal in a 2 – 0 away win at Arsenal , it was the first time a City player had scored away at Arsenal in the League since 2007 and City 's first win in the league at Arsenal since 1975 . On 8 April , he scored in the Manchester derby as City beat Manchester United 2 – 1 at Old Trafford .
On 10 December 2013 , Milner scored the winning goal in a 3 – 2 win against the reigning European champions Bayern Munich at the Allianz Arena in the UEFA Champions League , becoming the first English player to score for Manchester City in the competition that season .
= = = Liverpool = = =
On 4 June 2015 , Milner agreed to join Liverpool on a free transfer from Manchester City . On 7 August 2015 , Milner was announced as the vice captain . Milner played his first competitive match for the club in 1 – 0 win over Stoke City at the Britannia Stadium .
Milner captained Liverpool for the first time on his third appearance for the club , a 0 – 0 draw at Arsenal . On 26 September 2015 , he scored his debut goal for Liverpool in a 3 – 2 win against his former club Aston Villa at Anfield .
= = International career = =
= = = Youth = = =
After representing England at the under @-@ 15 and under @-@ 17 levels , Milner was promoted to the under @-@ 20 level and called up for the 2003 World Youth Championship . Soon after this , under @-@ 21 manager Peter Taylor called him up to the England under @-@ 21 team and Milner made his debut against Sweden on 30 March 2004 .
Milner scored his first goal for the England under @-@ 21 side during the 2004 – 05 season in a qualification game for the 2007 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship , against Wales . During the game , in which he played in the centre of midfield , he also set up a scoring chance for Darren Bent as the Young Lions won 2 – 0 . Despite domestic club troubles , he continued to make progress at international level , scoring the winning goal for the England under @-@ 21 side in a 3 – 2 win over Switzerland . The win secured England a place in the playoff stage of the 2007 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship qualifiers .
In June , Milner competed for England at the 2007 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship . He played in all four of England 's matches and was booked in the semi @-@ final against the Netherlands , which meant he would have missed the final . The game was decided by a penalty shoot @-@ out , in which Milner scored twice and England lost 13 – 12 . Milner was included in the under @-@ 21 squad for a friendly against Romania , which ended in a 1 – 1 draw . A month later , Milner set an England under @-@ 21 record by making his 30th appearance for the side in a 3 – 0 win against Montenegro . During this game , he set up the first goal from a corner . Historically , players with several England Under @-@ 21 appearances have not progressed to become regulars in the senior side , which has led some to doubt whether Milner would be able to successfully make the transition . In October , he scored his third goal for the under @-@ 21 side in a 3 – 0 win over Republic of Ireland . He scored again in the return game four months later that England also won 3 – 0 .
Milner continued to be a regular and was the only player , along with Joe Hart and captain Steven Taylor , to have played in all the qualifiers for the 2009 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship.In the summer of 2009 , he was in the final 23 @-@ man U21 squad for the 2009 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship in Sweden . He helped set up the winning goal for Micah Richards against Finland , and manager Stuart Pearce said after the match , " The modern @-@ day full @-@ back can get up and down the pitch and I knew [ Milner ] would be comfortable " . In England 's second match against Spain , Milner had a penalty well saved by Sergio Asenjo , and scored England 's second goal in a 2 – 0 win . England faced the hosts Sweden in the semi @-@ finals . In the first minute of the match , Milner delivered a corner that was headed in by Martin Cranie to give England the lead . Another corner from Milner would set up England 's third goal , an own goal by Mattias Bjärsmyr . After the match ended in a 3 – 3 draw , it went to a penalty shoot @-@ out . Milner was the only England player to miss in the shoot @-@ out after he slipped just before kicking the ball , causing it to sail over the crossbar . England won the shoot @-@ out 5 – 4 to advance to the final for the first time in 25 years . England lost the final to Germany 4 – 0 and Milner said after the match that the team was " hurting " and that the way in which the team lost was " not good enough " . The final was his last game for the under @-@ 21 side . His 46 appearances at under @-@ 21 level are a national record .
= = = Senior = = =
In August 2009 , Milner made his debut for the England senior team , when he came on as a substitute in a friendly match against the Netherlands for the final 23 minutes . The match ended in a 2 – 2 draw . He played twice more for England the following month against Slovenia in another friendly and made his competitive debut four days later in a 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Croatia , where he played the final nine minutes . England won the latter match 5 – 1 to secure qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup . He was named in the final 23 @-@ man squad for the World Cup finals in South Africa and was selected in the starting eleven for England 's first match of the tournament against the United States , however he was substituted after 30 minutes . In England 's third match against Slovenia , he set up the only goal of the match with a cross for Jermain Defoe . He captained England for the first time for the final 10 minutes of the match in a 2 – 1 loss against France on 17 November 2010 , when both Rio Ferdinand and Steven Gerrard had been substituted .
Milner played in six matches during qualifying for UEFA Euro 2012 , and was named in Roy Hodgson 's 23 @-@ man squad for the tournament . Milner started Hodgson 's first match in charge , a 1 – 0 friendly win against Norway .
On 7 September 2012 , Milner scored his first international goal in a 5 – 0 win away to Moldova during 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifying .
= = Style of play = =
Milner is regarded as being a tenacious footballer . As a result , his main role on the team is as a wide midfielder who creates scoring opportunities , as well as taking the ball past defenders . He could be deemed a traditional English winger . While Milner does not score many goals , he does have a good record at providing assists . Nolberto Solano , a former teammate , said that because of his ability , Milner would " become an important team player " . After his move to Newcastle , he began playing more as a winger . He has been described as " comfortable on either wing " . He has also been used occasionally as a central midfielder , a striker and as an emergency right @-@ back , generally during an injury crisis . Manuel Pellegrini , who managed Milner at Manchester City , described Milner as the most complete English player in the modern game praising his all round ability , commitment , performance level and versatility .
Milner has the ability to pass accurately and shoot from a great distance from goal . As a result , he usually goes forward for set pieces and is often a candidate to take corners and free kicks . Critical opinion is divided as to Milner 's crossing ability . While some commentators have been critical of his ability in this area , other journalists have said that Milner can produce accurate crosses .
Milner , in his time at the club , was described on the Newcastle United official website as " a good reader of the game " . One quality that is praised by commentators is Milner 's awareness of players around him . He is a very tactically aware player . This awareness allows him to pass the ball from a range of positions to teammates making forward runs , as well as giving him the confidence to take on defenders . His awareness and willingness to pass have been called mature for a player of his age .
Milner has expressed a willingness to play as much as possible and feels that Wayne Rooney 's move to Manchester United and success as a player has taken a lot of pressure off his own career , commenting , " I have been able to concentrate on football and ignore everything else " . During his career , Milner has been booked 15 times and been sent off once , against West Bromwich Albion on 20 October 2012 .
Despite being a winger by trade , Aston Villa manager Martin O 'Neill stated in November 2009 that he thought Milner 's versatility could lead to him becoming an accomplished central midfielder at some point in his career . Milner played in a number of different positions for Aston Villa , including both wings , in central midfield and even as a right back .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played 18 May 2016 .
= = = International = = =
As of match played 11 June 2016 .
= = = International goals = = =
As of match played 11 June 2016 . England score listed first , score column indicates score after each Milner goal .
= = Honours = =
Manchester City
Premier League : 2011 – 12 , 2013 – 14
FA Cup : 2010 – 11
Football League Cup : 2013 – 14
FA Community Shield : 2012
Individual
PFA Young Player of the Year : 2009 – 10
PFA Premier League Team of the Year : 2009 – 10
= Down on the Upside =
Down on the Upside is the fifth studio album by the American rock band Soundgarden , released on May 21 , 1996 through A & M Records . It is the band 's third album with bassist Ben Shepherd . Following a worldwide tour in support of its previous album , Superunknown ( 1994 ) , Soundgarden commenced work on a new album . The music on the album was notably less heavy than the group 's preceding albums and featured the band experimenting with other sounds .
The album topped the New Zealand and Australian charts and debuted at number two on the United States ' Billboard 200 , selling 200 @,@ 000 copies in its opening week and spawning the singles " Pretty Noose " , " Burden in My Hand " , " Blow Up the Outside World " , and " Ty Cobb " . The band took a slot on the 1996 Lollapalooza tour and afterward supported the album with a worldwide tour . Down on the Upside would end up becoming Soundgarden 's final studio album for sixteen years as tensions within the band led to its break @-@ up in April 1997 .
The album 's title comes from lyrics in the fourth track " Dusty . "
= = Recording = =
The album 's recording sessions took place from November 1995 to February 1996 at Studio Litho and Bad Animals Studio in Seattle , Washington . Studio Litho is owned by Pearl Jam guitarist Stone Gossard . The band members made the decision to produce the album themselves . On the choice of not working with a producer , frontman Chris Cornell said that " a fifth guy is too many cooks and convolutes everything . It has to go down too many mental roads , which dilutes it . " Adam Kasper , who previously had worked with Soundgarden as an assistant engineer on Superunknown , worked with the band as a production collaborator . The album was mixed by Kasper .
Work on the album began in July 1995 . The band took a break to perform at festivals in Europe , where new material was road @-@ tested . Afterward , the band did more songwriting for about a month and then recorded most of the album at Studio Litho . The overall approach to songwriting was less collaborative than with past efforts , with the individual band members having brought in most of the songs more completely written . The band sought to try things it had not done before and to use a greater variety of material . The band tried to create a live atmosphere for the album , and looked to leave in sounds that producers would normally try to clean up , such as feedback and out @-@ of @-@ tune guitar parts . The overall time spent working on the album was less than what the band had spent working on Superunknown . Cornell described the album @-@ making process as " way faster and way easier " .
Most of the material was written by Cornell and bassist Ben Shepherd , the latter having already worked on six of the sixteen album tracks . Reportedly , tensions within the group arose during the recording sessions , with guitarist Kim Thayil and Cornell allegedly clashing over Cornell 's desire to shift away from the heavy guitar riffing that had become the band 's trademark . Thayil 's only contribution to the album was the song " Never the Machine Forever " , for which he wrote both the lyrics and the music , and which was also the last song the band recorded . The song initially came out of a jam session Thayil had with Seattle musician Greg Gilmore . In the liner notes , Thayil credits Gilmore for inspiring the song . He stated that he had a lot of incomplete music ideas that were missing lyrics and were not arranged , so they did not make the album . Thayil said , " It can be a little bit discouraging if there isn 't satisfactory creative input , but on the other hand , I write all the solo bits and don 't really have limitations on the parts I come up with for guitar . " Cornell said , " By the time we were finished , it felt like it had been kind of hard , like it was a long , hard haul . But there was stuff we were discovering . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
The album 's songs placed emphasis on vocals and melody over the heavy guitar riffs that were found on the band 's earlier LPs . It also features a rawer sound than Soundgarden 's previous album Superunknown , as the band members produced the record themselves . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said that Soundgarden " retained their ambitious song structures , neo @-@ psychedelic guitar textures , and winding melodies but haven 't dressed them up with detailed production . " The songs vary in tempo throughout the course of the album , with Thayil describing the album as having a " dual nature . " He explained , " It keeps listeners on their toes and lets them know they 're not getting the same album over and over . " Shepherd called the album " the most accurate picture of what Soundgarden actually sounds like , " stating , " It 's way more raw . It 's way more honest . It 's way more ' responsible . ' "
The band explained at the time that it wanted to experiment with other sounds ( for example , the song " Ty Cobb " features Shepherd and Cornell playing mandolin and mandola ) . This experimentation can be heard to a lesser degree on Superunknown . Soundgarden used alternative tunings and odd time signatures on several of the album 's songs . For example , " Never the Machine Forever " uses a time signature of 9 / 8 . " Pretty Noose " and " Burden in My Hand " were written in C @-@ G @-@ C @-@ G @-@ G @-@ E tuning .
The overall mood of the album 's lyrics is not as dark as on previous Soundgarden albums . According to Cornell , " Pretty Noose " is about " an attractively packaged bad idea , " and " Ty Cobb " is about a " hardcore pissed @-@ off idiot . " Cornell said that the songs " Never Named " and " Boot Camp " are based on his childhood . Thayil said that the lyrics for " Never the Machine Forever " are about " a life @-@ and @-@ death match between an individual and a less specifically defined entity . " Cornell referred to " Overfloater " as " self @-@ affirming . "
= = Packaging = =
The album 's cover art , photographed by Kevin Westenberg , features the members of the band in silhouette . At one point the cover art image for the " Blow Up the Outside World " single was considered for use as the cover art image for Down on the Upside . The album was also released in a limited edition with the Into the Upside interview disc .
The title Down on the Upside comes from a line in the song " Dusty " . The lyric is " I think it 's turning back on me / I 'm down on the upside . " Cornell said that the title represents the different feels on the album . In an interview Cornell explained how the name was chosen :
" I brought it up at some point because the song that the title came from was " Dusty , " but my title for it was " Down on the Upside , " but Ben wrote the music and he called it " Dusty . " So since we don 't really like having song titles being the title of the record , ' cause it brings this weird , undue focus to the song , I thought it would be cool to call it Down on the Upside . We started thinking about all these other titles , and worrying about them describing the whole record without excluding anything ... So it was the last minute and we were at a photo shoot for Spin and someone called and said , ' We need your title now so we can start doing the record package , ' so Matt [ Cameron ] brought up the title again , and everyone went , ' yeah , that 's it . ' "
According to an interview with the band , Cameron and Shepherd jokingly said that two other titles considered for the album were Mr. Bunchy Pants and Comin ' At Ya !
= = Release and reception = =
Down on the Upside reached number two on the Billboard 200 album chart . It was held off the top spot by the Fugees album , The Score . The record has gone on to sell 1 @.@ 6 million copies in the United States , and has been certified Platinum by the RIAA .
Spin gave the album an eight out of ten . The review said that the album is " as sprawling and generous @-@ spirited as Superunknown , but ... is a looser and live @-@ er @-@ sounding affair , not seeking the same level of aural precision . " Alternative Press gave the album a three out of five . The review said that Soundgarden are " now fully capable of penning some damned spiffy pop songs , " and added that " they sound more human here , like they 're playing in your living room . " Rolling Stone staff writer David Fricke gave Down on the Upside three out of five stars , observing that the album has " some quality frenzy , " but criticizing it for " lack [ ing ] defining episodes of catharsis . " Fricke said , " Soundgarden seem to be digging in their heels rather than kicking up dirt , relying too much on drone @-@ y impressionism and clever ( as opposed to cleaving ) guitar motifs . " Neil Strauss of The New York Times called the album the " rawer , looser follow @-@ up to Superunknown . " He added , " Generally , identifying with animals in song lyrics is a sign of low self @-@ esteem , and Soundgarden is no exception . For all the virility and macho power that rock singers have tried to wring from the [ snake ] , Soundgarden remains more interested in the fact that it is the only animal cursed to spend its days slithering on the ground . "
David Browne of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B + . Browne said , " Few bands since Led Zeppelin have so crisply mixed instruments both acoustic and electric . " He praised several songs as being " as powerful as anything the band has done . " Browne criticized the album 's production , saying " like many self @-@ produced efforts , it shows . " He added , " With arrangements that crest and fall to the point where a road map would have helped , the overlong ( 16 @-@ song ) album is often unwieldy and could have benefited from judicious trimming . " Allmusic staff writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album three out of five stars , saying that " it might seem like nothing more than heavy metal , but a closer listen reveals that Soundgarden haven 't tempered their ambitions at all . " The reviewer for Melody Maker said that " their roots don 't matter now . All I care for now is the immediacy of their pop moments . " Critic Robert Christgau gave the album an honorable mention of one star ( ) , describing it as " brutal depression simplified " and highlighted by the songs " Ty Cobb " and " Applebite " , while Jason Josephes from Pitchfork Media called it a " double shot of grunge , no foam but plenty of caffeine . "
Down on the Upside included the singles " Pretty Noose " , " Burden in My Hand " , and " Blow Up the Outside World " , all of which had accompanying music videos . All three singles placed on the Mainstream Rock and Modern Rock charts . The album 's other commercially released single , " Ty Cobb " , did not chart , however its acommpanying B @-@ side , " Rhinosaur " , also from the album , did chart . " Burden in My Hand " was the most successful song from Down on the Upside on the rock charts , spending a total of five weeks at number one on the Mainstream Rock charts and reaching number two on the Modern Rock charts . At the 1997 Grammy Awards , " Pretty Noose " received a nomination for Best Hard Rock Performance .
= = Tour = =
The band took a slot on the 1996 Lollapalooza tour with Metallica . Metallica had insisted on Soundgarden 's appearance on the tour . Thayil said that the band wasn 't interested in doing the tour until it became a " Metallica tour . " During the Lollapalooza tour , the band members reportedly took separate flights and then met at the gigs .
After Lollapalooza , the band embarked on a worldwide tour . Tensions continued to increase and when asked if the band hated touring , Cornell said , " We really enjoy it to a point and then it gets tedious , because it becomes repetitious . You feel like fans have paid their money and they expect you to come out and play them your songs like the first time you ever played them . That 's the point where we hate touring . " The band was criticized for its lack of energy while performing . Cornell said that " after a number of years , you start to feel like you 're acting . All those people who criticize us for not jumping around should shut the fuck up , and when they come to our shows they should jump around and entertain us for a while . " Thayil had an issue with how the band 's audience had changed , stating that " nowadays , you also have the kids and the housewives , the casual fans . With your casual fans , you say , ' Thanks for the money . ' And they say , ' Thanks for the song . ' " The band 's concerts in December 1996 were postponed for a week due to Cornell 's throat problems .
At the tour 's final stop in Honolulu , Hawaii on February 9 , 1997 , Shepherd threw his bass into the air in frustration after suffering equipment failure , and subsequently stormed off the stage . The band retreated , with Cornell returning to conclude the show with a solo encore . On April 9 , 1997 , the band announced its disbanding . Thayil said , " It was pretty obvious from everybody 's general attitude over the course of the previous half year that there was some dissatisfaction . " Cameron later said that Soundgarden was " eaten up by the business . "
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Chris Cornell , except where noted .
= = Outtakes = =
Various versions of the " Burden in My Hand " single featured two B @-@ sides from the Down on the Upside recording sessions that were not included on the album , " Karaoke " and " Bleed Together " . " Bleed Together " was included on the band 's 1997 greatest hits compilation , A @-@ Sides , and was released as a promo CD single in 1997 . Thayil said that the song was not included on Down on the Upside because the band was not pleased with the mixing that was done on the song and the band already had enough songs . Another song that was written and recorded for the album is " Kristi " . Cameron said it is one of his favorite Soundgarden songs . " Kristi " was finally mixed in 2014 and included on Echo of Miles : Scattered Tracks Across the Path , along with both " Karaoke " and " Bleed Together " .
= = Personnel = =
= = Chart positions and sales certifications = =
= Malawi =
Malawi ( / məˈlɔːwi / , / məˈlɑːwi / or / ˈmæləwi / ; Chichewa : [ maláβi ] or [ maláwi ] ) , officially the Republic of Malawi , is a landlocked country in southeast Africa that was formerly known as Nyasaland . It is bordered by Zambia to the northwest , Tanzania to the northeast , and Mozambique on the east , south and west . The country is separated from Tanzania and Mozambique by Lake Malawi . Malawi is over 118 @,@ 000 km2 ( 45 @,@ 560 sq mi ) with an estimated population of 16 @,@ 777 @,@ 547 ( July 2013 est . ) . Its capital is Lilongwe , which is also Malawi 's largest city ; the second largest is Blantyre and the third is Mzuzu . The name Malawi comes from the Maravi , an old name of the Nyanja people that inhabit the area . The country is also nicknamed " The Warm Heart of Africa " .
Malawi is among the smallest countries in Africa . Lake Malawi takes about a third of Malawi 's area .
The area of Africa now known as Malawi was settled by migrating Bantu groups around the 10th century . Centuries later in 1891 the area was colonized by the British . In 1953 Malawi , then known as Nyasaland , a protectorate of the United Kingdom , became a protectorate within the semi @-@ independent Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland . The Federation was dissolved in 1963 . In 1964 the protectorate over Nyasaland was ended and Nyasaland became an independent country under Queen Elizabeth II with the new name Malawi . Two years later it became a republic . Upon gaining independence it became a one @-@ party state under the presidency of Hastings Banda , who remained president until 1994 , when he lost an election . Peter Mutharika is the current president . Malawi has a democratic , multi @-@ party government . Malawi has a small military force that includes an army , a navy and an air wing . Malawi 's foreign policy is pro @-@ Western and includes positive diplomatic relations with most countries and participation in several international organisations , including the United Nations , the Commonwealth of Nations and the Southern African Development Community ( SADC ) .
Malawi is among the world 's least @-@ developed countries . The economy is heavily based in agriculture , with a largely rural population . The Malawian government depends heavily on outside aid to meet development needs , although this need ( and the aid offered ) has decreased since 2000 . The Malawian government faces challenges in building and expanding the economy , improving education , health care , environmental protection , and becoming financially independent . Since 2005 , Malawi has developed several programs that focus on these issues , and the country 's outlook appears to be improving , with a rise in the economy , education and healthcare seen in 2007 and 2008 .
Malawi has a low life expectancy and high infant mortality . There is a high prevalence of HIV / AIDS , which is a drain on the labour force and government expenditures . There is a diverse population of native peoples , Asians and Europeans , with several languages spoken and an array of religious beliefs . Although there was periodic regional conflict fuelled in part by ethnic divisions in the past , by 2008 it had diminished considerably and the concept of a Malawian nationality had re @-@ emerged .
= = History = =
The area of Africa now known as Malawi had a very small population of hunter @-@ gatherers before waves of Bantu @-@ speaking peoples began emigrating from the north around the 10th century . Although most of the Bantu peoples continued south , some remained permanently and founded ethnic groups based on common ancestry . By 1500 AD , the tribes had established the Kingdom of Maravi that reached from north of what is now Nkhotakota to the Zambezi River and from Lake Malawi to the Luangwa River in what is now Zambia .
Soon after 1600 , with the area mostly united under one native ruler , native tribesmen began encountering , trading with and making alliances with Portuguese traders and members of the military . By 1700 , however , the empire had broken up into areas controlled by many individual ethnic groups , which was noted by the Portuguese in their information gathering . The Swahili @-@ Arab slave trade reached its height in the mid- 1800s , when approximately 20 @,@ 000 people were enslaved and considered to be carried yearly from Nkhotakota to Kilwa where they were sold .
Missionary and explorer David Livingstone reached Lake Malawi ( then Lake Nyasa ) in 1859 and identified the Shire Highlands south of the lake as an area suitable for European settlement . As the result of Livingstone 's visit , several Anglican and Presbyterian missions were established in the area in the 1860s and 1870s , the African Lakes Company Limited was established in 1878 to set up a trade and transport concern working closely with the missions , and a small mission and trading settlement was established at Blantyre in 1876 and a British Consul took up residence there in 1883 . The Portuguese government was also interested in the area so , to prevent Portuguese occupation , the British government sent Harry Johnston as British consul with instructions to make treaties with local rulers beyond Portuguese jurisdiction .
In 1889 , a British protectorate was proclaimed over the Shire Highlands , which was extended in 1891 to include the whole of present @-@ day Malawi as the British Central Africa Protectorate . In 1907 , the protectorate was renamed Nyasaland , a name it retained for the remainder of its time under British rule . In a prime example of what is sometimes called the " Thin White Line " of colonial authority in Africa , the colonial government of Nyasaland was formed in 1891 . The administrators were given a budget of £ 10 @,@ 000 ( 1891 nominal value ) per year , which was enough to employ ten European civilians , two military officers , seventy Punjab Sikhs , and eighty @-@ five Zanzibar porters . These few employees were then expected to administer and police a territory of around 94 @,@ 000 square kilometres with between one and two million people .
In 1944 , the Nyasaland African Congress ( NAC ) was formed by the Africans of Nyasaland to promote local interests to the British government . In 1953 , Britain linked Nyasaland with Northern and Southern Rhodesia in what was the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland , often called the Central African Federation ( CAF ) , for mainly political reasons . Even though the Federation was semi @-@ independent , the linking provoked opposition from African nationalists , and the NAC gained popular support . An influential opponent of the CAF was Dr. Hastings Banda , a European @-@ trained doctor working in Ghana who was persuaded to return to Nyasaland in 1958 to assist the nationalist cause . Banda was elected president of the NAC and worked to mobilise nationalist sentiment before being jailed by colonial authorities in 1959 . He was released in 1960 and asked to help draft a new constitution for Nyasaland , with a clause granting Africans the majority in the colony 's Legislative Council .
In 1961 , Banda 's Malawi Congress Party ( MCP ) gained a majority in the Legislative Council elections and Banda became Prime Minister in 1963 . The Federation was dissolved in 1963 , and on 6 July 1964 , Nyasaland became independent from British rule and renamed itself Malawi . Under a new constitution , Malawi became a republic with Banda as its first president . The new document also formally made Malawi a one @-@ party state with the MCP as the only legal party . In 1971 , Banda was declared president @-@ for @-@ life . For almost 30 years , Banda presided over a rigidly authoritarian regime , which ensured that Malawi did not suffer armed conflict . However , oppositional parties like the Malawi Freedom Movement of Orton Chirwa or the Socialist League of Malawi existed but were founded in exile .
Despite his political severity , however , Malawi 's economy while Banda was president was often cited as an example of how a poor , landlocked , heavily populated , mineral @-@ poor country could achieve progress in both agriculture and industrial development . While in office , and using his control of the country , Banda constructed a business empire that eventually produced one @-@ third of the country 's GDP and employed 10 % of the wage @-@ earning workforce . All money earned by Banda was ploughed back into developing Malawi and was symbolized by the building of a top boarding school called Kamuzu Academy ( Eton of Africa ) . In Banda 's own words " I do not want my boys and girls to do what I had to do — to leave their homes and their families and go away from Malawi to get an education " , was the reason for gifting this school to Malawi .
Under pressure for increased political freedom , Banda agreed to a referendum in 1993 , where the populace voted for a multi @-@ party democracy . In late 1993 a presidential council was formed , the life presidency was abolished and a new constitution was put into place , effectively ending the MCP 's rule . In 1994 the first multi @-@ party elections were held in Malawi , and Banda was defeated by Bakili Muluzi ( a former Secretary General of the MCP and former Banda Cabinet Minister ) . Re @-@ elected in 1999 , Muluzi remained president until 2004 , when Dr. Bingu wa Mutharika was elected . Although the political environment is described as " challenging " , as of 2009 , the multi @-@ party system still exists in Malawi . Multiparty parliamentary and presidential elections were held for the fourth time in Malawi in May 2009 , and President Mutharika was successfully re @-@ elected , despite charges of election fraud from his rival .
President Mutharika was seen by some as increasingly autocratic and dismissive of human rights , and in July 2011 protests over high costs of living , devolving foreign relations , poor governance and a lack of foreign exchange reserves erupted . The protests left 18 people dead and at least 44 others suffering from gunshot wounds . In April 2012 , Mutharika died of a heart attack ; the presidential title was taken over by former Vice @-@ President Joyce Banda .
In 2014 Joyce Banda lost elections ( coming third ) and was replaced by Peter Mutharika , the brother of the third elected president of Malawi .
= = Government and politics = =
Malawi is a democratic , multi @-@ party government , currently under the leadership of Peter Mutharika , who defeated former president Joyce Banda in the 2014 elections , despite alleged poll rigging . The current constitution was put into place on 18 May 1995 . The branches of the government consist | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
" , and he was provided a copy of the book from the organization itself .
= = Reception = =
In his book The Social Dimensions of Sectarianism : Sects and New Religious Movements in Contemporary Society , Wallis ' former mentor Bryan R. Wilson described The Road to Total Freedom as " A thorough study of the early development and organization of Scientology " . The Encyclopedia of Religion and Society noted that Wallis " displayed characteristic skill in assimilating and simplifying a large amount of diverse material into a parsimonious reworking of the classic church @-@ sect typology " . Writing in The Future of Religion : Secularization , Revival and Cult Formation , authors Rodney Stark and William Sims Bainbridge characterized the book as " the first major scholarly study of Scientology " .
A review in Religious Studies describes the book as " a convenient and in many respects convincing account of the history of Scientology . " However , it comments that Wallis " does not really succeed in the formidable task of giving the reader a rounded picture of what it is like to be a believing member of the Org [ anisation ] . His analysis , like its subject matter , is rather mechanical and follows a particular pattern . " The review observes that Wallis did not explore the parallels between Dianetics and B. F. Skinner 's psychological theories , nor between the screening processes used in Scientology and in Communist China . It recommends that the book would have been more interesting if it had compared its subject with initiation rites , including those of Freemasonry . It dismisses as " facile " the book 's background material on secularization and religious schisms .
Choice : Current Reviews for Academic Libraries noted of the book 's research , " The study is substantively important and theoretically grounded " . The review noted the book had a " good bibliography " , and concluded that the book be " recommended for academic libraries . " Library Journal compared the book to Scientology by author George Malko , but commented that The Road to Total Freedom is " a much more scholarly , documented work " . Library Journal concluded , " The record – often a chilling one – speaks for itself . Not a polemic nor a popular treatment , this is a sociological analysis for the serious student , with all the appropriate scholarly apparatus . "
A review in The Times Literary Supplement commented , " this is a most informative , candid and valuable book " . Writing in Quill , published by the Society of Professional Journalists , Robert Vaughn Young commented , " Perhaps because this is a sociological study of Scientology , this is a cold , calm , academic dissection of the subject and Hubbard . " The California Court of Appeal cited the book as a reference in a decision relating to a criminal defendant who was a member of Scientology . When Wallis died in 1990 , his obituary in The Independent noted that The Road to Total Freedom " still stands as a classic of good field research " .
= 1947 Cleveland Browns season =
The 1947 Cleveland Browns season was the team 's second in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) . Coached by Paul Brown , Cleveland finished with a 12 – 1 – 1 win – loss – tie record , winning the western division and the AAFC championship for the second straight year . As in 1946 , quarterback Otto Graham led an offensive attack that featured fullback Marion Motley and ends Dante Lavelli and Mac Speedie .
After a number of coaching changes and roster moves in the offseason , including signing punter Horace Gillom and fullback Tony Adamle , the Browns began with a 30 – 14 win over the Buffalo Bills , the first of a string of five victories . The team lost its only game of the season to the Los Angeles Dons in October . Five more wins followed before a come @-@ from @-@ behind tie in November with the New York Yankees , the team Cleveland defeated in the 1946 AAFC championship . The Browns won their last two games , including a 42 – 0 shutout against the Baltimore Colts in the finale , to set up a championship game rematch with the Yankees in December . Cleveland beat the Yankees 14 – 3 in New York on an icy field to win its second championship in a row .
Graham was named the AAFC 's most valuable player after leading the league in passing yards , with 2 @,@ 753 , and passing touchdowns , with 25 . Speedie led the league in receiving , and several other Cleveland players were named to sportswriters ' All @-@ Pro lists . Brown was named the league 's coach of the year by Pro Football Illustrated . The Browns played all their home games in Cleveland Stadium , attracting an average crowd of 55 @,@ 848 , the best home attendance record in both the AAFC and the competing National Football League ( NFL ) .
= = Offseason and roster moves = =
Cleveland finished with a 12 – 2 regular @-@ season record and won the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) championship in 1946 , the league 's first year of play . Despite the team 's strength , however , head coach Paul Brown made a number of roster moves before the beginning of 1947 . He signed Tony Adamle , a fullback and linebacker who joined the team even though he had two years of college eligibility left at Ohio State University , and guard Bob Gaudio , another Ohio State player . Guard Weldon Humble , who Brown recruited out of Rice University in Texas , also joined the team .
In the Browns ' biggest trade of the offseason , Brown sent end John Harrington to the Chicago Rockets for Bill Boedeker , a halfback . Perhaps the most significant signing , however , was punter Horace Gillom , who had played for Brown at Massillon Washington High School and who Brown had recruited to Ohio State before World War II . Gillom could kick the ball further than most punters of his era . He changed the way teams approached punting by lining up 15 yards behind the center instead of the customary 10 yards to give himself more space and time to make his kicks . Gillom was also the third black player to sign with the Browns at a time when many teams did not employ African @-@ Americans . Cleveland chose fullback Dick Hoerner in the AAFC draft , but he signed instead with the Los Angeles Rams of the National Football League .
The Browns also made a number of changes to the coaching staff before the season . Bob Voigts , the tackles coach in 1946 , left to become head football coach at Northwestern University . Bill Edwards , a former schoolmate of Brown 's at Massillon , was hired to replace him . Red Conkright , the end and center coach in 1946 , left for an assistant coaching job with the Buffalo Bills ; he was replaced by Dick Gallagher . Creighton Miller , meanwhile , who had served as a backfield coach , left the Browns staff to get a law degree .
= = Roster and coaching staff = =
= = Preseason = =
Cleveland held its training camp at Bowling Green University , as it did the year before . The Browns played one preseason game in late August against the Baltimore Colts , a new AAFC team formed to replace the Miami Seahawks after the Seahawks folded . The Browns scored their first points on a drive in the second period . A 14 @-@ yard run by fullback Marion Motley set up a 25 @-@ yard touchdown throw by quarterback Otto Graham to end Mac Speedie . Cleveland scored three more touchdowns in the game , all of them following Colts passes the Browns intercepted . One of them was a pass by Graham to end Dante Lavelli in the third quarter , and another was a rush by halfback Edgar Jones . Paul Brown pulled most of the Browns ' starters from the game as the team built up a three @-@ touchdown lead . Backup end Bob Cowan scored a fourth Cleveland touchdown in the final quarter on a pass from backup quarterback Ermal Allen , and the Browns won 28 – 0 . Following the victory , the Browns faced the Buffalo Bills in the regular @-@ season opener at Cleveland Stadium to begin their defense of the AAFC championship .
= = Regular season results = =
= = Game summaries = =
= = = Week 1 : vs. Buffalo Bills = = =
Cleveland began the season with a 30 – 14 win over the Buffalo Bills . The Browns got out to a fast start , scoring two touchdowns in the first quarter and adding two more in the second while holding the Bills scoreless . Buffalo came back in the third quarter , scoring two touchdowns of its own , but Cleveland held its lead . Browns coach Paul Brown criticized the performance after the game , saying the team had failed to keep pace in the second half after he rotated in some of his younger players . " We got a good head of steam and took a commanding lead in the first half and then let down and looked bad in the last two periods , " he said . Buffalo quarterback George Ratterman felt pressure from Cleveland 's defense the whole game , and said the Browns were better than the Chicago Bears , who had won the 1946 NFL Championship Game the previous season . " Their line rushed me all night long and I didn 't have much of a chance to get the ball away accurately , " Ratterman said . " I think the Browns are much better than the Bears , especially their line . " Placekicker Lou Groza had his extra point blocked after the Browns ' first touchdown . It was his first missed extra point since Cleveland started play in 1946 .
= = = Week 2 : vs. Brooklyn Dodgers = = =
Cleveland next faced the Brooklyn Dodgers , winning 55 – 7 . The Browns scored three touchdowns in five minutes during the first quarter . Cleveland added five more touchdowns in the second half and held a comfortable lead to the end . Fullback Marion Motley ran for 111 yards on five carries and scored two touchdowns , including a 50 @-@ yard run at the beginning of the second half . Tommy Colella scored a touchdown on an 82 @-@ yard punt return , and Bill Lund ran back an interception 28 yards for another . It was in this game that the Draw play was accidentally invented when Otto Graham tripped while dropping back for a pass . As he went down , sensing blitzers about to wallop him , he stuck the ball in Motley 's stomach who scampered for a sizable gain . Liking the effect , Brown added it to the playbook during halftime . By the next game the play became a staple of the offense with several versions for different situations . As Cleveland 's lead increased in the second half , Brown put in second @-@ string players . Quarterback Otto Graham was replaced by Ermal Allen , who threw for two of the Browns ' touchdowns and intercepted a pass while playing on defense . Cliff Lewis , Graham 's primary backup , also played in the game . Brooklyn 's only score came in the second quarter on a Bob Hoernschemeyer rush . The Dodgers were hurt by short punts from Mickey Colmer and a poor passing game . The team was held to 39 yards of passing . Edgar Jones , Cleveland 's primary halfback suffered an elbow injury during the game .
= = = Week 3 : vs. Baltimore Colts = = =
Cleveland shut out the Colts 28 – 0 in the third game of the regular season . The team scored three of its four touchdowns in the first quarter in a span of 12 plays . Two of those touchdowns came on runs , one by Motley and the other by Bill Boedeker ; the third was a Colella interception returned for a score . The Browns ' fourth touchdown , a short run by Bob Cowan , came at the end of the second quarter . Cleveland was helped by strong punting from Horace Gillom , who had a 55 @.@ 7 @-@ yard average for the game , including punts of 85 and 80 yards . Graham was taken out of the game in the first half along with most of the team 's first @-@ string players . Bud Schwenk substituted at quarterback later in the game , but the team did not score in the second half . Baltimore had two opportunities to score , once reaching the Browns ' four @-@ yard line , but the Cleveland defense held . The victory made the Browns the only undefeated team in the AAFC after the San Francisco 49ers lost to the New York Yankees
= = = Week 4 : vs. Chicago Rockets = = =
Cleveland beat the Chicago Rockets 41 – 21 at Chicago 's Soldier Field to extend the team 's winning streak to four games . The Browns scored a touchdown in the first quarter and two more in the second . The team led 27 – 0 at the half . Chicago , however , started to come back in the third quarter after Cleveland coach Paul Brown took out most of his first @-@ string players . Graham , Colella , Lew Mayne and Ed Ulinski sat out most of the game . Chicago quarterback Sam Vacanti threw three touchdown passes in the second half to give the Rockets 21 points , but a score by Cleveland 's Boedeker and a fumble return for a touchdown by Spiro Dellerba kept the game out of reach . The Rockets ' Bill Kellagher intercepted one of Graham 's passes in the first quarter , ending Graham 's streak of 91 straight pass attempts without an interception , a professional football record at the time . Chicago had the best passing performance against the Browns of any team the Browns had faced in 1947 as Vacanti threw for 195 yards on 11 completions . Groza kicked through two field goals and five extra points in the game , putting him in third place in scoring in the AAFC behind Motley and New York 's Spec Sanders . Motley suffered a head injury during a pileup in the second quarter and was taken to the locker room .
= = = Week 5 : vs. New York Yankees = = =
Cleveland next faced the Yankees at home in a rematch of the previous year 's title game . The crowd of 80 @,@ 067 was the second @-@ largest in professional football history at the time . More people were turned away at the gates because Cleveland Stadium was filled to capacity . New York scored first in the first quarter on a 47 @-@ yard field goal by Harvey Johnson , but Cleveland came back in the second quarter , putting up 17 points to lead 17 – 3 at halftime . New York came back and tied the game 17 – 17 in the third quarter . Graham responded with a touchdown throw to Speedie in the third quarter . The Yankees threatened a comeback in the final minutes when Lou Sossman blocked a Groza field goal try and New York recovered , advancing the ball to Cleveland 's 25 @-@ yard line . Cleveland , however , took over on downs and ran down the clock to three minutes with a series of running plays , reaching New York 's 35 @-@ yard line . Groza then attempted a field goal that fell short , but the Yankees were called offside , and Groza successfully booted his next try through , giving Cleveland a 26 – 17 victory . The Browns had 14 first downs to New York 's 11 and rushed for 212 yards , compared to 111 for the Yankees . Graham had 11 completions for 161 passing yards despite being sacked five times for 72 yards of losses .
= = = Week 6 : vs. Los Angeles Dons = = =
Cleveland lost its first game of the season to the Dons , 13 – 10 . The Browns opened the scoring with a Groza field goal in the first quarter followed by a touchdown run from Motley , his sixth of the season , to go up 10 – 0 . Los Angeles , however , scored a touchdown in the second quarter to come within three points of the Browns . Dons kicker Ben Agajanian then kicked field goals in the third and fourth quarters to win the game . The final field goal came in the closing seconds of the game after the Dons reached the Browns ' 28 @-@ yard line . Agajanian missed on his first attempt , but Cleveland were penalized five yards for having 12 men on the field . Agajanian made his second attempt , giving Los Angeles the victory . Cleveland was hurt by three fumbles that set up scores , including the winning field goal . Lavelli suffered bruises to his ribs during the game , and center Mike Scarry had an ankle injury . The loss put the Browns in a virtual tie with the 49ers at 5 – 1 – the 49ers had the same record , but with an additional tie .
= = = Week 7 : vs. Chicago Rockets = = =
Cleveland rebounded from its first loss of the season with a 31 – 28 victory over the Rockets . The game started slow ; Groza 's 21 @-@ yard field goal was the only score in the first quarter . The Rockets then went ahead by scoring a touchdown on a long pass from quarterback Vacanti to end Elroy Hirsch . Cleveland , however , piled on the points as Motley ran for a touchdown in the second quarter and Speedie caught a pass from Graham in the third . Jones added two touchdown runs in the fourth quarter , giving Cleveland a 31 – 14 lead . Chicago almost caught up at the end of the game , scoring two touchdowns , but the Browns held on to win . Cleveland 's third @-@ string players were on the field in the closing minutes when Chicago made its final push . Rockets rookie Ray Ramsey had three touchdowns in the game . Graham had 239 passing yards on 10 completions . Speedie caught half of them , gaining 166 yards . His touchdown came after he dropped to the ground to grab a 17 @-@ yard pass from Graham . He faked a backward lateral while on the ground , which drew Chicago 's defense away from him , and then got up and ran into the end zone .
= = = Week 8 : vs. San Francisco 49ers = = =
The Browns next faced the San Francisco 49ers , one of the AAFC 's stronger teams . San Francisco 's record was 5 – 1 – 1 ; its only loss came in a close game against the Yankees , another top team . The 49ers were built around a group of players including quarterback Frankie Albert , end Alyn Beals and back Norm Standlee . The game was played in a heavy fog at Kezar Stadium before a crowd of more than 54 @,@ 000 people . Cleveland received the opening kickoff , and Graham drove the team to San Francisco 's 7 @-@ yard line . Jones , however , fumbled the ball and the 49ers took over . After forcing a punt , Cleveland got the ball back and scored on a pass to Lavelli set up by a Motley run and two completions to Speedie . Cleveland scored another touchdown in the second quarter on a long pass to Speedie , and the Browns were ahead by two touchdowns at the half . San Francisco came back on the first drive of the second half , which was capped by a Standlee run for a touchdown from one yard out . Cleveland came close to scoring again in the fourth quarter , but a fumble by Motley ended the drive . The Browns , however , held on to win 14 – 7 . Speedie was the league 's leading receiver by the eighth week , having surpassed Alyn Beals and Lavelli . He had 10 catches for 141 yards against San Francisco ; the 10 receptions in a single game set an AAFC record .
= = = Week 9 : vs. Buffalo Bills = = =
A crowd of 43 @,@ 167 people was on hand to watch the Browns play the Bills , Buffalo 's biggest @-@ ever home attendance figure . Cleveland scored a touchdown in each of the game 's four quarters , winning 28 – 7 . The first score followed several completions by Graham that set up a 12 @-@ yard touchdown run by Jones . In the second period , Cleveland tied a professional football record when Graham , pinned at his own one @-@ yard line , threw a screen pass to Speedie . Speedie caught the ball and ran for a 99 @-@ yard touchdown , setting an AAFC record and tying the National Football League record for longest completed pass . The Browns scored again in the third quarter on a diving catch by Lavelli , who rolled into the end zone , and in the fourth quarter on a pass to John Yonakor . Buffalo scored its only points in the fourth period when George Ratterman connected with Al Baldwin for the quarterback 's 16th touchdown of the season . Graham threw 13 completions for 246 yards as passing accounted for most of the team 's 392 yards of total offense . Cleveland 's defense was also strong , preventing the Bills from scoring on several drives that ventured deep into Browns territory . The win was the eighth for Cleveland in nine games and preserved its spot at the top of the AAFC standings .
= = = Week 10 : vs. Brooklyn Dodgers = = =
The Browns were expected to win their November 9 game against the Brooklyn Dodgers by a wide margin ; the Dodgers had just one win , and the Browns scored eight touchdowns when the teams played in September . The Dodgers , however , drove 80 yards on their first possession for a touchdown . Placekicker Phil Martinovich missed the extra point . Cleveland responded as Graham passed to Lavelli for a 72 @-@ yard touchdown on the second play from scrimmage on its ensuing possession . Groza kicked through the extra point to give the Browns a 7 – 6 lead . Cleveland scored again on its next possession , this time a 15 @-@ yard pass from Graham to Lew Mayne . After the second touchdown , Graham threw two interceptions and the Browns did not advance the ball past the Brooklyn 42 @-@ yard line . The Dodgers , meanwhile , threatened to score numerous times , advancing deep into Cleveland territory . One Brooklyn touchdown by Bob Hoernschmeyer was called back because of a holding penalty . Martinovich contributed to the frustration by missing four field goal tries . He also missed the extra point when the Dodgers did score in the fourth quarter on a long Monk Gafford rush . The Dodgers ' missteps gave the Browns a 13 – 12 victory , extending their lead over the 49ers for the best record in the AAFC after San Francisco lost to the Yankees .
= = = Week 11 : vs. San Francisco 49ers = = =
Cleveland next faced San Francisco at home , winning 37 – 14 before one of the biggest crowds of the season . Chet Adams opened the scoring for the Browns with a 44 @-@ yard field goal ; he and Lou Saban shared kicking duties in the game after Groza pulled his leg muscle during pre @-@ game warmups . On the ensuing possession , Albert had the ball stripped by Cleveland 's Weldon Humble , and the Browns took over and scored their first touchdown on a Graham pass to Lavelli . San Francisco scored a touchdown near the beginning of the second quarter , but Cleveland dominated the scoring thereafter . Lavelli caught seven passes for a total of three touchdowns , setting an AAFC single @-@ game record . Graham also rushed for a one @-@ yard touchdown and threw for 222 yards . His touchdown passes made him the league leader in that category , with 18 on the season . It was the biggest margin of victory the Browns had ever recorded against the 49ers . Cleveland was helped by an adjustment Paul Brown made in his receivers ' routes ; the coach had Lavelli and Speedie run toward the middle of the field instead of trying to get open near the sidelines , as they had done in past games . The victory clinched the AAFC 's western division for the Browns and assured the team a spot in the championship game .
= = = Week 12 : vs. New York Yankees = = =
Cleveland 's next game was against the Yankees , who had the best record in the AAFC 's eastern division and were a likely opponent in the championship game . New York took an early lead as Spec Sanders scored two rushing touchdowns in the first quarter and added a third in the second . Sanders , called " Spectacular Spec " by New York sportswriters , was having a career season . By the end of the year , he had compiled 1 @,@ 432 rushing yards and 1 @,@ 442 passing yards ; his 18 touchdowns set a professional football record that was not surpassed until the 1960s . After Sanders ' three touchdowns , New York 's Buddy Young added a fourth in the second quarter , widening the Yankees ' lead to 28 – 0 . Cleveland 's Bill Boedeker scored a touchdown on a pass from Graham at the end of the period , but the game appeared out of reach for Cleveland at the half . The Browns , however , came back in the second half . Motley rushed for two touchdowns in the third quarter and Jim Dewar ran for a score in the fourth . The game ended in a tie . At halftime , Yankees players had hurled insults at the Browns . " They got us upset , got us angry , " Graham later said . " Finally we got mad as a team and we said , ' We 'll show these guys , ' and we started playing football . " More than 70 @,@ 000 fans came to watch the game , a record for a New York pro football game that stood until 1958 . Attendance was boosted by the presence of about 25 @,@ 000 black fans who came in part to watch the four black players in the game : Buddy Young of the Yankees and Motley , Bill Willis and Horace Gillom of the Browns . Groza was injured during the game and was not able to play .
= = = Week 13 : vs. Los Angeles Dons = = =
Cleveland next faced the Dons in Los Angeles . The Dons , who had handed the Browns their only loss of the season in October , scored a field goal and touchdown in the first quarter . The Browns responded with a touchdown run from Motley later in the quarter and led by four points at halftime after Tommy Colella caught a pass from Graham for another touchdown in the second period . Cleveland built on the lead in the third quarter with a long touchdown pass to Lew Mayne . Speedie sealed the victory for the Browns when he intercepted a backward lateral pass by Dons quarterback Chuck Fenenbock and ran it back 12 yards for a touchdown with four minutes left in the game . Los Angeles threatened to score numerous times , but Cleveland 's defense held . The Browns forced the Dons to punt three times from within their own 10 @-@ yard line . Graham had 240 yards of passing . His two touchdown passes added to his league @-@ leading total of 22 on the season . Tackle Lou Saban continued to handle placekicking duties for the Browns as Groza sat out with an injury .
= = = Week 14 : vs. Baltimore Colts = = =
Cleveland 's final regular @-@ season game was a shutout victory over the Baltimore Colts . The Browns amassed 559 passing and rushing yards against the Colts , winning 42 – 0 and ending the season with a 12 – 1 – 1 record . Graham threw for three touchdowns , boosting his season total to 25 , and raised his total passing yards to 2 @,@ 752 . Backup quarterback Cliff Lewis threw another touchdown in the third quarter as Graham and most of the other starters were pulled from the game . Groza returned to the lineup after sitting out several weeks because of an injury . He kicked all four of the Browns ' extra points and played a bigger role than usual as an offensive and defensive tackle because of an injury to Ernie Blandin in the second quarter . Cleveland 's defense held Baltimore to 186 yards of total offense . The Yankees beat the Bills 35 – 13 the same week as Sanders scored three touchdowns . New York ended with an 11 – 2 – 1 record , winning the eastern division and a spot in the championship game against the Browns .
= = Final standings = =
= = AAFC championship game = =
For the second year in a row , the Cleveland Browns and the New York Yankees faced off in the AAFC championship game , this time on a cold December day at Yankee Stadium . The crowd of 61 @,@ 879 was the largest ever to watch a professional football championship game . The Browns and Yankees had played to a 28 – 28 tie the previous month , but the championship game did not feature much scoring because of an icy field . The Browns scored a touchdown in the first quarter on a short run by Graham set up by a 51 @-@ yard run up the middle of the field by Motley . New York scored a field goal in the second quarter , but Jones ran for another touchdown in the third , and the Browns won 14 – 3 . The slippery field made longer passes dangerous , and Graham instead relied on shorter routes , ending the game with 14 completions and 112 passing yards . Motley was a key performer for the Browns , running for 109 yards on 13 carries , including his touchdown . The Browns ' defense , meanwhile , kept Spec Sanders and New York 's offense in check . New York had just 13 first downs in the game and 212 total yards . A stop by the defense in the second quarter as the Yankees reached the Browns ' five @-@ yard line forced New York to kick its lone field goal . Tommy Colella added an interception in the third quarter to stop another New York drive . Sanders had just 40 yards of rushing on 12 attempts and 89 yards of passing . Gillom 's booming punts – his five kicks averaged 45 yards – also helped the Browns stop New York 's dangerous return game . The Yankees had a 4 @.@ 7 @-@ yard punt return average .
= = Season leaders and awards = =
Graham led the AAFC in passing and was voted the league 's most valuable player . Pro Football Illustrated named Brown the AAFC coach of the year . Speedie and Lavelli were the AAFC 's top two receivers in receptions and receiving yards . Colella tied for the AAFC lead with six interceptions on the year . Motley was the AAFC 's third @-@ leading rusher , with 889 yards , and Gillom came in second in punting average , with 44 @.@ 6 yards . Speedie , Lou Rymkus , Graham and Motley were chosen unanimously by sportswriters for an all @-@ AAFC team . Lavelli and Bill Willis were also selected by some of the writers . Graham and Speedie were named first @-@ team selections when the Associated Press put together a combined AAFC and NFL All @-@ Pro list .
Cleveland 's success drew large crowds both at home and away in 1947 . The team 's average home attendance was 55 @,@ 848 people during the season , slightly lower than in 1946 but still the best in either the AAFC or NFL . Including away games , a total of 666 @,@ 017 people saw the Browns play , a professional football record . Although the team was a major success on the field , the following season was even better for Cleveland . The team won all of its games in 1948 and a third straight AAFC championship .
= James C. Marshall =
Brigadier General James Creel Marshall ( 15 October 1897 – 19 July 1977 ) was a United States Army Corps of Engineers officer who was initially in charge of the Manhattan Project to build an atomic bomb during World War II .
A member of the June 1918 class of the United States Military Academy at West Point that graduated early due to World War I , Marshall saw service on the Mexican border . Between the wars he worked on engineering projects in the United States and the Panama Canal Zone . In January 1942 , shortly after the United States entered World War II , he became District Engineer of the Syracuse District , and oversaw the construction of the Rome Air Depot .
In June 1942 , Marshall was placed in charge of the Manhattan Project , then known as the Laboratory Development of Substitute Materials . Although superseded as head of the project by Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , in September , he was Manhattan District engineer from 13 August 1942 to 13 August 1943 . In November 1943 he became Assistant Chief of Staff ( G @-@ 4 ) of the United States Army Services of Supply ( USASOS ) in the Southwest Pacific Area , serving in Australia , New Guinea and the Philippines .
Marshall left the Army in 1947 , and moved to Riverside , Connecticut , where he worked for M. W. Kellogg . He later joined Koppers , building a coal loading facility in Turkey , and worked on mining projects in Africa . He was Commissioner of Highways in Minnesota from 1961 to 1965 .
= = Early life and career = =
James Creel Marshall was born in Plattsburg , Missouri , on 14 October 1897 , the son of Walter Scott Marshall and his wife Cora Sutphen née Creel . He was appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1915 . His classmates included Hugh John Casey and Lucius D. Clay . The entire class graduated early on 12 June 1918 due to World War I , and Marshall , who was ranked 24th in the class , was commissioned as a substantive first lieutenant and temporary captain in the United States Army Corps of Engineers . He was posted to Camp A. A. Humphreys from 8 to 15 July 1918 , and then was sent to the Engineer Officers ' Training School at Camp Lee , Virginia , for additional training . While there , he married Mabel Estelle Wolff from Brooklyn . They had two children , Beryl , born in 1919 , and Robert Creel , born in 1921 .
On 24 August 1918 , Marshall joined the 8th Engineers at Fort Bliss , Texas . He returned to Camp A. A. Humphreys as a student officer from 10 February 1919 to 12 June 1919 . Young officers like Marshall who had not served overseas during the war were sent on battlefield tours . From 20 June to 30 August 1919 , he toured the battlefields of World War I , visiting Britain , France , Belgium and Germany , before returning to Camp A. A. Humphreys on 10 September 1919 . After service at Camp A. A. Humphreys with the Reserve Officers ' Training Corps , Marshall was posted to the 13th Engineers as its adjutant on 10 February 1921 , but attended the Engineer School Basic Course from 6 June 1921 , graduating on 15 August 1921 , after which he became an instructor there . On 25 June 1922 he became Assistant District Engineer of the 2nd District , based in New York City .
Like many of his fellow officers , Marshall was reduced to his substantive rank of first lieutenant on 18 November 1922 . On 4 August 1923 he took charge of the Engineer Office of the 3rd New York District , located in Fort Hancock , New Jersey . He then served in the Panama Canal Zone as a company commander in the 11th Engineers from 9 April 1926 to 14 June 1928 . He became an instructor in the Department of Engineering at West Point on 24 August 1928 . He was posted to Fort Belvoir , Virginia , on 10 August 1932 , where he was promoted to captain again on 1 June 1933 . There followed duty in the Office of the Chief Of Engineers in Washington , DC , as Assistant Chief of the River and Harbor Section from 21 January 1937 to 3 September 1939 .
= = World War II = =
Marshall attended the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , from 11 September 1939 to 3 February 1940 . He then became executive officer of the 1st Engineers . With the outbreak of World War II in Europe , promotion accelerated , and he was promoted to major on 1 March 1940 . He became District Engineer of the Binghampton District on 25 May 1940 , with the rank of lieutenant colonel in the Army of the United States from 12 June 1941 . On 31 January 1942 , he became District Engineer of the Syracuse District , which covered New York and part of Pennsylvania , with the rank of colonel from 1 February 1942 . At Binghamton and Syracuse was responsible for a number of major projects , including ammunition and explosive plants , and the construction of the Rome Air Depot . He also had to attend to flood control measures on the upper Delaware River .
On 18 June 1942 Marshall was called to Washington to take over the reorganised atomic bomb project , then known as the DSM ( Laboratory Development of Substitute Materials ) . Marshall read the 13 June 1942 report from Vannevar Bush and James Conant and recalled that :
I spent the night without sleep trying to figure out what this was all about . I had never heard of nuclear fission , but I did know that you could not build much of a plant , much less four of them , for ninety million dollars . At the moment among other construction projects in the Syracuse district , I had one for a TNT plant in Pennsylvania estimated to cost one hundred twenty eight million dollars .
In a report to Colonel Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , the head of the Construction Branch in the Office of the Chief of Engineers , on 11 August 1942 , Marshall called for the creation a new district without territorial limits to administer the DSM project . His proposal was approved on 13 August . As district engineer of the new district , Marshall reported directly to Groves , and not the Chief of Engineers . He established the district headquarters on the 18th floor of 270 Broadway in New York City , with the innocuous name of the Manhattan Engineer District , following the usual practice of naming engineer districts after the city in which their headquarters area were located . He selected the Boston firm of Stone & Webster as the project 's principal contractor .
Marshall and his deputy district engineer , Kenneth Nichols , visited Tennessee on 30 June 1942 to examine the proposed location for the production plants in the Clinch River area , but Marshall chose to delay the actual purchase of the land until it was needed . Nichols felt that Marshall 's desire for orderly procedures ultimately told against him . By September , Bush was expressing dissatisfaction with slow progress and the lack of the highest priority for the project , going to the United States Secretary of War , Henry L. Stimson , and then directly to the President , Franklin D. Roosevelt . Groves was appointed to head the project on 17 September 1942 . Groves was also a colonel , and ranked below Marshall on the permanent list , although Groves was promoted to brigadier general before assuming command on 23 September . According to Nichols , Groves and Marshall " disagreed in a major way on how to handle personnel " , and Nichols " did witness several confrontations " .
Major General Wilhelm D. Styer , the Chief of Staff of the Army Service Forces , decided that Marshall would be replaced by Nichols . Marshall would be replaced given an overseas posting . He was informed by Nichols on June ; to him it seemed he was " getting fired " , although he had previously expressed a desire to Groves for just such an overseas assignment . Indeed , when first assigned to the project , both Nichols and Groves had also have expressed a preference for an overseas combat assignment . Nichols had " liked working for him and was happy to have him as a buffer between Groves and myself " , because Groves was " abrasive and often very critical " . Marshall asked Nichols to transfer his secretary , Virginia Olsson , to Oak Ridge when the Manhattan District headquarters moved there , leaving Nichols 's own secretary , Anne Phillips , in the New York office . " This concern for personnel " , Nichols noted , " was typical of Marshall " . Since the Manhattan District had been officially created on 13 August 1942 , Marshall chose to formally leave on 13 August 1943 , so that he had held the job for exactly one year .
Groves 's account says that :
shortly after , Nichols replaced Marshall as District Engineer ... the Chief of Engineers asked me if I could relieve Marshall for a key overseas assignment , which would mean his promotion to brigadier . Since the project was by that time well organized , I did not feel I should refuse , and appointed Nichols in his stead . This was an excellent choice and one I have never regretted .
Marshall was awarded the Legion of Merit for his service with the Manhattan District . He was posted to Camp Sutton , North Carolina , as commander of the Engineer Replacement Training Center there until 26 November 1943 . He then had his sought @-@ after overseas service , in the Southwest Pacific Area , where he became Assistant Chief of Staff ( G @-@ 4 ) of the United States Army Services of Supply ( USASOS ) . He saw service in Australia , New Guinea and the Philippines . He was promoted to brigadier general on 10 November 1944 , and awarded the Bronze Star Medal . He returned to the United States for medical reasons on 12 February 1945 . His final command was of the Boston Port of Embarkation , for which he received the Army Commendation Medal . On 29 January 1946 he became head of the Engineer Research and Development Laboratory at Fort Belvoir . He reverted to his permanent rank of colonel on 5 March 1946 , and retired from the Army on a disability on 31 March 1947 . On 29 June 1948 , he was promoted to brigadier general on the retired list .
= = Later life = =
After leaving the Army , he moved to Riverside , Connecticut , where he worked for M. W. Kellogg . He eventually tired of commuting to New York City , and took a job with Koppers , building a coal loading facility in Turkey . He then worked for the United Nations Korean Relief at the UN Building in New York . He was also involved in mining projects in Africa . He made his home in Skaneateles , New York , while working on various projects around the world . In January 1961 he accepted an offer from the Governor of Minnesota , Elmer L. Andersen , to become that state 's Commissioner of Highways . His four @-@ year term was marred by a change of government in the state in 1963 , and his final years saw a series of clashes with the new governor , Karl F. Rolvaag , and his attorney @-@ general Walter Mondale .
When his term as Commissioner of Highways ended in 1965 , Marshall returned to Skaneateles , where he became an engineering consultant and a professional engineering arbitrator . He served as mayor of Skaneateles for six years . His contributions included the addition of an ambulance squad to the fire department and the construction of an indoor ice skating rink . His wife Mabel died of cancer in 1976 . On 18 July 1977 , Marshall also died from cancer . The two are buried together in the West Point Cemetery .
Marshall 's son Robert Creel Marshall graduated from West Point with the class of 1943 , and served in Europe during World War II . He later served in Vietnam , and became Deputy Chief of Engineers in 1976 , with the rank of major general .
= Preparing for a Fancy Dress Ball =
Preparing for a Fancy Dress Ball , also known as The Misses Williams @-@ Wynn , is a 173 by 150 cm ( 68 by 59 in ) oil on canvas by English artist William Etty , first exhibited in 1835 and currently in the York Art Gallery . Although Etty was then known almost exclusively for history paintings featuring nude figures , he was commissioned in 1833 by Welsh Conservative politician Charles Watkin Williams @-@ Wynn to paint a portrait of two of his daughters . Preparing for a Fancy Dress Ball shows Williams @-@ Wynn 's daughters , Charlotte and Mary , in lavish Italian @-@ style costume : Charlotte , the eldest , is shown standing , helping the seated Mary decorate her hair with a ribbon and a rose . Etty put a good deal of effort into the piece and took much longer than usual to finish it .
The painting was completed for and exhibited at the 1835 Royal Academy Summer Exhibition . It was generally well received , even by critics usually hostile to Etty and his work . Preparing for a Fancy Dress Ball demonstrated that Etty was both capable of high @-@ quality work and deserving of patronage by the English elite , and the success led to further commissions . The painting remained in the collection of Mary Williams @-@ Wynn 's descendants , and other than an 1849 retrospective exhibition , was not shown publicly for 160 years . A private collector purchased the piece from the Williams @-@ Wynn family in 1982 , where it remained until its 2009 acquisition by the York Art Gallery . It now forms part of a major collection of Etty 's work there .
= = Background = =
William Etty , the son of a York baker and miller , began as an apprentice printer in Hull . On completing his seven @-@ year apprenticeship he moved to London at the age of 18 , with the intention of becoming a history painter in the tradition of the Old Masters . Strongly influenced by the works of Titian and Rubens , he submitted paintings to the Royal Academy of Arts and the British Institution , all of which were either rejected or received scant attention when exhibited .
In 1821 the Royal Academy accepted and exhibited one of Etty 's works , The Arrival of Cleopatra in Cilicia ( also known as The Triumph of Cleopatra ) . The painting was extremely well received , and many of Etty 's fellow artists greatly admired him . He was elected a full Royal Academician in 1828 , ahead of John Constable . He became well respected for his ability to capture flesh tones accurately in painting and for his fascination with contrasts in skin tones . Following the exhibition of Cleopatra , Etty tried over the next decade to replicate its success by painting nude figures in biblical , literary and mythological settings . Between 1820 and 1829 Etty exhibited 15 paintings , of which 14 depicted nude figures .
Some nudes by foreign artists were held in private English collections , but Britain had no tradition of nude painting , and the display and distribution of nude material to the public had been suppressed since the 1787 Proclamation for the Discouragement of Vice . Etty was the first British artist to specialise in the nude , and the reaction of the lower classes to these paintings caused concern throughout the 19th century . Many critics condemned his repeated depictions of female nudity as indecent , although his portraits of male nudes were generally well received . ( Etty 's male nude portraits were primarily of mythological heroes and classical combat , genres in which the depiction of male nudity was considered acceptable in England . ) From 1832 onwards , needled by repeated attacks from the press , Etty remained a prominent painter of nudes but made conscious efforts to try to reflect moral lessons in his work .
= = = Elizabeth Potts = = =
Although he was almost exclusively known at the time for painting nudes , Etty was commissioned in 1833 by Thomas Potts of Clapham Common to paint a portrait of his daughter Elizabeth . Potts paid him 65 guineas ( £ 68 @.@ 25 ; about £ 5 @,@ 800 in 2016 terms ) for the piece . Etty exhibited Elizabeth Potts at the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition of 1834 under the title of A Portrait , as the subject 's mother requested her identity be kept secret . As he had been too ill to paint for much of the period preceding the exhibition he only exhibited one other picture there , The Cardinal .
Elizabeth Potts was poorly received by critics . Etty 's admirers were angered by his apparent abandonment of history painting for the then poorly regarded field of portrait painting , while Etty 's critics felt he had demonstrated that he did not have the technical skills to produce high quality portraits , and was simply trying to use his name to make money in the more lucrative field of portraiture . History paintings were generally sold at exhibition for no less than the asking price , and as a consequence often remained unsold . Portraits were commissioned by the subject or their family , providing a guaranteed source of income to the artist . History painting was much more highly regarded as an art form ; portrait painting was seen as reflecting nature whereas history painting involved more creativity and also gave the artist the opportunity to tell moral lessons .
Etty retained close connections with York throughout his life . After Jonathan Martin 's arson attack on York Minster in 1829 caused major damage , Etty was prominent in the effort to restore the building to its original state . One of his colleagues in that campaign was Welsh politician Charles Watkin Williams | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
both as a main character and as an on @-@ camera narrator . Throughout the show , he breaks the fourth wall and speaks directly to viewers , offering inside information and observations while the action continues around him . Another plot element involves the use of mock commercials for Veridian Dynamics , thematically related to individual episodes and placed at the end or beginning of actual commercial breaks in all but a couple of episodes .
= = Cast = =
Jay Harrington as Theodore Margaret " Ted " Crisp : Ted is the titular character , and also the show 's narrator . He is the senior vice @-@ president of the Research and Development department at Veridian Dynamics , and is well respected and loved by most of the employees – and even members of the otherwise difficult upper management . He balances his desire to maintain his position at the company with his feeling that he must demonstrate a moral center to his daughter . He has had sexual relations with his immediate supervisor , although she remains emotionally distant . He also has interest in Linda , who was a new hire to Veridian Dynamics at the launch of the series .
Portia de Rossi as Veronica Palmer : Veronica is Ted 's boss and immediate supervisor at Veridian Dynamics . She maintains a fierce and unapproachable workplace demeanor , and many employees have a deep fear of her . She seems cold and calculating , but it is also clear that she has more than grudging respect for Ted , and often recognizes what moral action is necessary to maintain balance in the workplace . An ongoing subplot touched on sporadically in the first season but more frequently in the second sees Veronica becoming a mentor to Linda and , to a lesser degree , Rose .
Andrea Anders as Linda Katherine Zwordling : Linda is a tester in one of Veridian 's departments . She finds herself very attracted to Ted , but maintains other relationships and reminds Ted repeatedly that he has rejected the idea of a workplace romance with her . She seems to be a bit of an outsider to the corporate culture . Often she demands that Ted consider the horrible ramifications of the company policies or activities . Her relationship with the scientists is strained by her rejection of the weird things they do in the name of science . Despite this , she finds herself increasingly looking at Veronica as a mentor as the series progresses .
Jonathan Slavin as Dr. Philip " Phil " Myman : Phil is one of the laboratory scientists in Veridian 's Research Department . He is usually working or hanging out with Lem , who works with him on almost every project . He generally does whatever he can to be accepted and avoid conflicts . He is married , and makes frequent references to his wife , who seems to hate him . In season 2 's episode 6 , " Beating a Dead Workforce " , we learn she was a member of Mossad .
Malcolm Barrett as Dr. Lem Hewitt : Lem is one of the laboratory scientists in Veridian 's Research Department . He is best friends with his lab partner Phil , who works with him on almost every project . Lem is just as conflict @-@ averse as Phil , and seems just as willing to roll over and take whatever abuse the company has to offer . He grew up in the shadow of his mother ( Khandi Alexander ) a renowned scientist .
Isabella Acres as Rose Crisp : Rose is Ted 's preteen daughter . She attends the Veridian Dynamics daycare program when her nanny is not available , but prefers to stay at home . According to Ted , " her mom ran off to Africa to go save the world . " She is often the voice of reason on the show . When Ted talks with her about work she points out the terrible choices the company makes , and often helps Ted focus on what needs to be done to set things straight . She attends Eugene Debs Elementary School .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Critics have praised Better Off Ted 's witty and satirical humour , as well as its cast . According to Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the show 's first season holds a score of 68 out of 100 , indicating " generally favorable reviews " , based on 21 reviews . Misha Davenport of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote favorably of the show , comparing its characters to those of the highly acclaimed show Arrested Development . Linda Stasi of the New York Post gave the show three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars , lauding the cast and simply referring to it as " a very funny comedy " . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly gave the show a B + , stating " ' Better Off Ted ' is certainly the most original sitcom to come along in a while . " Robert Bianco from USA Today referred to the show as " well @-@ cast and reasonably entertaining . "
After returning for a second season , the show became even more acclaimed and is considered by some critics to be a vast improvement on its first . On Metacritic , it holds a score of 84 out of 100 , indicating " universal acclaim " , based on 11 reviews . Linda Stasi of the New York Post gave the show 's second season a perfect score , calling it " hilarious and even funnier this year than last . " Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle also gave the show 's second season a perfect score , praising the show 's return , saying it " means there 's finally something good ( and funny ) on Tuesday nights . " Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly gave the show 's return an A- , stating " Thank goodness Better Off Ted has returned intact . I love everything about this show , from star Jay Harrington 's delivery of Ted 's straight @-@ man lines with WASP ramrod posture to the show 's up @-@ front critiques of corporate capitalism . "
= = = Ratings = = =
The show 's pilot episode averaged a total of 5 @.@ 64 million viewers , which made it ABC 's lowest @-@ rated comedy debut since 2005 . The show 's first season continued to experience both a drop and mild fluctuation in ratings , taking in only 2 @.@ 41 million for its finale . After being renewed , the show 's second season premiered to a low 3 @.@ 82 million viewers .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
On TV.com , editorial assistant Anna Hiatt included the show in the website 's list of The Best TV Shows of 2009 . Josh Bell , a writer from About.com , ranked the series second on his list of The Best TV Comedies of 2010 . In 2009 , the show was nominated for an EWwy Award for Best Comedy Series .
= = Cancellation = =
The series was officially canceled by ABC on May 13 , 2010 . In an interview with New York Magazine , Victor Fresco , the show 's creator , was asked why he thought the show didn 't catch on . He responded , " I think not enough people knew about it . It wasn ’ t like we had a lot of people watch it and they didn ’ t come back to it . If anything , I think we were building slowly , but to me the way TV works is you spend a lot of money advertising and promoting , or you have to let a show stay some place for a long period of time and an audience slowly comes to it . And I don ’ t think we got either of that " . Fresco also added , " I still feel there ’ s an audience out there for it , because I know that the people who liked it , liked it a lot . "
At the time of its cancellation , two episodes of Better Off Ted had yet to be broadcast by ABC . The network announced on May 27 , 2010 that it would air the two episodes back @-@ to @-@ back on June 17 , 2010 , contingent on the 2010 NBA Finals not requiring a seventh game . Ultimately , however , a seventh game was needed , and thus ABC did not air the final two episodes of the series .
= = Episodes = =
= = DVD release = =
It was initially announced that a Blu @-@ ray edition would be released of Season 1 , but this has yet to occur .
= = Music video reunion = =
In mid @-@ 2011 series co @-@ star Malcolm Barrett released his first single , " Revenge of the Nerds " under his alternate performance name , Verbal . The official music video for the song , released in June 2011 , reunited all the major cast members of Better Off Ted , although only Barrett , Slavin and de Rossi reprised their original series characters ( Harrington and Anders appear as a high school jock and a cheerleader , respectively , while series creator Victor Fresco also appears in the video ) . Barrett 's recording is also included on the soundtrack of the final episode of Better Off Ted , " Swag the Dog . "
= Columbia Park , Torrance , California =
Columbia Park ( formally Columbia Regional Park ) is a 52 @-@ acre ( 21 ha ) recreational urban regional park in the City of Torrance , located in southern Los Angeles County , California . Columbia Park provides the community with soccer fields , baseball diamonds , a roller hockey rink , community gardening beds , walking paths , and a jogging — competitive cross country running trail . It is one of thirty parks in the Torrance Parks system .
= = Park features = =
= = = Recreation and sports = = =
Columbia Park includes six soccer fields , two baseball diamonds , and a roller hockey rink .
The park also includes a 1 @.@ 32 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 12 km ) walking path which is divided by a fence line to the east of the main soccer field into a 0 @.@ 75 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) west section and a 0 @.@ 57 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 92 km ) east section . In addition , the park has a jog path that serves as a flat , 2 @.@ 9 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 7 km ) exercise trail and competitive cross country running racecourse . The heavily used soccer fields include lights for night play .
= = = Community gardening = = =
Columbia Park features a Community Garden providing planting beds and ' community ' for residents . It is one of twelve county @-@ operated Smart Gardening Centers around the region . Columbia Park additionally serves as home to the Home Garden Learning Center , and is a backyard composting demonstration center provided by Los Angeles County .
= = History = =
Columbia Park was conceived in 1970 and built in 1983 . In 1985 , the park 's designer , Paul Saito , received an achievement award for the design and installation of Columbia Park .
= = = Phase one = = =
Columbia Park first was conceived by former Torrance City manager Edward J. Ferraro . In 1970 , Ferraro acquired 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of U.S. Navy surplus property for $ 250 @,@ 000 to build Torrance 's Wilson Park . At about the same time , Ferraro put a plan together to acquire approximately 50 acres ( 200 @,@ 000 m2 ) of land in North Torrance to build ' Columbia Regional Park ' . By December 1973 , the Torrance City Council took a step closer to acquiring land for both Columbia Park and also for Madrona Marsh Preserve , protecting the last vernal marsh and wetlands remaining in the South Bay area of Los Angeles . In 1975 the state of California agreed to provide funds for the development of Columbia Park .
The park , located adjacent to an ExxonMobil oil refinery , includes a 494 @-@ foot ( 151 m ) radio antenna that services the Los Angeles all @-@ news radio station KNX ( AM ) . There are also 120 @-@ foot ( 37 m ) -high electrical line towers , each of which supports 220 @,@ 000 @-@ volt electrical lines maintained by electricity supply company Southern California Edison .
Columbia Park was opened in 1983 as a 52 @-@ acre ( 21 ha ) Torrance recreational regional park with large grassy expanses .
= = = = Sculptures = = = =
In 1983 Standard Brands Paint Company in Torrance donated a sculpture by public works artist Roger Berry to the park . The sculpture , entitled " Fujimihara " , presently resides in the southwest corner of Columbia Park .
= = = = Women 's soccer = = = =
In the late 1980s , Columbia Park became the home field to the Manhattan Beach club women 's soccer team ' Ajax America Women . ' On Sundays at Columbia Park , Ajax and the other women 's teams played as many as 16 games on four fields from September to April . U.S. woman 's soccer standouts , defender Joy Biefeld @-@ Fawcett and forward Carin Jennings , were members of ' Ajax America Women ' and regularly practiced and played at the Columbia Park 's soccer fields . These two Columbia park players would go on in 1991 to help ' Ajax ' win the U.S. women 's amateur championship , and then help the U.S. national team win the first FIFA Women 's World Cup in China that same year . U.S. woman 's soccer standouts , defender Joy Biefeld @-@ Fawcett and forward Carin Jennings , routinely practiced and played in the soccer fields at Columbia Park in the late 1980s and early 1990s .
= = = Redesign - walks and trails = = =
When Columbia Park first was designed and planned , the design supported soccer and other field sports , but didn 't serve the needs of walkers and joggers , the present day walkways and trails were not part of the original park . In 1984 Landscape designer Paul Saito returned , to redesign Columbia Park to include walking paths and running trails , adding exercise challenges and aesthetic enjoyment . After receiving of San Diego , California , Saito had the park laid out according to his plan , with enjoyable concrete pathways winding around the hilly landscape . The park has , with sponsorship by Hydro @-@ Scape Products Inc . , around 100 distinct automated and water conserving sprinkler stations @-@ zones to irrigate the 52 acres ( 21 ha ) . The California Landscape Contractors Association awarded Paul Saito the 1985 Achievement Award , for his creativity in the completed project .
= = = Phase two - southwest = = =
To enlarge Columbia Park , in 1985 the city council awarded Terra @-@ Cal Construction a $ 173 @,@ 655 contract for construction of the southwest portion of the park , expanding public access and amenities , and community green @-@ space .
= = = Phase three = = =
In 2000 , plans were made to increase the number of parking spaces serving the park users . In addition , the plans included attractive gazebos , which are located near 190th Street park area .
In 2004 , the Columbia Park parking lot at the southwest corner of 190th Street and Prairie Avenue was used by Chevrolet as a filming location for their television commercial .
= = Tree dedications - urban forest = =
On April 22 , 1995 , a tree was planted in Columbia Park by The Friends of Madrona Marsh to commemorate the 25th anniversary of Earth Day .
= = = Cherry blossom trees = = =
During the summer of 2001 , the Buddhist association Soka Gakkai International USA donated the cost of 100 Cherry blossom trees to the city of Torrance as part of Torrance 's Living Tree Dedication program that began in 1993 . The plan for the program was to plant 10 cherry trees at Columbia Park as part of a ceremony each year for ten years beginning in 2001 . This donation in particular was part of Sōka Gakkai 's campaign to plant trees in cities across the nation as a way to " create a peaceful environment " in society and better the communities they live in . In August 2001 , ten of those cherry trees were planted at Columbia Park . By April 2007 , seventy cherry trees had been planted in Columbia Park . In November of that year , Soka Gakkai International USA increased its donation from ten to thirty cherry trees per year .
= = = Living Tribute Trees program = = =
The Torrance Living Dedication Tree Program is coordinated and by the City , so that families , individuals , and groups can sponsor the planting of a new tree in the park to honor a person or commemorate an event with a living tribute Tree Dedication .
= = Park challenges = =
= = = Sail @-@ Skating = = =
The long , winding cement walk pathways and usually vacant parking lots of Columbia Park quickly became a popular place for skate sailing in the mid @-@ 1980s . In the summer of 1985 , a sail skater was clocked by a police radar gun doing 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) inside the park . Near the end of 1985 , the Torrance City Council had enough and unanimously approved an ordinance that made it illegal to ride a " wheeled conveyance " equipped with sails on city streets , in parks or on other public property .
= = = Gophers = = =
The grassy expanse of the newly developed Columbia Park turned out to be an ideal habitat for gophers and quickly attracted and maintained a gopher population of more than 600 animals . The gopher holes made it impossible to use the fields to play sports . The gopher population was so large that an " exceptionally sized " hawk could perch on the top of the KNX antenna and repeatedly swoop down , snatch a gopher , and fly back to the top of the antenna to consume . Other animals also survived on the gophers .
In 1987 , the city assigned Hank " G @-@ Man " Baranowski to the park to address the gopher problem . At that time , Baranowski was known as ' G @-@ Man ' due to his ability to " wipe out gopher populations " and his reputation as the city 's " premier gopher grabber . " Within a few months , Baranowski had eliminated the gopher population in Columbia Park . With the gopher problem resolved , the recreation fields at Columbia Park began to receive regular use .
= = = Safety concerns = = =
= = = = People = = = =
In May 1993 , a fight broke out among members of two gangs in Columbia Park . One of the gang members fired a gun that hit a bystander . However , a necklace worn by the woman stopped the bullet from completely penetrating her chest . As a result of the shooting , a neighborhood association 's lobbying the city for park improvements , and homeowner complaints about " non @-@ residents " using the basketball court and causing trouble . Torrance officials sought to improve security and took the unusual step of closing the park 's basketball court by removing the basketball rims and padlocking the entry to the court .
= = = = Floods = = = =
Plans were created in 2001 to realign portions of the Columbia Park jogging path that were in lower areas or overlapped by sprinklers , to prevent flooded and slippery paths . The city added decomposed granite as part of fixing the problem , by draining water off the new raised sections .
= = = = Play equipment = = = =
In 2003 , the Firetruck used as play equipment at Columbia Park was determined to not meet the Federal Safety Guidelines for preventing head and hand entrapment , and protecting children from falling off the vehicle . In response to concerns about children playing on the firetruck it was fenced off . Three years later in January 2006 both the firetruck and fencing were removed , with plans to replacement with " neat , fun , and attractive play equipment with rubberized matting . "
= = = Dogs = = =
In 2006 Torrance considered possible sites , at both the city 's Columbia Park and Wilson Park , for fenced @-@ in dog parks , with two leash @-@ free roaming sections separating large dogs from small dogs . In 2007 , the city 's Open Space Committee met to discuss the feasibility of adding city dog parks . Later in 2007 the Committee had determined the only area large enough to accommodate a divided area for both large and small dogs was the Southern California Edison easement at Columbia Park . The plan required Southern California Edison needed to approve the proposal , and start @-@ up costs of at least $ 50 @,@ 000 .
In presenting the proposal to the Torrance City Council one month later , the Open Space Committee stated :
" a dog park in Torrance is not an essential element of our park system due to a lack of unused open space and the absence of a grassroots community group supporting this type of park . "
At that same meeting , the Dog Obedience Club of Torrance asserted that a Torrance Dog Park could bring potential liability to the city through dog fights , dog caused injuries , and spread of diseases and that the money would be better spent on the city 's animal shelters . By a voice vote , the city council agreed that a dog park was not an essential element of Torrance 's city park system .
= = Reservations and events = =
Columbia Park and the 29 other Torrance city parks were deemed busy enough satisfying the citizens pleasure and recreation needs . Reservations are available from the Community Services : Parks Department , and needed for group picnic areas , organized sports fields , and larger special group events in the park and its facilities .
Online Information Desk for :
Artists , Craftmen 's , & Quilters Guild
Arts and Craft Boutiques
Co @-@ Rec Dances
Dog Obedience and other Charter Clubs
Lap Swimming hours
Registration ( classes , instructors , etc . )
Rental for Parks & Buildings
Senior Services , ( taxi , bus ID 's , housing ) , Senior Income Tax
Sports ; teams , field reservations , locations .
Torrance Symphony info .
= Bela Talbot =
Bela Talbot is a fictional character on The CW Television Network 's drama / horror television series Supernatural , portrayed by Lauren Cohan . Appearing only in the third season , she uses knowledge of the supernatural world to her advantage rather than to help those in need . Self @-@ centered and a thorn in the side of the series ' protagonists , Bela makes her living by stealing occult objects and selling them to wealthy clients . Critical reaction to the character was mixed , with negative responses from fans ultimately leading to her departure at the end of the season .
= = Plot = =
In her first appearance , " Bad Day at Black Rock " , Bela Talbot hires two crooks to steal a cursed rabbit 's foot from a storage container owned by the deceased John Winchester , a hunter of supernatural creatures . Anyone who touches the foot is granted good luck , but will die within a week if the foot is lost . She intends to sell it and shows no concern for the fate of the thieves . John 's sons , series protagonists Sam and Dean , retrieve the foot but are cursed by it . Bela interferes when they attempt to destroy it , and shoots Sam in the shoulder . Dean , however , tricks her into touching it . She gives the foot up for destruction to save herself , but manages to steal $ 46 @,@ 000 in winning lottery tickets from Dean that he had purchased using the foot 's granted luck .
She next appears in " Red Sky at Morning " , an episode in which the Winchesters track down a ghost ship responsible for local deaths . Bela fools them into helping her again , with the three of them working together to steal the precious and magical Hand of Glory . The Winchesters plan to destroy the artifact to end the curse , but Bela steals it from them to sell to a client . However , Bela then witnesses the ghost ship , which only appears to those who have spilled the blood of a family member . Condemned to death , she turns to the Winchesters for help . Dean is prepared to leave her behind to die , but Sam comes up with a plan to save Bela 's life . This time , Bela gives them $ 10 @,@ 000 as a " thank you " before she leaves because she does not like being indebted to others .
In " Fresh Blood " , hunter and recently escaped felon Gordon Walker tracks Bela down and threatens to kill her unless she reveals the location of the Winchesters , as he plans to kill Sam . Bela agrees to find out their location in exchange for his priceless mojo bag , and has an unsuspecting Dean disclose their whereabouts to her . After Dean threatens to kill her , she uses a Ouija board to placate him by obtaining information on Gordon 's location so the Winchesters can neutralize the other hunter first .
In " Dream a Little Dream of Me " , Bela returns when the Winchesters contact her for help in saving fellow hunter and family friend Bobby Singer after he falls into a mystical coma . They need dream root to enter Bobby 's dreams and find out what is keeping him asleep . She claims nothing from them in compensation , explaining she is helping them in order to repay a debt to Bobby . However , the Winchesters discover after Bobby awakens that she was lying , having helped them to gain access to the Colt , a mystical gun capable of killing any being . Enraged at the theft , Dean and Sam attempt to track her down in " Jus in Bello " , but instead are led into a trap she has set up ; police arrest the Winchesters and place them in jail . Though the demonic overlord Lilith sends her forces , Sam and Dean eventually make their escape .
In " Time Is On My Side " , Dean discovers Bela no longer has the Colt . He later gets her criminal record from England and learns her true name is Abbie . Almost ten years prior , when she was 14 , she had her parents killed in exchange for her soul as part of a ten @-@ year deal made with a Crossroads Demon ; though Dean believes that she killed them to inherit their fortune and Bela supports this story , the audience is shown a flashback that suggests that she had actually agreed to the deal to escape abuse from her father . Now desperate because her time is running out , Bela tries to kill the Winchesters , but they anticipate her and escape ahead of time . Dean then calls her a few minutes before her deal is up and she confesses to him she tried to get out of the deal with the Crossroads Demon by trading the Colt . Once she gave it up , however , the deal changed so she had to kill Sam as well . Though Dean refuses her pleas for help , she reveals to him the demon Lilith holds all the contracts brokered by Crossroads Demons , including his own . Bela 's death — and her soul 's resulting descent into Hell — is inevitable , but not shown .
= = Characterization = =
Described by her actress , Lauren Cohan , as " a female Humphrey Bogart " , Bela is " a little bit manipulative " and she " always wants to be in control " . According to series creator Eric Kripke , the writers conceptualized the character as " someone [ the Winchesters have ] really never come across before " because , though she moves throughout the supernatural world , Bela has no interest in the " altruistic or obsessed or revenge @-@ minded motives of hunting " . Writer and producer Sera Gamble summarized the writing team 's characterization of Bela as a greedy " mercenary that [ sic ] just [ doesn 't ] give a shit about the cause " . Gamble believed that Bela " finds it quite amusing " that the Winchesters use their knowledge of the supernatural to help people . On this aspect , Gamble added , " I always suspect when someone is that blasé that there 's something underneath , and we 're finally getting into that " .
Cohan viewed Bela as " a young woman trying to make a living and find some kind of reason in her world " who was " a little damaged . " The actress shared Gamble 's opinion of Bela 's behavior being a façade , and incorporated into her performance the idea of Bela hiding her true self , with Cohan feeling that her character created a persona to shield her from " real strong connections " . This defensiveness prevented her from opening up to the Winchesters , with whom Cohan believed Bela " would have loved to be able to have a normal relationship " . Contrary to Kripke and Gamble 's assessment of Bela as amoral and uncaring , Cohan envisioned the character as having " fits of conscience " offscreen throughout the third season . In the actress 's opinion , Bela " would have loved to go around fighting evil with those boys . "
= = Development = =
Supernatural producers originally intended for Bela to be a recurring character . Having already created a new female lead in the form of the demon Ruby , they chose to upgrade Bela to series regular after Dawn Ostroff — at the time , the CW President of Entertainment — requested a second female lead for the season , because they " [ loved Bela ] " and already planned for her to return in future episodes . To avoid the " mistake " they had made in the previous season in introducing Jo Harvelle as a love interest , the writers planned to introduce Bela as " a character in [ her ] own right " who would act as an antagonist " with [ her ] own interests and [ her ] own motives " . They were , however , willing to add in a romantic involvement with Sam or Dean should they and the fans both want it . The writers also planned for Bela to be " very separate and very different " from Ruby , and for the characters to " [ serve ] very different storylines . "
Cohan auditioned for Ruby , but ultimately received the part of Bela . Upon learning of Cohan 's British accent , a " really psyched " Kripke reworked the character to be British . The actress herself later pictured Bela that way , feeling she " has some kind of cool shading and sneakiness , which fits the British accent " . At the time Cohan 's casting , however , she had been given little exposure to the character script @-@ wise , and was unaware she would play a " nasty person " . It was not until The CW up @-@ fronts that Kripke gave her a " good spiel " about Bela because she would be interviewed . The actress later turned down an offer from him to provide more of the character 's backstory , and instead opted to learn it as the episodes were filmed . In order to prepare for her role , Cohan received training in weaponry to be " well equipped with swords and a lot of instruments — sharp instruments " , and in kickboxing alongside Ruby 's actress Katie Cassidy . Cohan and Cassidy also decided to catch up on Supernatural before filming for the third season began , by watching the first two seasons together .
Due to " protective and occasionally nervous " fans , Kripke meant for Bela to be introduced in " small doses " . He wanted fans to know the show would always be just about Sam and Dean Winchester , and stated , " [ Ruby and Bela are ] there for important plot elements , but it 's not the Ruby and Bela show , nor is it about the four of them cruising around in the Impala together . It 's about the guys . " However , he felt the writers pushed it too far in the episode " Red Sky at Morning " , stating his opinion that it " was by far the least successful episode this year because it really kind of became the Bela show " . The writers also did not take the time to consider how to tie her into the Winchesters ' storylines . As Kripke pointed out , " It 's a road show and we 're in a different town every week , so if you 're going to run into the same character over and over again , you better have a damn good reason ... " They were eventually " crushed under the weight of the absurdity of it " because it became more difficult to justify her reappearances within the narrative . Another key problem stemmed from their conceptualization of her as an antagonistic character rather than a potential love interest for the brothers . The writers , " so taken with a woman who could screw the boys over at every turn " , ended up making Bela too antagonistic without establishing a balance . Any chance for a " funny effervescent episode where they all work together " was lost after the character attempts to have the Winchesters killed on multiple occasions . They eventually decided to drop the character from the series , opting to " send her off in an appropriate and dramatic way " which would " show a couple of cards [ they have ] been holding onto all season " by revealing her backstory " in a way that will surprise the audience and kind of tie her into the story . "
= = Reception = =
Critical response to the character has been mixed . BuddyTV staff columnist Don Williams deemed the addition of Bela a " cheap ploy " to attract teen male viewers , believing the character distracts viewers from the " brotherly bond that made the show so special in the first place " . As well , he felt her " sexy cat burglar act , coupled with her flirtation with one of our heroes , is cliched and has been seen a thousand times before " , and he likened her to a combination of Catwoman and " the equally annoying Electro @-@ Gwen from Angel " . However , he later admitted Bela was " a great comic foil " . Diana Steenbergen of IGN became " increasingly frustrated " with the " unlikable and manipulative " Bela throughout her appearances . She found the character 's tragic backstory to be " too little , too late " , but was surprised the writers were able to make her feel " even a tiny bit sorry for [ Bela ] " during her death scene . Writing that " Bela had a hint of vulnerability that would have been intriguing had we glimpsed it more than 30 seconds before she died " , Steenbergen wished the character had been written differently — " not either annoying or downright contemptible " — and deemed her " a wasted opportunity to give us an interesting female foil for the boys " . Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune expressed similar sentiments , voicing her belief in her review of the third season finale " No Rest For The Wicked " that Bela " got gone just as [ she was ] getting interesting " . In the same review , Peterson deemed the character to be a " decent traveling [ companion ] " . Although TV Guide 's Tina Charles was annoyed that Bela continuously steals from the Winchesters and makes them " look ridiculous " , she " really liked " the character . Overall , she felt Cohan " did one hell of a job " .
From the start , fans were very wary of bringing in female characters to the male @-@ dominated show ; they feared Bela was brought on to be " arm candy or [ a sidekick ] " . To make matters worse , when coming up with the scenes for the auditions for Bela , executive producer Robert Singer spent an hour writing a lackluster script not intended to be used in the show . Mere hours after the script was given to the casting director , the show 's fans had found them on casting websites and were " obsessively going over these scenes " . According to Kripke , the fan reaction was the characters " really look like they suck " . Bela 's overly @-@ antagonistic actions throughout the season did not calm the viewers ' fears . " [ Bela screwed ] over the boys so badly , " Kripke explained , " that she became unlikeable to the fans because she was irredeemable " . Kripke has confessed part of the decision to kill the character off was due to the negative reaction from the fans .
= Battle of Alexandretta =
The Battle of Alexandretta was the first clash between the forces of the Byzantine Empire and the Fatimid Caliphate in Syria . It was fought in early 971 near Alexandretta , while the main Fatimid army was besieging Antioch , which the Byzantines had captured two years previously . The Byzantines , led by one of Emperor John I Tzimiskes ' household eunuchs , lured a 4 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Fatimid detachment to attack their empty encampment and then attacked them from all sides , destroying the Fatimid force . The defeat at Alexandretta , coupled with the Qarmatian invasion of southern Syria , forced the Fatimids to lift the siege and secured Byzantine control of Antioch and northern Syria .
= = Background = =
On 28 October 969 , Antioch fell to the Byzantine commander Michael Bourtzes . The fall of the great metropolis of northern Syria was soon followed by a treaty between the Byzantines and the Hamdanid Emirate of Aleppo , which made Aleppo a tributary vassal and handed over to the Byzantine Empire the entirety of the former Abbasid frontier zones ( thughur ) in Cilicia and Upper Mesopotamia , as well as the coastal strip of Syria between the Mediterranean Sea and the Orontes River until the environs of Tripoli , Arqa , and Shayzar . Byzantine control of this area was initially only theoretical , and the murder of the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros II Phokas in December 969 threatened to nullify Byzantine gains in the region .
Further south , the troops of the Fatimids of Ifriqiya , under the command of Jawhar al @-@ Siqilli , had just conquered Egypt from its Ikhshidid rulers . Seized with the spirit of jihad and aiming to legitimize their rule , the Fatimids used the Byzantine advance on Antioch and the " infidel " threat as a major item in their propaganda aimed towards the newly conquered region , along with promises to restore just government . The news of Antioch 's fall helped to persuade the Fatimids to allow Jawhar to send Ja 'far ibn Falah to invade Palestine . There , Ja 'far defeated the last Ikhshidid remnants under al @-@ Hasan ibn Ubayd Allah ibn Tughj and took Ramla in May 970 , before occupying Damascus in November .
= = Siege of Antioch and battle at Alexandretta = =
Almost as soon as Damascus submitted , Ja 'far ibn Falah entrusted one of his ghilman , named Futuh ( " Victories " ) , to carry out the promised jihad against the Byzantines , although the 15th @-@ century compilation Uyun al @-@ Akhbar by the Yemeni historian Imad al @-@ Din Idris ibn al @-@ Hasan also mentions a certain Abdallah ibn Ubayd Allah al @-@ Husayni Akhu Muslim as commander . Futuh assembled a large army of Kutama Berbers , strengthened with levies from Palestine and southern Syria , and moved to besiege Antioch in December 970 . The Byzantine writer Kedrenos claims that the Fatimid army numbered a clearly much exaggerated 100 @,@ 000 men , but Imad al @-@ Din records the number as 20 @,@ 000 men . The Fatimids laid siege to the city , but its inhabitants offered stiff resistance , and Ibn Falah had to send " army after army " , in the description of the 14th @-@ century historian Abu Bakr ibn al @-@ Dawadari , apparently from the levies raised in southern Syria , to its reinforcement . Following the account of the 15th @-@ century Egyptian al @-@ Maqrizi , it was with these additional troops , which he puts at 4 @,@ 000 men , that it became possible to completely halt the city 's resupply by intercepting the caravans headed towards it .
In the meantime , Nikephoros ' murderer and successor , John I Tzimiskes , was unable to intervene in person in the east due to the more menacing invasion of the Balkans by Sviatoslav I of Kiev . As a result , he sent a small force under a trusted eunuch of his household , the patrikios Nicholas , who according to the contemporary Leo the Deacon was experienced in battle , to relieve the siege . In the meantime , the siege of Antioch had continued for five months over winter and into spring , without result . At some point , a Fatimid detachment — according to Ibn al @-@ Dawadari 4 @,@ 000 men under a Berber chieftain called Aras and a former emir of Tarsus , Ibn az @-@ Zayyat — moved north against Alexandretta , where the Byzantine relief army had camped . Informed of their approach , the Byzantine commander vacated the camp and placed his troops in ambush . Finding the enemy encampment deserted , the Fatimid troops began to plunder it , heedless of anything else . At that moment , Nicholas launched a surprise attack from all sides and the Fatimid force disintegrated ; most of the Muslim army perished , but Aras with Ibn az @-@ Zayyat managed to escape .
The defeat at Alexandretta was a major blow to Fatimid morale . Coupled with news of an advance against Damascus of the Qarmatians , a radical Isma 'ili group originating from Eastern Arabia , Ibn Falah ordered Futuh to raise the siege of Antioch in early July 971 . The army returned to Damascus , whence the various contingents dispersed to their home districts .
= = Aftermath = =
The fist clash between the eastern Mediterranean 's two foremost powers thus ended in a Byzantine victory , which on the one hand strengthened the Byzantine position in northern Syria and on the other weakened the Fatimids , both in lives lost and in morale and reputation . As the historian Paul Walker writes , had Ibn Falah " possessed the troops and the prestige lost at Alexandretta , he might have resisted the onrush of the Qarmatians . The armies of the local districts might have aided him had they not dispersed " . In the event , Ja 'far was unable to resist the Qarmatians and their Arab Bedouin allies ; making the fatal choice of confronting them in the desert , he was defeated and killed in battle in August 971 . It was a defeat that led to the near total collapse of Fatimid control in southern Syria and Palestine , and the Qarmatian invasion of Egypt . The Fatimids were victorious before Fustat , however , and eventually managed to drive the Qarmatians out of Syria and restore their control over the restive province . The Byzantines remained quiescent until the great campaigns led by John Tzimiskes in person in 974 – 975 . Although the emperor advanced deep in Muslim lands and even threatened to take Jerusalem , his death in January 976 lifted the Byzantine danger for the Fatimids : the Byzantines would never again try to advance far beyond their northern Syrian possessions around Antioch .
= Music of Final Fantasy V =
The music of the video game Final Fantasy V was composed by regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu . The Final Fantasy V Original Sound Version , a compilation of almost all of the music in the game , was released by Square Co . / NTT Publishing , and subsequently re @-@ released by NTT Publishing after the game was brought to North America as part of the Final Fantasy Anthology . An arranged album entitled Final Fantasy V Dear Friends , containing a selection of musical tracks from the game arranged in multiple styles , including live and vocal versions , was released by Square / NTT Publishing and later re @-@ released by NTT Publishing . Additionally , a collection of piano arrangements composed by Nobuo Uematsu , arranged by Shirou Satou and played by Toshiyuki Mori titled Piano Collections Final Fantasy V was released by Square / NTT Publishing , and re @-@ released by NTT Publishing .
The music received mixed reviews ; while some reviewers enjoyed the soundtrack and found it to be underrated , others felt it was only of middling quality . Several pieces , especially " Dear Friends " , remain popular today , and have been performed numerous times in orchestral concert series such as the Dear Friends : Music from Final Fantasy concert series , named after the Final Fantasy V piece , and the Orchestral Game Concert series . Music from the soundtrack has also been published in arranged and compilation albums by Square as well as outside groups .
= = Concept and creation = =
Uematsu had originally calculated that the game would require more than 100 pieces of music , but managed to reduce the number to 56 . He has stated that he developed the ideas for the music by first reading through the script and creating the titles for all of the tracks , then composing melodies to match the themes of the story and titles . Uematsu felt that the sound quality of the soundtrack for Final Fantasy V was much better than that of Final Fantasy IV . He also claimed that this resulted in the soundtrack release requiring two CDs as opposed to the one CD required for the Final Fantasy IV soundtrack . Uematsu has stated that he would have preferred to keep the soundtrack to one CD , in order to keep the price of the album low .
= = Final Fantasy V Original Sound Version = =
Final Fantasy V Original Sound Version is a soundtrack album of video game music from Final Fantasy V. The album contains the musical tracks from the game , composed , arranged , produced and performed by Nobuo Uematsu . It spans two discs and 67 tracks , covering a duration of 2 : 08 : 30 . It was released on December 7 , 1992 by Square and NTT Publishing with the catalog number N33D @-@ 013 ~ 4 , and re @-@ released on November 26 , 1994 and October 1 , 2004 by NTT Publishing with the catalog numbers of PSCN @-@ 5015 ~ 6 and NTCP @-@ 5015 ~ 6 , respectively .
A single was released in 1992 titled Final Fantasy V : 5 + 1 , consisting of the " Opening Theme " , " Main Theme of FINAL FANTASY V " , " Harvest " , " Dungeon " , and " Battle 1 " tracks from the soundtrack , as well as the previously unreleased " MATOUYA no doukutsu " ( " Matoya 's Cave " ) from Final Fantasy . It was published by NTT Publishing and had a catalog number of NO9D @-@ 012 and a length of 14 : 46 . A single named Final Fantasy V Mambo de Chocobo was also released , containing the " Mambo de Chocobo " track from the game , as well as three unused tracks from the game and a compilation mix track . The single was released by NTT Publishing in 1993 ; it covered a duration of 16 : 14 and had a catalog number of NO9D @-@ 016 . Nine tracks from the soundtrack were included in a bonus CD titled Music From FFV and FFVI Video Games that shipped with Final Fantasy Anthology on October 5 , 1999 , along with tracks from Final Fantasy VI . The soundtrack was again released as part of the Final Fantasy Finest Box by Square Enix on March 28 , 2007 under the catalog numbers FFFB @-@ 0002 @-@ 3 along with the OSTs of Final Fantasy IV and Final Fantasy VI after the game was ported to the Game Boy Advance .
Critical opinion of the soundtrack was mixed . Some reviewers , such as Ben Schweitzer of RPGFan , found it to be of medium quality , saying it " suffer [ ed ] from occasional compositional problems " and noted that others refer to it as simply " in the middle " of the soundtracks of Final Fantasy IV and Final Fantasy VI , though he stated " I don 't know why I love Final Fantasy V 's music " despite this . Schweitzer praised the " Main Theme of Final Fantasy V " ( " Ahead on Our Way " ) as " a truly stirring piece of music " and " triumphant , hopeful , and yet almost longing at the same time , " but stated that " Uematsu 's compositional style hits a sort of early plateau here . " Other reviewers disagreed , with Jason Strohmaier of Soundtrack Central finding it to be an underrated album , while Jeremy Althouse of Soundtrack Central felt that it was on par with Uematsu 's other works .
Tracklist
= = Final Fantasy V Dear Friends = =
Final Fantasy V Dear Friends is an arranged soundtrack album of Final Fantasy V music containing a selection of musical tracks from the game arranged with live instruments mixed with synth instruments . Several tracks have added vocals performed by Angelit and Ulla Pirttijärvi , in both English and Sámi . The album spans 14 tracks and covers a duration of 55 : 48 . It was first released on March 25 , 1993 , by Square and NTT Publishing , and subsequently re @-@ released on November 26 , 1994 , and on October 1 , 2004 , by NTT Publishing . The original release bears the catalog number N30D @-@ 017 , the first re @-@ release bears the catalog number PSCN @-@ 5018 , and the most recent re @-@ release bears the catalog number NTCP @-@ 5018 .
Reviewers were of mixed opinion about Final Fantasy V Dear Friends ; finding it to be of fair quality , though Jason Strohmaier took issue with some of the synthesized instruments and Freddie W. of RPGFan concluded in his review that the album was " a mixed bag of moods , emotions , and ideas that would only appeal to those who loved Final Fantasy V. "
= = Piano Collections Final Fantasy V = =
Piano Collections Final Fantasy V is an album of music from Final Fantasy V composed by Nobuo Uematsu , arranged on piano by Shirou Satou and performed by Toshiyuki Mori . It was first published by Square and NTT Publishing on June 21 , 1993 with the catalog number N38D @-@ 018 . It was subsequently republished by NTT Publishing on September 24 , 1994 under the catalog number PSCN @-@ 5009 and on June 27 , 2001 with the catalog number NTCP @-@ 1002 . The album spans 13 tracks and covers a duration of 46 : 31 .
Piano Collections Final Fantasy V was well received by reviewers such as Patrick Gann of RPGFan , who found it to be " amazing " and on par with , if not better than , the piano arrangements for the music of the other Final Fantasy games . He also enjoyed the artistic license taken with several of the pieces , finding the album to be the most " abstract " of the Piano Collections series .
= = Legacy = =
The Black Mages , a band that arranges music from Final Fantasy video games into a rock music style , has arranged two pieces from Final Fantasy V. These are " Clash on the Big Bridge " from their self @-@ titled album , published in 2003 , and " Neo EXDEATH " , an arrangement of " The Final Battle " , from Darkness and Starlight , published in 2008 . Lyrical versions of " Music Box " and " Dear Friends " , sung by Risa Ohki , appeared on Final Fantasy : Pray , a compilation album produced by Square . Additionally , lyrical versions of " The Day Will Come " and " Home , Sweet Home " , sung by Risa Ohki and Ikuko Noguchi , appeared on Final Fantasy : Love Will Grow .
Uematsu continues to perform certain pieces in his Dear Friends : Music from Final Fantasy concert series , the name of which is taken from the Final Fantasy V piece . The music of Final Fantasy V has also appeared in various official concerts and live albums , such as 20020220 music from FINAL FANTASY , a live recording of an orchestra performing music from the series including " Dear Friends " . " Opening Theme " , " Waltz Clavier " , " Town Theme " , and " Main Theme of FINAL FANTASY V " were played by the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra in their second Orchestral Game Concert in 1992 as part of a five concert tour , which was later released as a series of albums . Additionally , " Main Theme of FINAL FANTASY V " was performed by the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra in the Tour de Japon : Music from Final Fantasy concert series . The Black Mages performed " Clash on the Big Bridge " at the Extra : Hyper Game Music Event 2007 concert in Tokyo on July 7 , 2007 . Independent but officially licensed releases of Final Fantasy V music have been composed by such groups as Project Majestic Mix , which focuses on arranging video game music . An arranged version of " Clash on the Big Bridge " appears in the soundtrack of Final Fantasy XII . A group of remixes of music from the game was released as an unofficial download @-@ only album titled The Fabled Warriors : Wind , by the remix website OverClocked ReMix on September 10 , 2010 containing 9 remixes ; a further four albums are planned to be released as part of the Fabled Warriors set . Selections also appear on Japanese remix albums , called dojin music , and on English remixing websites .
= Avatar ( 2009 film ) =
Avatar ( marketed as James Cameron 's Avatar ) is a 2009 American epic science fiction film directed , written , produced , and co @-@ edited by James Cameron , and starring Sam Worthington , Zoe Saldana , Stephen Lang , Michelle Rodriguez , and Sigourney Weaver . The film is set in the mid @-@ 22nd century , when humans are colonizing Pandora , a lush habitable moon of a gas giant in the Alpha Centauri star system , in order to mine the mineral unobtanium , a room @-@ temperature superconductor . The expansion of the mining colony threatens the continued existence of a local tribe of Na 'vi – a humanoid species indigenous to Pandora . The film 's title refers to a genetically engineered Na 'vi body with the mind of a remotely located human that is used to interact with the natives of Pandora .
Development of Avatar began in 1994 , when Cameron wrote an 80 @-@ page treatment for the film . Filming was supposed to take place after the completion of Cameron 's 1997 film Titanic , for a planned release in 1999 , but according to Cameron , the necessary technology was not yet available to achieve his vision of the film . Work on the language of the film 's extraterrestrial beings began in 2005 , and Cameron began developing the screenplay and fictional universe in early 2006 . Avatar was officially budgeted at $ 237 million . Other estimates put the cost between $ 280 million and $ 310 million for production and at $ 150 million for promotion . The film made extensive use of new motion capture filming techniques , and was released for traditional viewing , 3D viewing ( using the RealD 3D , Dolby 3D , XpanD 3D , and IMAX 3D formats ) , and for " 4D " experiences in select South Korean theaters . The stereoscopic filmmaking was touted as a breakthrough in cinematic technology .
Avatar premiered in London on December 10 , 2009 , and was internationally released on December 16 and in the United States and Canada on December 18 , to positive critical reviews , with critics highly praising its groundbreaking visual effects . During its theatrical run , the film broke several box office records and became the highest @-@ grossing film of all time , as well as in the United States and Canada , surpassing Titanic , which had held those records for twelve years ( and was also directed by Cameron ) . It also became the first film to gross more than $ 2 billion and the best @-@ selling film of 2010 in the United States . Avatar was nominated for nine Academy Awards , including Best Picture and Best Director , and won three , for Best Art Direction , Best Cinematography and Best Visual Effects . Following the film 's success , Cameron signed with 20th Century Fox to produce three sequels , making Avatar the first of a planned tetralogy . On April 14 , 2016 , Cameron confirmed that there are now plans for four sequels . Avatar 2 is scheduled for release in December 2018 , with the sequels following in December 2020 , 2022 , and 2023 , respectively .
= = Plot = =
By 2154 , humans have depleted Earth 's natural resources , leading to a severe energy crisis . The Resources Development Administration ( RDA for short ) mines for a valuable mineral – unobtanium – on Pandora , a densely forested habitable moon orbiting the gas giant Polyphemus in the Alpha Centauri star system . Pandora , whose atmosphere is poisonous to humans , is inhabited by the Na 'vi , 10 @-@ foot tall ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) , blue @-@ skinned , sapient humanoids who live in harmony with nature and worship a mother goddess called Eywa .
To explore Pandora 's biosphere , scientists use Na 'vi @-@ human hybrids called " avatars " , operated by genetically matched humans ; Jake Sully , a paraplegic former Marine , replaces his deceased identical twin brother as an operator of one . Dr. Grace Augustine , head of the Avatar Program , considers Sully an inadequate replacement but accepts his assignment as a bodyguard . While protecting the avatars of Grace and fellow scientist Dr. Norm Spellman as they collect biological data , Jake 's avatar is attacked by a thanator and flees into the forest , where he is rescued by Neytiri , a female Na 'vi . Witnessing an auspicious sign , she takes him to her clan , whereupon Neytiri 's mother Mo 'at , the clan 's spiritual leader , orders her daughter to initiate Jake into their society .
Colonel Miles Quaritch , head of RDA 's private security force , promises Jake that the company will restore his legs if he gathers information about the Na 'vi and the clan 's gathering place , a giant tree called Hometree , on grounds that it stands above the richest deposit of unobtanium in the area . When Grace learns of this , she transfers herself , Jake , and Norm to an outpost . Over three months , Jake grows to sympathize with the natives . After Jake is initiated into the tribe , he and Neytiri choose each other as mates , and soon afterward , Jake reveals his change of allegiance when he attempts to disable a bulldozer that threatens to destroy a sacred Na 'vi site . When Quaritch shows a video recording of Jake 's attack on the bulldozer to Administrator Parker Selfridge , and another in which Jake admits that the Na 'vi will never abandon Hometree , Selfridge orders Hometree destroyed .
Despite Grace 's argument that destroying Hometree could damage the biological neural network native to Pandora , Selfridge gives Jake and Grace one hour to convince the Na 'vi to evacuate before commencing the attack . While trying to warn the Na 'vi , Jake confesses to being a spy and the Na 'vi take him and Grace captive . Seeing this , Quaritch 's men destroy Hometree , killing Neytiri 's father ( the clan chief ) and many others . Mo 'at frees Jake and Grace , but they are detached from their avatars and imprisoned by Quaritch 's forces . Pilot Trudy Chacón , disgusted by Quaritch 's brutality , carries them to Grace 's outpost , but during the escape , Quaritch fires at them , hitting Grace .
To regain the Na 'vi 's trust , Jake connects his mind to that of Toruk , a dragon @-@ like predator feared and honored by the Na 'vi . Jake finds the refugees at the sacred Tree of Souls and pleads with Mo 'at to heal Grace . The clan attempts to transfer Grace from her human body into her avatar with the aid of the Tree of Souls , but she dies before the process can be completed .
Supported by the new chief Tsu 'tey , who acts as Jake 's translator , Jake speaks to unite the clan and tells them to gather all of the clans to battle against the RDA . Noticing the impending gathering , Quaritch organizes a pre @-@ emptive strike against the Tree of Souls , believing that its destruction will demoralize the natives . On the eve of battle , Jake prays to Eywa , via a neural connection to the Tree of Souls , to intercede on behalf of the Na 'vi .
During the subsequent battle , the Na 'vi suffer heavy casualties , including Tsu 'tey and Trudy ; but are rescued when Pandoran wildlife unexpectedly join the attack and overwhelm the humans , which Neytiri interprets as Eywa 's answer to Jake 's prayer . Jake destroys a makeshift bomber before it can reach the Tree of Souls ; Quaritch escapes from his own damaged aircraft , wearing an AMP suit and breaks open the avatar link unit containing Jake 's human body , exposing it to Pandora 's poisonous atmosphere . Quaritch prepares to slit the throat of Jake 's avatar , but Neytiri kills Quaritch and saves Jake from suffocation .
With the exceptions of Jake , Norm , Max ( another scientist ) , and a select few others , all humans are expelled from Pandora and sent back to Earth , after which Jake is transferred permanently into his avatar with the aid of the Tree of Souls .
= = Cast = =
Humans
Sam Worthington as Jake Sully , a disabled former Marine who becomes part of the Avatar Program after his twin brother is killed . His military background helps the Na 'vi warriors relate to him . Cameron cast the Australian actor after a worldwide search for promising young actors , preferring relative unknowns to keep the budget down . Worthington , who was living in his car at the time , auditioned twice early in development , and he has signed on for possible sequels . Cameron felt that because Worthington had not done a major film , he would give the character " a quality that is really real " . Cameron said he " has that quality of being a guy you 'd want to have a beer with , and he ultimately becomes a leader who transforms the world " .
Stephen Lang as Colonel Miles Quaritch , the head of the mining operation 's security detail . Fiercely loyal to his military code , he has a profound disregard for Pandora 's inhabitants that is evident in both his actions and his language . Lang had unsuccessfully auditioned for a role in Cameron 's Aliens ( 1986 ) , but the director remembered Lang and sought him for Avatar . Michael Biehn , who was in Aliens , read the script and watched some of the 3 @-@ D footage with Cameron , but was ultimately not cast in the role .
Sigourney Weaver as Dr. Grace Augustine , an exobiologist and head of the Avatar Program . She is also Sully 's mentor and an advocate of peaceful relations with the Na 'vi , having set up a school to teach them English .
Michelle Rodriguez as Trudy Chacón , a combat pilot assigned to support the Avatar Program who is sympathetic to the Na 'vi . Cameron had wanted to work with Rodriguez since seeing her in Girlfight .
Giovanni Ribisi as Parker Selfridge , the corporate administrator for the RDA mining operation . While he is at first willing to destroy the Na 'vi civilization to preserve the company 's bottom line , he is reluctant to authorize the attacks on the Na 'vi and taint his image , doing so only after Quaritch persuades him that it is necessary , and the attacks will be humane . When the attacks are broadcast to the base , Selfridge displays discomfort at the violence .
Joel David Moore as Dr. Norm Spellman , a xenoanthropologist who studies plant and animal life as part of the Avatar Program . He arrives on Pandora at the same time as Sully and operates an avatar . Although he is expected to lead the diplomatic contact with the Na 'vi , it turns out that Jake has the personality better suited to win the natives ' respect .
Dileep Rao as Dr. Max Patel , a scientist who works in the Avatar Program and comes to support Jake 's rebellion against the RDA .
Na 'vi
Zoe Saldana as Neytiri , the daughter of the leader of the Omaticaya ( the Na 'vi clan central to the story ) . She is attracted to Jake because of his bravery , though frustrated with him for what she sees as his naiveté and stupidity . She serves as Jake 's love interest . The character , like all the Na 'vi , was created using performance capture , and its visual aspect is entirely computer generated . Saldana has also signed on for potential sequels .
C. C. H. Pounder as Mo 'at , the Omaticaya 's spiritual leader , Neytiri 's mother , and consort to clan leader Eytukan .
Wes Studi as Eytukan , the Omaticaya 's clan leader , Neytiri 's father , and Mo 'at 's mate .
Laz Alonso as Tsu 'tey , the finest warrior of the Omaticaya . He is heir to the chieftainship of the tribe . At the beginning of the film 's story , he is betrothed to Neytiri .
= = Production = =
= = = Origins = = =
In 1994 , director James Cameron wrote an 80 @-@ page treatment for Avatar , drawing inspiration from " every single science fiction book " he had read in his childhood as well as from adventure novels by Edgar Rice Burroughs and H. Rider Haggard . In August 1996 , Cameron announced that after completing Titanic , he would film Avatar , which would make use of synthetic , or computer @-@ generated , actors . The project would cost $ 100 million and involve at least six actors in leading roles " who appear to be real but do not exist in the physical world " . Visual effects house Digital Domain , with whom Cameron has a partnership , joined the project , which was supposed to begin production in mid @-@ 1997 for a 1999 release . However , Cameron felt that the technology had not caught up with the story and vision that he intended to tell . He decided to concentrate on making documentaries and refining the technology for the next few years . It was revealed in a Bloomberg BusinessWeek cover story that 20th Century Fox had fronted $ 10 million to Cameron to film a proof @-@ of @-@ concept clip for Avatar , which he showed to Fox executives in October 2005 .
In February 2006 , Cameron revealed that his film Project 880 was " a retooled version of Avatar " , a film that he had tried to make years earlier , citing the technological advances in the creation of the computer @-@ generated characters Gollum , King Kong , and Davy Jones . Cameron had chosen Avatar over his project Battle Angel after completing a five @-@ day camera test in the previous year .
= = = Development = = =
From January to April 2006 , Cameron worked on the script and developed a culture for the film 's aliens , the Na 'vi . Their language was created by Dr. Paul Frommer , a linguist at USC . The Na 'vi language has a lexicon of about 1000 words , with some 30 added by Cameron . The tongue 's phonemes include ejective consonants ( such as the " kx " in " skxawng " ) that are found in the Amharic language of Ethiopia , and the initial " ng " that Cameron may have taken from New Zealand Māori . Actress Sigourney Weaver and the film 's set designers met with Jodie S. Holt , professor of plant physiology at University of California , Riverside , to learn about the methods used by botanists to study and sample plants , and to discuss ways to explain the communication between Pandora 's organisms depicted in the film .
From 2005 to 2007 , Cameron worked with a handful of designers , including famed fantasy illustrator Wayne Barlowe and renowned concept artist Jordu Schell , to shape the design of the Na 'vi with paintings and physical sculptures when Cameron felt that 3 @-@ D brush renderings were not capturing his vision , often working together in the kitchen of Cameron 's Malibu home . In July 2006 , Cameron announced that he would film Avatar for a mid @-@ 2008 release and planned to begin principal photography with an established cast by February 2007 . The following August , the visual effects studio Weta Digital signed on to help Cameron produce Avatar . Stan Winston , who had collaborated with Cameron in the past , joined Avatar to help with the film 's designs . Production design for the film took several years . The film had two different production designers | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the United States . By September 10 , 2005 the album had sold over 1 million copies . Casting Crowns received re @-@ releases in 2006 and 2007 , both of them featuring bonus DVD content . After first charting on the Billboard Catalog Albums chart in 2005 the album reached a peak position of number 7 on the chart for the chart week of September 5 , 2009 . The album ranked as the 11th best @-@ selling Christian album of the 2000s decade and had sold around 1 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States by December 5 , 2009 . The album received a 2 × Platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in 2012 , signifying shipments of over 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 units . It is one of only 8 Christian albums to reach that certification . As of March 2014 , the album has sold more than 1 @.@ 9 million copies .
= = Musical style = =
Casting Crowns is noted as having a Christian rock , pop rock and rock sound . Some critics noted that the album sounds somewhat similar to the work of Chapman . The album 's main instrumentation consists of guitar , keyboard , and violin . The album 's lyrics , which have been described by music critics as " bold " and " straightforward " , take an approach which was described by Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today as " no @-@ nonsense ... tell [ ing ] it like it is , simply and with conviction " .
Album opener " What If His People Prayed " , described as a pop song challenges the listener ; the couplet " What if the church , for heaven 's sake / Finally stepped up to the plate / Took a stand upon God 's promise / And stormed hell 's rusty gates ? " has been cited as an example . " If We Are the Body " , an acoustic rock song , features the mandolin , violin , and accordion in its arrangement . Inspired by a verse in the second chapter of James where the writer " admonishes the church for giving preferential treatment to any one particular group over another " , the song questions why the church does not minister impartially to everyone . The song 's chorus , which references the Christian concept of the body of Christ , asks " If we are the body / why aren 't his arms reaching ? / Why aren 't his hands healing ? / Why aren 't his words teaching ? / And if we are the body / Why aren 't his feet going ? / Why is his love not showing them there is a way ? "
" Voice of Truth " was written around Hall 's struggles with dyslexia and learning issues as a child . Co @-@ written by Chapman , the track is a pop rock ballad , encouraging listeners to tackle their personal fears and replace them with faith . The song " Who Am I " has been described as a pop rock , adult contemporary and pop country song . The ballad incorporates orchestral sounds and lyrically explains emptiness without Christ .
" American Dream " , considered a rock anthem , features an arena rock sound . Cited as an example of Hall 's " in @-@ your @-@ face " approach to songwriting by Breimeier , the track challenges the fixation of society with wealth , even at the cost of personal relationships . It encourages listeners to not neglect their families in pursuit of their careers and challenges fathers to spend a greater amount of their time with their families .
" Here I Go Again " relates the story of a Christian , who instead of " sharing the gospel " with a friend , engages in " mindless conversation " . The song encourages listeners to overcome their fear of spreading the gospel in the chorus . The album 's final 4 songs are all worship songs , with folk instruments incorporated in several of them . " Praise You with the Dance " , sung by the female members of the band , has been described as a country rock song . The song also incorporates a violin solo of " Lord of the Dance " . " Glory " , described as a worship song , has been noted as displaying the " distinctive production touch " of Chapman . The album closes with a cover of Darrell Evans ' song " Your Love Is Extravagant " ; it features harmony vocals from the band .
= = Critical reception and accolades = =
Casting Crowns received positive reviews from music critics . Particular praise was given to the album 's lyrical content and production quality . Ashleigh Kittle of Allmusic gave it 3 out of 5 stars , comparing the album 's overall sound to that of Chapman , Caedmon 's Call , and Phillips , Craig & Dean . Andy Argyrakis of CCM Magazine gave the album a B grade , praising the album as a " promising freshman effort " but critiquing its " tendency to occasionally reflect its primary muse a bit too liberally " . Belinda S. Ayers of Christian Broadcasting Network praised the album 's lyrics and sound . Steve Best of Cross Rhythms gave Casting Crowns ten out of ten squares , saying , " The passion of lead vocalist and youth pastor Hall jumps out of each set of lyrics , while Chapman 's distinctive production touch ... makes this a must listen album " . While praising the album 's overall production and lyrical content , Breimeier said the album " too readily recalls the work of its producers , leaving us to wonder how much of it is really Casting Crowns " – he gave the album 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars . The album received positive reviews from Brian Mansfield of USA Today , Robin Parrish of CMCentral.com , and Michael Herman of Christianity Today .
Casting Crowns was nominated for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year at the 35th GMA Dove Awards . " If We Are the Body " was nominated for the Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year at the same event . At the 36th GMA Dove Awards , " American Dream " was nominated for Rock / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year and " Who Am I " was nominated for Worship Song of the Year . " Who Am I " won the awards for Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year while " Voice of Truth " won the award for Inspirational Recorded Song of the Year . " Voice of Truth " was nominated for Song of the Year at the 37th GMA Dove Awards .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics are written by Hall except where noted , and all music is composed by Casting Crowns .
= = Personnel = =
Credits taken from Allmusic
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Album charts = = =
= = = Single charts = = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= Iron Man 2 =
Iron Man 2 is a 2010 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character Iron Man , produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Paramount Pictures.1 It is the sequel to 2008 's Iron Man , and is the third film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . Directed by Jon Favreau and written by Justin Theroux , the film stars Robert Downey Jr . , Gwyneth Paltrow , Don Cheadle , Scarlett Johansson , Sam Rockwell , Mickey Rourke , and Samuel L. Jackson . Six months after the events of Iron Man , Tony Stark is resisting calls by the United States government to hand over the Iron Man technology while also combating his declining health from the arc reactor in his chest . Meanwhile , rogue Russian scientist Ivan Vanko has developed the same technology and built weapons of his own in order to pursue a vendetta against the Stark family , in the process joining forces with Stark 's business rival , Justin Hammer .
Following the successful release of Iron Man in May 2008 , Marvel Studios announced and immediately set to work on producing a sequel . In July of that same year Theroux was hired to write the script , and Favreau was signed to return and direct . Downey , Paltrow and Jackson were set to reprise their roles from Iron Man , while Cheadle was brought in to replace Terrence Howard in the role of James Rhodes . In the early months of 2009 , Rourke , Rockwell and Johansson filled out the supporting cast , and the film went into production that summer . Like its predecessor the film was shot mostly in California , except for a key sequence in Monaco .
Iron Man 2 premiered at the El Capitan Theatre on April 26 , 2010 , and was released internationally between April 28 and May 7 before releasing in the U.S. on May 7 , 2010 . The film received generally positive reviews and was commercially successful , grossing over $ 623 @.@ 9 million at the worldwide box office . The DVD and Blu @-@ ray were released on September 28 , 2010 . The third installment of the Iron Man series , Iron Man 3 , was released on May 3 , 2013 .
= = Plot = =
In Russia , the media covers Tony Stark 's disclosure of his identity as Iron Man . Ivan Vanko , whose father Anton Vanko has just died , sees this and begins building a miniature arc reactor similar to Stark 's . Six months later , Stark is a superstar and uses his Iron Man suit for peaceful means , resisting government pressure to sell his designs . He reinstitutes the Stark Expo to continue his father Howard 's legacy .
The palladium core in the arc reactor that keeps Stark alive and powers the armor is slowly poisoning him , and he cannot find a substitute . Growing increasingly reckless and despondent about his impending death , and choosing not to tell anyone about his condition , Stark appoints his personal assistant Pepper Potts CEO of Stark Industries , and hires Stark employee Natalie Rushman to replace her as his personal assistant . Stark competes in the Monaco Historic Grand Prix , where he is attacked in the middle of the race by Vanko who wields electrified whips . Stark dons his Mark V armor and defeats Vanko , but the suit is severely damaged . Vanko explains his intention was to prove to the world that Iron Man is not invincible . Impressed by Vanko 's performance , Stark 's rival , Justin Hammer , fakes Vanko 's death while breaking him out of prison and asks him to build a line of armored suits to upstage Stark . During what he believes is his final birthday party , Stark gets drunk while wearing the Mark IV suit . Disgusted , U.S. Air Force Lieutenant Colonel James Rhodes dons Stark 's Mark II prototype armor and tries to restrain him . The fight ends in a stalemate , so Rhodes confiscates the Mark II for the U.S. Air Force .
Nick Fury , director of S.H.I.E.L.D. , approaches Stark , revealing " Rushman " to be Agent Natasha Romanoff and that Howard Stark was a S.H.I.E.L.D. founder whom Fury knew personally . Fury explains that Vanko 's father jointly invented the arc reactor with Stark , but when Anton tried to sell it for profit , Stark had him deported . The Soviets sent Anton to the gulag . Fury gives Stark some of his father 's old material ; a hidden message in the diorama of the 1974 Stark Expo proves to be a diagram of the structure of a new element . With the aid of his computer J.A.R.V.I.S. , Stark synthesizes it . When he learns Vanko is still alive , he places the new element in his arc reactor and ends his palladium dependency .
At the Expo , Hammer unveils Vanko 's armored drones , led by Rhodes in a heavily weaponized version of the Mark II armor . Stark arrives in the Mark VI armor to warn Rhodes , but Vanko remotely takes control of both the drones and Rhodes ' armor and attacks Iron Man . Hammer is arrested while Romanoff and Stark 's bodyguard Happy Hogan go after Vanko at Hammer 's factory . Vanko escapes , but Romanoff returns control of the Mark II armor to Rhodes . Stark and Rhodes together defeat Vanko and his drones . Vanko seemingly commits suicide by blowing up his suit .
At a debriefing , Fury informs Stark that because of his difficult personality , S.H.I.E.L.D. intends to use him only as a consultant . Stark and Rhodes receive medals for their heroism .
In a post @-@ credits scene , S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Phil Coulson reports the discovery of a large hammer at the bottom of a crater in a desert in New Mexico .
= = Cast = =
Robert Downey Jr. as Tony Stark / Iron Man :
A billionaire who escaped captivity in Afghanistan with a suit of armor he created , he now struggles to keep his technology out of the government 's hands . Downey and Favreau , who had been handed a script and worked from it on the first movie , conceived of the film 's story themselves . On Stark being a hero , Downey said " It 's kind of heroic , but really kind of on his own behalf . So I think there 's probably a bit of an imposter complex and no sooner has he said , ' I am Iron Man – ' that he 's now really wondering what that means . If you have all this cushion like he does and the public is on your side and you have immense wealth and power , I think he 's way too insulated to be okay . " Downey put on 20 pounds of muscle to reprise the role . Six @-@ year @-@ old Davin Ransom portrays Tony Stark as a child .
Gwyneth Paltrow as Pepper Potts :
Stark 's closest friend , budding love interest , and business partner ; Pepper is promoted to CEO of Stark Industries . On her character 's promotion , Paltrow opined " When we start Iron Man 2 Pepper and Tony are very much in the same vibe ... as the movie progresses , Pepper is given more responsibility and she 's promoted and it 's nice to see her sort of grow up in that way . I think it really suits her , the job fits her really well . " Paltrow expressed excitement about working with Johansson .
Don Cheadle as James " Rhodey " Rhodes :
An officer in the U.S. Air Force and Tony Stark 's close personal friend . Cheadle replaces Terrence Howard from the first film . Cheadle only had a few hours to accept the role and did not even know what storyline Rhodes would undergo . He commented that he is a comic book fan , but had not previously participated in comics @-@ themed films due to the scarcity of black superheroes . Cheadle said he thought Iron Man was a robot before the first film came out . On how he approached his character , Cheadle stated " I go , what 's the common denominator here ? And the common denominator was really his friendship with Tony , and that 's what we really tried to track in this one . How is their friendship impacted once Tony comes out and owns ' I am Iron Man ' ? " . Cheadle said his suit was 50 pounds of metal , and that he couldn 't touch his face while wearing it .
Scarlett Johansson as Natalie Rushman / Natasha Romanoff :
An undercover spy for S.H.I.E.L.D. posing as Stark 's new assistant . Johansson dyed her hair red before she landed the part , hoping that it would help convince Favreau that she was right for the role . On why she chose the role , Johansson said , " the Black Widow character resonated with me ... [ She ] is a superhero , but she ’ s also human . She ’ s small , but she ’ s strong ... She is dark and has faced death so many times that she has a deep perspective on the value of life ... It ’ s hard not to admire her . " She stated that she had " a bit of a freak @-@ out moment " when she first saw the cat @-@ suit . When asked about fighting in the costume , Johansson responded " a big part of me is like ' can I move in this ? Can I run in it ? Can I like throw myself over things with this ? ' And I think just the prep , you just have to put in the hours . That 's what I realized is that just putting in the hours and doing the training and repetition and basically just befriending the stunt team and spending all day , every day , just over and over and over and over until you sell it . "
Sam Rockwell as Justin Hammer :
A rival weapons manufacturer . Sam Rockwell was considered for the role of Tony Stark in the first film , and he accepted the role of Hammer without reading the script . He had never heard of the character before he was contacted about the part , and was unaware Hammer is an old Englishman in the comics . Rockwell said , " I worked with Jon Favreau on this film called Made . And Justin Theroux , who wrote the script , is an old friend of mine , they sort of cooked up this idea and pitched it to Kevin Feige . What they did , they were maybe going to do one villain like they did with Jeff Bridges , but then they decided to split the villains . And really Mickey [ Rourke ] is the main [ villain ] , but I come to his aid . " Rockwell described his character as " plucky comic relief , but he 's got a little bit of an edge " .
Mickey Rourke as Ivan Vanko :
A Russian physicist and ex @-@ convict who builds his own arc reactor @-@ based weapon to exact vengeance on the Stark family . The character is an amalgam of Whiplash and Crimson Dynamo . Rourke visited Butyrka prison to research the role , and he suggested half of the character 's dialogue be in Russian . He also suggested the addition of tattoos , gold teeth and a fondness for a pet cockatoo , paying for the teeth and bird with his own money . Rourke explained that he did not want to play a " one @-@ dimensional bad guy " , and wanted to challenge the audience to see something redeemable in him . Not knowing anything about computers , Rourke described pretending to be tech @-@ savvy as the hardest part of the role .
Samuel L. Jackson as Nick Fury :
Director of S.H.I.E.L.D. ; Jackson signed a nine @-@ film contract to play the character . On the subject of his character not seeing any action in the film , Jackson said " We still haven 't moved Nick Fury into the bad @-@ ass zone . He 's still just kind of a talker . "
The director , Jon Favreau , reprises his role as Happy Hogan , Tony Stark 's bodyguard and chauffeur , while Clark Gregg and Leslie Bibb reprise their roles as S.H.I.E.L.D. Agent Phil Coulson and reporter Christine Everhart , respectively . John Slattery appears as Tony 's father Howard Stark and Garry Shandling appears as United States Senator Stern , who wants Stark to give Iron Man 's armor to the government . Favreau stated that Shandling 's character was named after radio personality Howard Stern . Paul Bettany again voices Stark 's computer , J.A.R.V.I.S. Olivia Munn has a small role as Chess Roberts , a reporter covering the Stark expo , and Stan Lee appears as himself ( but is mistaken for Larry King ) .
Additionally , news anchor Christiane Amanpour and political commentator Bill O 'Reilly play themselves in newscasts . Adam Goldstein appears as himself and the film is dedicated to his memory . Further cameos include Tesla Motors CEO Elon Musk and Oracle Corporation CEO Larry Ellison .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Jon Favreau said it was originally his intent to create a film trilogy for Iron Man , with Obadiah Stane ( Jeff Bridges ) becoming Iron Monger during the sequels . After a meeting between Favreau and various comic book writers , including Mark Millar , Stane became the main villain in Iron Man . Millar argued the Mandarin , whom Favreau originally intended to fill that role , was too fantastical . Favreau concurred , deciding , " I look at Mandarin more like how in Star Wars you had the Emperor , but Darth Vader is the guy you want to see fight . Then you work your way to the time when lightning bolts are shooting out of the fingers and all that stuff could happen . But you can 't have what happened in Return of the Jedi happen in A New Hope . You just can 't do it . " Favreau also discussed in interviews how the films ' version of Mandarin " allows us to incorporate the whole pantheon of villains " . He mentioned that S.H.I.E.L.D. will continue to have a major role .
During development , Favreau said the film would explore Stark 's alcoholism , but it would not be " the ' Demon in a Bottle ' version " . While promoting the first film , Downey stated that Stark would probably develop a drinking problem as he is unable to cope with his age , the effects of revealing he is Iron Man , and Pepper getting a boyfriend . Downey later clarified that the film was not a strict adaptation of the " Demon in a Bottle " storyline from the comic book series , but was instead about the " interim space " between the origin and the " Demon " story arc . Shane Black gave some advice on the script , and suggested to Favreau and Downey that they model Stark on J. Robert Oppenheimer , who became depressed with being " the destroyer of worlds " after working on the Manhattan Project .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Immediately following Iron Man 's release , Marvel Studios announced that they were developing a sequel , with an intended release date of April 30 , 2010 . In July 2008 , after several months of negotiating , Favreau officially signed on to direct . That same month Justin Theroux signed to write the script , which would be based on a story written by Favreau and Downey . Theroux co @-@ wrote Tropic Thunder , which Downey had starred in , and Downey recommended him to Marvel . Genndy Tartakovsky storyboarded the film , and Adi Granov returned to supervise the designs for Iron Man 's armor .
In October 2008 , Marvel Studios came to an agreement to film Iron Man 2 , as well as their next three films , at Raleigh Studios in Manhattan Beach , California . A few days later , Don Cheadle was hired to replace Terrence Howard . On being replaced , Howard stated , " There was no explanation , apparently the contracts that we write and sign aren 't worth the paper that they 're printed on sometimes . Promises aren 't kept , and good faith negotiations aren 't always held up . " Entertainment Weekly stated Favreau did not enjoy working with Howard , often re @-@ shooting and cutting his scenes ; Howard 's publicist said he had a good experience playing the part , while Marvel chose not to comment . As Favreau and Theroux chose to reduce the role , Marvel came to Howard to discuss lowering his salary – Howard was the first actor hired in Iron Man and was paid the largest salary . The publication stated they were unsure whether Howard 's representatives left the project first or if Marvel chose to stop negotiating . Theroux denied the part of the report which claimed the size of the role had fluctuated . In November 2013 , Howard stated that , going into the film , the studio offered him far less than was in his three @-@ picture contract , claiming they told him the second will be successful , " with or without you , " and , without mentioning him by name , said Downey " took the money that was supposed to go to me and pushed me out . "
In January 2009 , Rourke and Rockwell entered negotiations to play a pair of villains . A few days later , Rockwell confirmed he would take the role , and that his character would be Justin Hammer . Paul Bettany confirmed that he would be returning to voice J.A.R.V.I.S. Marvel entered into early talks with Emily Blunt to play the Black Widow , though she was unable to take the role due to a previous commitment to star in Gulliver 's Travels . Samuel L. Jackson confirmed that he had been in discussions to reprise the role of Nick Fury from the first film 's post @-@ credits scene , but that contract disputes were making a deal difficult . Jackson claimed that " There was a huge kind of negotiation that broke down . I don 't know . Maybe I won 't be Nick Fury . "
In February , Jackson and Marvel came to terms , and he was signed to play the character in up to nine films . Downey and Rourke discussed his part during a roundtable discussion with David Ansen at the 2009 Golden Globes , and Rourke met with Favreau and Theroux to discuss the role . Rourke almost dropped out due to Marvel 's initial salary offer of $ 250 @,@ 000 , but the studio raised the offer , and in March Rourke signed on . Later that same day Scarlett Johansson signed on to play the Black Widow . Her deal included options for multiple films , including potentially The Avengers . In April , Garry Shandling , Clark Gregg , and Kate Mara joined the cast .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began April 6 , 2009 , at the Pasadena Masonic Temple . The fake working title was Rasputin . The bulk of the production took place at Raleigh Studios , though other locations were also used . Scenes were filmed at Edwards Air Force Base from May 11 through May 13 . The location had also been used for Iron Man , and Favreau stated that he felt the " real military assets make the movie more authentic and the topography and the beauty of the desert and flightline open the movie up " . The Historic Grand Prix of Monaco action sequence was shot in the parking lot of Downey Studios , with sets constructed in May and filming lasting through June . Permission to film in Monaco prior to the 2009 Monaco Grand Prix had initially been awarded , but was later retracted by Bernie Ecclestone . The filmmakers shipped one Rolls @-@ Royce Phantom there , and filmed a track sequence in which race cars were later digitally added . Tanner Foust took on the role of driving Stark 's racing car . Also in June , it was reported that John Slattery had joined the film 's cast as Howard Stark . Olivia Munn was also cast , in an unspecified role .
A massive green screen was constructed at the Sepulveda Dam to film a portion of the Stark Expo exterior , with the rest either shot at an area high school or added digitally . To construct the green screen , hundreds of shipping containers were stacked , covered in plywood and plaster , and then painted green . For the conclusion of that climactic scene , which the crew dubbed the " Japanese Garden " scene , a set was built inside Sony Studios in Los Angeles .
Filming lasted 71 days , and the film 's production officially wrapped on July 18 , 2009 . A post @-@ credits scene depicting the discovery of a large hammer was filmed on the set of Thor , and some of it was reused in the film . Jon Favreau revealed that the scene was filmed with anamorphic lenses to match Thor .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Janek Sirrs was the film 's visual effects supervisor , and Industrial Light & Magic again did the bulk of the effects , as it did on the first film . ILM 's visual effects supervisor on the film , Ben Snow , said their work on the film was " harder " than their work on the first , stating that Favreau asked more of them this time around . Snow described the process of digitally creating the suits :
On the first Iron Man , we tried to use the Legacy [ Studios , Stan Winston 's effects company ] and Stan Winston suits as much as we could . For the second one , Jon [ Favreau ] was confident we could create the CG suits , and the action dictated using them . So , Legacy created what we called the " football suits " from the torso up with a chest plate and helmet . We 'd usually put in some arm pieces , but not the whole arm . In the house fight sequence , where Robert Downey Jr. staggers around tipsy , we used some of the practical suit and extended it digitally . Same thing in the Randy 's Donuts scene . But in the rest of the film , we used the CG suit entirely . And Double Negative did an all @-@ digital suit for the Monaco chase .
ILM created 527 shots for the film , using programs such as Maya . Perception worked on over 125 shots for the film . They crafted gadgets , such as Tony Stark 's transparent LG smartphone , and created the backdrops for the Stark Expo as well as the computer screen interfaces on the touch @-@ screen coffee table and the holographic lab environment . In total , 11 visual effect studios worked on the film .
In January 2010 , IMAX Corporation , Marvel , and Paramount announced that the film would receive a limited release on digital IMAX screens . It was not shot with IMAX cameras , so it was converted into the format using the IMAX DMR technology . The film underwent reshoots in February . Olivia Munn 's original role was cut , but she was given a new role during the reshoots .
The post @-@ credits scene where Coulson finds Mjölnir in the desert was directed by Kenneth Branagh , director of Thor .
= = Music = =
A soundtrack album featuring AC / DC was released by Columbia Records on April 19 , 2010 , in at least three different versions : basic , special and deluxe . The basic edition includes the CD ; the special edition contains a 15 @-@ track CD , a 32 @-@ page booklet and a DVD featuring interviews , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage , and music videos ; and the deluxe includes a reproduction of one of Iron Man 's first comic book appearances . Only 2 songs on the soundtrack actually appear in the movie . Although not included on the soundtrack album the film includes songs by The Average White Band , The Clash , Queen , Daft Punk , 2Pac and Beastie Boys .
The film score was released commercially as Iron Man 2 : Original Motion Picture Score on July 20 , 2010 , featuring 25 songs . John Debney composed the score with Tom Morello .
= = Release = =
Iron Man 2 premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles , California on April 26 , 2010 , and was released in 54 countries between April 28 and May 7 before going into general release in the U.S. on May 7 , 2010 . The international release date of the film was moved forward to increase interest ahead of the 2010 FIFA World Cup association football tournament . Since the film was included in a predetermined legacy distribution deal that was signed before the Walt Disney Company purchased Marvel , Paramount Pictures distributed the film and collected 8 % of the box office , while the remaining portion went to Disney .
= = = Marketing = = =
At the 2009 San Diego Comic Con , a five @-@ minute trailer for the movie was shown . Actors portraying Stark Industries recruiters handed out business cards with an invitation to apply . A website for Stark Industries went online , with an attached graphic of a " napkin memo " from Stark to Potts announcing that Stark Industries no longer made weapons . Another section featured an online application . It was confirmed that the first theatrical trailer would premiere in front of Sherlock Holmes ( another Robert Downey , Jr. film ) . This trailer was released online on December 16 , 2009 . A new trailer was shown by Robert Downey , Jr. on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! on March 7 after the Academy Awards . Promotional partners included Symantec , Dr Pepper , Burger King , 7 Eleven , Audi , LG Electronics and Hershey .
Author Alexander C. Irvine adapted the script into a novel , also titled Iron Man 2 , that was released in April 2010 . Prior to the film release , Marvel Comics released a four issue miniseries comic book titled Iron Man vs Whiplash , which introduced the film 's version of Whiplash into the Marvel Universe . A three issue prequel miniseries titled Iron Man 2 : Public Identity was released in April .
An Iron Man 2 video game was released by Sega on May 4 , 2010 in North America , written by The Invincible Iron Man scribe Matt Fraction . The Wii version was developed by High Voltage Software and all console versions were published by Sega , while Gameloft published the mobile game . The game 's Comic @-@ Con trailer showed that the Crimson Dynamo was set to appear as a villain . Cheadle and Jackson voice their respective characters in the games . The trailer revealed that A.I.M , Roxxon Energy Corporation , and Ultimo ( depicted as a man named Kearson DeWitt in a large armor ) are enemies in the game as well as reveal that the wearer of the Crimson Dynamo armor is General Valentin Shatalov . The game received generally unfavorable reviews , with a Metacritic score of 41 % for both the PS3 and Xbox 360 versions .
= = = Home media = = =
On September 28 , 2010 , the film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc . The film was also collected in a 10 @-@ disc box set titled " Marvel Cinematic Universe : Phase One – Avengers Assembled " which includes all of the Phase One films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . It was released on April 2 , 2013 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Iron Man 2 earned $ 312 @.@ 4 million in North America , as well as $ 311 @.@ 5 million in other territories , for a worldwide total of $ 623 @.@ 9 million .
= = = = North America = = = =
The film grossed $ 128 @,@ 122 @,@ 480 in its opening weekend in the United States at 4 @,@ 380 theaters , the fifth @-@ highest opening weekend ever , at the time , behind The Dark Knight , Spider @-@ Man 3 , The Twilight Saga : New Moon and Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest . It also had the highest opening for a 2010 movie . The film yielded an average of $ 29 @,@ 252 per theater . It grossed $ 51 @,@ 239 @,@ 677 on opening day ( including $ 7 @.@ 5 million from midnight showings at about 3 @,@ 000 locations ) and became the eleventh highest opening day on record at the time . Iron Man 2 generated $ 9 @.@ 8 million from 181 IMAX venues . That was the highest opening weekend for a 2D IMAX film , surpassing Star Trek 's previous record of $ 8 @.@ 5 million . Iron Man 2 was the third @-@ highest grossing film of 2010 in the United States and Canada , behind Toy Story 3 and Alice in Wonderland .
= = = = Outside North America = = = =
Iron Man 2 launched in six European markets with number @-@ one openings on Wednesday , April 28 , 2010 , for a total $ 2 @.@ 2 million from 960 venues . It earned $ 100 @.@ 2 million its first five days from 6 @,@ 764 theaters in 53 foreign markets for a strong average of $ 14 @,@ 814 per site . IMAX Corporation reported grosses of $ 2 @.@ 25 million at 48 IMAX theaters overseas , for an average of $ 46 @,@ 875 . This surpassed the previous record @-@ holder for an IMAX 2D release , 2009 's Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen ( $ 2 @.@ 1 million ) . It was the seventh @-@ highest grossing film of 2010 internationally , behind Toy Story 3 , Alice in Wonderland , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 , Inception , Shrek Forever After , and The Twilight Saga : Eclipse .
= = = Critical response = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 72 % approval rating with an average rating of 6 @.@ 5 / 10 based on 276 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " It isn 't quite the breath of fresh air that Iron Man was , but this sequel comes close with solid performances and an action @-@ packed plot . " Metacritic gave the film 57 / 100 based on a normalized rating of 40 reviews .
Brian Lowry of Variety stated , " Iron Man 2 isn 't as much fun as its predecessor , but by the time the smoke clears , it 'll do " . Anthony Lane of The New Yorker said , " To find a comic @-@ book hero who doesn 't agonize over his supergifts , and would defend his constitutional right to get a kick out of them , is frankly a relief " . David Edelstein of New York Magazine wrote , " It doesn 't come close to the emotional heft of those two rare 2s that outclassed their ones : Superman II and Spider @-@ Man 2 . But Iron Man 2 hums along quite nicely " . Roger Ebert gave it 3 stars out of 4 , stating that " Iron Man 2 is a polished , high @-@ octane sequel , not as good as the original but building once again on a quirky performance by Robert Downey Jr " . Frank Lovece of Film Journal International , a one @-@ time Marvel Comics writer , said that , " In a refreshing and unexpected turn , the sequel to Iron Man doesn 't find a changed man . Inside the metal , imperfect humanity grows even more so , as thought @-@ provoking questions of identity meet techno @-@ fantasy made flesh . "
Conversely , Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter stated , " Everything fun and terrific about Iron Man , a mere two years ago , has vanished with its sequel . In its place , Iron Man 2 has substituted noise , confusion , multiple villains , irrelevant stunts and misguided story lines . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Sequel = =
After the release of Iron Man 2 , The Walt Disney Studios agreed to pay Paramount at least $ 115 million for the worldwide distribution rights to Iron Man 3 and The Avengers . Disney , Marvel and Paramount announced a May 3 , 2013 release date for Iron Man 3 . Shane Black directed Iron Man 3 , from a screenplay by Drew Pearce . Downey , Paltrow , Cheadle , and Faveru reprised their roles , while Ben Kingsley played Trevor Slattery , Guy Pearce played Aldrich Killian , and Rebecca Hall played Maya Hansen .
= Coming of Age ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) =
" Coming of Age " is the 19th episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . It first aired in broadcast syndication on March 14 , 1988 . Sandy Fries originally wrote the episode , but Hannah Louise Shearer performed an uncredited re @-@ write . It is the only episode of the series directed by Mike Vejar , who went on to direct episodes of Deep Space Nine , Voyager and Enterprise .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the Starfleet crew of the Federation starship Enterprise @-@ D. In the episode , Wesley Crusher ( Wil Wheaton ) takes a Starfleet Academy entrance exam while Adm. Gregory Quinn ( Ward Costello ) and Lt. Cdr . Dexter Remmick ( Robert Schenkkan ) investigate the senior staff of the Enterprise .
The episode marked the first appearance of a shuttlecraft in the series , and the first speaking role for a Vulcan . The events of the episode continued in " Conspiracy " and " Samaritan Snare " . 10 @.@ 1 million viewers watched the episode during the first broadcast , with critics giving it a mixed response .
= = Plot = =
Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) greets his friend Admiral Gregory Quinn ( Ward Costello ) and his assistant Lt. Commander Dexter Remmick ( Robert Schenkkan ) aboard the Enterprise . For classified reasons , Quinn has ordered Remmick to perform an investigation of the Enterprise and its crew and expects Picard to fully co @-@ operate . Remmick 's query causes tension in the crew , particularly when he questions the trustworthiness of the senior staff based on their personal logs and past actions . A young cadet , having failed the Starfleet Academy entrance examination , attempts to run away in a shuttlecraft but ends up drifting . Picard is able to direct the cadet to pilot the shuttle away from a planet by bouncing off the atmosphere .
The investigation is completed , and Remmick informs both Picard and Quinn that there is no sign of wrongdoing , and expresses his interest in joining its crew in the future . Quinn tells Picard that he feels there is an unknown force that has infiltrated Starfleet , and he was seeking to assure himself of his trust in Picard and the Enterprise crew . To help combat this threat , Quinn offers Picard a promotion to Admiral and a job overseeing Starfleet Academy which would place Picard near Quinn at all times . Picard mulls the offer for some time , but eventually declines .
Meanwhile , Wesley Crusher ( Wil Wheaton ) prepares to take the Academy entrance exam himself . He succeeds in passing several parts of the exam , and helps Mordock ( John Putch ) , a highly talented Benzite and fellow competitor , to solve a difficult test problem so that they may both advance . Wesley is worried about the psychological part of the exam , and he is directed to a room to wait for the test to start .
While waiting , he hears an explosion nearby , and leaves the room to investigate . He finds two men trapped by fallen components in a fire @-@ engulfed room . Wesley helps to release one man wounded under a heavy pipe , and tries to coax the other man to leave the burning room , but the man refuses . Wesley is forced to leave the scared man inside and drags the other man to safety . Outside the room , he soon realizes this was the psychological test . Eventually , the cadets are told of the results , and Mordock is granted admission into Starfleet Academy , while Wesley is encouraged to try again next year . Mordock thanks Wesley for his help and wishes him future success . After Wesley returns to the Enterprise , Picard confides in him that he also failed the examination the first time .
= = Production = =
Although Mike Vejar directed only this single episode of The Next Generation , he later directed several episodes of Deep Space Nine , Voyager and Enterprise . Hannah Louise Shearer conducted an uncredited script re @-@ write , and left the details of the conspiracy deliberately open as plans were already underway for a follow @-@ up story . " Coming of Age " featured several firsts for The Next Generation , including the first appearance of a shuttlecraft in the series and the first appearance of a Vulcan in a speaking role within the series .
Only a quarter of the shuttlecraft set was built for " Coming of Age " with the set expanded gradually according to the scene requirements in season two . Due to construction errors with the full @-@ scale model , it failed to match the miniature . A smaller shuttlepod with a new shuttle design was later used , first appearing in " Darmok " . Several previous episodes are referenced during Remmick 's investigation , including " Where No One Has Gone Before " , " The Battle " , " Angel One " and " Justice " . In a scene cut from the episode , the crew celebrate Wesley 's 16th birthday on the presumption that he wouldn 't be on the ship at the time due to joining the Academy .
Guest stars included Robert Schenkkan as Remmick , who had been a fan of The Original Series . He later won a Pulitzer Prize for his nine @-@ act play The Kentucky Cycle . Robert Ito had previously been a main cast member on Quincy , M.E .. Guest stars Daniel Riordan and John Putch later appeared in the franchise in different roles . Riordan appeared as a Bajoran in the Deep Space Nine episode " Progress " . Putch returned as a different Benzite later in The Next Generation episode " A Matter of Honor " , and in the film Star Trek Generations . The events of the episode are followed up in " Conspiracy " which also features the return of Costello and Schenkkan as Quinn and Remmick . Wesley would re @-@ take his Starfleet Academy exam in " Samaritan Snare " .
= = Reception and home media release = =
The episode first aired on March 14 , 1988 . It received Nielsen ratings of 10 @.@ 1 million on the first broadcast , which was an increase of over a million viewers from the previous episode " Home Soil " , which was watched by 9 million viewers some three weeks prior . The following week 's episode , " Heart of Glory " , was watched by 10 @.@ 7 million viewers .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Writing for Tor.com , Keith DeCandido questioned why the shuttlebay wasn 't guarded , comparing it to a similar situation in The Original Series episode , " The Doomsday Machine " . He also felt that the sequence where the shuttle is bounced off an atmosphere resembled the " Premiere " episode of Farscape . DeCandido said that the exam made no sense , and that there were no surprises as it was obvious that Wesley and Picard were not due to leave the series . Despite Remmick representing " the ultimate cliché of the jackass interrogator " , DeCandido liked the episode . He credited the strong performance by the cast and called Wheaton 's performance the best of the first season . DeCandido gave the episode a score of five out of ten .
In his review for The A.V. Club , Zack Handlen thought the episode was like " getting a two @-@ parter with no ' To Be Continued ... ' in the end credits " and felt the episode was " clunky " . He felt that the Wesley storyline was clichéd , and that having two unconnected storylines would never have happened in The Original Series . Handlen gave the episode a grade of C.
James Hunt of Den of Geek said that it was a " very good episode " despite being " Wesley @-@ heavy " . He recommended that readers watch the episode and described the Remmick interviews and the shuttlecraft sequence as " fantastic " . Michelle Erica Green , whilst writing for TrekNation , described the episode as " craptastic " and Wesley as " intolerable " . She said that knowing about the " insane " alien parasite conspiracy in " Conspiracy " ahead of time made her look negatively on the episode .
" Coming of Age " was first released on VHS cassette in the United States and Canada on November 11 , 1992 . The episode was included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 . The season one Blu @-@ ray set was released on July 24 , 2012 .
= New York State Route 99 =
New York State Route 99 ( NY 99 ) was a state highway in Franklin County , New York , in the United States . The western terminus of the route was at an intersection with NY 30 in Duane . Its eastern terminus was at a junction with NY 3 near the Franklin community of Merrillsville . NY 99 was known as the Port Kent – Hopkinton Turnpike and maintained by Franklin County , which co @-@ designated the highway as County Route 26 ( CR 26 ) . The narrow , winding route passed through isolated and heavily wooded areas of Adirondack Park .
The routing of NY 99 was originally part of the Port Kent and Hopkinton Turnpike , a 19th @-@ century toll road that began in the town of Hopkinton and passed through central Franklin County on its way to the hamlet of Port Kent on the shores of Lake Champlain . The portion of the turnpike between Duane Center and Merrillsville was designated as NY 99 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . It remained unchanged until September 26 , 1994 , when the NY 99 designation was removed from the highway .
= = Route description = =
NY 99 began at an intersection with NY 30 west of the hamlet of Duane Center in the town of Duane . The route headed eastward as the Port Kent – Hopkinton Turnpike , passing through the small community of Duane Center before entering an isolated , wooded area of Franklin County and Adirondack Park . At the Franklin town line , NY 99 curved southeastward , roughly paralleling Hatch Brook as it climbed up the northeastern portion of Baldface Mountain . Past the mountain 's summit , the route continued onward , winding its way southward along Hatch Brook to a small lake known as Duck Pond .
Past Duck Pond , the route turned to the southeast , passing by a series of small ponds and crossing under an old railroad grade as it ran along the base of a series of peaks known as the Loon Lake Mountains . NY 99 continued to follow the range to the northwestern edge of Loon Lake , where it veered to the northeast and ran along the northern and eastern shores of the lake to the hamlet of Loon Lake at its southeastern tip . NY 99 passed generally northwest – southeast through the small lakeside community before reentering another sparsely developed area of the town of Franklin . The highway progressed southeastward , crossing over the northern branch of the Saranac River and passing through the largely undeveloped community of Merrillsville before ending at an intersection with NY 3 .
= = History = =
On April 18 , 1829 , the New York State Legislature passed an act that allowed construction to begin on the Port Kent and Hopkinton Turnpike , a toll road that was to begin in the town of Hopkinton and end at the hamlet of Port Kent on the western shore of Lake Champlain . Construction began later that year and was completed in 1832 . The 75 @-@ mile ( 121 km ) highway opened in 1833 . The turnpike operated for only five years before it was dissolved on March 30 , 1838 , at which time maintenance of the highway was transferred to the towns it ran within . The 19 @-@ mile ( 31 km ) segment of the turnpike between then @-@ NY 10 near the Duane hamlet of Duane Center and NY 3 near the Franklin hamlet of Merrillsville was designated as NY 99 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .
Although NY 99 was signed as a state highway , maintenance on the route was performed by Franklin County , which designated the roadway as CR 26 . All of NY 99 was initially a gravel road ; however , most of the road was paved in the early 1970s through the use of state funds procured by New York State Senator Ronald Stafford of Plattsburgh . The western and eastern extents of the road were paved soon afterward ; however , the road was left unpaved in the vicinity of Loon Lake — a lake near the midpoint of the route — even though the necessary gravel base was applied to the entire highway . The unpaved section deteriorated as a result , and the NY 99 designation was removed from the roadway on September 26 , 1994 .
CR 26 has continued to deteriorate in the years since , with one 9 @-@ mile ( 14 km ) , limited maintenance segment seeing the most wear . This section , situated midway between NY 30 and NY 3 , has become both littered with potholes and extremely narrow due to the erosion of the highway 's shoulders . In mid @-@ 2009 , residents of Loon Lake petitioned the county to repair all of CR 26 and to continuously maintain the highway , citing the road 's regional importance as a through route for commuters traveling to and from the village of Malone .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Franklin County .
= Mass Effect 2 : Lair of the Shadow Broker =
Mass Effect 2 : Lair of the Shadow Broker is a downloadable content pack developed by BioWare and published by Electronic Arts for the action role @-@ playing video game Mass Effect 2 . It was released on September 7 , 2010 for Microsoft Windows and Xbox 360 . The pack is included in the PlayStation 3 edition of Mass Effect 2 , which was released on January 18 , 2011 . Lair of the Shadow Broker introduces a new mission in which the player assumes the role of Commander Shepard , an elite human soldier who must help former squad member Liara T 'Soni to find an information dealer known as the Shadow Broker .
Mass Effect 2 : Lair of the Shadow Broker was announced to be in development on July 22 , 2010 . BioWare stated that some decisions the player makes in the pack affect the story of Mass Effect 3 . The pack received very positive reviews from critics , with an aggregate score of 87 out of 100 for the Xbox 360 version at Metacritic . Reviewers generally praised the narrative between the main characters and considered it the greatest downloadable content pack of the game .
= = Gameplay = =
Mass Effect 2 is an action role @-@ playing game in which the player controls Commander Shepard . Shepard 's gender , appearance , history and combat @-@ training are determined by the player before the game begins . The game features a variety of missions that the player must complete to progress . Mass Effect 2 : Lair of the Shadow Broker adds a new assignment that involves defeating enemies and interacting with NPCs . During the mission , Shepard is accompanied by two AI squad members that the player can indirectly control through orders . Combat takes place in real @-@ time , but the player can pause the action at any time to calmly target enemies and select different powers for the squad members to use .
At one point in the mission , a new temporary squad member , Liara T 'Soni , with a different set of powers joins the squad , and the player must choose who of the previous two members will remain for the rest of the mission . The relationship between Shepard and Liara can vary depending on whether they were romantically involved in the original Mass Effect . The mission includes two bosses and a chase scene in which the player must control a high @-@ speed vehicle through the skies of a city . The player may also find numerous in @-@ game upgrades that enhance aspects of the game 's weapons and armor .
After completing Lair of the Shadow Broker , a new location , the Shadow Broker 's Base , becomes visitable . Inside the base , the player can use several terminals with numerous functions . Some terminals show surveillance footage , dossiers on Shepard 's crew members , and a video archive which contains clips taken from around the galaxy . The player may also purchase mining manifests which are useful to mark mineral @-@ rich planets on the game 's Galaxy Map , and invest credits in various mini @-@ missions which allow the player to receive upgrades and resources from the Shadow Broker 's contacts , depending on the player 's personal alignment . The pack also adds five new achievements that are awarded for completing specific tasks , such as completing the mission on one of the two highest difficulties .
= = Plot = =
Mass Effect 2 : Lair of the Shadow Broker is set two years after the events of Mass Effect : Redemption . Elite human soldier Commander Shepard is sent on a mission to help former squad member Liara T 'Soni to find an information dealer known as the Shadow Broker . Liara asks Shepard to meet her at her apartment to discuss plans regarding the location of the Shadow Broker , but when Shepard arrives , the apartment is locked down , and agent Tela Vasir is conducting an investigation into Liara 's disappearance . Shepard and Vasir learn that Liara went to an office building to meet with an informant . Upon arriving at the building , Shepard and the squad fight their way up from the bottom while Vasir lands on the roof of the building and proceeds downward . When Shepard reaches the office , Vasir is already there and Liara 's contact is dead . Liara suddenly appears , pointing a gun at Vasir . She says that Vasir was the one who tried to kill her , and that Vasir has the disk with the Shadow Broker 's location , having taken it from the dead informant . In the ensuing confrontation , Vasir escapes but is eventually hunted by Shepard and Liara , who manage to defeat her on the roof of a hotel .
Having recovered the disk from Vasir , Shepard and Liara learn that the Shadow Broker is located inside a massive ship near a planet called Hagalaz . Upon boarding the ship , they rescue Liara 's long @-@ lost partner , Feron , who was imprisoned in the ship 's prison cells after the events of Redemption . When they finally reach the Shadow Broker 's office , the Shadow Broker engages Shepard and Liara in combat . Shepard distracts the Broker , while Liara brings down a liquid that was contained in the ceiling onto the Shadow Broker . The liquid causes the Broker 's protections to malfunction , and he dies in the subsequent explosion . Liara now assumes the position of the Shadow Broker , and promises Shepard that she will turn the organization around . She also mentions that she will be able to provide Shepard with more information thanks to the Broker 's extensive networks .
= = Development and release = =
Mass Effect 2 : Lair of the Shadow Broker was developed by BioWare and published by Electronic Arts . During development of Mass Effect 2 , Bioware stated that downloadable content was becoming a fundamental part of the company 's overall philosophy . The pack was announced to be in development on July 22 , 2010 with the release of three brand @-@ new screenshots of the game . BioWare stated that the decisions players make in the pack would affect certain storylines in the then @-@ upcoming Mass Effect 3 . Animating the Shadow Broker 's face was a challenge for the developers . According to BioWare , the game 's default digital @-@ acting system " could not handle the stresses of the new face , so custom work had to be done to animate his multiple eyes and triangular mouth . " The pack was released on September 7 , 2010 for Microsoft Windows and Xbox 360 . Like Mass Effect 2 's earlier downloadable content packs Kasumi - Stolen Memory and Overlord , Lair of the Shadow Broker is freely included in the PlayStation 3 edition of the game , which was released on January 18 , 2011 . The soundtrack was composed by Christopher Lennertz , who previously penned the music for the Overlord downloadable content .
= = Reception = =
Mass Effect 2 : Lair of the Shadow Broker received very positive reviews from critics , who considered it to be the greatest downloadable content pack of the game . Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer considered Lair of the Shadow Broker " a solid , thrilling , satisfying addition to an already expansive universe ; one that leaves you on an appropriate note of hopeful melancholy . " He praised the amount of content in the pack , stating that it " adds far more to the game than some of its disappointingly slender predecessors . " Game Revolution 's Eduardo Reboucas said that the pack is " a blast , especially for fans who want to catch up with Liara and dissect the bits of story that were omitted in the main game . "
The narrative and story received high marks . Critics praised the fact that some decisions from the original Mass Effect impact the storytelling experience . Kristine Steimer of IGN stated that the storytelling " effectively communicates the strong bond between [ Shepard and Liara ] , even if they weren 't romantically involved in your game . " The graphics received similar praise . Brad Gallaway , a reviewer for GameCritics , noted that they " make the action feel like a more organic part of the story and engage the player in some superb atmosphere . " The Shadow Broker 's ship exterior was seen by some critics as the most impressive battle environment of the pack . Steimer remarked that " approaching the Shadow Broker 's ship is simply stunning as lightning storms envelope [ sic ] the massive vessel . "
Kevin VanOrd , a reviewer for GameSpot , praised the pack 's atmosphere and combat sequences , particularly in the second portion of the mission . According to him , " enemies attack at just the right pace , so individual battles never drag on too long , nor are they over so quickly that they end up being unsatisfying . " He also highlighted the vehicle chase scene , comparing it favorably to Blade Runner and The Fifth Element , but also admitted that the controls in the Xbox 360 version of the game are not very precise . The bosses received similar praise , with Steimer stating that both of them " have unique traits that make them a formidable opponent . " The Shadow Broker 's base was highlighted as a valuable addition to the game . Whitehead noted that marking mineral @-@ rich planets alleviates the scanning , which was seen as a tedious feature in the main game . VanOrd concluded that Lair of the Shadow Broker is " worthy of your time ( more than two hours ) and your money . " The pack was nominated for Best DLC ( downloadable content ) at the 2010 Spike Video Game Awards , but lost to Red Dead Redemption : Undead Nightmare . It won the Inside Gaming Award for Best DLC .
= Uruguayan War =
The Uruguayan War ( 10 August 1864 – 20 February 1865 ) was fought between Uruguay 's governing Blanco Party and an alliance consisting of the Empire of Brazil and the Uruguayan Colorado Party , covertly supported by Argentina . Since its independence , Uruguay had been ravaged by intermittent struggles between the Colorado and Blanco factions , each attempting to seize and maintain power in turn . The Colorado leader Venancio Flores launched the Liberating Crusade in 1863 , an insurrection aimed at toppling Bernardo Berro , who presided over a Colorado – Blanco coalition ( Fusionist ) government . Flores was aided by Argentina , whose president Bartolomé Mitre provided him with supplies , Argentine volunteers and river transport for troops .
The Fusionism movement collapsed as the Colorados abandoned the coalition to join Flores ' ranks . The Uruguayan civil war quickly escalated , developing into a crisis of international scope that destabilized the entire region . Even before the Colorado rebellion , the Blancos within Fusionism had sought an alliance with Paraguayan dictator Francisco Solano López . Berro 's now purely Blanco government also received support from Argentine Federalists , who opposed Mitre and his Unitarians . The situation deteriorated as the Empire of Brazil was drawn into the conflict . Almost one fifth of the Uruguayan population were considered Brazilian . Some joined Flores ' rebellion , spurred by | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
little attention from historians , who have been drawn to focus on the dramatic devastation suffered by Paraguay in the subsequent Paraguayan War .
News of the war 's end was brought by Pereira Pinto and met with joy in Rio de Janeiro . Brazilian Emperor Dom Pedro II found himself waylaid by a crowd of thousands in the streets amid acclamations . But public opinion quickly changed for the worse , when newspapers began running stories painting the accord of 20 February as harmful to Brazilian interests , for which the cabinet was blamed . The newly raised Viscount of Tamandaré and Mena Barreto ( now Baron of São Gabriel ) had supported the peace accord . Tamandaré changed his mind soon afterward and played along with the allegations . Paranhos ( a member of the opposition party ) was used as a scapegoat by the Emperor and the government , and was recalled in disgrace to the imperial capital . Subsequent events show the accusation was unfounded . Not only had Paranhos managed to settle all Brazilian claims , but by avoiding the death of thousands , he gained a willing and grateful Uruguayan ally , not a dubious and resentful one — who provided Brazil an important base of operations during the war with Paraguay that followed .
Victory brought mixed results for Brazil and Argentina . As the Brazilian government had expected , the conflict was a short @-@ lived and relatively easy affair that led to the installation of a friendly government in Uruguay . The official estimates included 549 battlefield casualties ( 109 dead , 439 wounded and 1 missing ) from the navy and army and an unknown number who died from disease . Historian José Bernardino Bormann put the total at 616 ( 204 dead , 411 wounded and 1 missing ) . The war would have been deemed an outstanding success for Brazil , had it not been for its terrible consequences . Instead of demonstrating strength , Brazil revealed military weakness that an emboldened Paraguay sought to exploit . From the Argentine viewpoint , most of Bartolomé Mitre 's expectations were frustrated by the war 's outcome . He had succeeded in bringing to power his friend and ally , but the minimal risk and cost to Argentina he had envisioned at the outset proved to be illusory . The resulting attack by Paraguay on Brazilian and Argentine provinces sparked the long and devastating Paraguayan War .
= The Neutral Zone ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) =
" The Neutral Zone " is the 26th episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , originally aired within the United States on May 16 , 1988 , in broadcast syndication . The episode originated as a piece of fan fiction by Deborah McIntyre and Mona Clee , and was turned into a teleplay by Maurice Hurley . Because of the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike , Hurley created the script in a day and a half , and the timescale forced both the abandonment of the idea of a two @-@ part episode and the first appearance of the Borg which was delayed until the following season episode " Q Who " .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Federation starship USS Enterprise @-@ D. In " The Neutral Zone " , the Enterprise is sent to investigate the destruction of Federation outposts near space controlled by the Romulan Star Empire , discovering a derelict Earth satellite with cryonically frozen humans aboard .
This episode saw the introduction of the redesigned Romulans , with prosthetic forehead pieces designed by makeup supervisor Michael Westmore , and the first appearance of the Romulan Warbird which was designer Andrew Probert 's final work for the Star Trek franchise . The episode was mildly received by critics who viewed it after the end of the season , who criticised the two @-@ plot nature of the episode and the general lack of excitement .
= = Plot = =
While Captain Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) is away at an emergency Federation conference , the Enterprise crew discovers an ancient space capsule from Earth . Inside they find three humans in cryonic chambers . Lt. Cdr . Data ( Brent Spiner ) asks to move the chambers to the Enterprise and Commander Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) agrees . Picard returns and orders the Enterprise to the Neutral Zone , as several Federation outposts nearby have not responded to communications . He explains that the conference was about the potential threat of the Romulans , who have not been seen for the last several decades . As Data and Chief Medical Officer Dr. Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) work to thaw the cryonically preserved humans , Picard admonishes Data for bringing them aboard during a crucial time , and puts Riker in charge of looking after them .
The survivors – Claire Raymond ( Gracie Harrison ) , a housewife ; Ralph Offenhouse ( Peter Mark Richman ) , a financier ; and L. Q. " Sonny " Clemmons ( Leon Rippy ) , a musician – are from the late 20th Century . All died of incurable illnesses and were placed in cryogenic suspension after their deaths in the hope that cures might be found in the future . Dr. Crusher , in reviving them , successfully cures them of their illnesses . They deal with the culture shock of awakening in a distant future , while Counselor Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) searches for the living descendants of Claire . Of the three , Clemmons seems to fare the best at adapting to life in the future and befriends Data . Raymond is distraught at the thought of losing everyone she ever knew , particularly her children . Offenhouse is irritated by the loss of his wealth , and lack of access to news or other information . Picard assures him that all questions will be answered , but that their current situation with the Romulans requires Picard 's full attention .
The Enterprise reaches the Neutral Zone and confirms that the outposts have been destroyed . They are soon met by a Romulan Warbird and Commander Tebok ( Marc Alaimo ) questions why the Enterprise has approached the zone . As Picard tries to explain his actions , Offenhouse arrives on the bridge and threatens to disrupt the tense situation , though he correctly ascertains that the Romulans are also seeking answers . Picard and the Romulans agree to pool their resources to discover the culprit . Picard later comments that while the encounter went favorably , the Romulans may be a significant threat in future engagements . Picard arranges to transport the 20th @-@ Century humans to Earth , where one of Raymond 's descendants lives . Clemmons expresses enthusiasm for the future , and Picard sets Offenhouse the challenge of improving himself .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and casting = = =
Due to the impending Writers Guild of America strike , writer and co @-@ executive producer Maurice Hurley developed the teleplay in a day and a half from fan fiction written by Deborah McIntyre and Mona Clee . Due to the strike , certain story ideas were removed from the plot including the planned first appearance of the Borg which was subsequently delayed until the second season episode " Q Who " . This was because " The Neutral Zone " was originally intended to be the first of a two @-@ part episode , but due to the strike there wasn 't enough time to write the second part and so the story was shortened . The second episode would have seen the Enterprise and the Romulans team up against the Borg . The script that was shot was a first draft , and due to the writer 's strike in place , no amendments were subsequently made . Director James L. Conway later explained , " If there hadn 't been a strike , I think it would have been a better script . " It was the second episode of The Next Generation directed by Conway , the first being " Justice " earlier in the first season . He didn 't direct another episode until " Frame of Mind " during season six .
In the writers and directors ' guide for the series , written by the show 's creator Gene Roddenberry prior to the first season , Romulans were covered by one of the main writing rules which stated " No stories about warfare with Klingons and Romulans and no stories with Vulcans . We are determined not to copy ourselves and believe there must be other interesting aliens in a galaxy filled with billions of stars and planets . " Following the perceived failure of the Ferengi as the main villains of TNG by the production staff , the Romulans became the main villains during the early years of the series . This was in addition to the Borg , who were originally developed as an insectoid race for this episode but became a race of cyborgs by the time they first appeared in " Q Who " . While the Romulans made their first TNG appearance in this episode , they were previously mentioned in " Angel One " and " Heart of Glory " . The episode was the final one of season one to be completed , with production wrapping ten months after it began on " Encounter at Farpoint " .
The episode featured an appearance by Gene Roddenberry 's production assistant Susan Sackett as a Starfleet science officer . Her appearance was the result of winning a bet over her weight loss . She would go on to write two episodes of The Next Generation alongside Fred Bronson , " Ménage à Troi " and " The Game " . Peter Mark Richman appeared as Ralph Offenhouse , and had appeared in a guest star capacity in over 500 roles on television . Leon Rippy appeared as L.Q. " Sonny " Clemonds , having previously appeared alongside Jonathan Frakes in North and South . Marc Alaimo made his second Star Trek appearance in this episode , having appeared in " Lonely Among Us " as the Antican leader , and would go on to appear in season four 's " The Wounded " as Cardassian Gul Macet before being cast once more as a Cardassian in the recurring role of Gul Dukat on Star Trek : Deep Space Nine .
Two of the time @-@ displaced humans returned in Star Trek literature , with Ralph Offenhouse appearing in The Next Generation novel Debtor ’ s Planet as the Federation Ambassador to the Ferengi and again in the Star Trek : Destiny trilogy as the Secretary of Commerce for the Federation . Clare Raymond made a further appearance in the Star Trek : Department of Temporal Investigations novel Watching the Clock as a counsellor for time @-@ displaced people . Offenhouse , Raymond and " Sonny " Clemmons also appeared in the two @-@ part Star Trek : The Eugenic Wars by Greg Cox which was set prior to their appearance in this episode .
= = = Make @-@ up and design = = =
Michael Westmore developed a new appearance for the Romulans in this episode , being required to take into account the concepts introduced for them in the original series episodes " Balance of Terror " and " The Enterprise Incident " . There was also a desire to ensure that they appeared different to the Vulcans , with default appearance of the Romulans to look more aggressive and warlike . Westmore developed prosthetic forehead pieces , taking careful steps to ensure that they don 't look like Neanderthals . Rather than create individual designs for each forehead as he did with the Klingons , a number of standard designs were created .
The Romulan Warbird made its first appearance in this episode , with it being the final design of Andrew Probert for the Star Trek franchise , having previously designed both the Enterprise in Star Trek : The Motion Picture and the Enterprise @-@ D for The Next Generation . The double hulled nature of the starship originated in early designs , however the wings were originally vertical rather than horizontal , with the size of the ship made to be deliberately larger than that of the Enterprise .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" The Neutral Zone " aired in broadcast syndication during the week commencing May 20 , 1988 . It received Nielsen ratings of 10 @.@ 2 , reflecting the percentage of all households watching the episode during its timeslot . This was the highest ratings received by the series since " Symbiosis " four episodes earlier .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched Star Trek : The Next Generation after the end of the series . Keith DeCandido on Tor.com felt that the episode did not really work , saying that the " smug moralizing with regard to the three 20th century refugees is laid on a bit too thick " , and that the appearance of the Romulans tried too hard to be reminiscent of their first appearance in " Balance of Terror " . Overall he said that the " first season ends , not with a bang , but with a whimper " . Zack Handlen of the A.V. Club felt that the previous episode , " Conspiracy " , would have served better as an end to the first season as " The Neutral Zone " wasn 't the worst so far , " but it may possibly be the most frustrating , because it has two storylines " . He felt that the Romulan plot would have been sufficient alone and described the storyline featuring the cryogenic survivors as " extremely painful comic relief " . He gave the episode a grade of C- .
The first home media release of " The Neutral Zone " was on VHS cassette was on May 26 , 1993 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 , and was released as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
= Angels with Dirty Faces ( Sugababes song ) =
" Angels with Dirty Faces " is a song by English girl group Sugababes from their second studio album of the same name . It was written by the Sugababes in collaboration with the Xenomania members Brian Higgins , Bob Bradley , Tim Powell and Matthew Del Gray . Higgins , Bradley , Powell and Gifford Noel produced the song . An uptempo pop and R & B record with dance influences , it was released on 11 November 2002 as a double A @-@ side with " Stronger " , as the album 's third single . The song received generally favourable reviews from critics , who praised its composition and highlighted it as one of the album 's better tracks .
Upon release as a double A @-@ side , the song peaked at number seven on the UK Singles Chart and inside the top forty on the Australian and New Zealand charts . " Angels with Dirty Faces " was heavily promoted through Cartoon Network 's animated television series The Powerpuff Girls . Merchandise was created to promote the release of the series ' 2002 film of the same name , while Cartoon Network Studios produced the song 's music video , a reworking of the episode " Nano of the North " from the series ' fourth season . The Sugababes performed the song at London 's Scala Theatre , and Liverpool 's Royal Court Theatre and King 's Dock .
= = Development and composition = =
" Angels with Dirty Faces " is the title track of the Sugababes ' second studio album . The group began working on the album soon after the departure of original member Siobhán Donaghy , who was replaced by former Atomic Kitten member Heidi Range in September 2001 . Within seven months , they composed forty tracks for the album , ten of which made the final cut . " Angels with Dirty Faces " was written by the Sugababes in collaboration with members of the British songwriting and production team Xenomania , including Brian Higgins , Bob Bradley , Tim Powell and Matthew Del Gray . Higgins , Bradley , Powell and Gifford Noel produced the song .
" Angels with Dirty Faces " is an uptempo fusion of pop and R & B. It is backed by a dance beat and contains elements of hip hop . According to the digital sheet music published by EMI Music Publishing , the song was composed in common time at a tempo of 110 beats per minute . " Angels with Dirty Faces " features a girl power theme , and according to the Sugababes , is about being naughty . Phil Udell from Hot Press magazine compared the song to American girl group Destiny Child 's music , specifically their 2001 single " Bootylicious " .
= = Release and reception = =
" Angels with Dirty Faces " was released as the album 's third single as part of a double A @-@ side with " Stronger " . The double A @-@ side was made available as a CD single , cassette tape and 12 @-@ inch single on 11 November 2002 . An Audio Drive remix of the song appears on the 12 @-@ inch and CD releases , the latter of which features the music video . According to Julie Macaskill of Daily Record , the version which appears on the single release is " grittier " compared to the album version .
= = = Critical response = = =
The song received generally positive reviews from critics . NME critic Barry Nicholson suggested it was the better track from the double A @-@ side and commended its " sleek garage sexiness " . He additionally praised the song as smooth and tantalising . A critic from the Daily Mirror described " Angels with Dirty Faces " , as well as the album track " Virgin Sexy " , as " alive with wry palpitations " . Julie Macaskill of Daily Record commended the song 's pop and R & B mixture , which she noted as " proof that there is nothing sweeter than the Sugababes " . Phil Udell from Hot Press admitted that although it is reminiscent of Destiny 's Child 's music , the song " lacks the American 's sense of style " . The Village Voice 's Jess Harvell criticised " Angels with Dirty Faces " as " generic in the post @-@ swingbeat sense " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Angels with Dirty Faces " appeared on singles charts as part of its double A @-@ side release with " Stronger " . In the 23 November 2002 issue of the UK Singles Chart , the single debuted and peaked at number seven , granting the band their third consecutive top ten hit from the album . It appeared in the chart for thirteen weeks , and by April 2010 , sold 125 @,@ 000 copies in the UK , placing it twelfth on the group 's best @-@ selling songs list . The double A @-@ side peaked at number thirty @-@ four on the Australian Singles Chart , where it charted for nine weeks . On the New Zealand Singles Chart , it debuted on 23 February 2003 at number forty @-@ three and peaked at number twenty @-@ four sixteen weeks later . The single spent a total of eighteen weeks on the chart , and gave the Sugababes their third consecutive top forty hit in the country .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Products = = =
The Sugababes ' record label , Universal Island , heavily promoted " Angels with Dirty Faces " through Cartoon Network 's animated television series The Powerpuff Girls , and its 2002 film of the same name . 250 @,@ 000 posters which feature the Sugababes and the Powerpuff Girls were distributed throughout cinemas , while an additional 500 @,@ 000 posters were delivered to stores of the supermarket chain Asda . In total , Universal Island obtained the equivalent of an estimated £ 1 @.@ 5 million worth of media coverage . The label 's stint with the series resulted in an animated music video for the song , produced by Cartoon Network Studios . It was played before all screenings of the film during its cinema release as a support feature . The video was also included on the PlayStation 2 video game The Powerpuff Girls : Relish Rampage . The Sugababes ' cartoon characters from the video were featured on the desktops of custom computers that were promoted by the group .
The video channels " Nano of the North " , an episode from the fourth season of The Powerpuff Girls , in which each Sugababes member portrays a Powerpuff Girl . The video opens with a clip of Professor Utonium driving in his car . Meanwhile , a dark cloud hovers over Townsville and it soon begins to rain and dissolves the town . When Professor Utonium arrives home , The Powerpuff Girls are shown watching the Sugababes on television , although the clip is interrupted with a News Flash that reads " Robot Rain Terrorises Townsville " . Professor Utonium manages to retrieve the Sugababes and infuses them with Chemical X. He shrinks them to a microscopic size , places them in a glass jar and drives off in the car with them . He exits the car but trips over , causing the jar to drop and break . The Sugababes , playing the roles of The Powerpuff Girls , fight off the Nanobots with their superpowers . However , a gigantic Nanobot soon appears , and subsequently defeats the Sugababes through superior strength . Professor Utonium witnesses the incident and crushes the Nanobot with his foot . The rain subsequently stops and the sun appears , in which the people of the town start to celebrate . When the Sugababes were questioned about their reaction to the video and its animation , group member Keisha Buchanan responded : " It was so funny seeing us like that and the Powerpuff Girls cartoon itself . The video so much resembled our personalities with these three characters so it was very funny to watch actually . "
= = = Live performances = = =
The Sugababes performed " Angels with Dirty Faces " at the Scala Theatre in London on 11 November 2002 . The Guardian 's Betty Clarke described the group 's vocals during the performance as " clean and pristine " , and noted the presence of change in the group 's sound and image . The band performed it at the Royal Court Theatre , Liverpool on 27 March 2003 as the first show of their UK tour . It was the opening song of the show , which contained a crowd of one thousand people . " Angels with Dirty Faces " was also the first song they performed during their eighty @-@ minute set on 11 July 2003 at the King 's Dock , Port of Liverpool , as part of the Liverpool Summer Pops music festival .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Charts = =
= The Little Mother =
The Little Mother is an American silent short drama film produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film stars Marie Eline who goes to her mother 's employer and asks for her mother 's job after she dies . Her employer is an artist with a kind heart and though the girl does not do the chores well . One of the artists models plot against him makes false charges against him , leading to his arrest . The little girl follows them and learns that they were out to obtain a large amount of money to have the false case dropped . She reports it to the police and the artist is freed , whereby he adopts the girl out of gratitude . Released on February 28 , 1911 , the film received mixed reviews . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
The official summary synopsis of the film was published in The Moving Picture World . It states , " A poor widow who supports her two children , one a baby and the other girl of six , by scrubbing , weakens under her hard work , and finally dies . Marie , the ' little mother , ' anxious that her home may not be broken up , calls on one of her mother 's employers and requests that she be given a chance to take the dead woman 's place . The artist , a wealthy , good @-@ hearted man , pleased with the child 's pluck , laughingly employs her , and makes her believe that she is really doing all the ' chores . ' The artist 's kindness , much to his surprise , brings him recompense one thousand fold [ sic ] . One of his models plots to fleece him . She calls at his studio , faints in his arms , and when her confederate rushes in with a policeman , she makes charges that lead to the arrest of the innocent artist . Just as the policeman is leading her benefactor away , the little scrub woman sees what is happening . She follows the party to the police station , but is afraid to enter . When the complainant and her husband come out , the child is impressed with the fact that they seem to be on the best of terms . Her suspicions are aroused , and she shadows them like a regular detective . What crook would ever imagine that a little girl , wheeling a baby carriage , was a sleuth ? This pair certainly did not , for when they meet a new friend in the park , they stop to tell him how they successfully arranged to trim a rich artist , never doubting that he would pay liberally to have the case dropped . The little girl , from her place in hiding , heard the story . So the little girl found a policeman , and told him about it . And the policeman went with her to the hiding place , and heard enough to warrant him in making what he afterward described as a ' two handed collar . ' The adventurous and her confederate were hailed to the police station and locked up , while the artist was set free in a hurry . The result is that there is now a ' scrub woman ' whose duties are a sinecure although the wages are high , and the future of the ' little mother ' and her baby are assured . "
= = Production = =
The only credit known in the production is that of Marie Eline in the role of the little mother . Known and advertised prominently as the " Thanhouser Kid " , Marie Eline received more attention then other Thanhouser staff . Historian Q. David Bowers wrote , " Her versatile acting was a major contributor to the success that the Thanhouser Company enjoyed during its formative years . " The film harkens back to the role played by Eline in her film debut , A 29 @-@ Cent Robbery , in which she played a child detective to capture a thief .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 990 feet long , was released on February 28 , 1911 . The film received mixed reviews by critics with the sharpest criticism of the improbable and illogical feats the " little mother " would perform . The Billboard said , " There is too much of the made @-@ to @-@ order situations in this film , causing the spectator to stretch his imagination to the straining point . That a little tot can accomplish in a way of detective work the feat set to ' kid ' actor in this film performs , is hardly logical . The acting of the Thanhouser tot is great , giving the picture the greater part of the interest it contains . The other players acquit themselves well . " The Moving Picture World largely agreed , but stated that the film only had one or two parts of the film were weak and the photography and acting were good . The Morning Telegraph found that the film would have been more logical should a scene with a police court to release the artist , for the police would not have been able to release them otherwise after the charges had been brought forth . The New York Dramatic Mirror review however states that this scene did occur with Marie acting outside the room and being consulted by an officer , whereupon the action take place off camera . The reviewer also stated that the production was admirably staged and acted .
The film is presumed lost because the film is not known to be held in any archive or by any collector .
= Interstate 696 =
Interstate 696 ( I @-@ 696 ) is an east – west auxiliary Interstate Highway in the US state of Michigan . The state trunkline highway is also known as the Walter P. Reuther Freeway , named for the prominent auto industry union head by the Michigan Legislature in 1971 . I @-@ 696 is a bypass route , detouring around the city of Detroit through the city 's northern suburbs in Oakland and Macomb counties . It starts by branching off I @-@ 96 and I @-@ 275 at its western terminus in Novi , and runs through suburbs including Southfield , Royal Oak and Warren before merging into I @-@ 94 at St. Clair Shores on the east end . It has eight lanes for most of its length and is approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) north of downtown Detroit . I @-@ 696 connects to other freeways such as I @-@ 75 ( Chrysler Freeway ) and M @-@ 10 ( Lodge Freeway ) . Local residents sometimes refer to I @-@ 696 as " The Autobahn of Detroit . "
Planning for the freeway started in the 1950s . Michigan state officials proposed the designation I @-@ 98 , but this was not approved . Construction started on the first segment in 1961 , and the Lodge Freeway was designated Business Spur Interstate 696 ( BS I @-@ 696 ) the following year . The western third of the freeway opened in 1963 , and the eastern third was completed in January 1979 . The central segment was the subject of much controversy during the 1960s and 1970s . Various municipalities along this stretch argued over the routing of the freeway such that the governor locked several officials into a room overnight until they would agree to a routing . Later , various groups used federal environmental regulations to force changes to the freeway . The Orthodox Jewish community in Oak Park was concerned about pedestrian access across the freeway ; I @-@ 696 was built with a set of parks on overpasses to accommodate their needs . The Detroit Zoo and the City of Detroit also fought components of the freeway design . These concessions delayed the completion of I @-@ 696 until December 15 , 1989 . Since completion , the speed limit was raised from 55 to 70 miles per hour ( 90 to 115 km / h ) . In addition , some interchanges were reconfigured in 2006 .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 696 , which has been called " Detroit 's Autobahn " by some residents reflecting a reputation for fast drivers , begins in the west in the city of Novi as a left exit branching off I @-@ 96 . This ramp is a portion of the I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 696 / I @-@ 275 / M @-@ 5 interchange that spans the north – south , Novi – Farmington Hills city line linking together five converging freeways . The freeway curves southeasterly and then northeasterly through the complex as it runs eastward through the adjacent residential subdivisions . I @-@ 696 passes south of 12 Mile Road in the Mile Road System through Farmington Hills , passing south of Harrison High School and north of Mercy High School . After crossing into Southfield , I @-@ 696 passes through the Mixing Bowl , another complex interchange that spans over two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) near the American Center involving M @-@ 10 ( the Lodge Freeway and Northwestern Highway ) and US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) between two partial interchanges with Franklin Road on the west and Lahser Road on the east . The carriageways for I @-@ 696 run in the median of M @-@ 10 from northwest to southeast . East of this interchange , cargo restrictions have been enacted for the next 10 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 16 km ) segment of I @-@ 696 ; no commercial vehicles may carry flammable or explosive loads .
After passing through the Mixing Bowl , I @-@ 696 follows 11 Mile Road , which forms a pair of service drives for the main freeway . The Interstate passes through the city of Lathrup Village before turning southward and then easterly on an S @-@ shaped path to run along 10 Mile Road . This segment of freeway is known for its extensive use of retaining walls , with three large landscaped plazas forming short tunnels for freeway traffic near the Greenfield Road exit . The freeway passes next to the Jewish Community Center of Metropolitan Detroit as it passes under the third pedestrian plaza . The Interstate then picks up 10 Mile Road , which forms a pair of service drives , as the Reuther runs along the border between the cities of Oak Park and Huntington Woods . I @-@ 696 follows the southern edge of the Detroit Zoo . Immediately east of the zoo , the Interstate intersects M @-@ 1 ( Woodward Avenue ) , and crosses a line of the Canadian National Railway that also carries Amtrak passenger service between Detroit and Pontiac .
East of the rail crossing , I @-@ 696 has a four @-@ level stack interchange with I @-@ 75 over the quadripoint for Royal Oak , Madison Heights , Hazel Park and Ferndale . This interchange marks the eastern end of the cargo restrictions . I @-@ 696 jogs to the northeast near the Hazel Park Raceway , leaving 10 Mile Road . Crossing into Warren in Macomb County at the Dequindre Road interchange , the freeway begins to follow 11 Mile Road again . Near the Detroit Arsenal Tank Plant , I @-@ 696 has another stack interchange for Mound Road ; through the junction , the freeway makes a slight bend to the south . The freeway continues east through the northern edge of Center Line , crossing a line of Conrail Shared Assets and heading back into Warren . The Interstate crosses into Roseville near the M @-@ 97 ( Groesbeck Highway ) interchange and then meets M @-@ 3 ( Gratiot Avenue ) just west of the eastern terminus at I @-@ 94 ( the Edsel Ford Freeway ) in St. Clair Shores . The service drives merge in this final interchange and 11 Mile Road continues due east to Lake St.Clair.
Like other state highways in Michigan , I @-@ 696 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . In 2011 , the department 's traffic surveys showed that on average , 185 @,@ 700 vehicles used the freeway daily east of I @-@ 75 and 38 @,@ 100 vehicles did so each day in part of the Mixing Bowl , the highest and lowest counts along the highway , respectively . As an Interstate Highway , all of I @-@ 696 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
= = = Planning and initial construction = = =
I @-@ 696 is part of the original Interstate Highway System as outlined in 1956 – 58 . As originally proposed by the Michigan State Highway Department , the freeway would have been numbered I @-@ 98 . Construction started in 1961 . The Lodge Freeway , the first segment of which opened in 1957 , was given the Business Spur I @-@ 696 designation in 1962 . The first segment of I @-@ 696 built was the western third of the completed freeway which opened in 1963 – 64 at a cost of $ 16 @.@ 6 million ( equivalent to $ 259 million in 2015 ) . This section ran from the I @-@ 96 in Novi east to the Lodge Freeway in Southfield . The then @-@ unfinished freeway was named for Walter P. Reuther , former leader of the United Auto Workers labor union after he and his wife died in a plane crash on May 9 , 1970 . The next year the Michigan Legislature approved the naming by passing Senate Concurrent Resolution 57 .
In the late 1970s , during the second phase of construction , lobbying efforts and lawsuits attempted to block construction of the central section . If successful , the efforts would have left the freeway with a gap in the middle between the first ( western ) and second ( eastern ) phases of construction . During this time , MDOT assigned M @-@ 6 to the eastern section of the freeway under construction . Signs were erected along the service roads that followed 11 Mile Road to connect the already built stack interchange at I @-@ 75 east to I @-@ 94 . By the time the eastern freeway segment was initially opened in January 1979 between I @-@ 94 and I @-@ 75 , the signage for M @-@ 6 was removed and replaced with I @-@ 696 signage ; it cost $ 200 million ( equivalent to $ 954 million in 2015 ) to complete . Later in 1979 , a closure was scheduled to allow work to be completed on three of the nine interchanges on the segment .
= = = Controversies over middle segment = = =
The central section was the most controversial . Governor James Blanchard was 15 years old and a high school sophomore in neighboring Pleasant Ridge when the freeway was proposed and purchased a home in the area in 1972 . He joked during remarks at the dedication in 1989 , " The unvarnished truth about this freeway ? I wasn 't even alive when it was first proposed , " and added , " frankly , I never thought it would go through . " Total cost at completion for the entire freeway at the end of the 30 @-@ year project was $ 675 million ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 65 billion in 2015 ) .
Arguments between local officials were so intense that during the 1960s , then @-@ Governor George W. Romney once locked fighting bureaucrats in a community center until they would agree on a path for the freeway . During the 1970s , local groups used then @-@ new environmental regulations to oppose the Interstate . The freeway was noted in a Congressional subcommittee report on the " Major Interstate System Route Controversy in Urban Areas " or the controversies in 1970 . Before 1967 , local communities had to approve highway locations and designs , and the debates over I @-@ 696 prompted the passage of an arbitration statute . That statute was challenged by Pleasant Ridge and Lathrup Village before being upheld by the Michigan Supreme Court . Lathrup Village later withdrew from a planning agreement in 1971 ; had that agreement been implemented , construction on the central section was scheduled to commence in 1974 and finish in 1976 .
The community of Orthodox Jews in Oak Park wanted the freeway to pass to the north of their suburb . When this was deemed to be futile , the community asked for changes to the design that would mitigate the impact of the freeway to the pedestrian @-@ dependent community . Final approval in 1981 of the freeway 's alignment was contingent on these mitigation measures . To address the community 's unique needs , the state hired a rabbi to serve as a consultant on the project . In addition , a series of landscaped plazas were incorporated into the design , forming the tunnels through which I @-@ 696 passes . These structures are a set of three 700 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 210 m ) bridges that cross the freeway within a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) . They allow members of the Jewish community to walk to synagogues on the Sabbath and other holidays when Jewish law prohibits driving . These plazas had their length limited ; if they were longer they would be considered tunnels that would require ventilation systems .
The Detroit Zoo was concerned that noise and air pollution from the Interstate would disturb the animals . They were satisfied by $ 12 million ( equivalent to $ 29 @.@ 3 million in 2015 ) spent on a new parking ramp and other improvements . The City of Detroit tried to stop I @-@ 696 as well , but in the end the city was forced to redesign its golf course . A refusal to grant an additional nine feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) of right @-@ of @-@ way by Detroit forced additional design and construction delays during the 1980s .
One of the last obstacles to construction of the freeway was a wetlands area near Southfield . MDOT received a permit from the Michigan Department of Natural Resources to destroy 6 1 ⁄ 2 acres ( 2 @.@ 6 ha ) of wetland and create a replacement 11 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 5 ha ) area . In the process , some prairie roses and wetlands milkweed were transplanted from the path of I @-@ 696 in 1987 . The final section of the eight @-@ lane freeway opened at a cost of $ 436 million ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 06 billion in 2015 ) on December 15 , 1989 . At the time , one caller to a Detroit radio show commented , " do you realize we have been to the moon and back in the time it has taken to get that road from Ferndale to Southfield ? "
= = = Since completion = = =
As part of the overall rehabilitation to the Mixing Bowl interchange , a new interchange at Franklin Road was to be constructed in 2006 . An exit ramp from I @-@ 696 eastbound to American Drive opened in April 2006 . An entrance ramp from Franklin Road to I @-@ 696 westbound opened in July 2006 . The Franklin Road overpass , which had been closed during this time , re @-@ opened in October 2006 . On November 9 that year , the speed limit was increased from 55 to 70 mph ( 90 to 115 km / h ) along the length of I @-@ 696 .
= = Exit list = =
= = Related trunkline = =
Business Spur Interstate 696 ( BS I @-@ 696 ) was the designation given to the Lodge Freeway in the Detroit area in 1962 . This 17 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 28 @.@ 2 km ) freeway was renumbered as part of US 10 in 1970 , when that highway designation was shifted off Woodward Avenue .
= John Edward Brownlee as Attorney @-@ General of Alberta =
John Edward Brownlee served as Attorney @-@ General of the province of Alberta in western Canada from 1921 until 1926 , in the United Farmers of Alberta ( UFA ) government of Herbert Greenfield . As Brownlee was the only lawyer in a caucus formed almost entirely of farmers , his role extended beyond the traditional expectations of an attorney @-@ general , and ranged from providing legal advice to explaining how to write a business letter ; he also became the government 's de facto leader in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta .
UFA members held widely disparate political views , and Brownlee quickly became identified with the government 's conservative faction . He opposed radical changes to the structure of government and urged thrift in public spending . As part of the government 's attempts to balance its budget , Brownlee favoured selling its money @-@ losing railways and concluding an agreement with the federal government to give Alberta control over its natural resources ; he was unsuccessful at both while Attorney @-@ General . As a member of a farmers ' government , he was also involved in attempts to alleviate drought @-@ induced poverty in southern Alberta and in investigations into the establishment of a provincial wheat pool .
UFA Members of the Legislative Assembly ( MLAs ) began to see Brownlee as a better leader than the indecisive Greenfield . A group of them attempted to force Greenfield to resign in Brownlee 's favour . Though Brownlee opposed these attempts , initially threatening to resign if Greenfield did , he was eventually persuaded to accept the premiership if Greenfield willingly relinquished it . Brownlee became premier November 23 , 1925 .
= = Background = =
Brownlee began his legal career in Calgary , and the UFA was one of his firm 's major clients . One of the projects he undertook for it was the creation of the United Grain Growers ( UGG ) , of whose securities division he became general manager in 1919 . He also travelled around Alberta with UFA president Henry Wise Wood answering UFA members ' legal questions while Wood spoke to them about politics and the farmers ' movement . Though Brownlee was not initially interested in the UFA 's political activities , this changed through his association with Wood and Progressive Party of Canada leader Thomas Crerar .
Until 1919 , the UFA 's political activities were limited to advocacy , but that year it decided to run candidates in the 1921 provincial election . Despite Brownlee 's burgeoning interest in politics , he did not view himself as part of the UFA 's political branch , and did not run as a candidate ; indeed , he was on vacation in Victoria , British Columbia , for most of the campaign .
The UFA contested the election without a leader , so when it won 38 of the 61 seats in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta it did not know who it would recommend to form a government as Premier of Alberta . Wood was not interested and suggested that Brownlee should take the position , to the latter 's astonishment . Brownlee did not believe that , as an urbanite and lawyer , he would be acceptable to the rural UFA caucus , and declined ; the position went to Herbert Greenfield .
= = Entry into cabinet and legislature = =
Though the UFA MLAs were not willing to accept a non @-@ farmer as premier , many of them realized that the post of Attorney @-@ General should go to a lawyer . Others were less convinced , and Brownlee was invited to address the UFA caucus . He acknowledged that there was no constitutional requirement on the question , but advised that a non @-@ lawyer attorney @-@ general would be wholly reliant on the advice of the lawyers on his staff . With the caucus convinced , Greenfield asked Brownlee to accept the position . Brownlee demurred , reluctant to take the resulting cut in income , not eager to leave his family in Calgary to work in Edmonton ( the provincial capital ) , and leery of the high expectations invested in the new government by the province 's farmers . Ultimately , a combination of duty , loyalty , and ambition convinced him to accept the position . Though the choice of cabinet ministers is traditionally the prerogative of the premier , as part of the UFA 's agenda of democratic reform Greenfield agreed to present his choices to the caucus for vetting . Brownlee was approved August 11 , 1921 , and was sworn in two days later .
Neither he nor Greenfield had run as a candidate in the election , and neither was a member of the legislature . Percival Baker , the UFA member elected for Ponoka , had died on election day , opening up a seat for one of them . A second seat , Peace River , became available when incumbent Donald MacBeth Kennedy resigned to run in the 1921 federal election . Greenfield seemed a more reasonable candidate for that rugged northern riding than the urban lawyer Brownlee , and so Brownlee was acclaimed as Ponoka 's MLA December 9 , 1921 .
= = Advisor to the government = =
Brownlee was the only lawyer in a government composed primarily of farmers , and the rest of the cabinet drew heavily on his expertise . Its reliance on him extended beyond legal issues to such matters as how to write a business letter . Greenfield was among the most dependent , and forwarded most controversial issues to his attorney @-@ general for a draft response ; Greenfield often signed the draft and sent it out unchanged . The premier eventually relied on Brownlee so heavily that Brownlee set the agenda for cabinet meetings . The government also relied on Brownlee in the legislature , where it found itself under relentless attack from the John R. Boyle @-@ led Liberals . Brownlee had the widest debating experience of the UFA members , and he was increasingly called upon to counter these attacks . His maiden speech was typical of him : " I came into this House with considerable trepidation , because I knew that sitting opposite would be the former giants of this House , men with ability , experience , and skill . Since coming in I 've listened to all these men — giving their best — and now I blush at my own modesty . "
When Greenfield was asked a difficult question in the legislature , he often leaned over to Brownlee , his seatmate , who supplied him with an answer in full view of the legislature . Many UFA members found this practice humiliating . Brownlee 's importance to the government in the legislature was illustrated by an incident in 1922 . Brownlee was on vacation in Victoria during a special sitting of the legislature . While his presence was usually considered crucial , the only item of business scheduled for the session was uncontroversial , and passed by a large margin . However , once this item was dispensed with , some members complained that the C $ 100 payment that they were to receive for the special session was too low . Greenfield brought a motion to double it ; the amount was increased to $ 250 in committee . At a time when many farmers earned less than $ 250 per year , the move cost the UFA dearly in the eyes of its supporters . Many UFA MLAs privately suggested that the incident would have been avoided had Brownlee been present . On another occasion , in 1924 , Brownlee was absent from the legislature due to illness . Boyle called him to assure him that he could rest easy , since the Liberals would not raise any difficult issues in his absence . While Brownlee appreciated the gesture , all involved recognized it as an admission that the government was helpless in the legislature without its strongman .
Brownlee 's work as an MLA extended beyond the legislature . He gave close attention to correspondence from his constituents , especially those alleging improper treatment at Ponoka 's psychiatric hospital . He prepared thoroughly for speaking engagements in his riding , trying to anticipate all possible questions . These measures were reflected in his support in the largely rural riding , where the Calgary lawyer became a popular and well @-@ respected MLA .
= = Advocate for conservatism = =
Many of the elected UFA members espoused radical political doctrines calculated to transform the provincial government . Brownlee quickly became identified with the caucus 's conservative faction . At the caucus meeting that approved his appointment , he put an end to discussion of whether nominations for justices of the peace should come from UFA locals or its central political committee by asserting that they would continue to be handled by the office of the Attorney @-@ General . Later , many UFA MLAs argued that only motions explicitly declaring a lack of confidence in the government should be treated as motions of non @-@ confidence . They were concerned that supporters of the government who nonetheless disagreed with it on a specific issue might be pressured to refrain from voting their consciences on motions , such as money bills , that were conventionally considered tests of the government 's confidence . Brownlee warned these MLAs that regardless of their beliefs , the Lieutenant @-@ Governor of Alberta was free to request the government 's resignation any time he considered that it lacked or did not merit the legislature 's confidence . Despite this warning , UFA MLAs John Russell Love and Alex Moore proposed a resolution in the legislature changing the convention . The proposal attracted notice from across Canada ; R. B. Bennett advised Brownlee , his former clerk , to warn Moore and Love that it was unconstitutional and demand that they withdraw it . Brownlee was reluctant to do so , since a similar proposal had been part of the UFA 's election platform , and instead moved successful amendments weakening the motion to a vague " statement of intent " .
Brownlee clashed again with the UFA 's radical elements on the question of a provincial bank . The writings of C. H. Douglas advocating an economic system that he called social credit were attracting notice in Alberta , and his adherents included many UFA members . Led by George Bevington , they sponsored a resolution at the UFA convention in January 1923 calling for the creation of a government @-@ owned bank . After Bevington 's introduction , support for the resolution was running high ; Brownlee cooled enthusiasm with a speech of his own warning delegates that Alberta 's debt load could not manage the programs that Bevington proposed that a provincial bank should undertake . Even so , the convention passed a resolution calling on the provincial government to apply for a bank charter from the federal government , which was responsible for banking under the British North America Act , 1867 . At Brownlee 's recommendation , the Greenfield government struck a commission under the leadership of University of Alberta economist D. A. MacGibbon , which strongly recommended against the establishment of a provincial bank . This mirrored Brownlee 's own conclusion , reached after investigating state @-@ run banks in New Zealand and New South Wales . At the 1924 UFA convention , Bevington and his followers reaffirmed their demands ; Brownlee responded by pointing to the findings of the MacGibbon commission and to his contention that the proposal was unconstitutional and would bankrupt the province . In this he was supported by Henry Wise Wood , whom Bevington was challenging for the UFA presidency . Brownlee proposed instead that the government 's treasury branches should begin to accept deposits .
Brownlee also advocated a conservative approach on budgetary issues . The UFA government inherited a large budget deficit , and Brownlee was dissatisfied with Greenfield 's early efforts at reducing it . In 1922 , he warned the premier that unless the government sharply cut expenditures , he would find it difficult to defend its fiscal policy in that year 's session of the legislature . In 1924 , unsatisfied with Greenfield 's response , he made an example of his own department , cutting staff and taking a strict approach to spending . In 1923 , he found an ally for his position in new provincial treasurer Richard Gavin Reid , who impressed on his cabinet colleagues the need for thrift and recommended the creation of a purchasing department for coordinating government expenditures .
= = Railways and natural resources = =
The province 's poor financial situation was due in part to its $ 5 million annual expenditure on railways , comprising 37 percent of the 1922 budget . These expenditures resulted from the collapse of four small @-@ railroad syndicates , which left the government to finance the rail construction . Brownlee believed that these lines , the largest of which was the Edmonton , Dunve | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
be aggressive around other dogs unless introduced at an early age . Scottish Terriers were originally bred to hunt and fight badgers . Therefore , the Scottie is prone to dig as well as chase small vermin , such as squirrels , rats , and mice .
= = Health = =
Two genetic health concerns seen in the breed are von Willebrand disease ( vWD ) and craniomandibular osteopathy ( CMO ) ; Scottie cramp , patellar luxation and cerebellar abiotrophy are also sometimes seen in this breed . Common eye conditions seen in a variety of breeds such as cataracts and glaucoma can appear in Scotties as they age . There are no specific conditions relating the skin that affect the breed , but they can be affected by common dog related conditions such as parasites and mange . Scotties typically live from 11 to 13 years .
= = = Cancer in Scottish Terriers = = =
Scottish Terriers have a greater chance of developing some cancers than other purebreds . According to research by the Veterinary Medical Data Program ( 1986 ) , six cancers that Scotties appeared to be more at risk for ( when compared to other breeds ) are : ( in descending order ) bladder cancer and other transitional cell carcinomas of the lower urinary tract ; malignant melanoma ; gastric carcinoma ; squamous cell carcinoma of the skin ; lymphosarcoma and nasal carcinoma . Other cancers that are known to commonly affect Scotties include mast cell sarcoma and hemangiosarcoma .
Research has suggested that Scottish Terriers are 20 times more likely to get bladder cancer than other breeds and the most common kind of bladder cancer is transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder ( TCC ) . Dr. Deborah Knapp of Purdue University School of Veterinary Medicine has commented " TCC usually occurs in older dogs ( average age 11 years ) and is more common in females ( 2 : 1 ratio of females to males ) . " Symptoms of TCC are blood in the urine , straining to urinate , and frequent urination — although owners noticing any of these symptoms should also be aware that the same symptoms may also be indicative of a urinary tract infection .
The most common and effective form of treatment for TCC is Piroxicam , a non @-@ steroidal anti @-@ inflammatory drug that " allows the cancer cells to kill themselves . " In order to help prevent cancer in a dog , an owner should ensure that their dog has minimal exposure to herbicides , pesticides , solvents and cigarette smoke ; use caution when treating dogs with some flea medications ; provide a healthy , vitamin @-@ rich diet ( low in carbohydrates , high in vegetables ) and plenty of exercise .
= = = Scottie cramp = = =
Scottie cramp is an autosomal recessive hereditary disorder which inhibits the dog 's ability to walk . It is caused by a defect in the pathways in the brain that control muscle contraction due to a low level of serotonin in the body . Typically symptoms only show when the particular dog is under some degree of stress . The front legs are pushed out to the side , the back arches and the rear legs overflex , causing the dog to fall should they be moving at speed . The condition is not seizure related , and the dog remains conscious throughout the event , with symptoms abating once the cause of the stress has been removed .
Vitamin E , Diazepam and Prozac have all been shown to be effective treatments should it be required . Scotty cramp is found in other breeds of terrier , including the Cesky Terrier . " Episodic Falling " , a condition found in Cavalier King Charles Spaniels is considered to be similar to this disorder .
= = = Craniomandibular osteopathy = = =
Also known as " Lion Jaw " , " Westy Jaw " or " Scotty Jaw " , this condition of craniomandibular osteopathy is caused by excessive bone growth in the bottom jaw , usually occurring between four and seven months of age . Like Scottie Cramp , it is an autosomal recessive hereditary disorder , and can cause discomfort to the dog when it attempts to chew . The progression of the condition usually slows down between eleven and thirteen months of age , and is sometimes followed by a slow partial or complete regression .
This condition has also been seen in other breeds of dog , such as the West Highland White Terrier , Cairn Terrier , Boston Terrier , as well as some larger breeds such as Bullmastiffs .
= = = von Willebrand 's disease = = =
Von Willebrand 's disease is a hereditary bleeding disorder found in both dogs and humans . It is caused by a lack of von Willebrand factor which plays a role in the clotting process of blood . This can cause abnormal platelet function and prolonged bleeding times . Affected dogs can be prone to nose bleeds , and increased bleeding following trauma or surgery . There are three types of this condition with Type I being the most common , while Type II and III being rarer , but more severe . Type I von Willebrand 's disease is relatively common in the Scottish Terrier .
Type I is more widespread in Doberman Pinscher , but is as common in the Shetland Sheepdog as the Scottish Terrier . The condition appears in most breeds to some extent , but other breeds with an increased risk include the Golden Retriever , German Shepherd Dog , Basset Hound and Manchester Terrier .
= = History = =
Initial grouping of several of the highland terriers ( including the Scottie ) under the generic name Skye Terriers caused some confusion in the breed ’ s lineage . There is disagreement over whether the Skye Terriers mentioned in early 16th century records actually descended from forerunners of the Scottie or vice versa . It is certain , however , that Scotties and West Highland White Terriers are closely related — both their forefathers originated from the Blackmount region of Perthshire and the Moor of Rannoch . Scotties were originally bred to hunt and kill vermin on farms and to hunt badgers and foxes in the Highlands of Scotland .
The actual origin of a breed as old as the Scottish Terrier is obscure and undocumented . The first written records about a dog of similar description to the Scottish Terrier dates from 1436 , when Don Leslie described them in his book The History of Scotland 1436 – 1561 . Two hundred years later , Sir Joshua Reynolds painted a portrait of a young girl caressing a dog similar in appearance to the modern @-@ day Scottie . King James VI of Scotland was an important historical figure featuring in the Scottish Terrier 's history . In the 17th century , when King James VI became James I of England , he sent six terriers — thought to be forerunners of the Scottish terrier — to a French monarch as a gift . His love and adoration for the breed increased their popularity throughout the world .
Many dog writers after the early 19th century seem to agree that there were two varieties of terrier existing in Britain at the time — a rough @-@ haired so @-@ called Scotch Terrier and a smooth @-@ haired English Terrier . Thomas Brown , in his Biological Sketches and Authentic Anecdotes of Dogs ( 1829 ) , states that " the Scotch terrier is certainly the purest in point of breed and the ( smooth ) English seems to have been produced by a cross from him " . Brown went on to describe the Scotch Terrier as " low in stature , with a strong muscular body , short stout legs , a head large in proportion to the body " and was " generally of a sandy colour or black " with a " long , matted and hard " coat . Although the Scotch Terrier described here is more generic than specific to a breed , it asserts the existence of a small , hard , rough @-@ coated terrier developed for hunting small game in the Scottish Highlands in the early 19th century ; a description that shares characteristics with what was once known as the Aberdeen Terrier and is today known as the Scottish Terrier . In addition , the paintings of Sir Edwin Landseer and an 1835 lithograph entitled " Scottish Terriers at Work on a Cairn in the West Highlands " both depict Scottie type terriers very similar to those described in the first Scottish Terrier Standard .
In the 19th century , the Highlands of Scotland , including the Isle of Skye , were abundant with terriers originally known by the generic term " short @-@ haired terriers " or " little Skye Terriers . " Towards the end of the 19th century , it was decided to separate these Scottish terriers and develop pure bloodlines and specific breeds . Originally , the breeds were separated into two categories : Dandie Dinmont Terriers and Skye Terriers ( not the Skye Terrier known today , but a generic name for a large group of terriers with differing traits all said to originate from the Isle of Skye ) . The Birmingham England dog show of 1860 was the first to offer classes for these groups of terriers . They continued to be exhibited in generic groups for several years and these groups included the ancestors of today 's Scottish Terrier . Recorded history and the initial development of the breed started in the late 1870s with the development of dog shows . The exhibition and judging of dogs required comparison to a breed standard and thus the appearance and temperament of the Scottie was written down for the first time . Eventually , the Skye Terriers were further divided into what are known today as the Scottish Terrier , Skye Terrier , West Highland White Terrier and Cairn Terrier .
While fanciers sought to identify and standardize the breed and its description through the late 19th century , the Scottish Terrier was known by many different names : the Highland , the Cairn , Diehard , and most often , the Aberdeen Terrier — named because of the abundant number of the dogs in the area and because a J. A. Adamson of Aberdeen successfully exhibited his dogs during the 1870s . Roger Rough , a dog owned by Adamson , Tartan , a dog owned by Mr Paynton Piggott , Bon Accord , owned by Messrs Ludlow and Bromfield , and Splinter II owned by Mr Ludlow , were early winners of dog exhibitions and are the four dogs from which all Scottish Terrier pedigrees ultimately began . It is often said that all present day Scotties stem from a single bitch , Splinter II , and two sires . In her book , The New Scottish Terrier , Cindy Cooke refers to Splinter II as the " foundation matron of the modern Scottish Terrier . " Cooke goes on to say " For whatever reason , early breeders line bred on this bitch to the virtual exclusion of all others . Mated to Tartan , she produced Worry , the dam of four champions . Rambler , her son by Bonaccord , sired the two founding sires of the breed , Ch . Dundee ( out of Worry ) and Ch . Alistair ( out of a Dundee daughter ) " Show champions on both sides of the Atlantic descend from Splinter and her sires .
Captain Gordon Murray and S.E. Shirley were responsible for setting the type in 1879 . Shortly afterwards , in 1879 , Scotties were for the first time exhibited at Alexander Palace in England , while the following year they began to be classified in much the same way as is done today . The first written standard of the breed was drafted by J.B. Morrison and D.J. Thomson Gray and appeared in Vero Shaw 's Illustrated Book of The Dog , published in 1880 ; it was extremely influential in setting both breed type and name . The standard described the breed 's colouring as " Grey , Grizzle or Brindle " , as the typically Black colouring of Scotties did not become fashionable or favoured until the 20th century .
In 1881 the " Scottish Terrier Club of England " was founded , being the first club dedicated to the breed . The club secretary , H.J. Ludlow , is responsible for greatly popularising the breed in the southern parts of Great Britain . The " Scottish Terrier Club of Scotland " was not founded until 1888 , seven years after the English club . Following the formation of the English and Scottish clubs there followed several years of disagreement regarding the breed 's official standard . The issue was finally settled by a revised standard in 1930 , which was based on four prepotent dogs . The dogs were Robert and James Chapman 's Heather Necessity , Albourne Barty , bred by AG Cowley , Albourne Annie Laurie , bred by Miss Wijk and Miss Wijk 's Marksman of Docken ( the litter brother of Annie Laurie ) . These four dogs and their offspring modified the look of the Scottie , particularly the length of the head , closeness to the ground and the squareness of body . Their subsequent success in the show ring led to them becoming highly sought after by the British public and breeders . As such , the modified standard completely revolutionized the breed . This new standard was subsequently recognised by the Kennel Club UK circa 1930 .
Scotties were introduced to America in the early 1890s , but it was not until the years between World War I and World War II that the breed became popular . The Scottish Terrier Club of America ( STCA ) was formed in 1900 and a standard written in 1925 . The Scottish Terrier was recognized by the United Kennel Club in 1934 . By 1936 , Scotties were the third most popular breed in the United States . Although they did not permanently stay in fashion , they continue to enjoy a steady popularity with a large segment of the dog @-@ owning public across the world . The STCA founded its Health Trust Fund ( HTF ) in 1995 which supports research on health issues in the breed .
Scottish Terriers have won best in show at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show more than any other breed except for the Wire Fox Terrier , a total of nine times . These victories began in 1911 with a win by Ch . Tickle Em Jock and include recent victories such as in 1995 when Ch . Gaelforce Post Script ( Peggy Sue ) won , and in 2010 with a victory by Ch . Roundtown Mercedes Of Maryscot .
= = Famous Scotties and popular culture = =
The Scottie and the German Shepherd are the only breeds of dog that have lived in the White House more than three times . President Franklin D. Roosevelt was renowned for owning a Scottie named Fala , a gift from his distant cousin , Margaret Suckley . The President loved Fala so much that he rarely went anywhere without him . Roosevelt had several Scotties before Fala , including one named Duffy and another named Mr. Duffy . Eleanor Roosevelt had a Scottish Terrier named Meggie when the family entered the White House in 1933 . More recently , President George W. Bush has owned two black Scottish Terriers , Barney and Miss Beazley . Barney starred in nine films produced by the White House .
Other famous people who are known to have owned Scotties include : Queen Victoria , Eva Braun , Dwight D. Eisenhower , Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis , Ed Whitfield , Rudyard Kipling and President of Poland , Lech Kaczynski . Actress Tatum O 'Neal owned a Scottish Terrier . She was said to be so saddened by her dog 's death to cancer and old age that she relapsed into drugs .
The Scottie is also renowned for being featured in the popular board game , Monopoly , as a player token . When the game was first created in the 1930s , Scotties were one of the most popular pets in the United States , and it is also one of the most popular Monopoly game tokens , according to Matt Collins , vice president of marketing for Hasbro . A Scottish Terrier named Dulcinea is a scene @-@ stealer in the 1998 Latin American novel Yo @-@ Yo Boing ! by Giannina Braschi .
In May 2007 , Carnegie Mellon University named the Scottish Terrier its official mascot . The Scottie had been a long @-@ running unofficial mascot of the university , whose founder 's Scottish heritage is also honored by the official athletic nickname of " Tartans " . Agnes Scott College in Decatur , Georgia also uses the Scottie as their mascot . The dog 's image is a symbol for the Radley brand of bags . The amateur athletics organisation Jogscotland has an anthropomorphic Scottish Terrier as its mascot .
= Wallis Simpson =
Wallis , Duchess of Windsor ( previously Wallis Simpson , Wallis Spencer , and Wallis Warfield ; 19 June 1896 – 24 April 1986 ) was an American socialite . Her third husband , Prince Edward , Duke of Windsor , formerly King Edward VIII , abdicated his throne to marry her .
Wallis 's father died shortly after her birth , and she and her widowed mother were partly supported by their wealthier relatives . Her first marriage , to U.S. naval officer Win Spencer , was punctuated by periods of separation and eventually ended in divorce . In 1934 , during her second marriage , to Ernest Simpson , she allegedly became the mistress of Edward , Prince of Wales . Two years later , after Edward 's accession as king , Wallis divorced her second husband in order to marry Edward .
The King 's desire to marry a woman who had two living ex @-@ husbands threatened to cause a constitutional crisis in the United Kingdom and the Dominions , and ultimately led to his abdication in December 1936 to marry " the woman I love " . After the abdication , the former king was created Duke of Windsor by his brother and successor , King George VI . Edward married Wallis six months later , after which she was formally known as the Duchess of Windsor , without the style " Her Royal Highness " . She was instead styled as " Her Grace " , a style normally reserved only for non @-@ royal dukes and duchesses .
Before , during , and after World War II , the Duke and Duchess of Windsor were suspected by many in government and society of being Nazi sympathisers . In 1937 , they visited Germany and met Adolf Hitler . In the 1950s and 1960s , she and the Duke shuttled between Europe and United States living a life of leisure as society celebrities . After the Duke 's death in 1972 , the Duchess lived in seclusion , and was rarely seen in public . Her private life has been a source of much speculation , and she remains a controversial figure in British history .
= = Early life = =
An only child , Bessie Wallis ( sometimes written " Bessiewallis " ) Warfield was born in Square Cottage at Monterey Inn , a hotel directly across the road from the Monterey Country Club , in Blue Ridge Summit , Pennsylvania . A summer resort close to the Maryland – Pennsylvania border , Blue Ridge Summit was popular with Baltimoreans escaping the season 's heat , and Monterey Inn , which had a central building as well as individual wooden cottages , was the town 's largest hotel . Her father was Teackle Wallis Warfield , fifth and youngest son of Henry Mactier Warfield , a flour merchant described as " one of the best known and personally one of the most popular citizens of Baltimore " who ran for mayor in 1875 . Her mother was Alice Montague , a daughter of insurance salesman William Montague . Wallis was named in honour of her father ( who was known as Wallis ) and her mother 's elder sister , Bessie ( Mrs D. Buchanan Merryman ) , and was called Bessie Wallis until at some time during her youth the name Bessie was dropped .
According to a wedding announcement in the Baltimore Sun ( 20 November 1895 ) , her parents were married , by Reverend C. Ernest Smith , at Baltimore 's Saint Michael and All Angels ' Protestant Episcopal Church on 19 November 1895 , though Wallis claimed her parents were married in June 1895 . Her father died of tuberculosis on 15 November 1896 . For her first few years , she and her mother were dependent upon the charity of her father 's wealthy bachelor brother Solomon Davies Warfield , postmaster of Baltimore and later president of the Continental Trust Company and the Seaboard Air Line Railway . Initially , they lived with him at the four @-@ story row house , 34 East Preston Street , that he shared with his mother .
In 1901 , Wallis 's aunt Bessie Merryman was widowed , and the following year Alice and Wallis moved into her four @-@ bedroom house on West Chase Street , Baltimore , where they lived for at least a year until they settled in an apartment , and then a house , of their own . In 1908 , Wallis 's mother married her second husband , John Freeman Rasin , son of a prominent Democratic party boss . On 17 April 1910 , Wallis was confirmed at Christ Episcopal Church , Baltimore , and between 1912 and 1914 her uncle Warfield paid for her to attend Oldfields School , the most expensive girls ' school in Maryland . There she became a friend of heiress Renée du Pont , a daughter of Senator T. Coleman du Pont , of the du Pont family , and Mary Kirk , whose family founded Kirk Silverware . A fellow pupil at one of Wallis 's schools recalled , " She was bright , brighter than all of us . She made up her mind to go to the head of the class , and she did . " Wallis was always immaculately dressed and pushed herself hard to do well . A later biographer wrote of her " Though Wallis 's jaw was too heavy for her to be counted beautiful , her fine violet @-@ blue eyes and petite figure , quick wits , vitality , and capacity for total concentration on her interlocutor ensured that she had many admirers . "
= = First marriage = =
In April 1916 , Wallis met Earl Winfield Spencer , Jr . , a U.S. Navy aviator , at Pensacola , Florida , while visiting her cousin Corinne Mustin . It was at this time that Wallis witnessed two airplane crashes about two weeks apart , resulting in a lifelong fear of flying . The couple married on 8 November 1916 at Christ Episcopal Church in Baltimore , which had been Wallis 's parish . Win , as her husband was known , was an alcoholic . He drank even before flying and once crashed into the sea , but escaped almost unharmed . After the United States entered World War I in 1917 , Spencer was posted to San Diego as the first commanding officer of a training base in Coronado , known as Naval Air Station North Island ; they remained there until 1921 . In 1920 , Edward , the Prince of Wales , visited San Diego , but he and Wallis did not meet . Later that year , Spencer left his wife for a period of four months , but in the spring of 1921 they were reunited in Washington , D.C. , where Spencer had been posted . They soon separated again , and in 1922 , when Spencer was posted to the Far East as commander of the Pampanga , Wallis remained behind , continuing an affair with an Argentine diplomat , Felipe de Espil . In January 1924 , she visited Paris with her recently widowed cousin Corinne Mustin , before sailing to the Far East aboard a troop carrier , USS Chaumont ( AP @-@ 5 ) . The Spencers were briefly reunited until she fell ill , after which she returned to Hong Kong .
Wallis toured China , and while in Beijing stayed with Katherine and Herman Rogers , who were to remain long @-@ term friends . According to the wife of one of Win 's fellow officers , Mrs Milton E. Miles , in Beijing Wallis met Count Galeazzo Ciano , later Mussolini 's son @-@ in @-@ law and Foreign Minister , had an affair with him , and became pregnant , leading to a botched abortion that left her unable to conceive . The rumour was later widespread but never substantiated and Ciano 's wife , Edda Mussolini , denied it . The existence of an official " China dossier " ( detailing the supposed sexual and criminal exploits of Wallis in China ) is denied by most historians and biographers . Wallis spent over a year in China . By September 1925 , she and her husband were back in the United States , though living apart . Their divorce was finalised on 10 December 1927 .
= = Second marriage = =
By the time her marriage to Spencer was dissolved , Wallis had become involved with Ernest Aldrich Simpson , an Anglo @-@ American shipping executive and former officer in the Coldstream Guards . He divorced his first wife , Dorothea ( by whom he had a daughter , Audrey ) , to marry Wallis on 21 July 1928 at the Register Office in Chelsea , London . Wallis had telegraphed her acceptance of his proposal from Cannes where she was staying with her friends , Mr and Mrs Rogers .
The Simpsons temporarily set up home in a furnished house with four servants in Mayfair . In 1929 , Wallis sailed back to the United States to visit her sick mother , who had married legal clerk Charles Gordon Allen after the death of Rasin . During the trip , Wallis 's investments were wiped out in the Wall Street Crash , and her mother died penniless on 2 November 1929 . Wallis returned to England and with the shipping business still buoyant , the Simpsons moved into a large flat with a staff of servants .
Through a friend , Consuelo Thaw , Wallis met Consuelo 's sister Thelma , Lady Furness , the then @-@ mistress of Edward , Prince of Wales . On 10 January 1931 , Lady Furness introduced Wallis to the Prince at Burrough Court , near Melton Mowbray . The Prince was the eldest son of King George V and Queen Mary , and heir apparent to the British throne . Between 1931 and 1934 , he met the Simpsons at various house parties , and Wallis was presented at court . Ernest was beginning to encounter financial difficulties , as the Simpsons were living beyond their means , and they had to fire a succession of staff .
= = Relationship with Edward , Prince of Wales = =
In January 1934 , while Lady Furness was away in New York City , Wallis allegedly became the Prince 's mistress . Edward denied this to his father , despite his staff seeing them in bed together as well as " evidence of a physical sexual act " . Wallis soon ousted Lady Furness , and the Prince distanced himself from a former lover and confidante , the Anglo @-@ American textile heiress Freda Dudley Ward .
By the end of 1934 , Edward was irretrievably besotted with Wallis , finding her domineering manner and abrasive irreverence toward his position appealing ; in the words of his official biographer , he became " slavishly dependent " on her . According to Wallis , it was during a cruise on Lord Moyne 's private yacht Rosaura in August 1934 that she fell in love with Edward . At an evening party in Buckingham Palace , he introduced her to his mother — his father was outraged , primarily on account of her marital history , as divorced people were generally excluded from court . Edward showered Wallis with money and jewels , and in February 1935 , and again later in the year , he holidayed with her in Europe . His courtiers became increasingly alarmed as the affair began to interfere with his official duties .
In 1935 , the head of the Metropolitan Police Special Branch told the Metropolitan Police Commissioner that Wallis was also having an affair with Guy Marcus Trundle , who was " said to be employed by the Ford Motor Company " . Claims of an affair were doubted , however , by Captain Val Bailey , who knew Trundle well and whose mother had an affair with Trundle for nearly two decades , and by historian Susan Williams .
= = Abdication crisis = =
On 20 January 1936 , George V died at Sandringham and Edward ascended the throne as King Edward VIII . The next day , he broke royal protocol by watching the proclamation of his accession from a window of St James 's Palace , in the company of the still @-@ married Wallis . It was becoming apparent to Court and Government circles that the new King @-@ Emperor meant to marry her . The King 's behaviour and his relationship with Wallis made him unpopular with the Conservative @-@ led British government , as well as distressing his mother and his brother , the Duke of York . The British media remained deferential to the monarchy , and no stories of the affair were reported in the domestic press , but foreign media widely reported their relationship .
The monarch of the United Kingdom is Supreme Governor of the Church of England — at the time of the proposed marriage , and until 2002 , the Church of England did not permit the remarriage of divorced people who had living ex @-@ spouses . Constitutionally , the King was required to be in communion with the Church of England , but his proposed marriage conflicted with the Church 's teachings . Furthermore , the British and Dominion governments felt that Wallis , as a two @-@ time divorcée , was politically , socially , and morally unsuitable as a prospective consort . She was perceived by many in the British Empire as a woman of " limitless ambition " who was pursuing the King because of his wealth and position .
Wallis had already filed for divorce from her second husband on the grounds that he had committed adultery with her childhood friend Mary Kirk and the decree nisi was granted on 27 October 1936 . In November , the King consulted with the British Prime Minister , Stanley Baldwin , on a way to marry Wallis and keep the throne . The King suggested a morganatic marriage , where he would remain king but Wallis would not be queen , but this was rejected by Baldwin and the Prime Ministers of Australia and South Africa . If the King were to marry Wallis against Baldwin 's advice , the Government would be required to resign , causing a constitutional crisis .
Wallis 's relationship with the King had become public knowledge in the United Kingdom by early December . She decided to flee the country as the scandal broke , and was driven to the south of France in a dramatic race to outrun the press . For the next three months , she was under siege by the media at the Villa Lou Viei , near Cannes , the home of her close friends Herman and Katherine Rogers . At her hideaway , Wallis was pressured by the King 's Lord @-@ in @-@ Waiting , Lord Brownlow , to renounce the King . On 7 December 1936 , Lord Brownlow read to the press her statement , which he had helped her draft , indicating Wallis 's readiness to give up the King . However , Edward was determined to marry Wallis . John Theodore Goddard , Wallis 's solicitor , stated : " [ his ] client was ready to do anything to ease the situation but the other end of the wicket [ Edward VIII ] was determined . " This seemingly indicated that the King had decided he had no option but to abdicate if he wished to marry Wallis .
The King signed the Instrument of Abdication on 10 December 1936 , in the presence of his three surviving brothers , the Duke of York ( who would ascend the throne the following day as George VI ) , the Duke of Gloucester and the Duke of Kent . Special laws passed by the Parliaments of the Dominions finalised Edward 's abdication the following day , or in Ireland 's case one day later . On 11 December 1936 , Edward said in a radio broadcast , " I have found it impossible to carry the heavy burden of responsibility , and to discharge my duties as King as I would wish to do , without the help and support of the woman I love . "
Edward left Britain for Austria , where he stayed at Schloss Enzesfeld , the home of Baron Eugen and Baroness Kitty de Rothschild . Edward had to remain apart from Wallis until there was no danger of compromising the granting of a decree absolute in her divorce proceedings . Upon her divorce being made final in May 1937 , she changed her name by deed poll to Wallis Warfield , resuming her maiden name . The couple were reunited at the Château de Candé , Monts , France , on 4 May 1937 .
= = Third marriage : Duchess of Windsor = =
Wallis and Edward married one month later on 3 June 1937 at the Château de Candé , loaned to them by French millionaire Charles Bedaux . The date would have been King George V 's 72nd birthday ; Queen Mary thought the wedding had been scheduled for then as a deliberate slight . No member of Edward 's family attended . Wallis wore a " Wallis blue " Mainbocher wedding dress . The marriage produced no children . In November , Ernest Simpson married Mary Kirk .
Edward was created Duke of Windsor by his brother , George VI , prior to the marriage . However , letters patent , passed by the new king and unanimously supported by the Dominion governments , prevented Wallis , now the Duchess of Windsor , from sharing her husband 's style of " Royal Highness " . George VI 's firm view that the Duchess should not be given a royal title was shared by Queen Mary and George 's wife , Queen Elizabeth ( later the Queen Mother ) . At first , the British royal family did not accept the Duchess and would not receive her formally , although the former king sometimes met his mother and siblings after his abdication . Some biographers have suggested that Wallis 's sister @-@ in @-@ law , Queen Elizabeth , remained bitter towards her for her role in bringing George VI to the throne ( which she may have seen as a factor in his early death ) and for prematurely behaving as Edward 's consort when she was his mistress . These claims were denied by Queen Elizabeth 's close friends , such as the Duke of Grafton , who wrote that she " never said anything nasty about the Duchess of Windsor , except to say she really hadn 't got a clue what she was dealing with . " On the other hand , the Duchess of Windsor referred to Queen Elizabeth as " Mrs Temple " and " Cookie " , alluding to her solid figure and fondness for food , and to her daughter , Princess Elizabeth ( later Queen Elizabeth II ) , as " Shirley " , as in Shirley Temple . The Duchess bitterly resented the denial of the royal title and the refusal of the Duke 's relatives to accept her as part of the family . Within the household of the Duke and Duchess , the style " Her Royal Highness " was used by those who were close to the couple .
According to the wife of former British Union of Fascists leader Oswald Mosley , Diana Mitford , who knew both Queen Elizabeth and the Duchess of Windsor but was only friendly with the latter , the Queen 's antipathy toward her sister @-@ in @-@ law may have resulted from jealousy . Lady Mosley wrote to her sister , the Duchess of Devonshire , after the death of the Duke of Windsor , " probably the theory of their [ the Windsors ' ] contemporaries that Cake [ a Mitford nickname for the Queen Mother , derived from her delighted exclamation at the party at which Deborah Devonshire first met her ] was rather in love with him [ the Duke ] ( as a girl ) & took second best , may account for much . "
The Duke and Duchess lived in France in the pre @-@ war years . In 1937 , they made a high profile visit to Germany and met Adolf Hitler at his Berchtesgaden retreat . After the visit , Hitler said of Wallis , " she would have made a good Queen " . The visit tended to corroborate the strong suspicions of many in government and society that the Duchess was a German agent , a claim that she ridiculed in her letters to the Duke . U.S. FBI files compiled in the 1930s also portray her as a possible Nazi sympathiser . Duke Carl Alexander of Württemberg told the FBI that she and leading Nazi Joachim von Ribbentrop had been lovers in London . There were even rather improbable reports during World War II that she kept a signed photograph of Ribbentrop on her bedside table .
= = World War II = =
As the German troops advanced , the Duke and Duchess fled south from their Paris home , first to Biarritz , then in June to Spain . There , she told the United States ambassador , Alexander W. Weddell , that France had lost because it was " internally diseased " . In July , the pair moved to Lisbon , Portugal , where they stayed at the home of Ricardo de Espirito Santo e Silva , a banker who was suspected of being a German agent . In August , the Duke and Duchess travelled by commercial liner to the Bahamas , where the Duke was installed as Governor .
Wallis performed her role as the Bahamas ' first lady competently for five years ; she worked actively for the Red Cross and in the improvement of infant welfare . However , she hated Nassau , calling it " our St Helena " , in a reference to Napoleon 's final place of exile . She was heavily criticised in the British press for her extravagant shopping in the United States , undertaken when Britain was enduring privations such as rationing and the blackout . Her attitude towards the local population , whom she called " lazy , thriving niggers " in letters to her aunt , reflected her upbringing . In 1941 , Prime Minister Winston Churchill strenuously objected when she and her husband planned to tour the Caribbean aboard a yacht belonging to a Swedish magnate , Axel Wenner @-@ Gren , who Churchill said was " pro @-@ German " . Churchill felt compelled to complain again when the Duke gave a " defeatist " interview . Another of their acquaintances , Charles Bedaux , who had hosted their marriage , was arrested on charges of treason in 1943 , and committed suicide in jail in Miami before the case was brought to trial . The British establishment distrusted the Duchess ; Sir Alexander Hardinge wrote that her suspected anti @-@ British activities were motivated by a desire for revenge against a country that rejected her as its queen . After the defeat of Nazi Germany , the couple returned to France and retirement .
= = Later life = =
In 1946 , when the Duchess was staying at Ednam Lodge , the home of the Earl of Dudley , some of her jewels were stolen . There were rumours that the theft had been masterminded by the royal family as an attempt to regain jewels taken from the Royal Collection by the Duke , or by the Windsors themselves as part of an insurance fraud — they made a large deposit of loose stones at Cartier the following year . However , in 1960 , Richard Dunphie confessed to the crime . The stolen pieces were only a small portion of the Windsor jewels , which were either bought privately , inherited by the Duke , or given to the Duke when he was Prince of Wales .
Later they were offered the use of a house by the Paris municipal authorities . The couple lived at 4 route du Champ d 'Entraînement in the Bois de Boulogne , near Neuilly @-@ sur @-@ Seine , for most of the remainder of their lives , essentially living a life of easy retirement . They bought a second house in the country , Moulin de la Tuilerie or " The Mill " in Gif @-@ sur @-@ Yvette , where they soon became close friends of their neighbours , Oswald and Diana Mosley . Years later , Diana Mosley claimed that the Duke and Duchess shared her and her husband 's views that Hitler should have been given a free hand to destroy Communism ; as the Duke wrote in the New York Daily News of 13 December 1966 : " it was in Britain 's interest and in Europe 's too , that Germany be encouraged to strike east and smash Communism forever ... I thought the rest of us could be fence @-@ sitters while the Nazis and the Reds slogged it out . "
In 1965 , the Duke and Duchess visited London as the Duke required eye surgery for a detached retina ; Queen Elizabeth II and Princess Marina , Duchess of Kent , visited them . The Duke 's sister , the Princess Royal , also visited just 10 days before her death . They attended her memorial service in Westminster Abbey . Later , in 1967 , the Duke and Duchess joined the royal family in London for the unveiling of a plaque by Elizabeth II to commemorate the centenary of Queen Mary 's birth . Both Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Charles visited the Windsors in Paris in the Duke 's later years , the Queen 's visit coming only shortly before the Duke died .
= = Widowhood and death = =
Upon the Duke 's death from cancer in 1972 , the Duchess travelled to the United Kingdom to attend his funeral , staying at Buckingham Palace during her visit . The Duchess , increasingly frail and suffering from dementia , lived the remainder of her life as a recluse , supported by both her husband 's estate and an allowance from the Queen . She suffered several falls , and broke her hip twice . After her husband 's death , the Duchess 's French lawyer , Suzanne Blum , assumed power of attorney . Blum sold items belonging to the Duchess to her own friends at lower than market value , and was accused of exploiting her client in Caroline Blackwood 's The Last of the Duchess , written in 1980 , but not published until after Blum 's death in 1995 . Later royal biographer Hugo Vickers called Blum a " Satanic figure … wearing the mantle of good intention to disguise her inner malevolence " . In 1980 , the Duchess lost the power of speech . Toward the end , she was bedridden and did not receive any visitors , apart from her doctor and nurses .
The Duchess of Windsor died on 24 April 1986 at her home in the Bois de Boulogne , Paris . Her funeral was held at St George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle , attended by her two surviving sisters @-@ in @-@ law : the Queen Mother and Princess Alice , Duchess of Gloucester , and other members of the royal family . The Queen , Prince Philip , and the Prince and Princess of Wales attended both the funeral ceremony and the burial . She was buried next to Edward in the Royal Burial Ground near Windsor Castle , as " Wallis , Duchess of Windsor " . Until an agreement with Queen Elizabeth II in the 1960s , the Duke and Duchess had previously planned for a burial in a purchased cemetery plot at Green Mount Cemetery in Baltimore , where the father of the Duchess was interred .
In recognition of the help France gave to the Duke and Duchess in providing them with a home , and in lieu of death duties , the Duchess 's collection of Louis XVI style furniture , some porcelain and paintings were made over to the French state . The British royal family received no major bequests . Most of her estate went to the Pasteur Institute medical research foundation , on the instructions of Suzanne Blum . The decision took the royal family and the Duchess 's friends by surprise , as she had shown little interest in charity during her life . In a Sotheby 's auction in Geneva in April 1987 the Duchess 's remarkable jewellery collection raised $ 45 million for the Institute , approximately seven times its pre @-@ sale estimate . Blum later claimed that Egyptian entrepreneur Mohamed Al @-@ Fayed tried to purchase the jewels for a " rock bottom price " . Al @-@ Fayed bought much of the non @-@ financial estate , including the lease of the Paris mansion . An auction of his collection was announced in July 1997 for later that year in New York . Delayed by his son 's death in the car accident that also claimed the life of Diana , Princess of Wales , the sale raised more than £ 14 million for charity in 1998 .
= = Legacy = =
Wallis was plagued by rumours of other lovers . The gay American playboy Jimmy Donahue , an heir to the Woolworth fortune , claimed to have had a liaison with the Duchess in the 1950s , but Donahue was notorious for his inventive pranks and rumour @-@ mongering .
Her memoirs , The Heart Has Its Reasons , were published in 1956 . Author Charles Higham said of the book , " facts were remorselessly rearranged in what amounted to a self @-@ performed face @-@ lift ... reflecting in abundance its author 's politically misguided but winning and desirable personality . " He describes the Duchess as " charismatic , electric and compulsively ambitious " .
The Daily Telegraph , in their obituary of Higham , said : " The themes of fascism , closet homosexuality and sexual perversion that had proved so productive in the case of Flynn were themes that Higham would mine again and again . That his motives were probably financial is suggested by his admission in an interview that there was ' certainly a difference of an enormous number of sales ' between his poetry books and his biographies . "
Hearsay and conjecture have clouded assessment of the Duchess of Windsor 's life , not helped by her own manipulation of the truth . But there is no document which proves directly that she was anything other than a victim of her own ambition , who lived out a great romance that became a great tragedy . In the opinion of her biographers , " she experienced the ultimate fairy tale , becoming the adored favourite of the most glamorous bachelor of his time . The idyll went wrong when , ignoring her pleas , he threw up his position to spend the rest of his life with her . " Academics agree that she ascended a precipice that " left her with fewer alternatives than she had anticipated . Somehow she thought that the Establishment could be overcome once [ Edward ] was king , and she confessed frankly to Aunt Bessie about her ' insatiable ambitions ' ... Trapped by his flight from responsibility into exactly the role she had sought , suddenly she warned him , in a letter , ' You and I can only create disaster together ' ... she predicted to society hostess Sibyl Colefax , ' two people will suffer ' because of ' the workings of a system ' ... Denied dignity , and without anything useful to do , the new Duke of Windsor and his Duchess would be international society 's most notorious parasites for a generation , while they thoroughly bored each other ... She had thought of him as emotionally a Peter Pan , and of herself an Alice in Wonderland . The book they had written together , however , was a Paradise Lost . " The Duchess herself is reported to have summed up her life in a sentence : " You have no idea how hard it is to live out a great romance . "
= = = In popular culture = = =
Wallis has been portrayed by Faye Dunaway in The Woman I Love ( 1972 , TV drama ) , Cynthia Harris in Edward & Mrs. Simpson ( 1978 , TV miniseries ) , Barbara Parkins in To Catch a King ( 1983 , TV movie ) , Jane Seymour in The Woman He Loved ( 1988 , TV movie ) , Jane Hartley in Always ( 1997 , West End musical ) , Amber Sealey in Bertie and Elizabeth ( 2002 , TV movie ) , Joely Richardson in Wallis & Edward ( 2005 , TV movie ) , Gillian Anderson in Any Human Heart ( 2010 , TV mini @-@ series ) , Emma Clifford in Upstairs , Downstairs ( 2010 , TV mini @-@ series ) , Eve Best in The King 's Speech ( 2010 ) , and Andrea Riseborough in W.E. ( 2011 ) .
In his 1981 novel Famous Last Words , Canadian author Timothy Findley depicts the Duchess as a manipulative conspirator . A 2006 short story by Rose Tremain , called " The Darkness of Wallis Simpson " , depicts Wallis more sympathetically in her final years of ill health . Anne Edwards wrote another sympathetic account , of Wallis 's life up to the marriage to Edward , in her 1991 book Wallis : The Novel . Kate Auspitz 's 2010 novel , The War Memoirs of HRH Wallis , Duchess of Windsor , portrays Wallis as a tool of the Allies who employ her to knock fascist @-@ sympathising King Edward VIII off the throne .
= = Titles and styles = =
19 June 1896 – 8 November 1916 : Miss Bessie Wallis Warfield
8 November 1916 – 21 July 1928 : Mrs Earl Winfield Spencer , Jr .
21 July 1928 – 7 May 1937 : Mrs Ernest Aldrich Simpson
7 May 1937 – 3 June 1937 : Mrs Wallis Warfield
Wallis resumed her maiden surname by deed poll on 7 May 1937 , but continued to use the title " Mrs " .
3 June 1937 – 24 April 1986 : Her Grace The Duchess of Windsor
The Duchess of Windsor was unofficially styled Her Royal Highness within her own household .
= = Ancestors = =
= M @-@ 58 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 58 is a 5 @.@ 108 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 8 @.@ 221 km ) east – west state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that runs from M @-@ 47 in Saginaw Township east to exit 3 of I @-@ 675 near the north part of downtown Saginaw . The trunkline follows State Street through the Saginaw area , and east of Lathrop Avenue , M @-@ 58 is split along two streets , using Davenport Avenue as well . This is the third time that the number has been used on a highway in Michigan ; the first two were used in the Berrien County and Pontiac areas . The Saginaw version was designated in 1971 , and it is listed on the National Highway System .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 58 starts at an intersection with M @-@ 47 ( Midland Road ) near the Tittabawassee River in Saginaw Township . It runs east on State Street through a commercial area in the township . Continuing east , the adjoining properties transition to residential buildings . Between Avalon and Lathrop avenues , M @-@ 58 splits into a one @-@ way pairing of streets : eastbound traffic continues along State Street , but westbound traffic uses Davenport Avenue , one block to the north . Just east of this split , M @-@ 58 crosses into the City of Saginaw .
In Saginaw , the two parallel streets continue east and meet M @-@ 84 which runs north – south along Bay Street . The distance between the two parallel streets decreases east of North Carolina Street when Davenport Avenue shifts to the south . The intersection with Hill Street marks the beginning of the connections to the exit 3 interchange along a bend in the I @-@ 675 freeway . Hill Street is one @-@ way carrying traffic southbound exiting from southbound I @-@ 675 to either direction of M @-@ 58 . Two blocks east , Michigan Avenue carries traffic northbound under the freeway , connecting to a ramp to northbound I @-@ 675 before continuing north through the city of Saginaw . East of this intersection , State Street curves to the north , intersecting Davenport Avenue and merging into the ramp for southbound I @-@ 675 . A loop ramp across the freeway provides access from northbound I @-@ 675 to Davenport Avenue . This interchange complex marks the eastern terminus of M @-@ 58 .
M @-@ 58 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2009 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 58 were the 28 @,@ 648 vehicles daily east of the split at Lathrop Avenue ; the lowest counts were the 18 @,@ 827 vehicles per day by the I @-@ 675 interchange . All of M @-@ 58 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designations = = =
On July 1 , 1919 , the first M @-@ 58 was a 24 @-@ mile ( 39 km ) highway in Berrien County connecting M @-@ 40 ( now M @-@ 51 ) in downtown Niles with M @-@ 11 ( later US 12 , and presently Business Loop I @-@ 94 ) south of downtown St. Joseph . On November 11 , 1926 , the entire length was redesignated as a part of US 31 . From 1930 through 1961 , a second iteration of M @-@ 58 existed in Oakland County as a western bypass around Pontiac ; the route ran from US 10 at the corner of Woodward Avenue and Square Lake Road south of Pontiac west to Telegraph Road and then north along Telegraph road to US 10 ( Dixie Highway ) north of Pontiac .
= = = Current designation = = =
This route is the third iteration of M @-@ 58 in Michigan . This route came into being when the western segment of M @-@ 81 was redesignated in 1971 following the completion of I @-@ 675 into downtown Saginaw . The routing has remained unchanged since designation .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Saginaw County .
= TNA Bound for Glory =
Bound for Glory ( frequently abbreviated to BFG ) is a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced every October by the American Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion . The event was created in 2005 to be their premier event of the year , similar to the company 's main rival World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) and its WrestleMania event . As of July 2016 , eleven events have occurred under the chronology .
From its inception in 2005 until 2013 , all events were held in the United States . The 2014 event was held at Korakuen Hall in Tokyo , Japan in conjunction with the Wrestle @-@ 1 promotion . It has been held in seven different U.S. states , where every event has been held in an indoor arena . Each event featured wrestlers from TNA competing in various professional wrestling match types . 2014 marked the first time since the inaugural event that the World Heavyweight Championship was not defended in the main event . To date , ten championship matches have taken place in the main event .
= = History = =
Bound for Glory was the twelfth of the thirteen event titles TNA has produced under . Each event consist of a main event and an undercard that feature championship matches and other various matches . The first event was held in October 2005 . There have been a total of eight events under the chronology to take place as of July 2016 . The 2006 edition was the first TNA three @-@ hour monthly PPV event to take place outside of the TNA Impact ! Zone at the Compuware Sports Arena in Plymouth Township , Michigan . The TNA Impact ! Zone is a sound stage owned by Universal Studios and operated within Universal Studios Florida ; it is the home to TNA 's primary television program TNA Impact ! , from which the soundstage gets its name , and is where TNA holds most of it events . In 2007 , TNA held Bound for Glory again outside of the Impact ! Zone , this time in Duluth , Georgia , a suburb of Atlanta , at the Gwinnett Center on October 14 , 2007 . This trait continued into 2008 at Bound for Glory IV , which took place at the Sears Centre in Hoffman Estates , Illinois on October 12 . Bound for Glory IV was also the first event under the chronology to have Roman numerals featured in its title .
= = Events = =
= = = 2005 = = =
= = = = Production = = = =
On June 19 , 2005 at TNA 's Slammiversary PPV event , TNA commentators Mike Tenay and Don West announced that the first Bound for Glory event would take place on October 23 , 2005 . Like previous monthly PPV events hosted by TNA , it was scheduled to take place at the TNA Impact ! Zone , though no official announcement was made . A fanfest , which TNA calls " Total Nonstop InterAction " , was also being planned as early as June 2005 to stress the event being their biggest of the year . On October 22 , 2005 TNA held the second annual — the first being at TNA 's Victory Road PPV event nearly a year earlier — Total Nonstop InterAction fanfest at the Doubletree Hotel in Orlando , Florida , where 800 fans were in attendance . The fanfest help gross $ 45 @,@ 000 in revenue for TNA .
= = = = Event = = = =
The first installment of the Bound for Glory chronology took place on October 23 , 2005 at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida , where the event featured ten professional wrestling matches . Before the event began TNA aired a thirty @-@ minute pre @-@ show with Sonjay Dutt defeating Alex Shelley , Austin Aries , and Roderick Strong in a match involving four participants . Approximately 900 people were in attendance for the event , which was the maximum capacity of the Impact ! Zone at that time . All three of TNA 's active championships at the time were defended at the event . The event was dedicated to Reginald " The Crusher " Lisowski , who had died the night before . The main event on the card was Jeff Jarrett defending the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against Rhino with Tito Ortiz as the Special Guest Referee , which Rhino won . The TNA X Division Championship was also defended by A.J. Styles in a thirty @-@ minute Iron Man match against Christopher Daniels , in which Styles retained the title . There were several matches featured on the event 's undercard : including a Monster 's Ball match resulting in a victory for Rhino over Jeff Hardy , Sabu , and Abyss , who was accompanied by James Mitchell ; an Ultimate X match to become the number one contender to the TNA X Division Championship where Petey Williams defeated Chris Sabin and Matt Bentley ; and an encounter resulting in Samoa Joe defeating Jushin Thunder Liger .
= = = = Reception = = = =
Bound for Glory 2005 met with generally positive reviews . Bob Kapur of the Slam Sports section of the Canadian Online Explorer rated the event a 9 out of 10 . Kapur commented on the overall event stating that it " was one of the best PPVs in recent memory , and has to be a strong contender for Card of the Year honours . " He later stated that TNA " definitely lived up to its name , delivering Total Nonstop Action from top to bottom " with a " well @-@ executed mixture of excellent storytelling in the Iron Man match , high @-@ flying excitement in the Ultimate X match , and brutal hardcore violence in the Monsters Ball , this show is definitely one that has to be seen , either on the replay or on the DVD when it becomes available . " James Caldwell , a PWTorch columnist , had different feelings toward the event , stating that the finish to the main event was " fitting , a bad close to a bad PPV . " Wade Keller , another PWTorch columnist , rated the Iron Man match 4 stars out of 5 , while he rated the main event 1 star , which were his highest and lowest ratings during his review of the event . He did not give an overall event rating . The event was released on DVD on January 31 , 2006 by TNA Home Video .
= = = 2006 = = =
= = = = Production = = = =
In early June 2006 TNA updated their PPV and TV taping schedule . On this schedule , the second Bound for Glory event was slotted to take place on October 22 , 2006 though no location for the event was announced . On July 16 , 2006 at TNA 's Victory Road PPV event , TNA commentators Mike Tenay and Don West introduced a video package which announced that the second Bound for Glory event would be held in Detroit , Michigan , however , its actual location was the charter township of Plymouth , Michigan at the Compuware Sports Arena , which is a suburb west of Detroit area . This announcement meant that this would be the first monthly PPV event hosted by TNA to be held outside of the Impact ! Zone or Orlando , Florida in general . Another Total Nonstop InterAction event was also planned for this event , which took place on October 21 , 2006 . Tickets for Bound for Glory 2006 went on sale August 5 , 2006 . A thirty @-@ minute " Road to Glory " special aired on October 21 , 2006 highlighting the main matches on the card . The song Enemy by the American heavy metal band Fozzy was used as the official theme of the show .
= = = = Event = = = =
Hailing from Plymouth , Michigan at the Compuware Sports Arena on October 22 , 2006 TNA held the second annual Bound for Glory event , where it featured eight professional wrestling matches . Like the previous year 's incarnation , another 30 @-@ minute pre @-@ show was featured before the event , with Bobby Roode , who was accompanied by Traci , defeating Lance Hoyt on the telecast . Approximately 3 @,@ 600 people were in attendance for the event , which was 900 people less than the maximum capacity of the Compuware Sports Arena . All three of TNA 's active championships at the time were defended at the event . All three championships changed hands at the event , making this event the only time in TNA history that all have changed hands in one night . The main event on the card was Jeff Jarrett defending the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against Sting in a Title vs. Career match with Kurt Angle as the Special Outside Enforcer ; Sting won the encounter to become the new champion . The TNA X Division Championship was also defended by Senshi against Chris Sabin , which Sabin won to win the title . The last championship match was a Six Sides of Steel cage match for the NWA World Tag Team Championship , in which A.J. Styles and Christopher Daniels lost the championship to Homicide and Hernandez of The Latin American Exchange ; the ring was surrounded by a steel cage in this match . There were several matches featured on the event 's undercard : an 8 Mile Street Fight resulting in a victory for Christian Cage over Rhino ; and Samoa Joe defeating Brother Runt , Raven , and Abyss , who was accompanied by James Mitchell , in a Monster 's Ball match with Jake Roberts as the Special Guest Referee .
= = = = Reception = = = =
Bound for Glory 2006 met with generally positive reviews . Chris Sokol of the Slam Sports section of the Canadian Online Explorer rated the event a 7 out of 10 . Sokol commented on the overall event stating that it was full of " several surprises , a card full of good matches and crowd that was so hot it would 've melted the Impact Zone . " When it came to feelings on the bouts , James Caldwell said he felt that the main event match for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship was " slightly above @-@ average for a Jarrett PPV title match . " Caldwell also felt that the NWA World Tag Team Championship match was " just a notch below Sabin @-@ Senshi for match of the night so far . " Wade Keller rated the Tag Team Championship match 4 stars out of 5 , the TNA X Division Championship match 3 and 3 / 4 stars , and the main event 2 and 1 / 2 stars . The event was released on DVD on January 30 , 2007 by TNA Home Video .
= = = 2007 = = =
= = = = Production = = = =
The third installment of Bound for Glory was announced in early July 2007 via TNA 's official website , with it being scheduled for October 14 , 2007 ; no location for the event was announced . On July 26 , 2007 TNA sent out text messages to subscribers of their " TNA Mobile " service announcing that Bound for Glory 2007 would be held in Atlanta , Georgia at the Gwinnett Center , which is actually located in the Duluth suburb of Atlanta . This was later confirmed more publicly when they published a press release via their official website . Also mentioned during the press release was the confirmation of another Total Nonstop InterAction event slated for the weekend of the event . The date for Total Nonstop InterAction was later released in early August 2007 , when the event was booked for October 13 , 2007 .
= = = = Event = = = =
On October 14 , 2007 TNA held the third annual Bound for Glory event , which featured nine professional wrestling matches on the card , at the Gwinnett Center in Duluth , Georgia . This year 's show did not feature a thirty @-@ minute pre @-@ show unlike previous events . The maximum capacity of the Gwinnett Center is 13 @,@ 000 , however only 4 @,@ 000 were in attendance for the event . All three of TNA 's active championships at the time were defended at the event , with a new championship being unveiled and the first champion being crowned at the event . Sting defeated Kurt Angle for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship in the main event . Samoa Joe defeated Christian Cage with Matt Morgan as Special Outside Enforcer in another featured contest . The first TNA Women 's Knockout Champion was crowned in Gail Kim , who defeated ten other female wrestlers in a Gauntlet match . The TNA X Division and the TNA World Tag Team Championships were defended on the event 's undercard . TNA X Division Champion Jay Lethal defeated Christopher Daniels to retain the championship , while A.J. Styles and Tomko defeated Ron | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Killings and Rasheed Lucius Creed , who were accompanied by Adam Jones — collectively known as Team Pacman — to win the TNA World Tag Team Championship . Like previous events , another Monster 's Ball match was also included on the card , with Abyss defeating Raven , Rhino , and Black Reign in the encounter .
= = = = Reception = = = =
The 2007 incarnation , like previous events , gained mainly positive reviews . Chris Sokol rated the event a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 . In the early comments of his review , Sokol stated that he felt " TNA made it clear that their flagship event is their annual Bound For Glory extravaganza . " The highest rated matches by Sokol was the TNA World Heavyweight Championship match and the bout pitting Samoa Joe against Christian Cage , which were both rated 8 out of 10 . A Fight for the Right Reverse Battle Royal , which was also included on the card , and the Gauntlet match to crown the first TNA Women 's World Champion were the lowest rated matches at 5 out of 10 . James Caldwell 's highest rating was given to Samoa Joe versus Christian Cage at 3 and a half stars out of 5 . His lowest was given to the Fight for the Right Reverse Battle Royal , which was marked at half a star . Wade Keller commented on the overall event in his review stating it was " a good show " . He went on to proclaim that it was " far from perfect , but enough really good action to be worth it for TNA fans who were on the fringe . " The event was released on DVD on December 11 , 2007 by TNA Home Video .
= = = 2008 = = =
= = = = Production = = = =
On the first day of 2008 , TNA updated their official website to publicize the official dates for all of their PPV events to take place later that year . The next installment in the Bound for Glory chronology was listed as being scheduled for October 12 , 2008 . The location for the show was revealed via a press release on June 9 , 2008 that the Sears Centre located in Hoffman Estates , a suburb of Chicago , Illinois , was where it would be hailing from . The press release also announced that a Total Nonstop InterAction event was set to take place on October 11 , that tickets for the event would go on sale August 1 , 2008 , and that the official title of the event was " Bound for Glory IV " , meaning this was the first Bound for Glory event to feature Roman numerals in its title . The song Tarantula by the alternative rock band The Smashing Pumpkins was used as the official theme song of the show .
= = = = Event = = = =
Bound for Glory IV took place on October 12 , 2008 at the Sears Centre in Hoffman Estates , Illinois , where it featured eight professional wrestling matches . The maximum capacity of the Sears Centre is about 11 @,@ 800 , however , only 5 @,@ 000 were in attendance for the event . All four of TNA 's active championships at the time were defended at the event . The main event featured Sting defeating TNA World Heavyweight Champion Samoa Joe to become the new champion . Another featured match was Jeff Jarrett versus Kurt Angle with Mick Foley as the Special Guest Enforcer , which Jarrett won . Other matches on the card included a Four @-@ Way Tag Team Monster 's Ball match for the TNA World Tag Team Championship with Steve McMichael as the Special Guest Referee , which was won by Beer Money , Inc . ( Robert Roode and James Storm ) , who were accompanied by Jacqueline , over the teams of Abyss and Matt Morgan , Brother Ray and Brother Devon — known as Team 3D — and The Latin American Xchange ( Homicide and Hernandez ) ; a match involving three competitors , also known as a 3 @-@ Way Dance or a Three Way match , resulting in Booker T defeating Christian Cage and A.J. Styles ; and Sheik Abdul Bashir defeating Consequences Creed to retain the TNA X Division Championship .
= = = = Reception = = = =
Chris and Bryan Sokol of the Slam Sports section of the Canadian Online Explorer rated the event a 7 out of 10 . They felt the overall event was a " decent PeePeeVee . " The highest rated matches by both was the bout between Kurt Angle and Jeff Jarrett and the Monster 's Ball match , which were both give an 8 out of 10 . A Six Person Intergender Tag Team match and a Three Way match for the TNA Women 's World Championship , now named the TNA Women 's Knockout Championship , were both rated a 5 out of 10 . James Caldwell 's highest rating was given to Angle versus Jarrett at 4 stars out of 5 . The Six Person Intergender Tag Team match was given the lowest at 1 star . Wade Keller commented on the main event match in his review stating it was " another fine match that fit its slot on the PPV well . " The event was released on DVD on January 6 , 2009 by TNA Home Video .
= = = 2009 = = =
= = = = Production = = = =
The fifth installment of the Bound for Glory chronology was first announced in late 2008 , when TNA released their PPV event schedule for February through October 2009 . On the list , Bound for Glory was scheduled to take place on October 18 , 2009 . The location for Bound for Glory was first announced during a promotional video package which aired during TNA 's Slammiversary PPV event on June 21 , 2009 , stating that it would be held in Los Angeles , California . Later that evening , TNA issued their first public written statement regarding the event via a press release announcing that Bound for Glory would be held at the Bren Events Center located on the University of California at Irvine campus in Irvine , California ; contradicting their earlier promotional video package proclaiming it would be held in Los Angeles . Tickets for the event went on sale August 1 , 2009 . On August 23 , 2009 , TNA published an article on their official site giving a first look at the Bound for Glory 2009 poster , which featured Sting , an updated Bound for Glory logo , advertising for the event , and the tagline " The Final Curtain ? " . In August 2009 , the official site for the fifth incarnation was opened at BoundforGlory5.com ; Crawl Back In , a single by the rock band Dead by Sunrise to be featured on their debut album Out of Ashes was announced as the official theme song of the event on the site .
= = = = Reception = = = =
Greg Parks reported on the first half of the show and James Caldwell reported the second half . Caldwell 's highest rating was given to Angle versus Morgan at 4 out of 5 stars . His lowest actual rating was given to the Knockouts Championship match at 1 and a half stars while the Extreme Monster 's Ball match was simply rated a " DUD . "
= = = 2010 = = =
= = = = Production = = = =
The sixth annual Bound for Glory PPV spectacle was announced in a press release on June 25 , 2010 , where it was determined that the event would take place at the Ocean Center in Daytona Beach , Florida . In the press TNA President Dixie Carter stated that , " So many people come to ‘ Bound For Glory ' from around the world " , and added , " We wanted a locale that would truly be a destination . With our biggest pay @-@ per @-@ view of the year and all the fan experiences we have planned , it will make ‘ 10 @.@ 10 @.@ 10 ' an unforgettable weekend " . Tickets for the event went on sale on August 7 , 2010 . To celebrate the making of the event , a " Bound for Glory Block Party " was held on the same day at the Ocean Center and garnered a good turnout despite weather conditions . It featured fan interaction and an exclusive match .
In October , the final Impact ! episode the week leading to Bound for Glory was themed " Before the Glory " , a special live broadcast hyping the event . TNA also organized " Bound for Glory VIP Weekend " , a series of fan interaction sessions over the event weekend , which allowed fans to get close and personal with their favorite stars for opportunities such as pictures , autographs and special interviews .
= = = = Reception = = = =
Bound for Glory was received with mixed reviews . Canadian Online Explorer pro wrestling section writer Matt Bishop graded the event a 7 out of 10 , the same as last year 's event . He stated , “ TNA 's biggest show of the year , Bound For Glory , was a mix of good and bad . The show 's biggest matches delivered on a show that featured a weak undercard ” . He also gave the main event 8 out of 10 , and the Lethal Lockdown match 7 out of 10 . His lowest scores were for the Knockouts Title match that was given a 2 out of 10 and the Young @-@ Jordan versus Neal @-@ Moore match that was rated a dud .
Phil Allely , a pro wrestling section writer for The Sun commented about the main event saying , " The finish was a shock for many reasons as , after the many near falls , moonsaults , finishing moves and obligatory ref bump , the title went to the unpredictable Hardy " and added , " The fans were obviously stunned as Hardy went on to deck his " friend " RVD and join Hogan , Bischoff , Abyss and Jarrett , subsequently revealing them to be the mysterious " They " as the PPV went off the air " . About the pre @-@ main event Lethal Lockdown match , Allely said , " Lethal Lockdown was everything it should be , a full @-@ throttle cage match where all hell breaks loose and the opposing teams finally get the chance to work through their differences with the cage and weapons as added extras " . Overall he commented , “ Bound for Glory was perhaps TNA 's best offering of 2010 ” .
= = = 2011 = = =
= = = = Production = = = =
It was announced on July 13 , 2011 that the location for this year 's annual Bound for Glory would be revealed the following day on ESPN.com on Page 2 . The next day , Sting , in his interview with ESPN SportsCenter anchor Robert Flores , declared that the event would emanate from Philadelphia at the Liacouras Center on October 16 , 2011 . Tickets sales for the event went on sale on July 22 , 2011 .
On September 18 , 2011 , a new series called The Bound for Glory Chronicles debuted on TNA 's website . The show featured exclusive interviews with wrestlers talking about their memories from previous Bound for Glory events . The wrestlers featured included Jeff Jarrett and Matt Morgan .
For the PPV , TNA also organized their annual Bound for Glory VIP Weekend , which included events such as Fan InterAction held at the Philadelphia Airport Marriott on the eve of Bound for Glory . This was a series of fan interaction sessions , which allowed fans to get close and personal with their favorite stars for opportunities such as pictures , autographs and special interviews . Other events included the " Night Before the Glory " Dinner Party , which featured more interaction between the fans and wrestlers after the Fan InterAction .
= = = = Reception = = = =
Bound for Glory was met with mixed to positive reviews . Canadian Online Explorer writer of the SLAM ! Sports section , Matt Bishop , graded the entire event a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 , which was essentially higher than the previous year 's 7 out of 10 . Bishop felt that the company delivered its best show in recent memory that was marred by a " horrendous finish in the main event " , but went on to call the action , " outstanding " . The highest rated match was given to the Angle @-@ Roode main event match which received 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 . For other top rated matches , Anderson @-@ Bully Ray received a 7 out of 10 , Rob Van Dam @-@ Jerry Lynn got 7 out of 10 , and Austin Aries @-@ Brian Kendrick got 7 out of 10 . The lowest rated match was the Velvet Sky @-@ Winter @-@ Madison Rayne @-@ Mickie James that was given 3 out of 10 .
411 Mania writer of the wrestling section , Colin Rinehart , rated the event an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , praising the show as " far and away TNA 's best PPV of the year so far " and " probably the most consistently entertaining Bound for Glory yet in company history " , giving it an " Easy and enthusiastic Thumbs Up . " The top two highest rated bouts were given to Van Dam @-@ Lynn that got 3 and 3 / 4 out of 5 stars and the Angle @-@ Roode main event got 3 and a 1 / 2 out of 5 stars . The lowest went to Velvet Sky @-@ Winter @-@ Madison Rayne @-@ Mickie James at 1 and a 1 / 4 stars .
= = = 2012 = = =
= = = = Production = = = =
The eighth event in the Bound for Glory chronology was first announced on June 10 , 2012 at the Slammiversary PPV to around the weekend where Sting would be formally inducted into the TNA Hall of Fame . Late June , TNA President Dixie Carter stated via Twitter that Bound for Glory would take place in a city not yet visited by the company and be revealed during the telecast of the July 5 edition of Impact Wrestling . During the show , an official video announcement confirmed the event would transpire at the Grand Canyon University Arena in Phoenix , Arizona on October 14 , 2012 . Before the tickets went on sale on July 27 , 2012 , Rob Van Dam promoted the event and signed autographs during a pre @-@ sale session at the GCU Arena Box Office the day prior .
TNA hyped up their flagship PPV further by producing a series of Road To Bound for Glory preview videos featuring several wrestlers speaking highly of the event . After issuing a press release a month prior , TNA 's programming home Spike aired Countdown to Bound for Glory , a 1 @-@ hour special preview an hour before the PPV .
To celebrate the event , TNA arranged travel packages and organized festivities to take place the weekend prior to the show . On October 13 , 2012 , the Bound for Glory VIP Weekend hosted events such as the Inaugural Hall of Fame Induction Celebration for Sting that was held at the Pointe Hilton Tapatio Cliffs Resort , and on that same day , the annual Bound for Glory Fan InterAction gave fans a chance to get close with their favorite stars for conversations , autographs , and photographs .
= = = 2013 = = =
= = = = Production = = = =
The ninth event in the Bound for Glory chronology was first announced on June 2 , 2013 at the Slammiversary PPV to around the weekend where Kurt Angle would be formally inducted into the TNA Hall of Fame . In late May , the official press release for the event was sent out , in which TNA President , Dixie Carter , stated " I 'm really looking forward to bringing our biggest Pay @-@ Per @-@ View event of the year to San Diego for the first TNA show ever in this great city " , adding that " Since 2005 , Bound for Glory has brought fans from across the world together to enjoy a jam @-@ packed weekend of fun and intense competition , and I 'm thrilled that we will have the sunny Southern California coast as our backdrop . Tickets for the event went on sale June 7 , 2013 .
In September , TNA announced their deal with Spike TV to air their 1 @-@ hour Countdown to Bound for Glory pre @-@ show prior to the official PPV . Media attention for Bound for Glory was also garnered from an array of sources , including The Miami Herald , Direct TV and Marvel . As part of the yearly attraction , TNA put together the Bound for Glory VIP Weekend around the San Diego area , featuring various festivities such as the Fan InterAction that gives fans the opportunity to connect with their favorite stars , and the TNA Hall of Fame ceremony for Kurt Angle at the San Diego Marriott Mission Valley leading up to the day of the event . The event 's theme song " Every Other Day " was created by Jeff Hardy 's band Peroxwhy ? gen , from their new album , Plurality Of Worlds , set to release on November 29 . The second theme song is " Big Shot " by Islander .
= = = = Reception = = = =
Mike Johnson , from PWInsider , said that the main event was " Really good , hard hitting , well told story here . Easily the best thing on the show and a really good main event . " However , he criticized the Magnus @-@ Sting due to " The idea here was to make Magnus by having Sting lose clean in a back and forth contest . On paper , it made sense but the match didn 't feel like it had the spark needed for that sort of moment " . Also , described Ethan 's debut as " pitch @-@ perfect " . He described the entire show as " It was just a show - some good , some eh , but Bound for Glory should never be just a show , it 's their Wrestlemania , except this year , it wasn 't . Pat McNeill , from PWTorch , said Bound for Glory " Wasn 't a great event " . Bob Kapur , from CANOE Slam , said that he enjoyed the event overall . Also , Matthew Asher , from CANOE too , enjoyed the PPV but said the ultimate success of this Bound for Glory rests on the future storylines this event sets up .
= = = 2014 = = =
= = = = Production = = = =
On June 25 before TNA Impact Wrestling tapings in New York City , TNA President Dixie Carter along with Wrestle @-@ 1 founder / owner and Japanese wrestling legend The Great Muta held a press conference at the Manhattan Center to announce that the annual Bound for Glory pay @-@ per @-@ view would take place in Tokyo , Japan at Korakuen Hall .
= = = 2015 = = =
= = = = Production = = = =
On July 22 , 2015 , it was announced that the eleventh annual Bound for Glory pay @-@ per @-@ view would take place Cabarrus Arena in Concord , North Carolina .
= = Bound for Glory records = =
= Waterspout =
A waterspout is an intense columnar vortex ( usually appearing as a funnel @-@ shaped cloud ) that occurs over a body of water . They are connected to a towering cumuliform cloud or a cumulonimbus cloud . In the common form , it is a non @-@ supercell tornado over water .
While it is often weaker than most of its land counterparts , stronger versions spawned by mesocyclones do occur . Most waterspouts do not suck up water ; they are small and weak rotating columns of air over water .
While waterspouts form mostly in the tropics and subtropical areas , other areas also report waterspouts , including Europe , New Zealand , the Great Lakes and Antarctica . Although rare , waterspouts have been observed in connection with lake @-@ effect snow precipitation bands .
Waterspouts have a five @-@ part life cycle : formation of a dark spot on the water surface , spiral pattern on the water surface , formation of a spray ring , development of the visible condensation funnel , and ultimately decay .
= = Formation = =
Waterspouts exist on a microscale , where their environment is less than two kilometers in width . The cloud from which they develop can be as innocuous as a moderate cumulus , or as great as a supercell . While some waterspouts are strong and tornadic in nature , most are much weaker and caused by different atmospheric dynamics . They normally develop in moisture @-@ laden environments as their parent clouds are in the process of development , and it is theorized they spin as they move up the surface boundary from the horizontal shear near the surface , and then stretch upwards to the cloud once the low level shear vortex aligns with a developing cumulus cloud or thunderstorm . Weak tornadoes , known as landspouts , have been shown to develop in a similar manner . More than one waterspout can occur in the same vicinity at the same time . As many as nine simultaneous waterspouts have been reported on Lake Michigan .
= = Types = =
= = = Non @-@ tornadic = = =
Waterspouts that are not associated with a rotating updraft of a supercell thunderstorm are known as " non @-@ tornadic " or " fair @-@ weather waterspouts " , and are by far the most common type . Fair @-@ weather waterspouts occur in coastal waters and are associated with dark , flat @-@ bottomed , developing convective cumulus towers . Waterspouts of this type rapidly develop and dissipate , having life cycles shorter than 20 minutes . They usually rate no higher than EF0 on the Enhanced Fujita scale , generally exhibiting winds of less than 30 m / s ( 67 mph ) .
They are most frequently seen in tropical and sub @-@ tropical climates , with upwards of 400 per year observed in the Florida Keys . They typically move slowly , if at all , since the cloud to which they are attached is horizontally static , being formed by vertical convective action instead of the subduction / adduction interaction between colliding fronts . Fair @-@ weather waterspouts are very similar in both appearance and mechanics to landspouts , and largely behave as such if they move ashore .
= = = Tornadic = = =
" Tornadic waterspouts " , also accurately referred to as " tornadoes over water " , are formed from mesocyclonic action in a manner essentially identical to traditional land @-@ based tornadoes in connection with severe thunderstorms , but simply occurring over water . A tornado which travels from land to a body of water would also be considered a tornadic waterspout . Since the vast majority of mesocyclonic thunderstorms occur in land @-@ locked areas of the United States , true tornadic waterspouts are correspondingly rarer than their fair @-@ weather counterparts in that country . However , in some areas , such as the Adriatic , Aegean and Ionian seas , tornadic waterspouts can make up half of the total number .
= = = Snowspout = = =
A winter waterspout , also known as a snow devil , an icespout , an ice devil , a snownado , or a snowspout , is an extremely rare instance of a waterspout forming under the base of a snow squall . The term " winter waterspout " is used to differentiate between the common warm season waterspout and this rare winter season event . Very little is known about this phenomenon and only six known pictures of this event exist to date , four of which were taken in Ontario , Canada . There are a couple of critical criteria for the formation of a winter waterspout . Very cold temperatures need to be present over a body of water warm enough to produce fog resembling steam above the water 's surface . Like the more efficient lake @-@ effect snow events , winds focusing down the axis of long lakes enhance wind convergence and likely enhance their development .
= = Climatology = =
Though the majority occur in the tropics , they can seasonally appear in temperate areas throughout the world , and are common across the western coast of Europe as well as the British Isles and several areas of the Mediterranean and Baltic Sea . They are not restricted to saltwater ; many have been reported on lakes and rivers including the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River . Waterspouts are fairly common on the Great Lakes during late summer and early fall , with a record 66 + waterspouts reported over just a seven @-@ day period in 2003 . They are more frequent within 100 kilometers ( 60 mi ) from the coast than farther out at sea . Waterspouts are common along the southeast U.S. coast , especially off southern Florida and the Keys and can happen over seas , bays , and lakes worldwide . Approximately 160 waterspouts are currently reported per year across Europe , with the Netherlands reporting the most at 60 , followed by Spain and Italy at 25 , and the United Kingdom at 15 . They are most common in late summer . In the Northern Hemisphere , September has been pinpointed as the prime month of formation . Waterspouts are frequently observed off the east coast of Australia , with several being described by Joseph Banks during the voyage of the Endeavour in 1770 .
= = Life cycle = =
There are five stages to the waterspout life cycle . Initially , a prominent circular , light @-@ colored disk appears on the surface of the water , surrounded by a larger dark area of indeterminate shape . After the formation of these colored disks on the water , a pattern of light and dark @-@ colored spiral bands develop from the dark spot on the water surface . Then , a dense annulus of sea spray , called a cascade , appears around the dark spot with what appears to be an eye . Eventually , the waterspout becomes a visible funnel from the water surface to the overhead cloud . The spray vortex can rise to a height of several hundred feet or more and often creates a visible wake and an associated wave train as it moves . Eventually , the funnel and spray vortex begin to dissipate as the inflow of warm air into the vortex weakens , ending the waterspout 's life cycle .
= = Nautical threat = =
Waterspouts have long been recognized as serious marine hazards . Stronger waterspouts pose threats to watercraft , aircraft and people . It is recommended to keep a considerable distance from these phenomena , and to always be on alert through weather reports . The United States National Weather Service will often issue special marine warnings when waterspouts are likely or have been sighted over coastal waters , or tornado warnings when waterspouts are expected to move onshore .
Incidents of waterspouts causing severe damage and casualties are rare . However , there have been several notable examples . The Malta tornado in 1555 was the earliest record of a deadly waterspout . It struck the Grand Harbour of Valletta , sinking four galleys , numerous boats , and claiming hundreds of lives . The 1851 Sicily Tornadoes were twin waterspouts that made landfall in western Sicily , ravaging the coast and countryside before ultimately dissipating back again over the sea .
= = Animal threat = =
Depending on how fast the winds from a waterspout are whipping , anything that is within about one yard of the surface of the water , including fish of different sizes , frogs , and even turtles , can be lifted into the air . A waterspout can sometimes suck small animals such as fish out of the water and all the way up into the cloud . Even if the waterspout stops spinning , the fish in the cloud can be carried over land , buffeted up and down and around with the cloud ’ s winds until its currents no longer keep the flying fish in the atmosphere . Depending on how far they travel and how high they are taken into the atmosphere , the fish are sometimes dead by the time they rain down . People as far as 100 miles inland have experienced raining fish . Fish can also be sucked up from rivers , but raining fish is not a common weather phenomenon
= = Research and forecasting = =
= = = Szilagyi Waterspout Index ( SWI ) = = =
The Szilagyi Waterspout Index ( SWI ) , developed by Canadian meteorologist Wade Szilagyi , is used to predict conditions favorable for waterspout development . The SWI ranges from − 10 to + 10 , where values greater than or equal to zero represent conditions favorable for waterspout development .
= = = International Centre for Waterspout Research ( ICWR ) = = =
The ICWR is a non governmental organization of individuals from around the world who are interested in the field of waterspouts from a research , operational and safety perspective . Originally a forum for researchers and meteorologists , the ICWR has expanded interest and contribution from storm chasers , the media , the marine and aviation communities and from private individuals .
= Big Four ( tennis ) =
In tennis , the term Big Four refers to the quartet of men 's singles players Roger Federer , Rafael Nadal , Novak Djokovic , and Andy Murray . They reigned as the four best players in the world every season from 2008 – 2016 . These players were considered dominant in terms of ranking and tournament victories , including Grand Slam tournaments and ATP Masters 1000 events , as well as the ATP World Tour Finals and Olympic Games .
Federer was the first to come to prominence after winning Wimbledon in 2003 and established himself as the world No. 1 by the beginning of 2004 . Nadal followed in 2005 after a French Open triumph including a win over Federer , and they occupied the top two places in the ATP rankings for 211 consecutive weeks from July 2005 to August 2009 . Djokovic , from 2007 , and later Murray , from 2009 , increasingly challenged Federer 's and Nadal 's dominance with seasonal consistency : Djokovic captured three of the four major tournaments in 2011 , and in 2012 the quartet won one Major tournament apiece . In 2011 , Nadal declared that his and Federer 's period of joint dominance had ended , owing to the ascent of other players , notably Djokovic and Murray .
Since this time the term " Big Four " , while used previously , became popular with the media and in tennis literature . The Big Four were a critical part of what has , since 2010 , often been labelled a new " Golden Era " in tennis ; that term is also applied to the mid @-@ 1970s to 1980s , and the 1920s to the 1930s .
Between them , they have won 42 of the last 46 men 's major singles titles , from the 2005 French Open through to the 2016 Wimbledon Championships ( the only times they haven 't won being at the 2009 US Open , the 2014 Australian Open , the 2014 US Open and the 2015 French Open ) ; they have also won 11 of the previous 13 World Tour Finals ( previously Tennis Masters Cup ) , with Federer winning six and Djokovic winning five , with a record 4 consecutive from 2012 to 2015 . They have regularly occupied the top four places in the year @-@ end rankings between 2008 and 2013 , with Murray being the only member not to have been ranked world No. 1 , having reached a career high No. 2 on several occasions . Of the four , Federer leads with a record 17 Grand Slam tournament titles followed by Nadal ( 14 ) , Djokovic ( 12 ) and Murray ( 3 ) . Federer , Nadal , and Djokovic have completed a Career Grand Slam by winning each of the four Majors at least once , with Nadal also winning a gold medal at 2008 Summer Olympics for a Career Golden Slam . Murray has won neither the French Open nor the Australian Open , despite reaching the final five times in Melbourne and once in Paris , but won the gold medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics .
Furthermore , at ATP Masters 1000 tournaments , they are all in historic top 10 list , Djokovic leads with a record 29 titles , Nadal ( 28 ) , Federer ( 24 ) , and Murray ( 12 ) . All four players have also played key roles in leading their countries to success in the Davis Cup , including in Djokovic 's and Federer 's case with Serbia ( 2010 ) and Switzerland ( 2014 ) winning the competition for the first time , while Nadal has racked up four Davis Cup titles , and in Murray 's case , ending a drought of 79 years for Great Britain in 2015 .
= = History = =
= = = Before 2008 = = =
= = = = Big two : Federer and Nadal = = = =
The early 2000s were seen as a time of transition in tennis , with older players retiring and a few players breaking through at the very top of the game . Roger Federer had first played on the ATP Tour aged 17 in 1998 , finishing his first full ATP season the following year before finishing 2002 ranked sixth in the world , his first year @-@ end ranking in the top 8 . His breakthrough came in 2003 when he won his first Grand Slam tournament , and finished the year as world number 2 behind Andy Roddick . The following two years he had almost complete solo dominance , winning five of eight majors and losing just ten matches in 2004 and 2005 .
Nadal had won his first ATP Tour match aged 15 years and 10 months in April 2002 , and he defeated Federer in their first meeting in 2004 at Miami . 2005 was Nadal 's breakthrough year , in which he won 24 consecutive matches on clay , including his first French Open beating Federer en route in the semifinals , and he finished as world number 2 while Federer remained number 1 for a second straight year .
The period between 2005 and 2008 was subsequently dominated by the Federer – Nadal rivalry . They won 11 consecutive majors , meeting in every French Open and Wimbledon final from 2006 – 2008 . The 2008 Wimbledon final , which Nadal won , has been lauded as the greatest match ever by many long @-@ time tennis analysts . From 2005 – 2010 they ended every year as the world 's top two players .
= = = = Djokovic and Murray = = = =
Novak Djokovic and Andy Murray were born a week apart , played each other as juniors and made their Grand Slam tournament debuts in 2005 . Djokovic made his ATP tour debut in 2004 , while Murray 's was in 2005 , a time when many bright youngsters joined the ATP tour . They both reached the world top 100 in 2005 , and the world top 20 in 2006 . Djokovic , however , began to excel ahead of Murray , reaching one major final and two semifinals in 2007 and began to challenge Federer and Nadal regularly . He also won two Masters tournament titles and 5 titles in total , finishing the year ranked number 3 in world . Murray , who was forced out of the French Open and Wimbledon by injury , ended 2007 ranked 11th , winning two ATP tournaments .
= = = 2008 – 2010 : Emergence of the Big Four = = =
Between 2008 and 2010 , Novak Djokovic and later Andy Murray attempted to end the duopoly of Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal at the summit of tennis . They did not break it but emerged ahead of the rest of the tour . At the 2008 Australian Open , Novak Djokovic defeated Roger Federer in the semifinals , reaching his first Australian Open final and ending Federer 's streak of ten consecutive Major finals , continuing his fine form at the end of the 2007 season which saw him reach his first major final . Djokovic went on to defeat Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga ( who had eliminated Nadal in the semifinal ) to win his first Major . Following his Australian Open win , Djokovic emerged as a clear world number three during the year , holding the ranking throughout 2008 . Meanwhile , Andy Murray continued to rise in the rankings , reaching his first Major quarterfinal at Wimbledon , losing to Nadal . He also won his first two Masters titles .
Federer and Nadal remained the lead rivalry , and the pair met in the final of both the French Open and Wimbledon . Nadal won both , with the latter described as one of the greatest tennis matches of all time . In August 2008 , after winning the 2008 Summer Olympics gold medal , Nadal passed Federer to become world No. 1 , after Federer had been at the top for a record 237 consecutive weeks .
The year 's final Major , the US Open , saw all four players reach the semifinals of the same Major for the first time . Federer defeated Djokovic in the semifinals , while Murray won through to his first Grand Slam tournament final after upsetting the top @-@ ranked Nadal in four sets . Federer then defeated Murray in the final to win his fifth consecutive US Open title , and win his 13th Major title overall . Following the US Open , Murray entered the top four in the ATP rankings for the first time and all four players qualified for the 2008 Tennis Masters Cup , which Djokovic won . Despite having to withdraw from this event through injury , Nadal ended the year ranked world No. 1 , ahead of Federer and Djokovic with Murray respectively finishing fourth due to his run at the US Open .
In 2009 , the Big Four held the top four places in the rankings for a whole calendar year for the first time . This also prompted the first uses of the term ' Big Four ' to refer to the players , although results saw Nadal and Federer generally remain clear leaders ahead of Djokovic and Murray who they themselves were still regarded ahead of the rest of the tour . At the Australian Open , Nadal won his first Australian Open title in another 5 @-@ set epic , obtaining a third consecutive Major final victory over Federer , while Murray and Djokovic were eliminated earlier on . Nadal continued to dominate early in the season , but suffered from injury in June , allowing Federer to take the upper hand for the rest of the season . Federer subsequently passed the record for most Grand Slam tournament wins , taking his 14th Grand Slam title at the French Open , thus completing the Career Grand Slam after Nadal had prevented him from achieving this feat at the previous 4 French Open tournaments , and 15th title at Wimbledon respectively . Federer finished the season having reached all four Major finals for the third time in his career following 2006 and 2007 .
Following Nadal 's injuries , Murray and Djokovic made up further grounds in the rankings , although neither of them were able to make a Major final in 2009 . In particular , their consistency at Masters level tournaments kept them in the top four of the rankings , with Murray reaching world No. 2 in August , and ending the 211 @-@ week reign of Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal as the top two players of the world in the process . His reign as the world No. 2 would not last long , as he was upset in the fourth round of the US Open by Croat Marin Čilić . There , Djokovic reached his first Grand Slam tournament semifinal of 2009 , losing in straight sets to Federer while Nadal was defeated by eventual winner Juan Martín del Potro in the semifinal . Between 2005 Australian Open and 2014 Australian Open , this was the only Grand Slam event not won by a member of the Big Four . ( Since then , Wawrinka won the 2014 Australian Open and 2015 French Open while Čilić won the 2014 US Open ) .
At the end of 2009 Federer , Nadal , Djokovic and Murray finished as the ATP 's top four players for the second consecutive year with only Nadal and Federer changing positions from the 2008 final rankings list .
During the 2010 season , the Big Four began to dominate the Tour as a group for the first time . The Big Four provided six of the eight Grand Slam tournament finalists , and won 14 tournaments combined in the season ( compared to 6 for the other four competitors at the 2010 ATP World Tour Finals ) . At the start of the year , Federer continued his dominance as world number one by winning the Australian Open , defeating Murray in the final however his run of 23 consecutive Grand Slam semi @-@ finals came to end at the French Open that year losing to Robin Söderling in 4 sets , he also then lost to Tomáš Berdych at Wimbledon ending his run of 7 consecutive Wimbledon finals . Nadal dominated the clay @-@ court season again , winning all three clay @-@ court Masters events and the French Open . Nadal also won at Wimbledon , although in both of these tournaments he only had to face one other member of the Big Four ( Murray in the Wimbledon semi @-@ finals ) .
At the US Open , Djokovic beat Federer to reach his third Major final , although Nadal won once again to complete his Career Grand Slam . In November , Robin Söderling ( who has reached the French Open final ) briefly passed Murray to reach fourth place in the ATP rankings , threatening to break the Big Four 's run of filling the end @-@ of @-@ year rankings . However , all of the Big Four reached the 2010 ATP World Tour Finals semifinals with Federer defeating Nadal in 3 sets in the final , leading to them achieving their third successive season in the top 4 positions . Again Djokovic and Murray were third and fourth respectively , both reaching one Grand Slam tournament final apiece .
= = = 2011 to 2013 : Dominance = = =
The 2011 season was dominated by Novak Djokovic . Djokovic won 10 titles in total , including three Grand Slam tournament titles ( only the fifth man in the open era to do so ) and five ATP Masters 1000 titles ( a record ) , enjoyed a 41 match winning streak ( ended by Federer in the semifinals of the 2011 French Open ) , amassed a record in prize money , and ascended to world No. 1 in the world for the first time in July . The season was described by many experts and former players as one of the best tennis seasons for a single player seen in history , with Tennis Magazine describing it as the third best tennis season ever , behind Roger Federer 's 2006 season , and Rod Laver 's in 1969 . Pete Sampras described it as " one of the best achievements in all of sport . "
Djokovic 's dominance contributed to an overall control by the Big Four . They all reached the semifinals at two of the year 's Grand Slam events , and between them won every Masters tournament . Nadal was a clear second place behind Djokovic , winning the French Open and losing in both the Wimbledon and US Open final . Nadal ended the season with a 0 – 6 losing record against Djokovic : every match they played was a championship final .
By his standards , Roger Federer had a weak season : he failed to win a Grand Slam tournament title for the first time since 2002 , losing to Nadal for the fourth time in a French Open final , and the sixth time overall in Major finals . He dropped to world No. 4 in November , the first time he had been ranked outside the top 3 since 2002 . Federer 's drop was caused by Murray 's remarkable run of form in Asia in October , winning three successive titles . However , Federer rallied , winning his three final tournaments ( a sign of things to come in the subsequent season ) , including the World Tour Finals , which was enough to secure an end @-@ of @-@ season ranking of No. 3 . Murray , meanwhile , was making significant improvements to his game and made the semifinals of all four Grand Slam tournaments , with his best result a defeat in the Australian Open final by Djokovic . He ended the year with two ATP World Tour Masters 1000 titles for the fourth consecutive year , and five titles in total .
The dominance of the Big Four continued in 2012 . Each player won one Grand Slam tournament : Djokovic won in Australia , Nadal in France , Federer at Wimbledon and Murray ( who hired former world number 1 Ivan Lendl as his head coach earlier in the year ) with his first Grand Slam tournament title at the US Open . This win " cemented " Murray 's position – who also won gold in the Olympic Games – as a member of the Big Four : his end of season ranking of third was his best yet . Djokovic entered the season as world number 1 , and remained there until July 2012 , when he was overtaken by Federer , who reclaimed the top spot for the first time since June 2010 . Federer subsequently overtook Sampras ' record of 286 weeks at the top , and ultimately extended the record to 302 weeks . Federer relinquished his world No. 1 ranking on 5 November , Djokovic reclaiming the top spot and ending the year at the top of the rankings for the second consecutive year . Djokovic was the only player to make at least the semifinals in all four Grand Slam events , and was the losing finalist at the French and US Open . Both he and Federer won three Masters tournaments , seeing them dominate the season as a whole . Federer was also the silver medalist at the Olympics , where Djokovic finished fourth . Nadal , meanwhile , had his season cut short by an injury . Having won two clay court Masters tournaments and the French Open , he was eliminated in the second round at Wimbledon – his first defeat at such an early stage in a Grand Slam tournament since 2005 . He later revealed that he had been injured going into the tournament , and he did not compete for the rest of the season , but still ended the year as world No. 4 .
The 2013 season continued in similar fashion , with Djokovic , Federer and Murray occupying three of the four semifinal slots at the Australian Open , with Nadal still suffering from injury . Murray beat Federer in a five @-@ set epic in the semifinal meaning all four members of the Big Four had beaten each other at least once in a Grand Slam event , subsequently losing to Djokovic in the final in four sets . As a result , Djokovic became the third man to win four Australian Open titles and the first to win three consecutively . Murray himself becoming the first man to reach the final of the next Grand Slam event after winning their maiden title . Nadal returned for the clay @-@ court season , winning events in Rome , Barcelona , Madrid before becoming the only male player to win a Grand Slam tournament eight times by winning the French Open , defeating Djokovic in the semifinals . However , Djokovic did end Nadal 's eight @-@ year winning streak at the Monte @-@ Carlo Masters . Murray 's clay @-@ court season ended prematurely because of a back injury and did not compete at the French Open , whereas Federer lost in the quarterfinals after making the final in Rome . Nadal and Federer lost early at Wimbledon in the first and second round respectively , thus ending Federer 's 36 consecutive Grand Slam tournament quarter final appearance record . Murray defeated Djokovic in the final to become the first British man to win the tournament in 77 years , extending his winning streak on grass to 18 matches . Leading up to the US Open , Nadal won ATP Masters 1000 events in Montreal and Cincinnati , his third hardcourt ATP Masters 1000 event of the year after winning at Indian Wells earlier in the year , extending his winning streak to 15 – 0 on hardcourts for the year . He went on to win the US Open , defeating Djokovic in the final in four sets . While Murray and Federer lost early , in the quarterfinals and fourth round respectively .
Overall , the season was about Nadal and Djokovic . Nadal won two Majors and five ATP Masters 1000 events . He was also runner @-@ up at the ATP World Tour Finals . Djokovic won one Major , and reached two finals and a semifinal in the other three , and finished the year strongly on a 22 @-@ match winning streak , winning the ATP World Tour Finals in London . The 2013 head @-@ to @-@ head record of Nadal and Djokovic was tied at 3 – 3 . A back injury ended Murray 's season prematurely and he finished fourth in the rankings , but was the only player besides Nadal and Djokovic to win a Grand Slam tournament or ATP Masters 1000 title , at Wimbledon and Miami respectively . Federer suffered his worst season for a decade . He reached just one Major semifinal , failed to win a single ATP Masters 1000 crown and finished the year sixth in the rankings with one title to his name , though he too suffered from a recurring back injury throughout the season .
= = = 2014 and beyond : Djokovic 's dominance = = =
As 2013 came to a close , Roger Federer 's fall in the rankings prompted many sources to debate whether or not the status of the Big Four had ended . This debate intensified in the wake of the Australian Open , which saw Stan Wawrinka defeat Djokovic in the quarter @-@ final and Nadal in the final to win his first Slam title , marking just the second time since 2005 and the first since 2009 that a player outside the Big Four had won a Grand Slam tournament . Murray and Federer fell to sixth and eighth in the rankings respectively , and after the tournament , several players expressed the opinion that they were now capable of challenging the Big Four . However , the Big Four occupied all four final spots of the first two Masters 1000 titles of the year in Indian Wells and Miami , with Djokovic winning his fourth and fifth consecutive Masters titles with tight victories over Federer and Nadal respectively .
The clay @-@ court season started with Wawrinka winning his first ATP Masters 1000 title in Monte @-@ Carlo , coming from behind to defeat Federer in the final . Nadal had failed to reach the final in Monte @-@ Carlo for the first time since 2004 , and also lost his first match at Barcelona since 2003 , against Nicolas Almagro . A third loss , to Djokovic in the final of the Rome Masters , was the first time Nadal had lost more than two matches on clay in a season for a decade . He did , however , win the Madrid Masters , and went on to defend his French Open title , defeating Murray in the semi @-@ final and Djokovic in the final , with Federer losing in the fourth round to Ernests Gulbis – the third time in his last four Grand Slam event appearances he failed to make the quarterfinals .
Following his back surgery at the end of 2013 , Murray had struggled to return to form in the first half of the year , reaching only two semi @-@ finals and losing to Grigor Dimitrov in straight sets in the quarter @-@ finals while attempting to defend his Wimbledon title , a defeat which saw him fall to no . 10 in the world rankings . This , and Nadal 's loss to Nick Kyrgios in the fourth round , his third consecutive early @-@ round loss at Wimbledon , led former players and experts , including Jimmy Connors , to express the opinion that the " aura " around the Big Four had faded . Milos Raonic , who reached the semi @-@ finals at Wimbledon , suggested there was now a " human side " visible in the Big Four , which was giving players belief when facing them . However , Djokovic defeated Dimitrov and Federer beat Raonic to make it an all @-@ Big Four final , the 24th they have contested . Djokovic defeated Federer in five sets to claim his second Wimbledon title , a result that left Djokovic , Nadal and Federer occupying the top three places in the rankings .
At the Rogers Cup , Frenchman Jo @-@ Wil | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Experience Tour ( 2015 )
= 15th ( Imperial Service ) Cavalry Brigade =
The 15th ( Imperial Service ) Cavalry Brigade was a brigade @-@ sized formation that served alongside British Empire forces in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign , during the First World War . Originally called the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade it was formed from Imperial Service Troops provided by the Indian Princely States of Hyderabad , Mysore , Patiala and Jodhpur , which each provided a regiment of lancers . A maximum of three regiments served in the brigade at any one time . The states of Bhavnagar , Kashmir , Kathiawar and Idar provided smaller detachments for the brigade , which was at times reinforced by other British Empire regiments and artillery batteries when on operations .
In October 1914 , the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade was moved by sea to Egypt to become part of the Force in Egypt defending the Suez Canal . In the first three years of the war , the soldiers were involved in several small @-@ scale battles connected to the First Suez Offensive , but spent most of their time patrolling in the Sinai Desert and along the west bank of the canal . It was not until November 1917 as part of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force that the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade was involved in the Third Battle of Gaza . The following year the brigade joined the 5th Cavalry Division when it became the 15th ( Imperial Service ) Cavalry Brigade and played an active role in the British victory over Turkish forces in Palestine .
In total , eighty @-@ four men from the brigade were killed in action or died of their wounds and another 123 were wounded . Several memorials were erected to commemorate the brigade in the Middle East and in India . The anniversary of the brigade 's most famous victory , the Battle of Haifa , is still celebrated today by its successors in the Indian Army .
= = Background = =
In 1888 , the Indian Government proposed that the independent armies of the Indian Princely states provide the British Empire with troops for service on the North West Frontier and outside the Indian subcontinent . The states ' forces were recognised by the Indian Government and the British Indian Army as allies , and their troops were subject to the Indian Army Act when serving alongside the Indian Army . When in the field , the commander of the British Forces alongside which any Imperial Service Troops were serving was recognised as the higher legal authority in accordance with the act . To eliminate supply problems , states ' armies ' field uniform and weapons were the same as the regular Indian Army , and the Indian Government appointed a staff of officers designated Military Advisers and Assistant Military Advisers to assist the independent states ' rulers in the training and organisation of their forces . Imperial Service Troops were commanded by Indian officers . In contrast , British Indian Army units had British officers in all senior command posts ; their own Indian Viceroy 's commissioned officers were trained to only a troop or platoon level of command .
The Imperial Service Troops included cavalry , infantry , artillery , sappers and transport regiments or battalions , with several states contributing both men and equipment . The first states to provide troops for active service were Gwalior and Jaipur for the Chitral Expedition in 1895 . Hyderabad sent troops to Burma in 1898 and to the Second Anglo @-@ Boer War in 1902 . During the 1900 Boxer Rebellion in China , part of the British relief force contingent was an Imperial Service Brigade , raised from the troops of Alwar , Bikaner and Jodhpur . Bikaner also sent troops to serve in the 1901 Somaliland Campaign . By the start of the First World War , the princely states together provided fifteen cavalry regiments , thirteen infantry battalions , seven transport units , four companies of sappers , three camel corps regiments and two batteries of mountain artillery , totalling around 22 @,@ 500 men .
= = Brigade organisation = =
In October 1914 , under the command of Brigadier @-@ General William A. Watson of the British Indian Army , the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade , of around 1 @,@ 700 men , was gathered at Deolali for service in the First World War . The brigade headquarters had an establishment of seven officers and forty @-@ seven men . Including the brigade commander there were five British officers on the brigade staff ; also attached were Sir Pratap Singh the Maharaja of Idar and Captain Zorawar Singh the Commandant of the Bhavnagar Imperial Service Lancers . The Kathiawar Imperial Service Signal Troop , commanded by Captain Henry St. George Scott of the 4th Gurkha Rifles , were with brigade headquarters , with an establishment of one Indian officer and twenty @-@ seven men of other ranks , including twelve despatch riders from Idar State . The brigade also included the 124th Indian Cavalry Field Ambulance , commanded by Captain T. O 'Leary of the Indian Army Medical Corps , with an establishment of five Indian officers , one British and ten Indians of other ranks .
The fighting component of the brigade was formed from three cavalry regiments , each of four squadrons : the 1st Hyderabad Lancers commanded by Major Mahomed Azmatullah Bahadur with twenty @-@ seven officers ( one British ) and 533 other ranks , the Mysore Lancers ( including two troops of Bhavnagar Lancers and one troop of Kashmir Lancers ) commanded by Regimentdar B. Chamraj Urs Bahadur with thirty @-@ two officers ( one British ) and 487 other ranks , and the Patiala Lancers commanded by Colonel Nand Singh Sardar Bahadur with twenty @-@ six officers and 528 other ranks . This formation remained the same until May 1916 , when the Patiala Lancers were transferred to serve in the campaign in Mesopotamia . The brigade regained its own third regiment in May 1918 when the Jodhpur Lancers , commanded by Colonel Thakur Pratap Singh Sardar Bahadur , which had been serving on the Western Front in France , arrived in the theatre . The final unit assigned to the brigade was the Imperial Service Machine @-@ Gun Squadron formed on 10 June 1918 by amalgamating the three cavalry regiment 's machine @-@ gun sections into one unit . Some sources refer to the squadron as the 15th Imperial Service Brigade Machine @-@ Gun Squadron .
Even though the brigade was an Imperial Service unit , the cavalry regiments and brigade headquarters included attached British Indian Army Special Service Officers ( SSO ) , but only as advisors . In 1914 , the three cavalry regiments had two SSOs attached , and Colonel J. Desaraj Urs Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Mysore State Forces accompanied the Mysore Lancers as an observer . The Jodhpur Lancers joined the brigade with seven SSOs attached . Throughout the war the establishment of British officers assigned to the cavalry regiments was gradually increased ; in February 1915 there were four in each regiment , in 1917 another two were assigned and in mid @-@ 1918 a full complement of twelve British officers in each of the regiments was reached .
= = Service history = =
= = = 1914 = = =
While waiting at Deolali to embark for Egypt , the brigade conducted regimental and brigade training programmes during which all ranks and animals were inspected , and those found unfit for service were returned to their regimental depots . Between 27 and 29 October the brigade moved to Bombay for embarkation ; six transport ships carrying most of the brigade sailed on 1 November , while a seventh ship carrying two squadrons of Mysore Lancers remained behind with mechanical problems and finally set sail a fortnight later . The main body of the brigade arrived at Suez on 16 November , travelled by train to Ismailia two days later and started their first war @-@ time patrols along the banks of the Sweet Water Canal . The brigade was not assigned to a higher formation at this time but were Army Troops under command of General Headquarters . The Bikaner Camel Corps , another Imperial Service unit , was attached to the brigade at Ismailia for administrative purposes , but was not operationally attached . To expand the area the brigade could patrol , squadrons were detached to El Kubri , Kantarah and the Ferry Post crossing at Ismailia . At the same time , the brigade became responsible for patrolling the length of the Suez Canal . The other British forces defending the canal were more static infantry formations , comprising the 42nd ( East Lancashire ) , and the 10th and 11th Indian Divisions , the latter included the Imperial Service Infantry Brigade as one of its three brigades . Their Turkish opponents had around 25 @,@ 000 men in the region , including the 25th Division .
= = = 1915 = = =
By the end of 1914 , no contact had been made with any Turkish forces . In January 1915 the brigade was informed that a large Turkish force had moved into the Sinai . The out @-@ stations were reinforced and the squadron at Kantarah was involved in a small action at Bir El Dueidar , between Kantarah and Katia which was the brigade 's first involvement in combat . Towards the end of the month , several small battles occurred until the night of 2 / 3 February , when their Turkish opponents tried to cross the canal in force . The attempt failed and on 4 February the brigade moved into the Sinai with infantry in support . About seven miles ( 11 km ) east of Toussoum they located the Turkish forces , estimated to be between three or four brigades in strength , and captured twenty @-@ five men and ninety camels . By 10 February the Turkish had withdrawn to the east and the canal was no longer in immediate danger , so the brigade returned to the canal and resumed their normal patrolling routine . At the end of February 1915 the Mysore and Hyderbad Lancers were ordered to return to the Sinai and destroy the water sources used by the Turkish during their advance .
The brigade 's next action was on 22 March when two squadrons of Hyderabad Lancers were included in a force sent to assault a Turkish formation of 800 infantry and 200 cavalry supported by artillery , entrenched ten miles ( 16 km ) east of El Kubri . After a short fight the Turkish withdrew ; it had been intended that the Lancers would move to cut off their retreat but the soft terrain prevented them getting into position in time . On 7 April , patrols from Kantara reported a force of about 1 @,@ 200 men had opened fire on them . To counter this new threat to the canal , the whole brigade was moved to Kantarah and the next day advanced into the Sinai , but failed to locate any Turkish troops and returned to Ismailia .
On 28 April a patrol from the Bikaner Camel Corps was attacked by an estimated 400 men with artillery support . In response the brigade crossed the canal that night supported by infantry and Egyptian artillery and advanced on El Hawawish , where the Turkish were believed to be located . By daybreak however their guide reported he was lost , so the brigade continued alone . Bypassing El Hawaish , they made for Bir Mahadat , arriving at midday they discovered the Turkish were withdrawing to the north . Setting off in pursuit they caught up with the Turkish rearguard , which was forced to stop and fight . For the loss of two killed and eight wounded the brigade killed twenty Turkish soldiers and captured thirteen . At 20 : 00 on 29 April , the pursuit was called off and the brigade returned to Ferry Post on the canal . Several times in the following months the brigade responded to reports of Turkish incursions , but nothing came of them until 23 November when a Mysore Lancers squadron located a Turkish camel force of about sixty men fifteen miles ( 24 km ) east of Kantarah . Pursued by the Lancers , the Turkish withdrew , during which the Lancers killed seven men , captured twelve and wounded several more . Among the dead was the Bedouin leader Rizkalla Salim who had led most of the Turkish raids on the canal , and with his death the attacks ceased .
= = = 1916 – 1917 = = =
From January 1916 , all patrolling east of the Suez Canal was left to the British yeomanry and the Australian Light Horse formations . The Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade concentrated on patrolling the Sweet Water Canal , the railway line between Suez and Port Said , and the Suez Canal Zone to the west of the canal , which was a restricted area for non @-@ military personnel . On 31 March , Major @-@ General W.A. Watson assumed command of the Nile Delta region and was replaced as brigade commander by Brigadier @-@ General M.H. Henderson . In May 1916 , the brigade was reduced to two cavalry regiments when the Patiala Lancers left for Mesopotamia . The brigade also carried out weapons and signal training , but the year ended without them being involved in any contact with the Turkish .
In February 1917 , the brigade was ordered to relieve the British 6th Mounted Brigade on the east bank of the Suez canal . The Mysore Lancers moved to Gebel @-@ Geneffe , the Hyderabad Lancers to Ayun Musa , with the brigade headquarters at El Shatt . For the next few weeks the brigade sent patrols out into the Sinai until 14 April , when they were ordered to relocate to Kantarah , where two days later Brigadier @-@ General Cyril Rodney Harbord took over command . To help counter an expected Turkish attack in early May , the brigade was ordered to Khan Yunis in Gaza . The brigade marched the 150 miles ( 240 km ) in nine days , arrived on the 25 April and came under command of the Imperial Mounted Division . The division was the army reserve under orders to counter @-@ attack the Turkish left flank . The expected attack never came , but instead of moving back to the canal , the brigade became lines of communication troops , based at Khan Yunis and Rafah . For the next three months , the brigade was deployed on rear area security and patrolling duties . In May 1917 , the cavalry regiments received the Vickers machine @-@ gun to replace their older Maxim Guns and all ranks were put through training courses on the Vickers and a newer version of the Lee – Enfield Rifle , which had also just been issued . In September , the cavalry regiments ' pack horses started to be replaced by horse @-@ drawn wagons and each of the regiments was issued with twelve Hotchkiss machine @-@ guns ; one per troop .
= = = = Third battle of Gaza = = = =
On 27 September , the brigade was once again moved to the front line and given responsibility for patrolling the area between the Desert Mounted Corps and the XXI Corps , taking under command the XXI Corps Cavalry Regiment on 20 October . At the time the brigade was the only mounted formation not under the direct command of the Desert Mounted Corps , remaining Army Troops . The next British attack was the capture of Gaza in November 1917 ; the plan was for the infantry to capture their initial objectives , then the brigade would be released to advance along the Mediterranean coastline , turn right and attack the Turkish rear and their headquarters at Nuzzle . When the battle started , the British infantry captured all but one of their objectives , but as the brigade started to move out , a Turkish counter @-@ attack regained their previous positions , so the brigade 's advance was called off . However , by the night of 6 / 7 November , continued British attacks forced the Turkish to withdraw from Gaza and the brigade was ordered forward to pursue them . By 13 : 00 the brigade was north of Gaza when the Mysore Lancers ' leading squadron located the Turkish rearguard , which included a heavy machine @-@ gun position . At 15 : 00 the Hyderabad Lancers and the XXI Corps Cavalry Regiment attacked Beit Hanun , while the rest of the brigade attacked Beit Lahi . As the Hyderabad Lancers approached their objective , they came under a heavy artillery bombardment . Leaving one squadron and their machine @-@ guns behind to provide fire support , the rest of the Lancers attacked , capturing the Wadi Safieh line . The Lancers , still under artillery fire , held out until 16 : 30 , when they were ordered to withdraw and rejoin the rest of the brigade now concentrated at Beit Lahi .
The brigade now came under command of XXI Corps and at 01 : 45 on 8 November was ordered to move west of Beit Hanun and link up with the Australian Mounted Division , which was advancing from the east . As they moved to the east of Beit Hanun , the XXI Corps Cavalry Regiment , which was still attached to the brigade , came under heavy machine @-@ gun and artillery fire , preventing the brigade from advancing further . The Turkish bombardment continued until 12 : 20 , when they were observed withdrawing . The XXI Corps Cavalry Regiment and Mysore Lancers were ordered to encircle and cut off their retreat , however dug in Turkish positions at the Wadi Hesi once again halted the brigade advance . At 15 : 00 that day the brigade eventually made contact with the 4th Light Horse Brigade , completing the link up with the Australian Mounted Division .
The morning of 9 November was spent trying to water the horses , some of which had had no water for over twenty @-@ four hours , so the brigade did not move after the now retreating Turkish until after 11 : 20 . Moving at their best speed , the brigade reached the high ground east of El Medjel by 14 : 30 , capturing two artillery guns , rifles and ammunition on route . Two troops were sent forward to locate the Turkish rearguard , which they found at 16 : 30 crossing the plain at El Tine . Early the next morning , patrols were again sent to locate the Turkish forces but at 07 : 00 , the brigade was unexpectedly ordered back to Gaza . Despite the heavy fire the brigade had been subjected to , their casualties during the battle were light ; only four officers and ten other ranks had been wounded , sixteen horses killed and another fifty wounded . The Turkish casualties were estimated at 100 dead ; forty @-@ nine were taken prisoner and five artillery guns were captured .
= = = 1918 = = =
In early January , the brigade trained and re @-@ equipped , which included the first issue of bayonets to the Lancers . On 2 April , the Hyderabad Lancers were detached from the brigade , coming under the command of the ANZAC Mounted Division , then the Desert Mounted Corps and finally the 60th Division . The rest of the brigade moved to the Jordan Valley , arriving at Jericho on 29 April . The next day the brigade was designated the Desert Mounted Corps reserve and concentrated two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to the west of the Ghoraniyeh bridgehead over the River Jordan . On the final day of the raid on Es Salt , on 4 May , the brigade , with the New Zealand Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment attached , was ordered to cross the Jordan and form a defensive screen on the east bank to cover the withdrawal of the ANZAC Division . They remained in place until 5 May , when the ANZAC Division reached and crossed the Jordan safely at 16 : 00 . The brigade , less some patrols , was back within the bridgehead by 18 : 00 . In the following twelve days , the brigade patrolled to the east of the River Jordan , resulting in numerous contacts with the Turkish defenders , during which several prisoners and deserters were captured . On 11 May , the Jodhpur Lancers were assigned to the brigade and the Wellington Mounted Rifles returned to the command of their parent New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade . On 23 May , the brigade came under command of the Australian Mounted Division and moved to a position four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) north of Jericho , remaining with the Australians until 4 June , when they left for Ras Dieran , becoming part of the newly raised 2nd Mounted Division . For almost a month the brigade was involved in training and staff exercises , during which time the brigade machine @-@ gun squadron was formed . On 5 July , the brigade left for the Jordan Valley to resume their place in the front line .
On 14 July , the brigade 's squadrons were involved in several small battles in the Hajlah , Henu and Abu Tellul bridgehead area , which included a charge by the Jodhpur Lancers on the Turkish positions followed by a separate charge by a squadron of Mysore Lancers on those retreating from the Jodhpur 's action . Accumulatively , the day 's fighting resulted in over 100 Turkish dead and seventy prisoners taken , twenty of them wounded , from the 9th and 11th Cavalry Regiments . The brigade 's casualties were twenty @-@ five dead , seven wounded and six missing . For their part in the battles the Jodhpur Lancers were mentioned in army despatches . On 24 July , the 2nd Mounted Division was renamed 5th Cavalry Division and the brigade became the 15th ( Imperial Service ) Cavalry Brigade . In early August , the brigade carried out several patrols , crossing the bridgehead and into the Jordan Valley until 4 August , the Turkish were found to have withdrawn overnight . A small Turkish force returned on 15 August but withdrew before the brigade could move up and engage them . The brigade remained in the area until the night of the 17 / 18 August , when they were relieved by the 10th Cavalry Brigade from the 4th Cavalry Division .
= = = = Haifa = = = =
The next three weeks were taken up with regimental and brigade training , until 17 September when the brigade started returning to the front line . The Hyderabad Lancers were detached from the brigade on 22 September to escort 12 @,@ 000 prisoners to Kerkur , and on 23 September , B Battery , Honourable Artillery Company was attached to the brigade for the forthcoming operations . At 03 : 00 on 23 September , the brigade leading the 5th Cavalry Division left Afule for Haifa and Acre . The advance was unopposed until 10 : 00 that day when the Mysore Lancers reached the village of Beled Esh Sheikh where the leading squadron was shelled from Mount Carmel and came under small @-@ arms fire from the region of the village . The Turkish had four artillery guns on the heights overlooking the brigade 's line of approach and another six to the east of Haifa , supported by machine @-@ gun posts and infantry to the west of the main Haifa road .
The brigade deployed its forces , with one squadron from the Mysore Lancers supported by two machine @-@ guns to capture Mount Carmel . A second Mysore squadron would cover the main road while the remainder of the regiment with two machine @-@ guns would advance along the Acre railway line . The Jodhpur Lancers would deploy in the open and wait further orders , while brigade headquarters and the remainder of the machine @-@ gun squadron and the artillery battery would be to the north of Beled Esh Sheikh . When in position , the Jodhpur Lancers – supported by covering fire from the artillery – and the Mysore Lancers would charge the guns . At 11 : 45 the Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry caught up with the brigade and one squadron was detached to support the Mysore Lancers on Mount Carmel . The attack was scheduled to start at 14 : 00 but before that , the artillery battery and reconnaissance patrols sent out to look for the Turkish positions kept up suppressing fire on them , to which the Turkish responded with counter @-@ battery fire . The attack commenced on time ; the Jodhpur Lancers advanced in squadron columns in the face of heavy Turkish rifle and machine @-@ gun fire .
The Lancers charged towards the railway line , but the terrain forced them to move to their left into a wadi , which was impassable and forced the Lancers even further left . The leading squadron crossed the railway line , captured the machine @-@ gun positions and cleared the way for the remainder of the regiment to charge into the town . At the same time the regiment 's second squadron had moved right , capturing three artillery guns and two machine @-@ guns , while the two remaining squadrons charged through the town virtually unopposed , facing only sporadic rifle fire . As they reached the other side of the town they were soon joined by the two other squadrons which had made their way around the outskirts , capturing another two artillery guns en route . Elsewhere , one of the Mysore Lancers squadrons that had been giving covering fire came under heavy artillery and machine @-@ gun fire from the mouth of the River Nahr el Mukutta . The squadron mounted and charged the Turkish positions , capturing two artillery guns , two machine @-@ guns and 110 prisoners . With the town secure the Mysore squadron on Mount Carmel charged a Turkish position at Karmelheim , capturing a 6 @-@ inch naval gun , two mountain artillery guns , two machine @-@ guns and seventy @-@ eight prisoners . During the charge they were joined by a squadron from the Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry , who captured another fifty prisoners . Prisoners taken inside the town were two German officers , twenty @-@ three Turkish officers and 664 other ranks . Two 6 @-@ inch naval guns , four 4 @.@ 2 @-@ inch guns , six 77 mm guns , four 10 @-@ pound camel guns , ten machine @-@ guns and a large quantity of ammunition were captured in Haifa . The brigade 's own casualties were relatively light ; one Indian officer and two other ranks were killed , and six Indian officers and twenty @-@ eight other ranks were wounded . Sixty horses were killed and eighty @-@ three were wounded .
= = = = Advance to Homs = = = =
The brigade rested for the next two days and was rejoined by the Hyderabad Lancers on 25 September . At 05 : 00 the next day they resumed the advance , arriving at Lake Tiberias ( Sea of Galilee ) at 11 : 00 on 27 September . After watering the horses the brigade advanced again , reaching Kasr Atra at 22 : 30 , where they halted for the night . They were to start again early the next day , but had to wait as the Australian Mounted Division to their right had been stopped by the Turkish forces and at 11 : 00 the brigade resumed their advance . Because of the delay , they did not reach El Kuneitra until midnight on 28 / 29 September . The next day the brigade was designated as the Desert Mounted Corps reserve , responsible for guarding their own and the Australian Mounted Division 's transport columns . During the day , the two divisions were held up for fourteen hours by a small , well @-@ placed Turkish detachment . On 30 September the brigade was ordered to head for Kiswe to round up Turkish stragglers from the Ottoman Fourth Army . By 09 : 30 on 1 October , the brigade was two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to the north of Kiswe but were then ordered to move to a new position two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of Damascus , where they were to be the division reserve , while the 14th Cavalry Brigade was made responsible for the capture of Kiswe .
The next day , 2 October , was the day that British Empire forces officially entered Damascus . This was marked by a short period of rest for the British forces and the brigade advance did not resume until 05 : 30 on 5 October . Their first objective was Khan Meizelun then Moallaka which they reached unopposed on 6 October . The next day Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Hyla Holden , a SSO with the Jodhpur Lancers , became the first Allied officer to enter Beirut , the Arab Revolt forces commanded by Sherif Hussein bin Ali arrived that same afternoon and assumed control of the local government . The brigade continued their advance capturing several villages in the following days . Tell Esh Sherif on 11 October , Baalbek on 13 October , Lebwe on 14 October , El Kaa on 15 October , Kusseir on 16 October and Homs was reached at midday 17 October .
= = = = Haritan = = = =
At Homs , the brigade rested for two days and on 19 October headed for Er Rastan , with orders to repair a bridge over the River Orontes , which had been destroyed by retreating Turkish forces . The next day , assisted by No. 5 Field Squadron Royal Engineers , was spent repairing the bridge , after which the brigade advanced , reaching Hama on 21 October . The brigade had expected to rest there for several days but were ordered to continue the advance to Aleppo . The brigade was preceded by seven light armoured cars , but the remainder of the division was following a day behind . On 24 October the armoured cars ' advance was stopped by Turkish defences near Khan Tuman . The Turkish held a strong defensive line on a ridge line to the south and west of Aleppo . The brigade was ordered to occupy a position on the Aleppo @-@ Alexandretta road and to clear Turkish trenches on the ridge to the west of Aleppo , but when they reached the ridge line on 26 October , the position had been evacuated . Intelligence from locals suggested that a force of 1 @,@ 000 men with two small artillery guns were heading north out of Aleppo , so the brigade set off in pursuit . At 11 : 00 , the leading two Jodhpur Lancers squadrons and a machine @-@ gun section reached a position overlooking Haritan to the north of Aleppo when they came under Turkish small arms fire . Harbord ordered an immediate brigade attack ; the Mysore Lancers would move around to the east of the ridge and charge the village , followed by the other two Jodhpur Lancer squadrons while the remainder of the brigade machine @-@ gun squadron would move onto the ridge to provide covering fire , with the two other Jodhpur squadrons . The armoured cars of No. 12 Light Armoured Motor Battery arrived at 11 : 30 and were ordered along the main road to support the attack .
As the attack started , the leading armoured car developed a fault and returned to their start position , due to a misunderstanding , the rest of the battery followed them , taking them out of the attack . The Mysore Lancers had also started their advance but moved further east to get into a position to charge after discovering the Turkish line was longer than expected , taking them out of range of their supporting machine @-@ guns . At 12 : 00 the Lancers charged the Turkish position , killing fifty men and capturing twenty , but without any fire support from their machine @-@ gun squadron they were unable to penetrate the Turkish defences and were forced to withdraw to the rear , dismount and keep the Turkish position under observation . The extent of the Turkish position had not been fully appreciated , and was now estimated to be held by a force of 3 @,@ 000 infantry , 400 cavalry , up to twelve artillery guns and between thirty and forty machine @-@ guns . One group of Turkish soldiers started towards the Mysore Lancers position , but halted about 800 yards ( 730 m ) short and started to dig new defensive trenches . Unable to progress against the larger force , the brigade kept the position under observation and at 21 : 00 , the Turkish were seen to be withdrawing and had completely evacuated their positions by midnight . At 23 : 15 the 14th Cavalry Brigade arrived , setting up their own observation lines , until daylight when they took over the 15th Brigade 's positions . In the day 's battle , Turkish casualties were estimated to be around 100 men , while the brigade lost four British officers , including Holden attached to the Jodhpur Lancers , one Indian officer and sixteen other ranks . Twelve officers , six of them British , and forty @-@ four other ranks were wounded , and three other ranks were reported missing .
That night , the Turkish forces withdrew twenty miles ( 32 km ) to Deir el Jemel to the north @-@ west of Aleppo . The 5th Cavalry Division was not strong enough by itself to continue the advance and halted , waiting for the Australian Mounted Division to catch up with them . On 27 October , the day after their unsuccessful charge , the brigade became the division reserve and was ordered back to Aleppo . Events now overtook them ; at noon on 31 October , after the Armistice of Mudros had been agreed the previous day , the war with the Ottoman Empire ended .
= = Disbandment = =
After the Armistice of Mudros , the brigade remained with 5th Cavalry Division in Palestine as part of the occupation forces . However , demobilization began immediately and the brigade was broken up by January 1920 . Although they did not suffer the same casualties associated with the Western Front in France , its units did not escape without loss . The Mysore Lancers had twenty @-@ three men killed in action , one man died as a result of his wounds , another two were reported missing believed killed , three wounded men were taken prisoner and released at the end of the war , and forty @-@ nine men were wounded . The Hyderabad Lancers had twelve men killed in action , four died as a result of their wounds , seven were reported missing believed killed and forty @-@ three were wounded . The casualties for the Jodhpur Lancers , while serving with the brigade , were seventeen men killed in action , five died as a result of their wounds , five missing believed killed , two were taken prisoner and thirty @-@ one were wounded . The casualties for the Patiala Lancers were not recorded in the brigade history , but the Commonwealth War Graves Commission records that while attached to the brigade from 1914 to May 1916 they had seven dead . For their service , several men of the brigade were given orders or were decorated ; the brigade received six Distinguished Service Orders , three Order of the Nile , one Order of the British Empire , six Order of British India , fourteen Military Crosses , two Military Medals , forty @-@ nine Indian Distinguished Service Medals , twelve Indian Order of Merits and sixty @-@ six were mentioned in despatches .
= = = Memorials = = =
The main memorial to the brigade is the Teen Murti ( three soldiers ) memorial in New Delhi , a stone and bronze sculpture inscribed with the names of those members of the brigade killed in action ( see image in the info box ) . The three statues represent soldiers from the Indian States of Hyderabad , Mysore and Jodhpur . A memorial on the site of the fighting at Haritan is inscribed with the date of the battle , the units involved and details of the casualties . The Port Tewfik Memorial was erected at the Suez Canal to commemorate the 4 @,@ 000 Indian officers and soldiers killed during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign who have no known grave . The brigade 's capture of Haifa on 23 September is remembered by the present Indian Army as Haifa Day , and the Mysore and Jodhpur Lancers part in its capture was recognised by the British government , which awarded them the battle honour Megiddo .
The British army commander Edmund Allenby in his despatches also commented on the contribution of the men in the brigade :
" I take this opportunity of expressing my appreciation of the valuable services and high soldierly qualities of the following contingents of Indian Imperial Service Troops which , through the generosity of their respective Ruling Chiefs , were placed at my disposal : — Hyderabad Lancers , Jodhpur Lancers , Kathiawar Signal Troop , Mysore Lancers . "
= = Formation = =
= = = Commanders = = =
Brigadier @-@ General William Arthur Watson ( October 1914 – 31 March 1916 )
Brigadier @-@ General M. H. Henderson ( 31 March 1916 – 16 April 1917 )
Brigadier @-@ General Cyril Rodney Harbord ( 16 April 1917 – 1918 )
= = = Units assigned = = =
1st Hyderabad Lancers ( October 1914 – 1918 )
Mysore Lancers ( October 1914 – 1918 )
Patiala Lancers ( October 1914 – May 1916 )
Jodhpur Lancers ( From 11 May 1918 )
124th Indian Cavalry Field Ambulance ( October 1914 – 1918 )
15th Kathiawar Signal Troop ( October 1914 – 1918 )
15th Imperial Service Machine Gun Squadron ( From 10 June 1918 )
= = = Units attached = = =
Bikaner Camel Corps ( for administration only )
XXI Corps Cavalry Regiment ( 20 October – 9 November 1917 )
Wellington Mounted Rifle Regiment ( 4 – 11 May 1918 )
Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry ( 23 – 25 September 1918 )
B Battery Honourable Artillery Company ( 23 – 25 September 1918 )
= New Jersey Route 3 =
Route 3 is a state highway in the northern part of New Jersey in the United States . The route runs 10 @.@ 84 miles ( 17 @.@ 45 km ) from U.S. Route 46 in Clifton , Passaic County to U.S. Route 1 / 9 in North Bergen , Hudson County . Route 3 is sometimes called the Secaucus Bypass within Secaucus . The route is a divided highway for its entire length , with most of the highway considered a freeway , except the westernmost part , which contains direct access to a few businesses . Route 3 intersects many major roads , including the Garden State Parkway and Route 21 in Clifton , the western spur of the New Jersey Turnpike ( Interstate 95 ) in East Rutherford , the eastern spur of the New Jersey Turnpike in Secaucus , and Route 495 in North Bergen . A commuting route for northern New Jersey to the Lincoln Tunnel into New York City by way of Route 495 , Route 3 also provides access to the Meadowlands Sports Complex in East Rutherford . The road inspired a story in The New Yorker in 2004 by Ian Frazier .
Route 3 was originally established in 1927 to run from the New York border on the west shore of Greenwood Lake to Secaucus . In 1929 , the western terminus was cut back to Paterson when the alignment west of there was planned to become part of Route S4B . Route 3 originally followed present @-@ day Route 20 through Paterson and ran along local streets to East Rutherford , where it followed present @-@ day Route 120 and the Paterson Plank Road to Secaucus . It was extended east to the Lincoln Tunnel in 1939 . The freeway section of Route 3 between U.S. Route 46 in Clifton and East Rutherford was completed in the 1940s as Route S3 as well as the Secaucus Bypass , which was designated a bypass of Route 3 . Route 3 was moved to the Route S3 freeway and the Secaucus Bypass in 1953 and was truncated to U.S. Route 1 / 9 in North Bergen in 1959 when the Lincoln Tunnel approach was designated as Interstate 495 . The Route 3 freeway has seen many improvements over the years such as widening and interchange reconstructions . It is undergoing final stages of major reconstruction , which is expected to be completed in 2014 , to modern highway standards with bridge replacements , including the new Passaic River bridge that is now functional , between Clifton and Route 17 in Rutherford .
= = Route description = =
= = = Passaic County = = =
Route 3 heads to the southeast , from an interchange with U.S. Route 46 and County Route 621 ( Valley Road ) as a six @-@ lane divided highway with a Jersey barrier . It is not up to freeway standards , as it contains a few businesses with right @-@ in / right @-@ out access . The route interchanges with County Route 623 ( Grove Street ) and County Route 509 ( Broad Street ) , then the Garden State Parkway , where it interchanges with the southbound lanes and then the northbound lanes . All interchange movements are present between Route 3 and the Garden State Parkway , except from the southbound Garden State Parkway to westbound Route 3 and from eastbound Route 3 to the northbound Garden State Parkway .
Past the Garden State Parkway , Route 3 eventually turns into a six @-@ lane freeway that is not designed to Interstate Highway standards . It interchanges with County Route 622 ( Bloomfield Avenue ) , then intersects County Route 603 ( Passaic Avenue ) , which heads south into Nutley to become Route 7 . The next interchange is for County Route 601 ( Main Avenue ) . Past that interchange , Route 3 comes to an interchange with Route 21 , then passes over the route .
= = = Bergen County = = =
Route 3 crosses the Passaic River on a fixed bridge , which replaced a double @-@ leaf trunnion bascule bridge in 2013 , into Rutherford , Bergen County . Just after crossing the river , the route interchanges with County Route 507 ( Riverside Avenue ) . The freeway continues through a residential area and comes to an exit that provides access to southbound Route 17 . Past this interchange , Route 3 is closely paralleled by Route 17 to the south until Route 3 interchanges again with Route 17 , which continues to the north of Route 3 .
The route widens to eight lanes and enters the New Jersey Meadowlands , crossing into East Rutherford and then passing over the Berrys Creek . Route 3 passes to the south of the Meadowlands Sports Complex and has access to Route 120 , MetLife Stadium , and the Meadowlands Racetrack in the eastbound direction and to MetLife Stadium and the Meadowlands Racetrack in the westbound direction . The route narrows back to six lanes and comes to a ramp which provides access to the western spur of the New Jersey Turnpike ( Interstate 95 ) . Route 3 interchanges with Route 120 and the carriageways separately . The route passes under the western spur of the New Jersey Turnpike and becomes eight lanes again .
= = = Hudson County = = =
Route 3 crosses the Hackensack River into Secaucus , Hudson County . It interchanges with the Meadowlands Parkway and continues southeast into a residential area with the carriageways joining back together . At the interchange with County Route 681 ( Paterson Plank Road ) , Route 3 widens into a local @-@ express lane configuration with three express lanes and local lanes each in the eastbound direction and two express lanes and three local lanes in the westbound direction . The route passes by the Mill Creek Mall and crosses under the mainline of the New Jersey Turnpike ( Interstate 95 ) . Route 3 comes to an eastbound exit and entrance with Harmon Meadow Boulevard and features a cloverleaf interchange with Paterson Plank Road . The route crosses the Penhorn Creek into North Bergen . In North Bergen , the route comes to a truck @-@ restricted eastbound ramp for eastbound Route 495 . Route 3 then interchanges with Route 495 , which provides access to the New Jersey Turnpike and the Lincoln Tunnel . Past this interchange , the local @-@ express lane configuration ends and Route 3 heads southeast as a four @-@ lane highway . The route meets a westbound exit and entrance for the Lincoln Tunnel Park & Ride and comes to its terminus at a traffic light with U.S. Route 1 / 9 south , with no direct access from Route 3 east to U.S. Route 1 / 9 north . ( Both 1 / 9 north and 1 / 9 south do have connectors to the start of Route 3 west . )
= = History = =
Route 3 was legislated by the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering to run from the New York border on the west shore of Greenwood Lake to Route 1 ( now U.S. Route 1 / 9 ) in Secaucus . In 1929 , the route west of Paterson was designated to become part of Route S4B , a spur of Route 4 , and Route 3 was modified to end at Route S4B north of Paterson . Route S4B was never built west of Paterson while the portion that was built became Route 208 in 1953 .
Following the 1929 amendments , Route 3 ran from Paterson along today 's Route 20 , through Clifton , Passaic , Wallington , Carlstadt , and East Rutherford along local streets , and finally down Paterson Plank Road ( part of which is today 's Route 120 ) to Secaucus . In 1939 , Route 3 was extended east along present @-@ day Route 495 to the Lincoln Tunnel into Manhattan , New York City .
The section of what is now Route 3 from U.S. Route 46 in Clifton to Route 120 in East Rutherford was planned to be built as a freeway in the mid @-@ 1930s designated as Route S3 , a spur of Route 3 . Construction started in 1940 , but it was interrupted by World War II . It would resume , with the first section of freeway opening between Route 17 to Route 3 ( now Route 120 ) in 1942 . The freeway was completed by 1949 , including a bypass of Secaucus that was designated as a bypass of Route 3 . The freeway had cost a total of $ 10 million to build and cut commuting times between Northern New Jersey and Manhattan . Before the freeway was completed , Route S3 was designated to follow Allwood Road between Hepburn Road and Bloomfield Avenue in Clifton ; the road was later returned to Passaic County and is currently County Route 602 . In 1942 , a spur of Route S3 in Clifton was commissioned ; this became Route S3 Spur in 1948 and Route 161 in 1953 .
In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 3 was realigned to follow the entire length of the Route S3 freeway . In addition , Route 3 in Secaucus was shifted off the Paterson Plank Road to the newly built Secaucus Bypass . The original alignment of Route 3 became Route 153 . Only the section west of Paterson Plank Road was state @-@ maintained after the renumbering , and the entire route was eliminated by the 1990s . In the mid @-@ 1950s , Route 3 was planned as one of the original routes of the Interstate Highway System ; however , the New Jersey State Highway Department had deemed it too expensive to bring it up to Interstate Highway standards and Interstate 280 was favored instead . In 1959 , the Lincoln Tunnel approach was designated as Interstate 495 and Route 3 was truncated back to U.S. Route 1 / 9 in North Bergen .
Many improvements have occurred to the Route 3 freeway . In the 1970s , the interchanges with Route 17 , the New Jersey Turnpike western spur , and Route 120 were improved with the construction of the Meadowlands Sports Complex in the area . The bridge over the Berrys Creek , originally built in 1948 , was reconstructed in the mid @-@ 1990s and Route 3 was widened to eight lanes in the area near the bridge . In 2003 , the interchange with Route 495 and the intersection with U.S. Route 1 / 9 was improved at a cost of $ 16 million .
Plans were made to improve Route 3 near the Meadowlands Sports Complex with the construction of American Dream Meadowlands . An overpass between eastbound Route 3 and northbound Route 120 was completed in May 2009 at a cost of $ 38 @.@ 1 million , a flyover from southbound Route 120 to eastbound Route 3 was completed in early 2010 at a cost of $ 13 million , and improvements to the New Jersey Turnpike interchange was completed in the later part of 2010 at a cost of $ 49 million .
= = Future developments = =
As of 2013 , Route 3 is in the final stages of major reconstruction to modern highway standards with noise walls installed and bridge replacements , including the new Passaic River bridge that is now functional , between Main Avenue in Clifton and Route 17 in Rutherford . All work is projected to be complete in 2014 . In a separate project , the roadway is being resurfaced in 2013 from just west of the Route 17 north interchange to U.S. Route 1 / 9 in North Bergen .
The NJDOT is planning to rebuild the interchange at U.S. Route 46 and Valley Road in Clifton starting in 2014 . This project will reconfigure ramps , bring bridges up to standard , and will provide for three @-@ lane connections between Route 3 and U.S. Route 46 . It is projected to cost more than $ 150 million .
= = In popular culture = =
Route 3 was the inspiration for a story in The New Yorker in 2004 by Ian Frazier . In this story , Frazier describes a bus journey along the route , mentioning scenes along the road such as traffic congestion , the Meadowlands Sports Complex , and the Tick Tock Diner off Route 3 in Clifton . He also described a walking journey he once took into New York City along Route 3 , encountering heavy , noisy traffic speeding by and debris along the side of the road .
In a Saturday Night Live sketch featuring Horatio Sanz and Derek Jeter , the fictional business " Derek Jeter 's Taco Hole " is on Route 3 in Nutley , New Jersey between Kinko 's and " El Duque 's Shoe Repair " .
= = Exit list = =
All exits are unnumbered .
= A.F.C. Sudbury =
A.F.C. Sudbury is a semi @-@ professional football club from Sudbury , Suffolk , England . The club was formed in 1999 by the merger of Sudbury Town and Sudbury Wanderers , the process giving rise to the name Amalgamated Football Club Sudbury . A.F.C. Sudbury won the Eastern Counties League Premier Division five seasons in a row and reached the final of the FA Vase three years in a row , both records for the respective competitions . Their home ground is the King 's Marsh Stadium in the Ballingdon @-@ Brundon area of Sudbury , and their home colours are yellow and blue . The club currently play in the Premier Division of the Isthmian League .
= = History = =
A.F.C. Sudbury was formed on 1 June 1999 by the amalgamation of the town 's two previous clubs , Sudbury Town ( founded 1885 ) and Sudbury Wanderers ( founded 1958 ) .
In their debut season , 1999 – 2000 , Sudbury finished in third place in the Eastern Counties League Premier Division . The following five seasons all resulted in Sudbury winning the Premier Division title – a league record . Sudbury did not take promotion at any of these opportunities , despite being entitled to . In this period Sudbury had a series of good performances in national cup competitions . In 2000 – 01 the club reached the first round of the FA Cup , where they were beaten 6 – 1 by Darlington . They reached the semi @-@ final of the 2001 – 02 FA Vase , before being knocked out by Tiptree United . The following three seasons saw Sudbury reaching the final each year ( a Vase record ) , but being defeated every time , by Brigg Town in 2003 , Winchester City in 2004 and Didcot Town in 2005 . However , the club did win the Suffolk Premier Cup three times , in 2001 – 02 , 2002 – 03 and 2003 – 04 .
The financial constraints of owning two grounds led the board not to apply for promotion until the beginning of the 2005 – 06 season . After finishing third in 2005 – 06 , a season in which they won the Eastern Counties League Cup , and passing the necessary ground inspection Sudbury were invited to take promotion into a resurrected Isthmian League Division One North , following the re @-@ structuring of the National League System . Potential legal action from the Northern Premier League nearly scuppered this move , but Sudbury started 2006 – 07 in the new division . The management team of Gary Harvey and Michael Cheetham , who took the team up , both resigned before the season could begin , citing work and family commitments , respectively . New manager Mark Morsley was appointed in May 2006 , signed from Needham Market . Sudbury 's first season at this level saw the club finish in fifth place , qualifying them for the promotion play @-@ offs . After beating Enfield Town in the semi @-@ final , Sudbury lost to Harlow Town in a penalty shoot @-@ out . Sudbury again qualified for the play @-@ offs in 2007 – 08 , finishing second in the table , but were defeated in the semi @-@ final by eventual winners Canvey Island . In the close @-@ season manager Morsley resigned , and was replaced by his assistant Nicky Smith .
Sudbury were moved into the Southern League Division One Midlands for 2008 – 09 following a restructuring of the English football pyramid . After two seasons of mid @-@ table finishes the club was moved back to the Isthmian League Division One North for 2010 – 11 . Smith resigned in September 2011 and was replaced by his assistant Chris Tracey . At the start of the 2013 – 14 , Sudbury appointed Wroxham manager David Batch as their new manager , after Chris Tracey left the club . Sudbury reached the final of the Isthmian League Cup in April 2014 , but lost 3 – 0 away to Maidstone United . Batch left to join St Neots Town at the end of 2014 , and was replaced by Jamie Godbold . Godbold led the club to a third @-@ place finish and qualification for the play @-@ offs , where they were defeated by Brentwood Town in the semi @-@ final . The following season Sudbury won the division with three games to spare , earning promotion to the Premier Division .
= = = Season @-@ by @-@ season record = = =
= = Other teams = =
= = = Reserve team = = =
The A.F.C. Sudbury reserve team initially played in the Reserves section of the Eastern Counties League before joining Division One of the league at the start of the 2013 – 14 season , at which point it was renamed AFC Sudbury Reserves / Under @-@ 21s . In the team 's second season in Division One they won the First Division Knock @-@ Out Cup , after beating Great Yarmouth Town 1 – 0 .
= = = Women 's team = = =
The A.F.C. Sudbury women 's team took over Sudbury Wanderers ' place in Division Two of the Eastern Region Women 's Football League in 1999 . However , they dropped out the league at the end of the 2001 – 02 season . They returned to the league in 2010 , and were placed in Division One North . After being promoted from Division One North at the end of the 2014 – 15 season , they currently play in the Premier Division .
= = = Youth teams = = =
The club 's academy team plays in the Eastern Counties Youth League , whilst it has two under @-@ 19 teams in the Football Conference Youth Alliance . In addition to an under @-@ 16 team , it has youth teams for every year group from age 7 to 13 .
= = Colours and badge = =
A.F.C. Sudbury 's club colours are yellow and blue , the same as those of Sudbury Town . The club 's second choice kit , usually when away from home , is all red with white trim , although in past seasons other colours have been used , such as all white in the 2007 – 08 season .
The club badge is the town crest of Sudbury , which incorporates a talbot dog with its tongue sticking out .
= = Ground = =
A.F.C. Sudbury play their home games at the King 's Marsh Stadium in the Ballingdon @-@ Brundon area of Sudbury , previously home to Sudbury Wanderers . Between June 2010 and August 2014 , due to a sponsorship deal , the ground was officially titled The MEL Group Stadium . At the time of A.F.C. Sudbury 's formation the ground consisted of two pitches , a training area , clubhouse , floodlights , a 200 @-@ seat stand on the West side of the main pitch and covered ends behind the goals . A 300 @-@ capacity terrace ( the Shed ) was constructed on the East side of the pitch in 2000 and houses the more vocal | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
is a tablet , which he throws into the pool . The water starts to churn and the dark @-@ haired Danny Di Cioccio emerges to Donovan 's delight . The two couple by the pool , with each performing oral sex on the other and Donovan penetrating Di Cioccio in a variety of positions . Di Cioccio turns the tables and tops Donovan until Donovan 's climax . The scene closes with the two engaged in horseplay in the pool and then walking off together down a boardwalk .
Inside : This final segment opens with shots of Donovan showering , toweling off and wandering idly around his room , intercut with shots of African @-@ American telephone repairman Tommy Moore checking various poles and lines outside , Donovan spots Moore from his balcony . Moore sees Donovan as well . The remainder of the segment consists of Donovan 's fantasized sexual encounters with Moore throughout the house intercut with shots of Donovan sniffing poppers and penetrating himself with a large black dildo . The segment ends following Donovan 's climax with the dildo , with the real Moore coming inside the house and closing the door behind them .
= = Production = =
Poole was inspired to make the film after he went with some friends to see a film called Highway Hustler . After watching the film , he said to a friend , " This is the worst , ugliest movie I 've ever seen ! Somebody oughta be able to do something better than this . " Poole was convinced that he was that somebody ; " I wanted [ to make ] a film that gay people could look at and say , ' I don 't mind being gay - it 's beautiful to see those people do what they 're doing . ' " Having enlisted the help of his lover , Peter Fisk , and another man , Poole first shot a ten @-@ minute segment entitled Bayside .
The success of that initial shoot convinced Poole to plan two more segments and seek theatrical distribution for the completed work . He hired Tommy Moore and Casey Donovan for the third segment , Inside . When Fisk 's scene partner from Bayside heard about the potential distribution deal , he refused to sign release forms until he was guaranteed 20 % of the profits . Instead , Poole decided to scrap the segment and re @-@ shoot with Fisk and Donovan . The resulting footage was so good that Poole decided to use Donovan for the second segment as well , entitled Poolside , and construct the loose storyline around him . The three segments were filmed on a budget of $ 8 @,@ 000 over three successive weekends in August 1971 in the gay resort area of Cherry Grove , New York , on Fire Island .
= = Popular and critical reception = =
Boys in the Sand had its theatrical debut on December 29 , 1971 , at the 55th Street Playhouse in New York City . Poole engaged in an unprecedented pre @-@ release publicity campaign , including screening parties and full @-@ page ads in The New York Times and Variety .
The film made back most of its production and promotions budget the day it opened , grossing close to $ 6 @,@ 000 in the first hour , and nearly $ 25 @,@ 000 during its first week , landing it on Variety 's list of the week 's 50 top grossing films . Positive word of mouth spread and the film was favorably reviewed in Variety ( " There are no more closets ! " ) , The Advocate ( " Everyone will fall in love with this philandering fellator . " ) and other outlets , which previously had completely ignored the genre . While some critics were less impressed , others saw the film as akin to the avant @-@ garde work of directors like Kenneth Anger and Andy Warhol . Within six months the film had grossed $ 140 @,@ 000 and was continuing to open in theatres across the United States and around the world .
The film 's mainstream popularity helped usher in the era of " porno chic , " a brief period of mainstream cultural acceptability afforded hardcore pornographic film , having been cited as " very much a precursor " to the following year 's crossover success of Deep Throat . The film would continue to attract critical and scholarly attention from pornography historians and researchers for years after its release . The film is credited with beginning the trend of giving pornographic films titles that spoof the names of non @-@ porn films .
With the success of Boys in the Sand , Casey Donovan became an underground celebrity . While he never achieved the mainstream film career for which he had hoped , he continued his career in pornography and translated his fame into some appearances on the legitimate stage , including a successful national tour in the gay @-@ themed play Tubstrip and an unsuccessful attempt to produce a revival of The Ritz . His fame also allowed him success as a high @-@ priced escort . He remained a bankable commodity in the adult industry , making films for the next fifteen years until his death from AIDS @-@ related illness in 1987 .
= = Legacy = =
Poole and Donovan had long wanted to make a sequel to Boys in the Sand . In 1984 , they finally shot Boys in the Sand II . Also filmed on Fire Island , the film featured Donovan , the only cast member from the original to return . The original opening sequence , Bayside , was recreated for the sequel , with Pat Allen performing the run from the water . Litigation tied up the release of Boys in the Sand II until 1986 and with the advent of the home video market , there was a glut of gay porn titles available . Boys in the Sand II did not distinguish itself from the competition and was not particularly successful .
In 2002 , TLA Releasing released The Wakefield Poole Collection . The two @-@ DVD set includes Boys in the Sand and Boys in the Sand II along with a third Poole / Donovan collaboration , Bijou ( 1972 ) , and other shorts and material shot by Poole . The collection won a 2003 GayVN Award for " Best Classic Gay DVD " and is now out of print .
In May 2014 , filmmaker and writer Jim Tushinski 's full @-@ length documentary I Always Said Yes : The Many Lives of Wakefield Poole which features extensive interviews with Poole , " Boys in the Sand " producer Marvin Schulman , and many contemporaries , began playing at film festivals . In June 2014 , the DVD company Vinegar Syndrome restored " Boys in the Sand " from the remaining film elements and released this new version on DVD along with early short films by Wakefield Poole and several documentary shorts about the filming and reception of Boys in the Sand .
= Beat Goes On ( Madonna song ) =
" Beat Goes On " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna for her eleventh studio album , Hard Candy ( 2008 ) . The song features American rapper Kanye West and background vocals by Pharrell Williams . It was co @-@ written by West in collaboration with its producers , Madonna and The Neptunes . The song was leaked in August 2007 , featuring only Williams and different lyrics than the album 's version , which was released a year later , having additional vocals by West . " Beat Goes On " is a disco song with hip @-@ hop influences , featuring instrumentation from bells , handclaps and whistles .
Lyrically , " Beat Goes On " encourages people to say whatever they like and do whatever they feel . The song received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who commended the disco environment , while also praising Williams ' production . However , some felt that the leaked version was better than the final version featuring West . " Beat Goes On " was certified platinum in Brazil for selling over 100 @,@ 000 digital downloads . It also charted inside the top @-@ twenty in Finland and on the Canadian Hot 100 chart . The song was performed live during the Sticky & Sweet Tour , featuring Madonna and her dancers on a 1935 Auburn Speedster , while Williams and West appeared in the video being displayed on backdrops . The live version was also included on the Sticky & Sweet Tour album .
= = Background and composition = =
In early 2007 , it was reported that Madonna was recording songs with American singer @-@ songwriter Justin Timberlake for her upcoming album . Later , it was also announced that record producers Timbaland and Pharrell Williams were working with her on the album , and Timbaland confirmed that a song titled " Candy Shop " was being produced by Williams . A month later , a song called " The Beat Goes On " , featuring Madonna 's vocals and production by Williams , leaked online . The song started with Madonna saying , " Let 's do something different , let 's change things up , " followed by DFA handclaps and cowbells , Bee Gees @-@ like falsettos on the chorus and " Williams background interjections sprinkled throughout the track , " as noted by Maura Johnson from Idolator . During the pre @-@ chorus Madonna sings the line , " Always a bridesmaid , never the bride " , followed by " I 'll throw you some rope , if it 'll give you hope . " In December 2007 , it was announced that a new version of the song was being developed with American rapper Kanye West as featured guest .
" Beat Goes On " was re @-@ recorded in October 2007 by Spike Spent , Andrew Coleman and Alex Dromgoole at Sarm Studios , London , and at the Record Plant Studios , California . Spent and Coleman also mixed the track at the Record Plant . Williams ' production team , The Neptunes , produced the track , with Madonna . The song was written by Madonna and Williams , with rap vocals by West , and the title is a reference to The Whispers ' disco track " And the Beat Goes On " ( 1980 ) . " Beat Goes On " is a disco song , with funk and hip @-@ hop influences , drum beat and bell chimes , as well as Williams ' shimmering , thumping production , which according to Bradley Stern from Idolator , " offers Madonna the perfect groove to wax bombastic about the cathartic pleasures of dancing . " Lyrically , " Beat Goes On " is a song about the freedom to dance , where people are urged to say whatever they like and do whatever they feel .
= = Reception = =
" Beat Goes On " received generally mixed to positive reviews from music critics . Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone felt that the usage of bells and whistles as instrumentation , along with the disco sounds made the track connect to two of Madonna 's inspirations , that of Chic , and Donna Summer . Ganz went on to criticize West 's appearance , calling it " uninspired " . In a similar review , Thomas Hauner of PopMatters wrote that the song " continues the Donna Summer touch , this time opting for ' beep beep ' vocals on a surprisingly sweet track . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine believed that compared to the demo , the final version had lost an individuality , but complimented the addition of West , feeling that it " transports [ the song ] from 2001 to 1979 " . Talia Soghomolian of musicOMH praised " the variations in its tempo " , making it " the perfect dance floor tune , merging old school and modern takes on urbanity . " Stern wrote a positive review for Idolator that " by the time West shows up unexpectedly for his rap at the end , you have no choice but to heed his call to get down , beep beep , and get up outta your seat . "
Miles Marshall Lewis of The Village Voice was not favourable to West 's verses , calling them as " playfully tepid lines " , while a reviewer from Blender panned his contributions . Jaime Gill of Yahoo ! Music echoed the same thought , calling West 's rap as " awful " and his addition to the track as redundant . Joan Anderman of The Boston Globe was mixed in his review of the song , praising Madonna 's endeavors in " Beat Goes On " while questioning West 's appearance in it . Conversely , Tony Robert Whyte of Drowned in Sound called him " a decent guest " . Allan Raible of ABC News summarized the track as a " standard disco number " . He complimented Madonna 's vocals but added that the song felt rejuvenated with the addition of West 's vocals .
" Beat Goes On " was certified platinum by the Associação Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos , for exceeding 100 @,@ 000 digital downloads . In Finland , the song debuted and peaked at number 15 in August 2009 . In Canada , the song also made its debut , peaking at number 82 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart . In the US , the song made an entry on the Billboard Pop 100 ( now discontinued ) chart for a week , at number 97 .
= = Live performance = =
" Beat Goes On " was performed during the Sticky & Sweet Tour ( 2008 – 09 ) as the second song of the opening segment , " Pimp " . After descending the throne during the first song , " Candy Shop " , Madonna and her dancers are featured on a 1935 Auburn Speedster to the performance of the song . Both Williams and West appeared in the videos being displayed on the backdrops . Sarah Liss of CBC News called the performance " pulsating , " noting that " her studio collaborators — Pharrell Williams and Kanye West — present in spirit and countenance ( their virtual likenesses grimaced from those massive screens ) if not in body . " Michael Roffman of Consequence of Sound praised the performance , writing that " by the second song , ' Beat Goes On ' , it was clear that this was going to be one hell of an innovative show . " Roffman also pointed out that " a digital Kanye West joined Madonna on stage , rapping along as the singer flipped and bounced on the floor . " During a Chicago concert , Paul Schrodt of Slant Magazine wrote that " a song about the freedom to dance ( " Beat Goes On " ) becomes an anthem for political frustration , and it 's the only moment that 's generated any real controversy , but she doesn 't say anything about either the Republican or the Democratic candidate that she hasn 't said before . The power of any great Madonna song is implicit : ' Say what you like / Do what you feel / You know exactly who you are ' . " The live performance of the song at River Plate Stadium of Buenos Aires , Argentina , was recorded and released on the live CD @-@ DVD album , Sticky & Sweet Tour ( 2010 ) .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – writer , vocals , co @-@ producer
Pharrell Williams – writer , background vocals , producer
Kanye West – writer , vocals
Chad Hugo – producer
Spike Spent – mixing , recording
Andrew Coleman – mixing , recording
Alex Dromgoole – recording
Credits and personnel adapted from Hard Candy album liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Anglo @-@ Zanzibar War =
The Anglo @-@ Zanzibar War was a military conflict fought between the United Kingdom and the Zanzibar Sultanate on 27 August 1896 . The conflict lasted around 38 minutes , marking it as the shortest war in history . The immediate cause of the war was the death of the pro @-@ British Sultan Hamad bin Thuwaini on 25 August 1896 and the subsequent succession of Sultan Khalid bin Barghash . The British authorities preferred Hamud bin Muhammed , who was more favourable to British interests , as sultan . In accordance with a treaty signed in 1886 , a condition for accession to the sultanate was that the candidate obtain the permission of the British consul , and Khalid had not fulfilled this requirement . The British considered this a casus belli and sent an ultimatum to Khalid demanding that he order his forces to stand down and leave the palace . In response , Khalid called up his palace guard and barricaded himself inside the palace .
The ultimatum expired at 09 : 00 East Africa Time ( EAT ) on 27 August , by which time the British had gathered three cruisers , two gunboats , 150 marines and sailors , and 900 Zanzibaris in the harbour area . The Royal Navy contingent were under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Harry Rawson while their Zanzibaris were commanded by Brigadier @-@ General Lloyd Mathews of the Zanzibar army ( who was also the First Minister of Zanzibar ) . Around 2 @,@ 800 Zanzibaris defended the palace ; most were recruited from the civilian population , but they also included the sultan 's palace guard and several hundred of his servants and slaves . The defenders had several artillery pieces and machine guns , which were set in front of the palace sighted at the British ships . A bombardment opened at 09 : 02 set the palace on fire and disabled the defending artillery . A small naval action took place with the British sinking the Zanzibari royal yacht HHS Glasgow and two smaller vessels , and some shots were fired ineffectually at the pro @-@ British Zanzibari troops as they approached the palace . The flag at the palace was shot down and fire ceased at 09 : 40 .
The sultan 's forces sustained roughly 500 casualties , while only one British sailor was injured . Sultan Khalid received asylum in the German consulate before escaping to German East Africa ( in the mainland part of present Tanzania ) . The British quickly placed Sultan Hamud in power at the head of a puppet government . The war marked the end of the Zanzibar Sultanate as a sovereign state and the start of a period of heavy British influence .
= = Background = =
Zanzibar was an island country in the Indian Ocean , off the coast of Tanganyika ; today it forms part of Tanzania . The main island , Unguja ( or Zanzibar Island ) , had been under the nominal control of the Sultans of Oman since 1698 when they expelled the Portuguese settlers who had claimed it in 1499 . Sultan Majid bin Said declared the island independent of Oman in 1858 , which was recognised by Great Britain , and split the sultanate from that of Oman . The subsequent sultans established their capital and seat of government at Zanzibar Town where a palace complex was built on the sea front . By 1896 , this consisted of the palace itself ; the Beit al @-@ Hukm , an attached harem ; and the Beit al @-@ Ajaib or " House of Wonders " — a ceremonial palace said to be the first building in East Africa to be provided with electricity . The complex was mostly constructed of local timber and was not designed as a defensive structure . All three main buildings were adjacent to one another in a line , and linked by wooden covered bridges above street height .
Britain had recognised Zanzibar 's sovereignty and its sultanate in 1886 , after a long period of friendly interaction , and generally maintained good relations with the country and its sultans . However , Germany was also interested in East Africa and the two powers vied for control of trade rights and territory in the area throughout the late 19th century . Sultan Khalifah had granted rights to the land of Kenya to Britain and that of Tanganyika to Germany , a process resulting in the prohibition of slavery in those lands . Many of the Arab ruling classes were upset by this interruption of a valuable trade , which resulted in some unrest . In addition , the German authorities in Tanganyika refused to fly the flag of the Zanzibar Sultanate , which led to armed clashes between German troops and the local population . One such conflict in Tanga claimed the lives of 20 Arabs .
Sultan Khalifah sent Zanzibari troops led by Brigadier @-@ General Lloyd Mathews , a former Lieutenant of the Royal Navy , to restore order in Tanganyika . The operation was largely successful , but anti @-@ German feeling among the Zanzibari people remained strong . Further conflicts erupted at Bagamoyo where 150 natives were killed by German military forces and at Ketwa where German officials and their servants were murdered . Khalifah then granted extensive trade rights to the Imperial British East Africa Company ( IBEAC ) who , with German assistance , ran a naval blockade to halt the continuing domestic slave trade . Upon Khalifah 's death in 1890 Ali bin Said ascended to the sultanate . Sultan Ali banned the domestic slave trade ( but not slave ownership ) , declared Zanzibar a British protectorate and appointed Lloyd Mathews as First Minister to lead his cabinet . The British were also guaranteed a veto over the future appointment of sultans .
The year of Ali 's ascension also saw the signing of the Heligoland @-@ Zanzibar Treaty between Britain and Germany . This treaty officially demarcated the spheres of interest in East Africa and ceded Germany 's rights in Zanzibar to the United Kingdom . This granted the British government more influence in Zanzibar , which they intended to use to eradicate slavery there , an objective they had held as early as 1804 .
Sultan Ali 's successor was Hamad bin Thuwaini , who became sultan in 1893 . Hamad maintained a close relationship with the British but there was dissent among his subjects over the increasing British control over the country , the British @-@ led army and the abolition of the valuable slave trade . In order to control this dissent , the British authorities authorised the sultan to raise a Zanzibari palace bodyguard of 1 @,@ 000 men , but these troops were soon involved in clashes with the British @-@ led police . Complaints about the bodyguards ' activities were also received from the European residents in Zanzibar Town .
= = 25 August = =
Sultan Hamad died suddenly at 11 : 40 EAT ( 08 : 40 UTC ) on 25 August 1896 . His 29 @-@ year @-@ old nephew Khalid bin Bargash , who was suspected by some of his assassination , moved into the palace complex at Zanzibar Town without British approval , in contravention of the treaty agreed with Ali . The British government preferred an alternative candidate , Hamud bin Muhammed , who was more favourably disposed towards them . Khalid was warned by the consul and diplomatic agent to Zanzibar , Basil Cave , and General Mathews to think carefully about his actions . This course of action had proved successful three years earlier when Khalid had tried to claim the sultanate after the death of Ali and the British consul @-@ general , Rennell Rodd , had persuaded him of the dangers of such an action .
Khalid ignored Cave 's warning and his forces began mustering in the Palace Square under the command of Captain Saleh of the palace bodyguard . By the end of the day , they numbered 2 @,@ 800 men armed with rifles and muskets . The majority were civilians but the force included 700 Zanzibari Askari soldiers who had sided with Khalid . The sultan 's artillery , which consisted of several Maxim machine guns , a Gatling gun , a 17th @-@ century bronze cannon and two 12 @-@ pounder field guns , was aimed at the British ships in the harbour . The 12 @-@ pounders had been presented to the sultan by Wilhelm II , the German emperor . The sultan 's troops also took possession of the Zanzibari Navy , which consisted of one wooden sloop , the HHS Glasgow , built as a royal yacht for the sultan in 1878 based on the British frigate Glasgow .
Mathews and Cave also began to muster their forces , already commanding 900 Zanzibari askaris under Lieutenant Arthur Edward Harington Raikes of the Wiltshire Regiment who was seconded to the Zanzibar Army and held the rank of Brigadier @-@ General . 150 sailors and marines were landed from the Pearl @-@ class protected cruiser Philomel and the gunboat Thrush , which were anchored in the harbour . The naval contingent , under the command of Captain O 'Callaghan , came ashore within fifteen minutes of being requested to deal with any rioting caused by the general population . A smaller contingent of sailors under Lieutenant Watson of Thrush were put ashore to guard the British consulate , where British citizens were requested to gather for protection . HMS Sparrow , another gunboat , entered the harbour and was anchored opposite the palace next to Thrush .
Some concerns were raised among the British diplomats as to the reliability of Raikes ' askaris , but they proved to be steady and professional troops hardened by military drill and several expeditions to East Africa . They would later become the only land troops to be fired upon by the defenders . Raikes ' troops were armed with two Maxim guns and a nine pounder cannon , and were stationed at the nearby customs house . The sultan attempted to have the US consul , Richard Dorsey Mohun , recognise his accession but the messenger was told that " as his accession had not been verified by Her Majesty 's government , it is impossible to reply . "
Cave continued to send messages to Khalid requesting that he stand down his troops , leave the palace and return home but these were ignored and Khalid replied that he would proclaim himself sultan at 15 : 00 . Cave stated that this would constitute an act of rebellion and that Khalid 's sultancy would not be recognised by the British government . At 14 : 30 , Sultan Hamad was buried and exactly 30 minutes later a royal salute from the palace guns proclaimed Khalid 's succession . Cave could not open hostilities without government approval and telegraphed the following message to the Foreign Office of Lord Salisbury 's administration in London : " Are we authorised in the event of all attempts at a peaceful solution proving useless , to fire on the Palace from the men @-@ of @-@ war ? " Meanwhile , Cave informed all other foreign consuls that all flags were to remain at half mast in honour of the late Hamad . The only one that did not was a large red flag flying from Khalid 's palace . Cave also informed the consuls not to recognise Khalid as sultan , to which they agreed .
= = 26 August = =
At 10 : 00 on 26 August , the Archer @-@ class protected cruiser Racoon arrived at Zanzibar Town and was anchored in line with Thrush and Sparrow . At 14 : 00 , the Edgar @-@ class protected cruiser St George , flagship of the Cape and East Africa Station , steamed into the harbour . On board were Rear @-@ Admiral Harry Rawson and further British marines and sailors . At around the same time Lord Salisbury 's reply arrived authorising Cave and Rawson to use the resources at their disposal to remove Khalid from power . The telegraph read : " You are authorised to adopt whatever measures you may consider necessary , and will be supported in your action by Her Majesty 's Government . Do not , however , attempt to take any action which you are not certain of being able to accomplish successfully . "
Cave attempted further negotiations with Khalid but these failed and Rawson sent an ultimatum , requiring him to haul down his flag and leave the palace by 09 : 00 on 27 August or he would open fire . During the afternoon , all merchant vessels were cleared from the harbour and the British women and children removed to St. George and a British @-@ India Steam Navigation Company vessel for their safety . That night , Consul Mohun noted that : " The silence which hung over Zanzibar was appalling . Usually drums were beating or babies cried but that night there was absolutely not a sound . "
= = 27 August = =
At 08 : 00 on the morning of 27 August , after a messenger sent by Khalid requested parley from Cave , the consul replied that he would only have salvation if he agreed to the terms of the ultimatum . At 08 : 30 a further messenger from Khalid declared that " We have no intention of hauling down our flag and we do not believe you would open fire on us " ; Cave replied that " We do not want to open fire , but unless you do as you are told we shall certainly do so . " At 08 : 55 , having received no further word from the palace , aboard St George Rawson hoisted the signal " prepare for action " .
At exactly 09 : 00 , General Lloyd Mathews ordered the British ships to commence the bombardment . At 09 : 02 Her Majesty 's Ships Racoon , Thrush and Sparrow opened fire at the palace simultaneously , Thrush 's first shot immediately dismounted an Arab 12 @-@ pounder cannon . Three thousand defenders , servants and slaves were present in the largely wooden palace and even with barricades of crates , bales and rubber , there were many casualties from the high explosive shells . Despite initial reports that he had been captured and was to be exiled to India , Sultan Khalid escaped from the palace . A Reuters news correspondent reported that the sultan had " fled at the first shot with all the leading Arabs , who left their slaves and followers to carry on the fighting " , but other sources state that he remained in the palace for longer . The shelling ceased at around 09 : 40 , by which time the palace and attached harem had caught fire , the Sultan 's artillery had been silenced and his flag cut down .
During the bombardment a small naval engagement occurred when , at 09 : 05 , the obsolete Glasgow fired upon the St George using her armament of 7 nine @-@ pounder guns and a Gatling gun , which had been a present from Queen Victoria to the sultan . The return fire caused Glasgow to sink , though the shallow harbour meant that her masts remained out of the water . Glasgow 's crew hoisted a British flag as a token of their surrender and they were all rescued by British sailors in launches . Thrush also sank two steam launches whose Zanzibari crews shot at her with rifles . Some land fighting occurred when Khalid 's men fired on Raikes ' askaris , with little effect , as they approached the palace . The fighting ceased with the end of the shelling . The British controlled the town and the palace and by the afternoon Hamud bin Muhammed , an Arab favourable to the British , had been installed as sultan with much reduced powers . The British ships and crews had fired around 500 shells , 4 @,@ 100 machine gun rounds and 1 @,@ 000 rifle rounds during the engagement .
= = Aftermath = =
Around 500 Zanzibari men and women were killed or wounded during the bombardment , most of the dead a result of the fire that engulfed the palace . It is unknown how many of these casualties were combatants , but Khalid 's gun crews were said to have been " decimated " . British casualties amounted to one Petty Officer severely wounded aboard Thrush who later recovered . Although the majority of the Zanzibari townspeople sided with the British , the town 's Indian quarter suffered from opportunistic looting and around twenty inhabitants lost their lives in the chaos . To restore order 150 British Sikh troops were transferred from Mombasa to patrol the streets . Sailors from St George and Philomel were landed to form a fire brigade to contain the fire , which had spread from the palace to the nearby customs sheds . There was some concern about the fire at the customs sheds as they contained a sizeable store of explosives , but no explosion occurred .
Sultan Khalid , Captain Saleh and around forty followers sought refuge in the German consulate following their flight from the palace , where they were guarded by ten armed German sailors and marines while Mathews stationed men outside to arrest them if they tried to leave . Despite extradition requests the German consul refused to surrender Khalid to the British as his country 's extradition treaty with Britain specifically excluded political prisoners . Instead , the German consul promised to remove Khalid to German East Africa without him " setting foot on the soil of Zanzibar " . At 10 : 00 on 2 October , SMS Seeadler of the German Navy arrived in port ; at high tide , one of Seeadler 's boats made it up to the consulate 's garden gate and Khalid stepped directly from consular grounds to a German war vessel and hence was free from arrest . He was transferred from the boat onto the Seeadler and was then taken to Dar es Salaam in German East Africa . Khalid was captured by British forces in 1916 , during the East African Campaign of World War I , and exiled to Seychelles and Saint Helena before being allowed to return to East Africa , where he died at Mombasa in 1927 . The British punished Khalid 's supporters by forcing them to pay reparations to cover the cost of shells fired against them and for damages caused by the looting , which amounted to 300 @,@ 000 rupees .
Sultan Hamud was loyal to the British and acted as a figurehead for an essentially British @-@ run government , the sultanate only being retained to avoid the costs involved with running Zanzibar directly as a crown colony . Several months after the war , Hamud , with British prompting , abolished slavery in all its forms . The emancipation of slaves required them to present themselves to a government office and proved a slow process — within ten years only 17 @,@ 293 slaves had been freed , from an estimated population of 60 @,@ 000 in 1891 .
The badly damaged palace complex was completely changed by the war . The harem , lighthouse and palace were demolished as the bombardment had left them unsafe . The palace site became an area of gardens while a new palace was erected on the site of the harem . The House of Wonders was almost undamaged and would later become the main secretariat for the British governing authorities . During renovation work on the House of Wonders in 1897 a clocktower was added to its frontage to replace the lighthouse lost to the shelling . The wreck of the Glasgow remained in the harbour in front of the palace where the shallow waters ensured that her masts would remain visible for several years to come ; it was eventually broken up for scrap in 1912 .
The British protagonists were highly regarded by the governments in London and Zanzibar for their actions leading up to and during the war , and many were rewarded with appointments and honours . General Raikes , leader of the askaris , was appointed a First Class ( Second Grade ) member of the Order of the Brilliant Star of Zanzibar on 24 September 1896 , a First Class member of the Zanzibari Order of Hamondieh on 25 August 1897 and later promoted to Commander of the Zanzibar armies . General Mathews , the Zanzibari army commander , was appointed a member of the Grand Order of Hamondieh on 25 August 1897 and became First Minister and Treasurer to the Zanzibari government . Basil Cave , the consul , was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath on 1 January 1897 and promoted to Consul @-@ General on 9 July 1903 . Harry Rawson was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath for his work in Zanzibar and would later be Governor of New South Wales in Australia and receive promotion to Admiral . Rawson was also appointed a first class member of the Order of the Brilliant Star of Zanzibar on 8 February 1897 and the Order of Hamondieh on 18 June 1898 .
Perhaps due to the effectiveness shown by the Royal Navy during the bombardment , there were no further rebellions against British influence during the remaining 67 years of the protectorate .
= = Duration = =
The war , lasting less than three quarters of an hour , is considered the shortest in recorded history . Several durations are given by sources , including 38 , 40 and 45 minutes , but the 38 @-@ minute duration is the most often quoted . The variation is due to confusion over what actually constitutes the start and end of a war . Some sources take the start of the war as the order to open fire at 09 : 00 and some with the start of actual firing at 09 : 02 . The end of the war is usually put at 09 : 40 when the last shots were fired and the palace flag struck , but some sources place it at 09 : 45 . The logbooks of the British ships also suffer from this with St George indicating that cease @-@ fire was called and Khalid entered the German consulate at 09 : 35 , Thrush at 09 : 40 , Racoon at 09 : 41 , and Philomel and Sparrow at 09 : 45 .
= The Collection ( 30 Rock ) =
" The Collection " is the third episode of NBC 's second season of 30 Rock , and the twenty @-@ fourth episode overall . It was written by producer Matt Hubbard and directed by producer Don Scardino , and first aired on October 18 , 2007 in the United States . In the episode , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) hires a private detective , Len ( Steve Buscemi ) , to investigate his past ; Angie Jordan ( Sherri Shepherd ) asks Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) to help her watch Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) ; and Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) attempts to help Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) gain weight by insulting her .
The episode features a reference to Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip , which was compared to 30 Rock because of their similar premise . This is a recurring element in the series , as well as references to other aspects of popular culture . " The Collection " received generally positive reviews , however several critics expressed their concern over the misuse of guest stars , especially in the case of Buscemi . Despite their reactions , Buscemi was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for his acting .
= = Plot = =
After their separation , Tracy and his wife Angie get back together on the condition that Tracy must never leave her sight . Liz is surprised to find Tracy on time in his dressing room , although Angie confesses that she cannot take care of Tracy alone , and asks for Liz 's help . Angie leaves to take care of personal issues , trusting Liz to watch over him . Busy with her own work , Liz forgets about her promise and Tracy leaves for a strip club . When Angie returns , Liz lies about his whereabouts and tries to cover her mistake , however Angie realizes that Tracy has been to a strip club , and blames the situation on Liz . Angie demands that all decisions regarding sketch ideas be run through her first , and rejects all of Liz 's ideas . To solve the problem , Liz offers Angie " consultant " credit , but she declines the offer . Liz decides to fight Angie , but Tracy scolds the women for their immature behavior and he reconciles with Angie .
Jack hires Len to investigate his past when he learns that he is a possible candidate for the position of president at G.E .. Knowing that the company is looking for anything that could possibly embarrass them , Jack hires Len to find anything incriminating before the company does . When Len discovers that Jack has a collection of cookie jars , he advises him to get rid of them . Jack cannot bear to destroy his cookie jars , and when he realizes Kenneth has a similar enjoyment , he gives him the collection .
Jenna has become more famous after gaining weight , and sorts through large amounts of fan mail . Jack congratulates her on her weight , and Jenna enjoys her new friendship with him . While talking to Liz , Jenna begins to worry about losing weight , and fears her popularity will decline . Upset that Jenna is losing weight , Jack sends Kenneth to follow her around and make sure she keeps her weight on . Liz tells Kenneth to insult Jenna if he wants her to eat more , and writes down a list of things to say to Jenna to hurt her . Jenna takes the insults as compliments , and tries to seduce Kenneth .
= = Production = =
30 Rock and Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip , both of which debuted on 2006 – 07 NBC lineup , revolved around the off @-@ camera happenings on a sketch comedy series . Evidence of the overlapping subject matter between the shows , as well as the conflict between them , arose when Aaron Sorkin , the creator of Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip , asked Lorne Michaels to allow him to observe Saturday Night Live for a week , a request Michaels denied . Despite this , Sorkin sent Fey flowers after NBC announced it would pick up both series , and wished her luck with 30 Rock . Fey wound up " winning " over Sorkin when Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip was cancelled after one season and 30 Rock was renewed for a second . Although 30 Rock 's first season ratings proved lackluster and were lower than those of Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip , the latter was more expensive to produce . The first season episode " Jack the Writer " contained a self @-@ referencing walk and talk sequence , which was commonly used on Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip and Sorkin 's previous series . In this episode , the walk and talk sequence is referenced when Liz asks Kenneth , " can you walk and talk ? " , to which Kenneth replies , " usually , but now you 've got me thinking about it " .
= = Reception = =
" The Collection " brought in an average of 6 @.@ 2 million American viewers . This episode achieved a 2 @.@ 6 / 7 in the key 18 – 49 demographic ; the 2 @.@ 6 refers to 2 @.@ 6 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the U.S. , and the 7 refers to 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast , in the U.S. This was a decrease from the previous episode , which was watched by an average of 6 @.@ 6 million American viewers . The episode retained 96 % of the audience from its lead @-@ in , My Name is Earl , in adults 18 @-@ 49 , and increased by 14 % in adults 18 @-@ 34 and by 22 % among men 18 @-@ 34 .
Bob Sassone of TV Squad said that the lack of the writing staff in the second season was " disappointing " . He " love [ d ] how this show is about NBC and really set at NBC " , but was worried about the misuse of guest stars . Robert Canning of IGN said that for the first time , Jenna 's storyline was the " most entertaining of the night " . He felt that | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
settled at the foot of the Magaliesberg mountains in the Transvaal . Meanwhile , in Natal , Andries Pretorius defeated more than 10 @,@ 000 of Dingane 's Zulus at the Battle of Blood River on 16 December 1838 , a date subsequently marked by the Boers as Dingaansdag ( " Dingane 's Day " ) or the Day of the Vow .
= = = Burgher = = =
Boer tradition of the time dictated that men were entitled to choose two 6 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 24 km2 ) farms — one for crops and one for grazing — upon becoming enfranchised burghers at the age of 16 . Kruger set up his home at Waterkloof , near Rustenburg in the Magaliesberg area . This concluded , he wasted little time in pursuing the hand of Maria du Plessis , the daughter of a fellow Voortrekker south of the Vaal ; she was only 14 years old when they married in Potchefstroom in 1842 . The same year Kruger was elected a deputy field cornet — " a singular honour at seventeen " , Meintjes comments . This role combined the civilian duties of a local magistrate with a military rank equivalent to that of a junior commissioned officer .
Kruger was already an accomplished frontiersman , horseman and guerrilla fighter . In addition to his native Dutch he could speak basic English and several African languages , some fluently . He had shot a lion for the first time while still a boy — in old age he recalled being 14 , but Meintjes suggests he may have been as young as 11 . During his many hunting excursions he was nearly killed on several occasions . In 1845 , while he was hunting rhinoceros along the Steelpoort River , his four @-@ pounder elephant gun exploded in his hands and blew off most of his left thumb . Kruger wrapped the wound in a handkerchief and retreated to camp , where he treated it with turpentine . He refused calls to have the hand amputated by a doctor , and instead cut off the remains of the injured thumb himself with a pocketknife . When gangrenous marks appeared up to his shoulder , he placed the hand in the stomach of a freshly @-@ killed goat , a traditional Boer remedy . He considered this a success — " when it came to the turn of the second goat , my hand was already easier and the danger much less . " The wound took over half a year to heal , but he did not wait that long to start hunting again .
Britain annexed the Voortrekkers ' short @-@ lived Natalia Republic in 1843 as the Colony of Natal . Pretorius briefly led Boer resistance to this , but before long most of the Boers in Natal had trekked back north @-@ west to the area around the Orange and Vaal Rivers . In 1845 Kruger was a member of Potgieter 's expedition to Delagoa Bay in Mozambique to negotiate a frontier with Portugal ; the Lebombo Mountains were settled upon as the border between Boer and Portuguese lands . After Maria and their first child died of fever in January 1846 , Kruger married her cousin Gezina du Plessis , from the Colesberg area , in 1847 . Their first child , Casper Jan Hendrik , was born on 22 December that year .
Concerned by the exodus of so many whites from the Cape and Natal , and taking the view that they remained British subjects , the British Governor Sir Harry Smith in 1848 annexed the area between the Orange and Vaal rivers as the " Orange River Sovereignty " . A Boer commando led by Pretorius against this was defeated by Smith at the Battle of Boomplaats . Pretorius also lived in the Magaliesberg mountains and often hosted the young Kruger , who greatly admired the elder man 's resolve , sophistication and piety . A warm relationship developed . " Kruger 's political awareness can be dated from 1850 " , Meintjes writes , " and it was in no small measure given to him by Pretorius . " Like Pretorius , Kruger wanted to centralise the emigrants under a single authority and win British recognition for this as an independent state . This last point was not due to hostility to Britain — neither Pretorius nor Kruger was particularly anti @-@ British — but because they perceived the emigrants ' unity as under threat if the Cape administration continued to regard them as British subjects .
The British resident in the Orange River area , Henry Douglas Warden , advised Smith in 1851 that he thought a compromise should be attempted with Pretorius . Smith sent representatives to meet him at the Sand River . Kruger , aged 26 , accompanied Pretorius and on 17 January 1852 was present at the conclusion of the Sand River Convention , under which Britain recognised " the Emigrant Farmers " in the Transvaal — the Zuid @-@ Afrikaansche Republiek ( " South African Republic " ) , they called themselves — as independent . In exchange for the Boers ' pledge not to introduce slavery in the Transvaal , the British agreed not to ally with any " coloured nations " there . Kruger 's uncle Gert was also present ; his father Casper would have been as well had he not been ill .
= = = Field cornet = = =
The Boers and the local Tswana and Basotho chiefdoms were in near @-@ constant conflict , mainly over land . Kruger was elected field cornet of his district in 1852 , and in August that year he took part in the Battle of Dimawe , a raid against the Tswana chief Sechele I. The Boer commando was headed by Pretorius , but in practice he did not take much part as he was suffering from dropsy . Kruger narrowly escaped death twice — first a piece of shrapnel hit him in the head but only knocked him out , then later a Tswana bullet swiped across his chest , tearing his jacket without wounding him . The commando wrecked David Livingstone 's mission station at Kolobeng , destroying his medicines and books . Livingstone was away at the time . Kruger 's version of the story was that the Boers found an armoury and a workshop for repairing firearms in Livingstone 's house and , interpreting this as a breach of Britain 's promise at the Sand River not to arm tribal chiefs , confiscated them . Whatever the truth , Livingstone wrote about the Boers in strongly condemnatory terms thereafter , depicting them as mindless barbarians .
One charge levelled by Livingstone and many others against the Boers was that when attacking tribal settlements they abducted women and children and took them home as slaves . The Boer argument was that these were not slaves but inboekelings — indentured " apprentices " who , having lost their families , were given bed , board and training in a Boer household until reaching adulthood . Modern scholarship widely dismisses this as a ruse to create inexpensive labour while avoiding overt slavery . Gezina Kruger had an inboekeling maid for whom she eventually arranged marriage , paying her a dowry .
Having been promoted to the rank of lieutenant ( between field cornet and commandant ) , Kruger formed part of a commando sent against the chief Montshiwa in December 1852 to recover some stolen cattle . Pretorius was still sick , and only nominally in command . Seven months later , on 23 July 1853 , Pretorius died , aged 54 . Just before the end he sent for Kruger , but the young man arrived too late . Meintjes comments that Pretorius " was perhaps the first person to recognise that behind [ Kruger 's ] rough exterior was a most singular person with an intellect all the more remarkable for being almost entirely self @-@ developed . "
= = Commandant = =
Pretorius did not name a successor as Commandant @-@ General ; his eldest son Marthinus Wessel Pretorius was appointed in his stead . The younger Pretorius elevated Kruger to the rank of commandant . Pretorius the son claimed power over not just the Transvaal but also the Orange River area — he said the British had promised it to his father — but virtually nobody , not even supporters like Kruger , accepted this . Following Sir George Cathcart 's replacement of Smith as Governor in Cape Town , the British policy towards the Orange River Sovereignty changed to the extent that the British were willing to pull out and grant independence to a second Boer republic there . This was in spite of the fact that in addition to the Boer settlers there were many English @-@ speaking colonists who wanted rule from the Cape to continue . On 23 February 1854 Sir George Russell Clerk signed the Orange River Convention , ending the sovereignty and recognising what the Boers dubbed the Oranje @-@ Vrijstaat ( " Orange Free State " ) .
Bloemfontein , the former British garrison town , became the Free State 's capital ; the Transvaal seat of government became Pretoria , named after the elder Pretorius . The South African Republic was in practice split between the south @-@ west and central Transvaal , where most of Pretorius 's supporters were , and regionalist factions in the Zoutpansberg , Lydenburg and Utrecht districts that viewed any central authority with suspicion . Kruger 's first campaign as a commandant was in the latter part of 1854 , against the chiefs Mapela and Makapan near the Waterberg . The chiefs retreated into what became called the Caves of Makapan ( " Makapansgat " ) with many of their people and cattle , and a siege ensued in which thousands of the defenders died , mainly from starvation . When Commandant @-@ General Piet Potgieter of Zoutpansberg was shot dead , Kruger advanced under heavy fire to retrieve the body and was almost killed himself .
= = = Mediator = = =
Marthinus Pretorius hoped to achieve either federation or amalgamation with the Orange Free State , but before he could contemplate this he would have to unite the Transvaal . In 1855 he appointed an eight @-@ man constitutional commission , including Kruger , which presented a draft constitution in September that year . Lydenburg and Zoutpansberg rejected the proposals , calling for a less centralised government . Pretorius tried again during 1856 , holding meetings with eight @-@ man commissions in Rustenburg , Potchefstroom and Pretoria , but Stephanus Schoeman , Zoutpansberg 's new Commandant @-@ General , repudiated these efforts .
The constitution settled upon formalised a national volksraad ( parliament ) and created an executive council , headed by a President . Pretorius was sworn in as the first President of the South African Republic on 6 January 1857 . Kruger successfully proposed Schoeman for the post of national Commandant @-@ General , hoping to thereby end the factional disputes and foster unity , but Schoeman categorically refused to serve under this constitution or Pretorius . With the Transvaal on the verge of civil war , tensions also rose with the Orange Free State after Pretorius 's ambitions of absorbing it became widely known . Kruger had strong personal reservations about Pretorius , not considering him his father 's equal , but nevertheless remained steadfastly loyal to him .
After the Free State government dismissed an ultimatum from Pretorius to cease what he regarded as the marginalisation of his supporters south of the Vaal , Pretorius called up the burghers and rode to the border , prompting President Jacobus Nicolaas Boshoff of the Free State to do the same . Kruger was dismayed to learn of this and on reaching the Transvaal commando he spoke out against the idea of fighting their fellow Boers . However , when he learned that Boshoff had called on Schoeman to lead a commando against Pretorius from Zoutpansberg and Lydenburg , he realised that simply disbanding was no longer enough and that they would have to make terms .
With Pretorius 's approval , Kruger met Boshoff under a white flag . Kruger made clear that he personally disapproved of Pretorius 's actions and the situation as a whole , but defended his President when the Free Staters began to speak harshly of him . A commission of 12 men from each republic , including Kruger , reached a compromise whereby Pretorius would drop his claim on the Free State , and a treaty was concluded on 2 June 1857 . Over the next year Kruger helped to negotiate a peace agreement between the Free State and Moshoeshoe I of the Basotho , and persuaded Schoeman to take part in successful talks regarding constitutional revisions , after which Zoutpansberg accepted the central government with Schoeman as Commandant @-@ General . On 28 June 1858 Schoeman appointed Kruger Assistant Commandant @-@ General of the South African Republic . " All in all " , Kruger 's biographer T R H Davenport comments , " he had shown a loyalty to authority in political disputes , devotion to duty as an officer , and a real capacity for power play . "
= = = Forming the " Dopper Church " = = =
Kruger considered Providence his guide in life and referred to scripture constantly ; he knew large sections of the Bible by heart . He understood the biblical texts literally and inferred from them that the Earth was flat , a belief he retained firmly to his dying day . At mealtimes he said grace twice , at length and in formal Dutch rather than the South African dialect that was to become Afrikaans . In late 1858 , when he returned to Waterkloof , he was mentally and physically drained following the exertions of the past few years and in the midst of a spiritual crisis . Hoping to establish a personal relationship with God , he ventured into the Magaliesberg and spent several days without food or water . A search party found him " nearly dead from hunger and thirst " , Davenport records . The experience reinvigorated him and greatly intensified his faith , which for the rest of his life was unshakeable and , according to Meintjes , perceived by some of his contemporaries as like that of a child .
Kruger belonged to the " Doppers " — a group of about 6 @,@ 000 that followed an extremely strict interpretation of traditional Calvinist doctrine . They based their theology almost entirely on the Old Testament and , among other things , wished to eschew hymns and organs and read only from the Psalms . When the 1859 synod of the Nederduits Hervormde Kerk van Afrika ( NHK ) , the main church in the Transvaal , decided to enforce the singing of modern hymns , Kruger led a group of Doppers that denounced the NHK as " deluded " and " false " and left its Rustenburg congregation . They formed the Gereformeerde Kerke van Zuid @-@ Afrika ( GK ) , thereafter known informally as the " Dopper Church " , and recruited the Reverend Dirk Postma , a like @-@ minded traditionalist recently arrived from the Netherlands , to be their minister . This act also had secular ramifications as according to the 1858 constitution only NHK members could take part in public affairs .
= = = Civil war ; Commandant @-@ General = = =
In late 1859 Pretorius was invited to stand for President in the Orange Free State , where many burghers now favoured union , partly as a means to overcome the Basotho . The Transvaal constitution he had just enacted made it illegal to simultaneously hold office abroad , but nevertheless he readily did so and won . The Transvaal volksraad attempted to side @-@ step the constitutional problems surrounding this by granting Pretorius half a year 's leave , hoping a solution might come about during this time , and the President duly left for Bloemfontein , appointing Johannes Hermanus Grobler to be Acting President in his absence . Pretorius was sworn in as President of the Free State on 8 February 1860 ; he sent a deputation to Pretoria to negotiate union the next day .
Kruger and others in the Transvaal government disliked Pretorius 's unconstitutional dual presidency , and worried that Britain might declare the Sand River and Orange River Conventions void if the republics joined . Pretorius was told by the Transvaal volksraad on 10 September 1860 to choose between his two posts — to the surprise of both supporters and detractors he resigned as President of the Transvaal and continued in the Free State . After Schoeman unsuccessfully attempted to forcibly supplant Grobler as Acting President , Kruger persuaded him to submit to a volksraad hearing , where Schoeman was censured and relieved of his post . Willem Cornelis Janse van Rensburg was appointed Acting President while a new election was organised for October 1862 . Having returned home , Kruger was surprised to receive a message urgently requesting his presence in the capital , the volksraad having recommended him as a suitable candidate ; he replied that he was pleased to be summoned but his membership in the Dopper Church meant he could not enter politics . Van Rensburg promptly had legislation passed to give equal political rights to members of all Reformed denominations .
Schoeman mustered a commando at Potchefstroom , but was routed by Kruger on the night of 9 October 1862 . After Schoeman returned with a larger force Kruger and Pretorius held negotiations where it was agreed to hold a special court on the disturbances in January 1863 , and soon thereafter fresh elections for President and Commandant @-@ General . Schoeman was found guilty of rebellion against the state and banished . In May the election results were announced — Van Rensburg became President , with Kruger as Commandant @-@ General . Both expressed disappointment at the low turnout and resolved to hold another set of elections . Van Rensburg 's opponent this time was Pretorius , who had resigned his office in the Orange Free State and returned to the Transvaal . Turnout was higher and on 12 October the volksraad announced another Van Rensburg victory . Kruger was returned as Commandant @-@ General with a large majority . The civil war ended with Kruger 's victory over Jan Viljoen 's commando , raised in support of Pretorius and Schoeman , at the Crocodile River on 5 January 1864 . Elections were held yet again , and this time Pretorius defeated Van Rensburg . Kruger was re @-@ elected as Commandant @-@ General with over two @-@ thirds of the vote .
The civil war had led to an economic collapse in the Transvaal , weakening the government 's ability to back up its professed authority and sovereignty over the local chiefdoms , though Lydenburg and Utrecht did now accept the central administration . By 1865 tensions had risen with the Zulus to the east and war had broken out again between the Orange Free State and the Basotho . Pretorius and Kruger led a commando of about 1 @,@ 000 men south to help the Free State . The Basotho were defeated and Moshoeshoe ceded some of his territory , but President Johannes Brand of the Free State decided not to give any of the conquered land to the Transvaal burghers . The Transvaal men were scandalised and returned home en masse , despite Kruger 's attempts to maintain discipline . The following February , after a meeting of the executive council in Potchefstroom , Kruger capsized his cart during the journey home and broke his left leg . On one leg he righted the cart and continued the rest of the way . This injury incapacitated him for the next nine months , and his left leg was thereafter slightly shorter than his right .
In 1867 , Pretoria sent Kruger to restore law and order in Zoutpansberg . He had around 500 men but very low reserves of ammunition , and discipline in the ranks was poor . On reaching Schoemansdal , which was under threat by the chief Katlakter , Kruger and his officers resolved that holding the town was impossible and ordered a general evacuation , following which Katlakter razed the town . The loss of Schoemansdal , once a prosperous settlement by Boer standards , was considered a great humiliation by many burghers . The Transvaal government formally exonerated Kruger over the matter , ruling that he had been forced to evacuate Schoemansdal by factors beyond his control , but some still argued that he had given the town up too readily . Peace returned to Zoutpansberg in 1869 , following the intervention of the republic 's Swazi allies .
Pretorius stepped down as President in November 1871 . In the 1872 election Kruger 's preferred candidate , William Robinson , was decisively defeated by the Reverend Thomas François Burgers , a church minister from the Cape who was noted for his eloquent preaching but controversial for some because of his liberal interpretation of the scriptures . He did not believe in the Devil , for example . Kruger publicly accepted Burgers 's election , announcing at his inauguration that " as a good republican " he submitted to the vote of the majority , but he had grave personal reservations regarding the new President . He particularly disliked Burgers 's new education law , which restricted children 's religious instruction to outside school hours — in Kruger 's view an affront to God . This , coupled with the sickness of Gezina and their children with malaria , caused Kruger to lose interest in his office . In May 1873 he requested an honourable discharge from his post , which Burgers promptly granted . The office of Commandant @-@ General was abolished the following week . Kruger moved his main residence to Boekenhoutfontein , near Rustenburg , and for a time absented himself from public affairs .
= = Diamonds and deputations = =
= = = Under Burgers = = =
Burgers busied himself attempting to modernise the South African Republic along European lines , hoping to set in motion a process that would lead to a united , independent South Africa . Finding Boer officialdom inadequate , he imported ministers and civil servants en masse from the Netherlands . His ascent to the presidency came shortly after the realisation that the Boer republics might stand on land of immense mineral wealth . Diamonds had been discovered in Griqua territory just north of the Orange River on the western edge of the Free State , arousing the interest of Britain and other countries ; mostly British settlers , referred to by the Boers as uitlanders ( " out @-@ landers " ) , were flooding into the region . Britain began to pursue federation of the Boer republics with the Cape and Natal and in 1873 , over Boer objections , annexed the area surrounding the huge diamond mine at Kimberley , dubbing it Griqualand West .
Some Doppers preferred to embark on another trek , north @-@ west across the Kalahari Desert towards Angola , rather than live under Burgers . This became the Dorsland Trek of 1874 . The emigrants asked Kruger to lead the way , but he refused to take part . In September 1874 , following a long delay calling the volksraad due to sickness , Burgers proposed a railway to Delagoa Bay and said he would go to Europe to raise the necessary funds . By the time he left in February 1875 opposition pressure had brought about an amendment to bring religious instruction back into school hours , and Kruger had been restored to the executive council .
In 1876 hostilities broke out with the Bapedi people under Sekhukhune . Burgers had told the Acting President Piet Joubert not to fight a war in his absence , so the Transvaal government did little to combat the Bapedi raids . On his return Burgers resolved to send a commando against Sekhukhune ; he called on Kruger to lead the column , but much to his surprise the erstwhile Commandant @-@ General refused . Burgers unsuccessfully asked Joubert to head the commando , then approached Kruger twice more , but to no avail . Kruger was convinced that God would cause any military expedition organised by Burgers to fail — particularly if the President rode with the commando , which he was determined to do . " I cannot lead the commando if you come " , Kruger said , " for , with your merry evenings in laager and your Sunday dances , the enemy will even shoot me behind the wall ; for God 's blessing will not rest on your expedition . " Burgers , who had no military experience , led the commando himself after several other prospective generals rebuffed him . After being routed by Sekhukhune , he hired a group of " volunteers " under the German Conrad von Schlickmann to defend the country , paying for this by levying a special tax . The war ended , but Burgers became extremely unpopular among his electorate .
With Burgers due to stand for re @-@ election the following year , Kruger became a popular alternative candidate , but he resolved to stand by the President after Burgers privately assured him that he would do his utmost to defend the South African Republic 's independence . The towns of the Transvaal were becoming increasingly British in character as immigration and trade gathered apace , and the idea of annexation was gaining support both locally and in the British government . In late 1876 Lord Carnarvon , Colonial Secretary under Benjamin Disraeli , gave Sir Theophilus Shepstone of Natal a special commission to confer with the South African Republic 's government and , if he saw fit , annex the country .
= = = British annexation ; first and second deputations = = =
Shepstone arrived in Pretoria in January 1877 . He outlined criticisms expressed by Carnarvon regarding the Transvaal government and expressed support for federation . After a joint commission of inquiry on the British grievances — Kruger and the State Attorney E J P Jorissen refuted most of Carnarvon 's allegations , one of which was that Pretoria tolerated slavery — Shepstone stayed in the capital , openly telling Burgers he had come to the Transvaal to annex it . Hoping to stop the annexation by reforming the government , Brugers introduced scores of bills and revisions to a bewildered volksraad , which opposed them all but then passed them , heightening the general mood of discord and confusion . One of these reforms appointed Kruger to the new post of Vice @-@ President .
The impression of Kruger garnered by the British envoys in Pretoria during early 1877 was one of an unspeakably vulgar , bigoted backveld peasant . Regarding his austere , weather @-@ beaten face , greying hair and simple Dopper dress of a short @-@ cut black jacket , baggy trousers and a black top hat , they considered him extremely ugly . Furthermore , they found his personal habits , such as copious spitting , revolting . Shepstone 's legal adviser William Morcom was one of the first British officials to write about Kruger : calling him " gigantically horrible " , he recounted a public luncheon at which Kruger dined with a dirty pipe protruding from his pocket and such greasy hair that he spent part of the meal combing it . According to Martin Meredith , Kruger 's unsightliness was mentioned in British reports " so often that it became shorthand for his whole personality , and indeed , his objectives " . They did not consider him a major threat to British ambitions .
Shepstone had the Transvaal 's annexation as a British territory formally announced in Pretoria on 12 April 1877 . Burgers resigned and returned to the Cape to live in retirement — his last act as President was to announce the government 's decision to send a deputation , headed by Kruger and Jorissen , to London to make an official protest . He exhorted the burghers not to attempt any kind of resistance to the British until these diplomats returned . Jorissen , one of the Dutch officials recently imported by Burgers , was included at Kruger 's request because of his wide knowledge of European languages ( Kruger was not confident in his English ) ; a second Dutchman , Willem Eduard Bok , accompanied them as secretary . They left in May 1877 , travelling first to Bloemfontein to confer with the Free State government , then on to Kimberley and Worcester , where the 51 @-@ year @-@ old Kruger boarded a train for the first time in his life . In Cape Town , where his German ancestor had landed 164 years before , he had his first sight of the sea .
During the voyage to England Kruger encountered a 19 @-@ year @-@ old law student from the Orange Free State named Martinus Theunis Steyn . Jorissen and Bok marvelled at Kruger , in their eyes more suited to the 17th century than his own time . One night , when Kruger heard the two Dutchmen discussing celestial bodies and the structure of the universe , he interjected that if their conversation was accurate and the Earth was not flat , he might as well throw his Bible overboard . At the Colonial Office in Whitehall , Carnarvon and Kruger 's own colleagues were astonished when , speaking through interpreters , he rose to what Meintjes calls " remarkable heights of oratory " , averring that the annexation breached the Sand River Convention and went against the popular will in the Transvaal . His arguments were undermined by reports to the contrary from Shepstone and other British officials , and by a widely publicised letter from a Potchefstroom vicar claiming that Kruger only represented the will of " a handful of irreconcilables " . Carnarvon dismissed Kruger 's idea of a general plebiscite and concluded that British rule would remain .
Kruger did not meet Queen Victoria , though such an audience is described in numerous anecdotes , depicted in films and sometimes reported as fact . Between August and October he visited the Netherlands and Germany , where he aroused little general public interest , but made a potent impact in the Reformed congregations he visited . After a brief sojourn back in England he returned to South Africa and arrived at Boekenhoutfontein shortly before Christmas 1877 . He found a national awakening occurring . " Paradoxically " , John Laband writes , " British occupation seemed to be fomenting a sense of national consciousness in the Transvaal which years of fractious independence had failed to elicit . " When Kruger visited Pretoria in January 1878 he was greeted by a procession that took him to a mass gathering in Church Square . Attempting to stir up the crowd , Kruger said that since Carnarvon had told him the annexation would not be revoked he could not see what more they could do . The gambit worked ; burghers began shouting that they would sooner die fighting for their country than submit to the British .
According to Meintjes , Kruger was still not particularly anti @-@ British ; he thought the British had made a mistake and would rectify the situation if this could be proven to them . After conducting a poll through the former republican infrastructure — 587 signed in favour of the annexation , 6 @,@ 591 against — he organised a second deputation to London , made up of himself and Joubert with Bok again serving as secretary . The envoys met the British High Commissioner in Cape Town , Sir Bartle Frere , and arrived in London on 29 June 1878 to find a censorious letter from Shepstone waiting for them , along with a communication that since Kruger was agitating against the government he had been dismissed from the executive council .
Carnarvon had been succeeded as Colonial Secretary by Sir Michael Hicks Beach , who received the deputation coldly . After Bok gave a lengthy opening declaration , Hicks Beach muttered : " Have you ever heard of an instance where the British Lion has ever given up anything on which he had set his paw ? " Kruger retorted : " Yes . The Orange Free State . " The deputation remained in London for some weeks thereafter , communicating by correspondence with Hicks Beach , who eventually reaffirmed Carnarvon 's decision that the annexation would not be revoked . The deputation attempted to rally support for their cause , as the first mission had done , but with the Eastern Question dominating the political scene few were interested . One English sympathiser gave Kruger a gold ring , bearing the inscription : " Take courage , your cause is just and must triumph in the end . " Kruger was touched and wore it for the rest of his life .
Like its predecessor , the second deputation went on from England to continental Europe , visiting the Netherlands , France and Germany . In Paris , where the 1878 Exposition Universelle was in progress , Kruger saw a hot air balloon for the first time and readily took part in an ascent to view the city from above . " High up in mid @-@ air " , he recalled , " I jestingly asked the aeronaut , as we had gone so far , to take me all the way home . " The pilot asked who Kruger was and , on their descent , gave him a medal " to remind me of my journey through the air " . Meanwhile , the deputation composed a long reply to Hicks Beach , which was published as an open letter in the British press soon before they sailed for home on 24 October 1878 . Unless the annexation were revoked , the letter stated , the Transvaal Boers would not co @-@ operate regarding federation .
= = = Drive for independence = = =
Kruger and Joubert returned home to find the British and the Zulus were close to war . Shepstone had supported the Zulus in a border dispute with the South African Republic , but then , after annexing the Transvaal , changed his mind and endorsed the Boer claim . Meeting Sir Bartle Frere and Lord Chelmsford at Pietermaritzburg on 28 November 1878 , Kruger happily gave tactical guidance for the British campaign — he advised the use of Boer tactics , making laagers at every stop and constantly scouting ahead — but refused Frere 's request that he accompany one of the British columns , saying he would only help if assurances were made regarding the Transvaal . Chelmsford thought the campaign would be a " promenade " and did not take Kruger 's advice . Soon after he entered Zululand in January 1879 , starting the Anglo @-@ Zulu War , his unlaagered central column was surprised by Cetshwayo 's Zulus at Isandlwana and almost totally destroyed .
The war in Zululand effectively ended on 4 July 1879 with Chelmsford 's decisive victory at the Zulu capital Ulundi . Around the same time the British appointed a new Governor and High Commissioner for the Transvaal and Natal , Sir Garnet Wolseley , who introduced a new Transvaal constitution giving the Boers a limited degree of self @-@ government . Wolseley blunted the Zulu military threat by splitting the kingdom into 13 chiefdoms , and crushed Sekhukhune and the Bapedi during late 1879 . However , he had little success in winning the Boers over to the idea of federation — indeed his defeat of the Zulus and the Bapedi had the opposite effect , as with these two long @-@ standing threats to security removed the Transvaalers could focus all their efforts against the British . Most Boers refused to co @-@ operate with Wolseley 's new order ; Kruger declined a seat in the new executive council .
At Wonderfontein on 15 December 1879 , 6 @,@ 000 burghers , many of them bearing the republic 's vierkleur ( " four @-@ colour " ) flag , voted to pursue a restored , independent republic . Pretorius and Bok were imprisoned on charges of high treason when they took this news to Wolseley and Sir Owen Lanyon ( who had replaced Shepstone ) , prompting many burghers to consider rising up there and then — Kruger persuaded them not to , saying this was premature . Pretorius and Bok were swiftly released after Jorissen telegraphed the British Liberal politician William Ewart Gladstone , who had met Kruger 's first deputation in London and had since condemned the annexation as unjust during his Midlothian campaign .
In early 1880 Hicks Beach forwarded a scheme for South African federation to the Cape Parliament . Kruger travelled to the Cape to agitate against the proposals alongside Joubert and Jorissen ; by the time they arrived the Liberals had won an election victory in Britain and Gladstone was Prime Minister . In Cape Town , Paarl and elsewhere Kruger lobbied vigorously against the annexation and won much sympathy . Davenport suggests that this contributed to the federation plan 's withdrawal , which in turn weakened the British resolve to keep the Transvaal . Kruger and Joubert wrote to Gladstone asking him to restore the South African Republic 's independence , but to their astonishment the Prime Minister replied in June 1880 that he feared withdrawing from the Transvaal might lead to chaos across South Africa . Kruger concluded that they had done all they could to try to regain independence peacefully , and over the following months the Transvaal burghers prepared for rebellion . Meanwhile , Wolseley was replaced as Governor and High Commissioner by Sir George Pomeroy Colley .
In the last months of 1880 , Lanyon began to pursue tax payments from burghers who were in arrears . Piet Cronjé , a farmer in the Potchefstroom district , gave his local landdrost a written statement that the burghers would pay taxes to their " legal government " — that of the South African Republic — but not to the British " usurper " administration . Kruger and Cronjé knew each other ; the writer Johan Frederik van Oordt , who was acquainted with them both , suggested that Kruger may have had a hand in this and what followed . In November , when the British authorities in Potchefstroom were about to auction off a burgher 's wagon that had been seized amid a tax dispute , Cronjé and a group of armed Boers intervened , overcame the presiding officers and reclaimed the wagon . On hearing of this from Cronjé , Kruger told Joubert : " I can no longer restrain the people , and the English government is entirely responsible for the present state of things . "
Starting on 8 December 1880 at Paardekraal , a farm to the south @-@ west of Pretoria , 10 @,@ 000 Boers congregated — the largest recorded meeting of white people in South Africa up to that time . " I stand here before you " , Kruger declared , " called by the people . In the voice of the people I have heard the voice of God , the King of Nations , and I obey ! " He announced the fulfilment of the decision taken at Wonderfontein the previous year to restore the South African Republic government and volksraad , which as the Vice @-@ President of the last independent administration he considered his responsibility . To help him in this he turned to Jorissen and Bok , who respectively became State Attorney and State Secretary , and Pretorius and Joubert , who the reconstituted volksraad elected to an executive triumvirate along with Kruger . The assembly approved a proclamation announcing the restoration of the South African Republic .
= = Triumvirate = =
= = = Transvaal rebellion : the First Boer War = = =
At Kruger 's suggestion Joubert was elected Commandant @-@ General of the restored republic , though he had little military experience and protested he was not suited to the position . The provisional government set up a temporary capital at Heidelberg , a strategically placed town on the main road from Natal , and sent a copy of the proclamation to Lanyon along with a written demand that he surrender the government offices in Pretoria . Lanyon refused and mobilised the British garrison .
Kruger took part in the First Boer War in a civilian capacity only , playing a diplomatic and political role with the aid of Jorissen and Bok . The first major clash , a successful Boer ambush , took place on 20 December 1880 at Bronkhorstspruit . By the turn of the year the Transvaalers had all six British garrison outposts , including that in Pretoria , under siege . Colley assembled a field force in Natal , summoned reinforcements from India , and advanced towards the Transvaal . Joubert moved about 2 @,@ 000 Boers south to the Drakensberg and repulsed Colley at Laing 's Nek on 28 January 1881 . After Colley retreated to Schuinshoogte , near Ingogo , he was attacked by Joubert 's second @-@ in @-@ command Nicolaas Smit on 8 February and again defeated .
Understanding that they could not hold out against the might of the British Empire indefinitely , Kruger hoped for a solution at the earliest opportunity . The triumvirate wrote to Colley on 12 February that they were prepared to submit to a royal commission . Colley liaised by telegraph with Gladstone 's Colonial Secretary Lord Kimberley , then wrote to Kruger on 21 February that if the Boers stopped fighting he would cease hostilities and send commissioners for talks . Kruger received this letter on 28 February and readily accepted , but by now it was too late . Colley had been killed at the Battle of Majuba Hill the day before , another decisive victory for the Boers under Smit . This progressive humiliation of the Imperial forces in South Africa by a ragtag collection of farmers , to paraphrase Meintjes and the historian Ian Castle , stunned the Western world .
Colley 's death horrified Kruger , who feared it might jeopardise the peace process . His reply to Colley 's letter was delivered to his successor Sir Evelyn Wood on 7 March 1881 , a day after Wood and Joubert had agreed to an eight @-@ day truce . Kruger was outraged to learn of this armistice , which in his view only gave the British opportunity to strengthen their forces — he expected a British attempt to avenge Majuba , which indeed Wood and others wanted — but Gladstone wanted peace , and Wood was instructed to proceed with talks . Negotiations began on 16 March . The British offered amnesty for the Boer leaders , retrocession of the Transvaal under British suzerainty , a British resident in Pretoria and British control over foreign affairs . Kruger pressed on how the British intended to withdraw and what exactly " suzerainty " meant . Brand arrived to mediate on 20 March and the following day agreement was reached ; the British committed to formally restore the republic within six months . The final treaty was concluded on 23 March 1881 .
= = = Pretoria Convention = = =
Kruger presented the treaty to the volksraad on the triumvirate 's behalf at Heidelberg on 15 April 1881 . " With a feeling of gratitude to the God of our fathers " , he said , " who has been near us in battle and danger , it is to me an unspeakable privilege to lay before you the treaty ... I consider it my duty plainly to declare before you and the whole world , that our respect for Her Majesty the Queen of England , for the government of Her Majesty , and for the English Nation , has never been greater than at this time , when we are enabled to show you a proof of England 's noble and magnanimous love for right and justice . " This statement was to be ignored by many writers , but Manfred Nathan , one of Kruger 's biographers , stresses it as one of his " most notable utterances " . Kruger reaffirmed his faith in the royal commission of Wood , Sir Hercules Robinson and the Cape 's Chief Justice Sir Henry de Villiers , who convened for the first time in Natal on 30 April , Brand with them as an adviser . The commissioners held numerous sessions in Pretoria over the following months with little input from Kruger , who was bedridden with pneumonia .
Kruger was largely happy with the terms under which the republic would regain its sovereignty , but two points offended him . The first of these was that the British would recognise them as the " Transvaal Republic " and not the South African Republic ; the second was that it was still not clear to him what British " suzerainty " was . The commission , in which De Villiers emerged as the dominant figure , defined it primarily as British purview over the Transvaal 's external affairs . The final Pretoria Convention was signed on 3 August 1881 by Joubert , Pretorius and the members of the royal commission . Kruger was absent due to his illness , but he did attend the official retrocession five days later in Church Square . Kruger felt well enough to give only a short speech , after which Pretorius addressed the crowd and the vierkleur was raised .
By now aged nearly 56 , Kruger resolved that he could no longer travel constantly between Boekenhoutfontein and the capital , and in August 1881 he and Gezina moved to Church Street , Pretoria , from where he could easily walk to the government offices on Church Square . Also around this time he shaved off his moustache and most of his facial hair , leaving the chinstrap beard he kept thereafter . His and Gezina 's permanent home on Church Street , what is now called Kruger House , would be completed in 1884 .
A direct consequence of the end of British rule was an economic slump ; the Transvaal government almost immediately found itself again on the verge of bankruptcy . The triumvirate spent two months discussing the terms of the Pretoria Convention with the new volksraad — approve it or go back to Laing 's Nek , said Kruger — before it was finally ratified on 25 October 1881 . During this time Kruger introduced tax reforms , announced the triumvirate 's decision to grant industrial monopolies to raise money and appointed the Reverend S J du Toit to be Superintendent of Education . To counteract the influx of uitlanders , the residency qualification to vote was raised from a year to five years . In July 1882 the volksraad decided to elect a new President the following year ; Joubert and Kruger emerged as candidates . Kruger campaigned on the idea of an administration in which " God 's Word would be my rule of conduct " — as premier he would prioritise agriculture , industry and education , revive Burgers 's Delagoa Bay railway scheme , introduce an immigration policy that would " prevent the Boer nationality from being stifled " , and pursue a cordial stance towards Britain and " obedient native races in their appointed districts " . He defeated Joubert by 3 @,@ 431 votes to 1 @,@ 171 , and was inaugurated as President on 9 May 1883 .
= = President = =
= = = Third deputation ; London Convention = = =
Kruger became President soon after the discovery of gold near what was to become Barberton , which prompted a fresh influx of uitlander diggers . " This gold is still going to soak our country in blood " , said Joubert — a prediction he would repeat many times over the coming years . Joubert remained Commandant @-@ General under Kruger and also became Vice @-@ President . A convoluted situation developed on the Transvaal 's western frontier , where burghers had crossed the border defined in the Pretoria Convention and formed two new Boer republics , Stellaland and Goshen , on former Tswana territory in 1882 . These states were tiny but they occupied land of potentially huge importance — the main road from the Cape to Matabeleland and the African interior .
Kruger and the volksraad resolved to send yet another deputation to London to renegotiate the Pretoria Convention and settle the western border issue . The third deputation , comprising Kruger , Smit and Du Toit with Jan Eloff as secretary , left the Transvaal in August 1883 and sailed from Cape Town two months later . Kruger spent part of the voyage to Britain studying the English language with a Bible printed in Dutch and English side by side . Talks with the new Colonial Secretary Lord Derby and Robinson progressed smoothly — apart from an incident when Kruger , thinking himself insulted , nearly punched Robinson — and on 27 February 1884 the London Convention , superseding that of Pretoria , was concluded . Britain ended its suzerainty , reduced the Transvaal 's national debt and once again recognised the country as the South African Republic . The western border question remained unresolved , but Kruger still considered the convention a triumph .
The deputation went on from London to mainland Europe , where according to Meintjes their reception " was beyond all expectations ... one banquet followed the other , the stand of a handful of Boers against the British Empire having caused a sensation " . During a grand tour Kruger met William III of the Netherlands and his son the Prince of Orange , Leopold II of Belgium , President Jules Grévy of France , Alfonso XII of Spain , Luís I of Portugal , and in Germany Kaiser Wilhelm I and his Chancellor Otto von Bismarck . His public appearances were attended by tens of thousands . The deputation discussed the bilateral aspects of the proposed Delagoa Bay railway with the Portuguese , and in the Netherlands laid the groundwork for the Netherlands @-@ South African Railway Company , which would build and operate it . Kruger now held that Burgers had been " far ahead of his time " — while reviving his predecessor 's railway scheme , he also brought back the policy of importing officials from the Netherlands , in his view a means to strengthen the Boer identity and keep the Transvaal " Dutch " . Willem Johannes Leyds , a 24 @-@ year @-@ old Dutchman , returned to South Africa with the deputation as the republic 's new State Attorney .
By late 1884 the Scramble for Africa was well underway . Competition on the western frontier rose after Germany annexed South @-@ West Africa ; at the behest of the mining magnate and Cape MP Cecil Rhodes , Britain proclaimed a protectorate over Bechuanaland , including the Stellaland – Goshen corridor . While Joubert was in negotiations with Rhodes , Du Toit had Kruger proclaim Transvaal protection over the corridor on 18 September 1884 . Joubert was outraged , as was Kruger when on 3 October Du Toit unilaterally hoisted the vierkleur in Goshen . Realising the implications of this — it clearly violated the London Convention — Kruger had the flag stricken immediately and retracted his proclamation of 18 September . Meeting Rhodes personally in late January 1885 , Kruger insisted the " flag incident " had taken place without his consent and conceded the corridor to the British .
= = = Gold rush ; burghers and uitlanders = = =
In July 1886 an Australian prospector reported to the Transvaal government his discovery of an unprecedented gold reef between Pretoria and Heidelberg . The South African Republic 's formal proclamation of this two months later prompted the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the founding of Johannesburg , which within a few years was the largest city in southern Africa , populated almost entirely by uitlanders . The economic landscape of the region was transformed overnight — the South African Republic went from the verge of bankruptcy in 1886 to a fiscal output equal to the Cape Colony 's the following year . The British became anxious to link Johannesburg to the Cape and Natal by rail , but Kruger thought this might have undesirable geopolitical and economic implications if done prematurely and gave the Delagoa Bay line first priority .
The President was by this time widely nicknamed Oom Paul ( " Uncle Paul " ) , both among the Boers and the uitlanders , who variously used it out of affection or contempt . He was perceived by some as a despot after he compromised the independence of the republic 's judiciary to help his friend Alois Hugo Nellmapius , who had been found guilty of embezzlement — Kruger rejected the court 's judgement and granted Nellmapius a full pardon , an act Nathan calls " completely indefensible " . Kruger defeated Joubert again in the 1888 election , by 4 @,@ 483 votes to 834 , and was sworn in for a second time in May . Nicolaas Smit was elected Vice @-@ President , and Leyds was promoted to State Secretary .
Much of Kruger 's efforts over the next year were dedicated to attempts to acquire a sea outlet for the South African Republic . In July Pieter Grobler , who had just negotiated a treaty with King Lobengula of Matabeleland , was killed by Ngwato warriors on his way home ; Kruger alleged that this was the work of " Cecil Rhodes and his clique " . Kruger despised Rhodes , considering him corrupt and immoral — in his memoirs he called him " capital incarnate " and " the curse of South Africa " . According to the editor of Kruger 's memoirs , Rhodes attempted to win him as an ally by suggesting " we simply take " Delagoa Bay from Portugal ; Kruger was appalled . Failing to make headway in talks with the Portuguese , Kruger switched his attention to Kosi Bay , next to Swaziland , in late 1888 .
In early 1889 Kruger and the new Orange Free State President Francis William Reitz enacted a common @-@ defence pact and a customs treaty waiving most import duties . The same year the volksraad passed constitutional revisions to remove the Nederduits Hervormde Kerk 's official status , open the legislature to members of other denominations and make all churches " sovereign in their own spheres " . Kruger proposed to end the lack of higher education in the Boer republics by forming a university in Pretoria ; enthusiastic support emerged for this but the Free University of Amsterdam expressed strong opposition , not wishing to lose the Afrikaner element of its student body . No university was built .
Kruger was obsessed with the South African Republic 's independence , the retention of which he perceived as under threat if the Transvaal became too British in character . The uitlanders created an acute predicament in his mind . Taxation on their mining provided almost all of the republic 's revenues , but they had very limited civic representation and almost no say in the running of the country . Though the English language was dominant in the mining areas , only Dutch remained official . Kruger expressed great satisfaction at the new arrivals ' industry and respect for the state 's laws , but surmised that giving them full burgher rights might cause the Boers to be swamped by sheer weight in numbers , with the probable result of absorption into the British sphere . Agonising over how he " could meet the wishes of the new population for representation , without injuring the republic or prejudicing the interests of the older burghers " , he thought he had solved the problem in 1889 when he tabled a " second volksraad " in which the uitlanders would have certain matters devolved to them . Most deemed this inadequate , and even Kruger 's own supporters were unenthusiastic .
Rhodes and other British figures often contended that there were more uitlanders in the Transvaal than Boers . Kruger 's administration recorded twice as many Transvaalers as uitlanders , but acknowledged that there were more uitlanders than enfranchised burghers . According to the British Liberal politician James Bryce , most uitlanders saw the country as " virtually English " and perceived " something unreasonable or even grotesque in the control of a small body of persons whom they deemed in every way their inferiors . " On 4 March 1890 , when Kruger visited Johannesburg , men sang British patriotic songs , tore down and trampled on the vierkleur at the city landdrost 's office , and rioted outside the house where the President was staying . One of the agitators accused him of treating the uitlanders with contempt ; Kruger retorted : " I have no contempt for the new population , only for people like yourself . " The riot was broken up by police and the Chamber of Mines issued an apology , which Kruger accepted , saying only a few of the uitlanders had taken part . Few Boers were as conciliatory as Kruger ; Meintjes marks this as " the point where the rift between the Transvaalers and the uitlanders began . "
= = = Early 1890s = = =
In mid @-@ March 1890 Kruger met the new British High Commissioner and Governor Sir Henry Brougham Loch , Loch 's legal adviser William Philip Schreiner , and Rhodes , who had by now attained a dominant position in the Transvaal 's mining industry and a royal charter for his British South Africa Company to occupy and administer Matabeleland and Mashonaland . A group of Transvaalers planned to emigrate to Mashonaland — the so @-@ called Bowler Trek — and Rhodes was keen to stop this lest it interfere with his own plans . He and Loch offered to support Kruger in his plan to acquire a port at Kosi Bay and link it to the Transvaal through Swaziland if in return the Transvaal would enter a South African customs union and pledge not to expand northwards . Kruger made no commitments , thinking this union might easily turn into the federation Britain had pursued years before , but on his return to Pretoria forbade any Boer trek to Mashonaland .
Rhodes became Prime Minister of the Cape Colony in July 1890 . A month later the British and Transvaalers agreed to joint control over Swaziland ( without consulting the Swazis ) — the South African Republic could build a railway through it to Kosi Bay on the condition that the Transvaal thereafter supported the interests of Rhodes 's Chartered Company in Matabeleland and its environs . Kruger honoured the latter commitment in 1891 when he outlawed the Adendorff Trek , another would @-@ be emigration to Mashonaland , over the protests of Joubert and many others . This , along with his handling of the economy and the civil service — now widely perceived as overloaded with Dutch imports — caused opposition to grow . The industrial monopolies Kruger 's administration granted became widely derided as corrupt and inefficient , especially the dynamite concession given to Edouard Lippert and a French consortium , which Kruger was forced to revoke in 1892 amid much scandal over misrepresentation and price gouging .
Kruger 's second volksraad sat for the first time in 1891 . Any resolution it passed had to be ratified by the first volksraad ; its role was in effect largely advisory . Uitlanders could vote in elections for the second volksraad after two years ' residency on the condition they were naturalised as burghers — a process requiring the renunciation of any foreign allegiance . The residency qualification for naturalised burghers to join the first volksraad electorate was raised from five to 14 years , with the added criterion that they had to be at least 40 years old . During the close @-@ run campaign for the 1893 election , in which Kruger was again challenged by Joubert with the Chief Justice John Gilbert Kotzé as a third candidate , the President indicated that he was prepared to lower the 14 @-@ year residency requirement so long as it would not risk the subversion of the state 's independence . The electoral result was announced as 7 @,@ 854 votes for Kruger , 7 @,@ 009 for Joubert , and 81 for Kotzé . Joubert 's supporters alleged procedural irregularities and demanded a recount ; the ballots were counted twice more and although the results varied slightly each time , every count gave Kruger a majority . Joubert conceded and Kruger was inaugurated for the third time on 12 May 1893 .
Kruger was by this time widely perceived as a personification of Afrikanerdom both at home and abroad . When he stopped going to the government offices at the Raadsaal by foot and began to be conveyed there by a presidential carriage , his coming and going became a public spectacle not unlike the Changing of the Guard in Britain . " Once seen , he is not easily forgotten " , wrote Lady Phillips . " His greasy frock coat and antiquated tall hat have been portrayed times without number ... and I think his character is clearly to be read in his face — strength of character and cunning . "
= = = Rising tensions : raiders and reformers = = =
By 1894 the Kosi Bay scheme had been abandoned and the Delagoa Bay line was almost complete , while the railways from Natal and the Cape had reached Johannesburg . Chief Malaboch 's insurgency in the north compelled Joubert to call up a commando and the State Artillery in May 1894 . Those drafted included British subjects , the large majority of whom indignantly refused to report , feeling that as foreigners they should be exempted . Kotzé 's ruling that British nationality did not preclude one from conscription as a Transvaal resident prompted an outpouring of displeasure from the uitlanders that manifested itself when Loch visited Pretoria the following month . Protesters waited for Kruger and Loch to enter the presidential coach at the railway station , then unharnessed the horses , attached a Union Jack and raucously dragged the carriage to Loch 's hotel . Embarrassed , Loch complied with Kruger 's request that he should not go on to Johannesburg . Kruger announced that " the government will , in the meantime , provisionally , no more commandeer British subjects for personal military service " . In his memoirs , he alleged that Loch secretly conferred with the uitlanders ' National Union at this time about how long the miners could hold Johannesburg by arms without British help .
The following year the National Union sent Kruger a petition bearing 38 @,@ 500 signatures requesting electoral reform . Kruger dismissed all such entreaties with the assertion that enfranchising " these new @-@ comers , these disobedient persons " might imperil the republic 's independence . " Protest ! " he shouted at one uitlander deputation ; " What is the use of protesting ? I have the guns , you haven 't . " The Johannesburg press became intensely hostile to the President personally , using the term " Krugerism " to encapsulate all the republic 's perceived injustices . In August 1895 , after gauging burghers ' views from across the country , the first volksraad rejected the opposition 's bill to give all uitlanders the vote by 14 ballots to 10 . Kruger said this did not extend to those who had " proved their trustworthiness " , and conferred burgher rights on all uitlanders who had served in Transvaal commandos .
The Delagoa Bay railway line was completed in December 1894 — the realisation of a great personal ambition for Kruger , who tightened the final bolt of " our national railway " personally . The formal opening in July 1895 was a gala affair with leading figures from all the neighbouring territories present , including Loch 's successor Sir Hercules Robinson . " This railway changed the whole internal situation in the Transvaal " , Kruger wrote in his autobiography . " Until that time , the Cape railway had enjoyed a monopoly , so to speak , of the Johannesburg traffic . " Difference of opinion between Kruger and Rhodes over the distribution of the profits from customs duties led to the Drifts Crisis of September – October 1895 : the Cape Colony avoided the Transvaal railway fees by using wagons instead . Kruger 's closure of the drifts ( fords ) in the Vaal River where the wagons crossed prompted Rhodes to call for support from Britain on the grounds that the London Convention was being breached . The Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain told Kruger if he did not reopen the drifts Britain would do so by force ; Kruger backed down .
Understanding that renewed hostilities with Britain were now a real possibility , Kruger began to pursue armament . Relations with Germany had been warming for some time ; when Leyds went there for medical treatment in late 1895 , he took with him an order from the Transvaal government for rifles and munitions . Conferring with the Colonial Office , Rhodes pondered the co @-@ ordination of an uitlander revolt in Johannesburg with British military intervention , and had a force of about 500 marshalled on the Bechuanaland – Transvaal frontier under Leander Starr Jameson , the Chartered Company 's administrator in Matabeleland . On 29 December 1895 , ostensibly following an urgent plea from the Johannesburg Reform Committee ( as the National Union now called itself ) , these troops crossed the border and rode for the Witwatersrand — the Jameson Raid had begun .
Jameson 's force failed to cut all of the telegraph wires , allowing a rural Transvaal official to raise the alarm early , though there are suggestions Kruger had been tipped off some days before . Joubert called up the burghers and rode west to meet Jameson . Robinson publicly repudiated Jameson 's actions and ordered him back , but Jameson ignored him and pushed on towards Johannesburg ; Robinson wired Kruger offering to come immediately for talks . The Reform Committee 's efforts to rally the uitlanders for revolt floundered , partly because not all of the mine @-@ owners ( or " Randlords " ) were supportive , and by 31 December the conspirators had raised a makeshift vierkleur over their headquarters at the offices of Rhodes 's Gold Fields company , signalling their capitulation . Unaware of this , Jameson continued until he was forced to surrender to Piet Cronjé on 2 January 1896 .
A congratulatory telegram to Kruger from Kaiser Wilhelm II on 3 January prompted a storm of anti @-@ Boer and anti @-@ German feeling in Britain , with Jameson becoming lionised as a result . Kruger shouted down talk of the death penalty for the imprisoned Jameson or a campaign of retribution against Johannesburg , challenging his more bellicose commandants to depose him if they disagreed , and accepted Robinson 's proposed mediation with alacrity . After confiscating the weapons and munitions the Reform Committee had stockpiled , Kruger handed Jameson and his troops over to British custody and granted amnesty to all the Johannesburg conspirators except for 64 leading members , who were charged with high treason . The four main leaders — Lionel Phillips , John Hays Hammond , George Farrar and Frank Rhodes ( brother of Cecil ) — pleaded guilty in April 1896 and were sentenced to hang , but Kruger quickly had this commuted to fines of £ 25 @,@ 000 each .
= = = Resurgence = = =
The Jameson Raid ruined Rhodes 's political reputation in the Cape and lost him his longstanding support from the Afrikaner Bond ; he resigned as Prime Minister of the Cape Colony on 12 January . Kruger 's handling of the affair made his name a household word across the world and won him much support from Afrikaners in the Cape and the Orange Free State , who began to visit Pretoria in large numbers . The President granted personal audiences to travellers and writers such as Olive Schreiner and Frank Harris , and wore the knightly orders of the Netherlands , Portugal , Belgium and France on his sash of state . Jameson was jailed by the British but released after four months . Meanwhile , the republic made armament one of its main priorities , ordering huge quantities of rifles , munitions , field guns and howitzers , primarily from Germany and France .
In March 1896 Marthinus Theunis Steyn , the young lawyer Kruger had encountered on the ship to England two decades earlier , became President of the Orange Free State . They quickly won each other 's confidence ; each man 's memoirs would describe the other in glowing terms . Chamberlain began to take exception to the South African Republic 's diplomatic actions , such as joining the Geneva Convention , which he said breached Article IV of the London Convention ( which forbade extraterritorial dealings except vis @-@ a @-@ vis the Orange Free State ) . Chamberlain asserted that the Transvaal was still under British suzerainty , a claim Kruger called " nonsensical " . Kruger and Steyn concluded a treaty of trade and friendship in Bloemfontein in March 1897 , along with a fresh military alliance binding each republic to defend the other 's independence . Two months later Sir Alfred Milner became the new High Commissioner and Governor in Cape Town .
Kruger developed a habit of threatening to resign whenever the volksraad did not give him his way . In the 1897 session there was much surprise when the new member Louis Botha reacted to the usual proffered resignation by leaping up and moving to accept it . A constitutional crisis developed after the judiciary under Chief Justice Kotzé abandoned its prior stance of giving volksraad resolutions legal precedence over the constitution . " This decision would have upset the whole country " , Kruger recalled , " for a number of rules concerning the goldfields , the franchise and so on depended on resolutions of the volksraad . " Chief Justice De Villiers of the Cape mediated , sided with Kruger and upheld the volksraad decrees .
Kruger was never more popular domestically than during the 1897 – 98 election campaign , and indeed was widely perceived to be jollier than he had been in years . He won his most decisive election victory yet — 12 @,@ 853 votes to Joubert 's 2 @,@ 001 and Schalk Willem Burger 's 3 @,@ 753 — and was sworn in as President for the fourth time on 12 May 1898 . After a three @-@ hour inauguration address , his longest speech as President , his first act of his fourth term was to sack Kotzé , who was still claiming the right to test legislation in the courts . To Kruger 's critics this lent much credence to the notion that he was a tyrant . Milner called Kotzé 's dismissal " the end of real justice in the Transvaal " and a step that " threatened all British subjects and interests there " .
Kruger 's final administration was , Meintjes suggests , the strongest in the history of the republic . He had the former Free State President F W Reitz as State Secretary from June 1898 and Leyds , who set up an office in Brussels , as Envoy Extraordinary in Europe . The post of State Attorney was given to a young lawyer from the Cape called Jan Smuts , for whom Kruger presaged great things . The removal of Leyds to Europe marked the end of Kruger 's longstanding policy of giving important government posts to Dutchmen ; convinced of Cape Afrikaners ' sympathy following the Jameson Raid , he preferred them from this point on .
= = = Road to war = = =
Anglo @-@ German relations warmed during late 1898 , with Berlin disavowing any interest in the Transvaal ; this opened the way for Milner and Chamberlain to take a firmer line against Kruger . The so @-@ called " Edgar case " of early 1899 , in which a South African Republic Policeman was acquitted of manslaughter after shooting a British subject dead during an attempted arrest , prompted outcry from the British element in the Transvaal and is highlighted by Nathan as " the starting point of the final agitation which led to war . "
The South African League , a new uitlander movement , prepared two petitions , each with more than 20 @,@ 000 signatures , that appealed to Queen Victoria for intervention against the Transvaal government , which they called inefficient , corrupt and oppressive . Other uitlanders produced a counter @-@ petition in which about as many affirmed their satisfaction with Kruger 's government . Attempting to address the main point of contention raised by Milner and Chamberlain | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
, Kruger spoke of reducing the residency qualification for foreigners to nine years or perhaps less . In May and June 1899 he and Milner met in Bloemfontein , with Steyn taking on the role of mediator . " You must make concessions on the franchise issue " , Steyn counselled . " Franchise after a residence of 14 years is in conflict with the first principles of a republican and democratic government . The Free State expects you to concede ... Should you not give in on this issue , you will lose all sympathy and all your friends . " Kruger answered that he had already indicated his willingness to lower the franchise and was " prepared to do anything " — " but they must not touch my independence " , he said . " They must be reasonable in their demands . "
Milner wanted full voting rights after five years ' residence , a revised naturalisation oath and increased legislative representation for the new burghers . Kruger offered naturalisation after two years ' residence and full franchise after five more ( seven years , effectively ) along with increased representation and a new oath similar to that of the Free State . The High Commissioner declared his original request an " irreducible minimum " and said he would discuss nothing else until the franchise question was resolved . On 5 June Milner proposed an advisory council of non @-@ burghers to represent the uitlanders , prompting Kruger to cry : " How can strangers rule my state ? How is it possible ! " When Milner said he did not foresee this council taking on any governing role , Kruger burst into tears , saying " It is our country you want " . Milner ended the conference that evening , saying the further meetings Steyn and Kruger wanted were unnecessary .
Back in Pretoria Kruger introduced a draft law to give the mining regions four more seats in each volksraad and fix a seven @-@ year residency period for voting rights . This would not be retroactive , but up to two years ' prior residence would be counted towards the seven , and uitlanders already in the country for nine years or more would get the vote immediately . Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr of the Afrikaner Bond persuaded Kruger to make this fully retrospective ( to immediately enfranchise all white men in the country seven years or more ) , but Milner and the South African League deemed this insufficient . After Kruger rejected the British proposal of a joint commission on the franchise law , Smuts and Reitz proposed a five @-@ year retroactive franchise and the extension of a quarter of the volksraad seats to the Witwatersrand region , on the condition that Britain drop any claim to suzerainty . Chamberlain issued an ultimatum in September 1899 in which he insisted on five years without conditions , else the British would " formulate their own proposals for a final settlement . "
Kruger resolved that war was inevitable , comparing the Boers ' position to that of a man attacked by a lion with only a pocketknife for defence . " Would you be such a coward as not to defend yourself with your pocketknife ? " he posited . Aware of the deployment of British troops from elsewhere in the Empire , Kruger and Smuts surmised that from a military standpoint the Boers ' only chance was a swift pre @-@ emptive strike . Steyn was anxious that they not be seen as the aggressors and insisted they delay until there was absolutely no hope of peace . He informed Kruger on 9 October that he also now thought war unavoidable ; that afternoon the Transvaal government handed the British envoy Conyngham Greene an ultimatum advising that if Britain did not withdraw all troops from the border within 48 hours , a state of war would exist . The British government considered the conditions impossible and informed Kruger of this on 11 October 1899 . The start of the Second Boer War was announced in Pretoria that day , at 17 : 00 local time .
= = = Second Boer War = = =
The outbreak of war raised Kruger 's international profile even further . In countries antagonistic to Britain he was idolised ; Kruger expressed high hopes of German , French or Russian military intervention , despite the repeated despatches from Leyds telling him this was a fantasy . Kruger took no part in the fighting , partly because of his age and poor health — he turned 75 the week war broke out — but perhaps primarily to prevent his being killed or captured . His personal contributions to the military campaign were mostly from his office in Pretoria , where he oversaw the war effort and advised his officers by telegram . The Boer commandos , including four of Kruger 's sons , six sons @-@ in @-@ law and 33 of his grandsons , advanced quickly into the Cape and Natal , won a series of victories and by the end of October were besieging Kimberley , Ladysmith and Mafeking . Soon thereafter , following a serious injury to Joubert , Kruger appointed Louis Botha to be Acting Commandant @-@ General .
The British relief of Kimberley and Ladysmith in February 1900 marked the turning of the war against the Boers . Morale plummeted among the commandos over the following months , with many burghers simply going home ; Kruger toured the front in response and asserted that any man who deserted in this time of need should be shot . He had hoped for large numbers of Cape Afrikaners to rally to the republican cause , but only small bands did so , along with a few thousand foreign volunteers ( principally Dutchmen , Germans and Scandinavians ) . When British troops entered Bloemfontein on 13 March 1900 Reitz and others urged Kruger to destroy the gold mines , but he refused on the grounds that this would obstruct rehabilitation after the war . Mafeking was relieved two months later and on 30 May Lord Roberts took Johannesburg . Kruger left Pretoria on 29 May , travelling by train to Machadodorp , and on 2 June the government abandoned the capital . Roberts entered three days later .
With the major towns and the railways under British control , the conventional phase of the war ended ; Kruger wired Steyn pondering surrender , but the Free State President insisted they fight " to the bitter end " . Kruger found new strength in Steyn and telegrammed all Transvaal officers forbidding the laying down of arms . Bittereinders ( " bitter @-@ enders " ) under Botha , Christiaan de Wet and Koos de la Rey took to the veld and waged a guerrilla campaign . The British under Lord Kitchener applied scorched earth policy in response , burning the farms of Boers still in the field ; non @-@ combatants ( mostly women and children ) were put into what the British Army dubbed concentration camps . Kruger moved to Waterval Onder , where his small house became the " Krugerhof " , in late June . After Roberts announced the annexation of the South African Republic to the British Empire on 1 September 1900 — the Free State had been annexed on 24 May — Kruger proclaimed on 3 September that this was " not recognised " and " declared null and void " . It was decided in the following days that to prevent his capture Kruger would leave for Lourenço Marques and there board ship for Europe . Officially he was to tour the continent , and perhaps America too , to raise support for the Boer cause .
= = Exile and death = =
Kruger left the Transvaal by rail on 11 September 1900 — he wept as the train crossed into Mozambique . He planned to board the first outgoing steamer , the Herzog of the German East Africa Line , but was prevented from doing so when , at the behest of the local British Consul , the Portuguese Governor insisted that Kruger stay in port under house arrest . About a month later Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands concluded a deal with Britain to extricate Kruger on a Dutch warship , HNLMS Gelderland , and convey him through non @-@ British waters to Marseille . Kruger was delighted to hear of this , but dismayed that Gezina , still in Pretoria , was not well enough to accompany him . Gelderland departed on 20 October 1900 .
Kruger was going deaf and losing some of his sharpness but his presence in Europe nevertheless had enormous propaganda value for the Boers . He received a rapturous welcome in Marseille on 22 November — 60 @,@ 000 people turned out to see him disembark . Accompanied by Leyds , he went on to an exuberant reception in Paris , then continued to Cologne on 1 December . Here the public greeted him with similar excitement , but Kaiser Wilhelm II refused to receive him in Berlin . Having apparently still harboured hopes of German assistance in the war , Kruger was deeply shocked . " The Kaiser has betrayed us " , he told Leyds . They went on to the Netherlands , which was strictly neutral and could not assist militarily , but would feel more like home . After another buoyant reception from the general public Kruger was cordially received by Wilhelmina and her family in The Hague , but it soon became clear to Leyds that it embarrassed the Dutch government to have them staying in the capital . The Kruger party moved to Hilversum in April 1901 .
Gezina , with whom Kruger had had 16 children — nine sons , seven daughters ( of whom some died young ) — had eight sickly grandchildren transferred to her from the concentration camp at Krugersdorp , where their mother had died , in July 1901 . Five of the eight children died within nine days , and two weeks later Gezina also died . Meintjes writes that a " strange silence " enveloped Kruger thereafter . By now partially blind and almost totally deaf , he dictated his memoirs to his secretary Hermanus Christiaan " Madie " Bredell and Pieter Grobler during the latter part of 1901 , and the following year they were published . Kruger and his entourage relocated in December 1901 to Utrecht , where he took a comfortable villa called " Oranjelust " and was joined by his daughter Elsje Eloff and her family .
Rhodes died in March 1902 , bequeathing Groote Schuur to be the official residence for future premiers of a unified South Africa . Kruger quipped to Bredell : " Perhaps I 'll be the first . " The war formally ended on 31 May 1902 with the Treaty of Vereeniging ; the Boer republics became the Orange River and Transvaal Colonies . Kruger accepted it was all over only when Bredell had the flags of the South African Republic and the Orange Free State removed from outside Oranjelust two weeks later . In reply to condolences from Germany , Kruger would only say : " My grief is beyond expression . "
Kruger would not countenance the idea of returning home , partly because of personal reluctance to become a British subject again , and partly because he thought he could better serve his people by remaining in exile . Steyn similarly refused to accept the new order and joined Kruger in Europe , though he was later to return . Botha , De Wet and De la Rey visited Oranjelust in August 1902 and , according to hearsay , were berated by Kruger for " signing away independence " — rumours of such a scene were widespread enough that the generals issued a statement denying them .
After passing October 1902 to May 1903 at Menton on the French Riviera , Kruger moved back to Hilversum , then returned to Menton in October 1903 . In early 1904 he moved to Clarens , a small village in the canton of Vaud in western Switzerland where he spent the rest of his days looking over Lake Geneva and the Alps from his balcony . " He who wishes to create a future must not lose track of the past " , he wrote in his final letter , addressed to the people of the Transvaal . " Thus ; seek all that is to be found good and fair in the past , shape your ideal accordingly and try to realise that ideal for the future . It is true : much that has been built is now destroyed , damaged , levelled . But with unity of purpose and unity of strength that which has been pulled down can be built again . " After contracting pneumonia , Paul Kruger died in Clarens on 14 July 1904 at the age of 78 . His Bible lay open on a table beside him .
Kruger 's body was initially buried in The Hague , but was soon repatriated with British permission . After ceremonial lying in state , he was accorded a state funeral in Pretoria on 16 December 1904 , the vierkleur of the South African Republic draped over his coffin , and buried in what is now called the Heroes ' Acre in the Church Street Cemetery .
= = Appraisal and legacy = =
Academic opinion on Kruger is divided . To admirers he was an astute reader of people , events and law who faithfully defended a maligned nation and became a tragic folk hero ; to critics he was " an anachronistic throwback " , the stubborn , slippery guardian of an unjust cause and an oppressor of black Africans . " More nonsense has been written about him than anybody I know of " , writes Meintjes , in whose view the true figure has been obscured by conflicting attempts to sabotage or whitewash his image — " a veritable bog of hostility and sentiment , prejudice and deification " , depicting Kruger as anything " from saint to stuffy mendacious savage " . Rights and wrongs aside , Meintjes asserts , Kruger is the central figure of Boer history and one of the " most extraordinary " of South Africans .
Following the Union of South Africa under Botha in 1910 , Kruger remained " a vital force in South African politics and Afrikaner culture " . The government wildlife reserve he had proclaimed in 1898 was expanded and dubbed Kruger National Park in 1926 . In 1954 , over half a century after its construction by Anton van Wouw , a bronze statue of Kruger in his characteristic Dopper suit and top hat was erected in Church Square , Pretoria ; Kruger stands atop a plinth surrounded by four crouching Boers from different time periods . Thirteen years later the South African Mint put his likeness on the Krugerrand , a gold bullion coin still produced and exported in the 21st century . His home in Pretoria and farm at Boekenhoutfontein are provincial heritage sites , the former of which is preserved to appear as in his time .
Kruger gives his name to the town of Krugersdorp , and to many streets and squares in South Africa and other countries , especially the Netherlands . This has , on occasion , led to controversy ; in 2009 local authorities in St Gallen , Switzerland renamed Krügerstrasse " because of racist associations " . Clarens , Free State is named after Kruger 's last home in Switzerland . During the Second World War Kruger 's life story and image were appropriated by propagandists in Nazi Germany , who produced the biographical film Ohm Krüger ( " Uncle Krüger " , 1941 ) to attack the British , with Emil Jannings in the title role . The underdevelopment of South African administrative law until the late 20th century was , Davenport asserts , the direct result of Kruger 's censure and dismissal of Chief Justice Kotzé in 1898 over the question of legislative review .
" Paul Kruger 's name and fame he made himself " , Leyds said . " It is sometimes said that he was illiterate . This is of course nonsense ... He was certainly not learned , but he had a thorough knowledge of many things . " " In the lower spheres of diplomacy Mr Kruger was a master " , E B Iwan @-@ Müller asserted . " He was quick in detecting the false moves made by his opponents , and an adept in turning them to his own advantage ; but of the large combinations he was hopelessly incapable . To secure a brilliant and conspicuous success today he was ready to squander the prospects of the future , if , indeed , he had the power of forecasting them . He was what I believe soldiers would call a brilliant tactician , but a hopeless strategist . " Soon after Kruger 's death , Smuts told the British humanitarian campaigner Emily Hobhouse : " He typified the Boer character both in its brighter and darker aspects , and was no doubt the greatest man — both morally and intellectually — whom the Boer race has so far produced . In his iron will and tenacity , his ' never say die ' attitude towards fate , his mystic faith in another world , he represented what is best in all of us . "
= Shanhua Temple =
Shanhua Temple ( Chinese : 善化寺 ; pinyin : Shànhùa Sì ) is a Buddhist temple located in Datong , Shanxi Province , China . The temple was first founded during the early 8th century of the Tang Dynasty , but its earliest surviving building dates from the 11th century . The temple was heavily repaired over the years , and today three original halls and two recently rebuilt pavilions survive . The largest , and earliest hall , dating from the 11th @-@ century Liao Dynasty , is the Mahavira Hall and is one of the largest of its kind in China . Also historically significant are the Main Gate and Sansheng Hall , both dating from 12th century during the Jin dynasty .
= = History = =
The Shanhua Temple was first founded during the Kaiyuan period of the Tang Dynasty ( 713 @-@ 741 ) under the patronage of emperor Xuanzong , at which time it was known as the Kaiyuan Temple . After the fall of the Tang Dynasty during the Five Dynasties period ( 906 @-@ 960 ) , the temple underwent a name change and was known as Da Pu ’ ensi . During this chaotic time , out of ten buildings at the temple , only three or four escaped destruction . After the takeover by the Liao Dynasty in 960 , the temple assumed its present configuration .
The temple was again heavily damaged when the Jin dynasty took over in 1120 , and in 1128 repair work was started that took fifteen years to complete . In 1421 , more repairs were undertaken , this time by a monk named Dayong . In 1445 , he received an imperial presentation of sutras . This is also the first time that the temple was referred to by its present name , Shanhua Temple . In the late 16th century , drum and bell towers were built on the same stone platform ( yuetai , 月台 ) supporting the Mahavira Hall . Further repairs were made to the temple over the next two hundred years but by the late 18th century the temple was once again in a state of disrepair , and the use of one of the halls as a camel stable had caused a wall to collapse . During World War II , the Puxian pavilion was destroyed , and was rebuilt in 1953 .
= = Architecture = =
The Shanhua Temple today consists of three main halls ( The Mahavira Hall , the Sansheng Hall and the Main Gate ) arranged on a north @-@ south axis and two pavilions located to the east and west of the Sansheng Hall . There are also two smaller halls on each side of the Mahavira Hall . The main halls were all first built during the Liao Dynasty ( 907 @-@ 1125 ) , but only the Mahavira Hall is now considered a Liao Building . The Main Gate and Sansheng Hall were extensively renovated during the subsequent Jin dynasty , and are classified by scholars as being Jin buildings .
= = = Main Hall = = =
The Main or Mahavira Hall ( 大雄宝殿 , Dàxíongbǎo Diàn ) is the northernmost and largest hall , and dates from the 11th century . It measures seven by five bays ( 40 @.@ 5 by 25 m ) and has three doors at the front of the hall . The hall is built on an elevated three meter high platform that was once the site of both a drum and bell tower that are no longer extant . According to the standards in the 11th @-@ century Chinese architectural treatise Yingzao Fashi , the hall is held up by fifth rank bracket sets ( 鋪作 ) in a system of eight ranks . The interior contains four large Buddha statues representing the four cardinal directions , and a central statue representing Sakyamuni . The statues are similar , and represent the Buddha displaying different mudras ( symbolic hand gestures ) . Above the Sakyamuni statue , is a caisson ( Chinese : 藻井 ; pinyin : zǎojǐng ) , an octagonal wooden ceiling that is painted and decorated .
Along with other statues of disciples and attendants grouped with the large statues , there are also 24 deva statues located next to the east and west walls . There are 190 square meters of murals in the hall . They date from 1708 to 1716 , but have been damaged over the years .
= = = Sansheng Hall = = =
The Sansheng Hall ( Chinese : 三圣殿 ; pinyin : Sānshèng Diàn ; literally : " Hall of Three Sages " ) is the middle hall , and was built during the Jin dynasty . It houses statues of the three sages of the Avatamsaka Sutra - a central one of Vairocana ( the universal aspect of Shakyamuni ) and two accompanying statues of Manjusri and Samantabhadra . The hall has very few central pillars for its support and depends on complex rafters and brackets of the 6th rank for its support .
= = = Puxian Pavilion = = =
The Puxian Pavilion ( Chinese : 普贤阁 ; pinyin : Pǔxián Gé ) was initially built during the Liao Dynasty , and was examined by Liang Sicheng in the 1930s . He reported a heavily damaged structure with two stories . On the first story was a miniature building and niche with two images . On the top story was a statue of the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra .
The building was rebuilt in 1953 after having been destroyed during the war . The pavilion measures three bays by two , but is nearly a perfect square . It is built on a short stone platform called a yuetai ( 月台 ) which is accessed by a short set of stairs . While from the outside , the pavilion appears to only have two stories , there are actually three , with the second floor being hidden from outside view . Each of the exterior levels is surrounded by a perimeter of columns .
= = = Wenshu Pavilion = = =
This pavilion ( Chinese : 文殊阁 ; pinyin : Wénshū Gé ) was destroyed in the early 20th century after it caught fire after being converted into a tannery . It was rebuilt in 2008 by the local government .
= = = Main Gate = = =
The Main Gate ( Chinese : 山门 ; pinyin : Shān Mén ) is a large hall that was built during the Jin dynasty in the 12th century , and is the entrance building of the temple . The hall contains statues of the four heavenly kings , with two on the east side , and two on the west side . It is five bays long , and two bays wide and has an area of 278 square meters . The brackets used to support the structure are of the 5th rank .
= Simpson family =
The Simpson family are cartoon characters featured in the animated television series The Simpsons . The Simpsons are a nuclear family consisting of married couple Homer and Marge and their three children Bart , Lisa and Maggie . They live at 742 Evergreen Terrace in the fictional town of Springfield , U.S.A. and they were created by cartoonist Matt Groening who conceived the characters after his own family members , substituting " Bart " for his own name . The family debuted April 19 , 1987 in The Tracey Ullman Show short " Good Night " and were later spun off into their own series which debuted on December 17 , 1989 .
Alongside the five main family members , there are a number of other major and minor characters in their family . The most commonly recurring characters are Homer 's father Abraham " Grampa " Simpson ; Marge 's sisters Patty and Selma Bouvier ; and the family 's two pets , Santa 's Little Helper and Snowball II . Other family members include Homer 's mother Mona Simpson , Homer 's half @-@ brother Herbert Powell , Marge 's mother Jacqueline Bouvier , and other minor relatives .
= = Main family = =
The Simpsons are a family who live in at 742 Evergreen Terrace in the town of Springfield in the United States . Homer , the father , works as a safety inspector at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , a position at odds with his careless , buffoonish personality . He is married to Marge Simpson , a stereotypical American housewife and mother . They have three children : Bart , a ten @-@ year @-@ old troublemaker ; Lisa , a precocious intelligent eight @-@ year @-@ old environmental activist ; and Maggie , a baby who rarely speaks , but communicates by sucking on a pacifier . The family owns a dog , Santa 's Little Helper , and a cat , Snowball II . Both pets have had starring roles in several seasons . Despite the passing of yearly milestones such as holidays or birthdays , the Simpsons do not physically age and still appear just as they did at the end of the 1980s . Although the family is dysfunctional , many episodes examine their relationships and bonds with each other and they are often shown to care about one another .
= = = Creation = = =
Groening conceived of the idea for the Simpsons in the lobby of James L. Brooks 's office . Brooks had asked Groening to pitch an idea for a series of animated shorts , which Groening initially intended to present as his Life in Hell series . However , when Groening realized that animating Life in Hell would require the rescinding of publication rights for his life 's work , he chose another approach and formulated his version of a dysfunctional family . He named the characters after his own family members — his father Homer , his mother Margaret , and his younger sisters Lisa and Maggie . He substituted " Bart " , an anagram of " brat " , for his own name , and modeled the character after his older brother , Mark .
The five family members were given simple designs so that their facial emotions could easily be changed with almost no effort and so that they would be recognizable in silhouette . Groening submitted only basic sketches to the animators and assumed that the figures would be cleaned @-@ up in production . However , the animators merely re @-@ traced his drawings , which led to the crude appearance of the characters in the initial short episodes . The Simpson family made their debut on April 19 , 1987 in The Tracey Ullman Show short " Good Night " . In 1989 , the shorts were adapted into The Simpsons , a half @-@ hour series airing on the Fox Broadcasting Company . The Simpson family remained the main characters on this new show .
= = = Casting = = =
Dan Castellaneta , Julie Kavner , Nancy Cartwright , and Yeardley Smith all began voicing their characters on The Tracey Ullman Show . Nancy Cartwright was the only one of the group who had been trained to be a voice actor while Castellaneta had done some voice over work in Chicago . Castellaneta and Kavner had been part of the regular cast of The Tracey Ullman Show and voices were needed for the shorts , so the producers decided to ask them to voice Homer and Marge rather than hire more actors . The producers decided to hold casting for the roles of Bart and Lisa . Yeardley Smith had initially been asked to audition for the role of Bart , but casting director Bonita Pietila believed her voice was too high . Smith later recalled , " I always sounded too much like a girl . I read two lines as Bart and they said , ' Thanks for coming ! ' " Smith was given the role of Lisa instead . On March 13 , 1987 , Nancy Cartwright went in to audition for the role of Lisa . After arriving at the audition , she found that Lisa was simply described as the " middle child " and at the time did not have much personality . Cartwright became more interested in the role of Bart who she found more fascinating because he was described as " devious , underachieving , school @-@ hating , irreverent , [ and ] clever . " Matt Groening let her try out for the part instead , and upon hearing her read , gave her the job on the spot .
= = = Homer Simpson = = =
Homer Jay Simpson , voiced by Dan Castellaneta , is the father of the Simpson family . He embodies several American working class stereotypes : he is crude , overweight , incompetent , clumsy , thoughtless and a borderline alcoholic . He has occasionally displayed flashes of great intellect and fitness whenever the situation calls for it , and an integrity reflecting his own values , including a fierce devotion to and protectiveness of his family . His voice started out as an impression of Walter Matthau but eventually evolved into a more robust voice during the second and third season of the half @-@ hour show , allowing Homer to cover a fuller range of emotions . Homer has since become one of the most influential fictional characters and has been described by the UK newspaper The Sunday Times as the greatest comedic creation of modern time . He has inspired an entire line of merchandise , and his catchphrase , the annoyed grunt " D 'oh ! " , has been included in the Oxford English Dictionary .
= = = Marge Simpson = = =
Marjorie " Marge " Simpson ( née Bouvier ) , voiced by Julie Kavner , is the well @-@ meaning and extremely patient wife of Homer and mother of Bart , Lisa and Maggie . She often acts as the voice of reason , but displays exaggerated behavior traits of stereotypical mothers and takes the blatant dysfunctionality of her family for granted , unlike the other family members , who are aware that they are eccentric . Her most notable physical feature is her blue hair , styled into an improbably high beehive . Julie Kavner received a Primetime Emmy Award in 1992 for voicing Marge in the episode " I Married Marge " . For her performance in The Simpsons Movie , Kavner received a nomination for " Best Voice Acting in an Animated Feature " at the 2007 Annie Awards , but lost to Ian Holm in Ratatouille . Kavner 's emotional performance in the movie got positive reviews and one critic said she " gave what must be the most heartfelt performance ever " . Part of Kavner 's contract says that she will never have to promote The Simpsons on video because she does not want to " destroy the illusion for children " . In 2008 , CityNews published an article entitled " Top 10 Greatest TV Moms of All Time " , and placed Marge in eighth spot .
= = = Bart Simpson = = =
Bartholomew JoJo " Bart " Simpson , voiced by Nancy Cartwright , is the eldest child and only son in the family — at age 10 . Bart 's most prominent character traits are his mischievousness , rebelliousness , disrespect for authority and sharp wit . During the first two seasons of The Simpsons , Bart was the show 's main character . The name " Bart " is an anagram of the word " brat " . Groening conceived Bart as an extreme version of the typical misbehaving child character , merging all of the extreme traits of characters such as Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn into one person . Groening 's older brother Mark provided most of the inspiration for Bart. Bart 's catchphrase " Eat My Shorts " was an ad @-@ lib by Cartwright in one of the original table readings , harking back to an incident when she was at college . In 1998 , Time magazine selected Bart as 46th of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century , and the only fictional character to make the list . He had previously appeared on the cover of the December 31 , 1990 edition . Bart is rebellious and frequently escapes without punishment , which lead some parents ' groups and conservative spokespeople to believe he provided a poor role model for children . This prompted George H. W. Bush to rally , " We 're going to keep trying to strengthen the American family . To make them more like the Waltons and less like the Simpsons . " Bart , and other Simpsons characters , have appeared in numerous television commercials for Nestlé 's Butterfinger candy bars from 1990 – 2001 , with the slogan " Nobody better lay a finger on my Butterfinger ! "
= = = Lisa Simpson = = =
Lisa Marie Simpson , voiced by Yeardley Smith , is the eldest daughter and middle child of the family . She is an extremely intelligent eight @-@ year @-@ old girl , one of the most intelligent characters on the show . Lisa 's political convictions are generally socially liberal . She is a vegetarian , and a supporter of the Free Tibet movement , and while still supportive of the Christian church in which she was raised , Lisa became a practicing Buddhist following her decision to follow the Noble Eightfold Path . In the Tracey Ullman Show shorts , Lisa was more of a " female Bart " and was equally mischievous . As the series progressed , Lisa began to develop into a more intelligent and more emotional character with " Krusty Gets Busted " being one of the first episodes where her true intelligence is fully shown . Many episodes focusing on Lisa have an emotional nature , the first one being " Moaning Lisa " . The idea for the episode was pitched by James L. Brooks , who had wanted to do an emotional episode where Lisa is sad because the show had done a lot of " jokey episodes " . In 2001 Lisa received a special " Board of Directors Ongoing Commitment Award " at the Environmental Media Awards . " Lisa the Vegetarian " , an episode from the seventh season , won both an Environmental Media Award for " Best Television Episodic Comedy " and a Genesis Award for " Best Television Comedy Series , Ongoing Commitment " . In Japan , the broadcasters of the series found they were able to turn the apparent viewer dislike of the series around by focusing marketing attention on Lisa . Lisa 's well @-@ intended but ill @-@ fated struggles to be a voice of reason and a force of good in her family and city struck a chord with the Japanese .
= = = Maggie Simpson = = =
Margaret " Maggie " Simpson , is the youngest of the five main family members and is almost always seen as a baby . She is 2 years old . She was quite prominent in the Tracey Ullman Show shorts , often being featured alongside Bart and Lisa but has since become the least seen and heard of the five main Simpsons . It has been revealed that Maggie has outstanding artistic and academic abilities , much like her sister Lisa . Maggie rarely speaks , but has been voiced by several different actors including Jodie Foster , Elizabeth Taylor , James Earl Jones , Harry Shearer ( who used his Kang voice ) , Yeardley Smith , and Nancy Cartwright .
= = Pets = =
= = = Dogs = = =
= = = = Santa 's Little Helper = = = =
Santa 's Little Helper , voiced by Frank Welker and Dan Castellaneta , is the Simpsons ' pet greyhound . He first appeared in the series premiere as a race dog adopted by Homer and Bart and has been in the series ever since .
= = = = Laddie = = = =
Laddie was a collie owned by the Simpson family in the episode " The Canine Mutiny " . He joined the family after Bart managed to get a credit card issued to Santos L. Halper ( a non @-@ existent person whose name is a corruption of " Santa 's Little Helper " ) and purchased him from a catalogue . Described in the catalogue as the ultimate dog , Laddie was able to perform household chores and use the toilet . Laddie currently resides with the Springfield Police Department after he incidentally sniffed out marijuana at a blind man 's house and Bart gave up ownership .
= = = Cats = = =
= = = = Snowball = = = =
Snowball , also known as Snowball I , was the Simpsons ' first cat . She was first mentioned in the series premiere in a Christmas letter Marge is writing where she explains that Snowball had died that year and went to " kitty heaven " . Snowball was named due to her white fur . Snowball was , according to Lisa in a poem , run over by a Chrysler belonging to Mayor Quimby 's brother " Clovis " . She is seen in flashback in the ninth season episode " Lisa 's Sax " .
= = = = Snowball II = = = =
Snowball II was the Simpson family 's second cat . Though Snowball I had white fur , which inspired her name , Snowball II had black fur . She first appeared in the series premiere but has received little attention in the series . Snowball II and Santa 's Little Helper have always been shown as having a good relationship ; usually they are seen sleeping near each other . Snowball II 's largest role is in the fourteenth season episode " Old Yeller Belly " , in which she saves Homer from a burning treehouse . She also has minor roles in " Bart Gets an Elephant " , where she tries to get attention ; in " Two Dozen and One Greyhounds " , in which she is scared by the many puppies ; and in " Make Room for Lisa " , in which Lisa has a hallucination where she becomes Snowball II . In the episode " I , ( Annoyed Grunt ) -Bot " , Snowball II is hit and killed by Dr. Hibbert 's Mercedes @-@ Benz G500 . After numerous fleeting replacements for Snowball II , the fifth ( and last surviving ) cat is named Snowball II by Lisa , in order both to avoid future confusions and to save more money on a first @-@ hand food bowl .
= = = = Snowball III = = = =
Snowball III was the third cat owned by the Simpsons . Snowball III was a ginger male Persian cat . In " I , ( Annoyed Grunt ) -Bot " , Lisa adopts him from an animal shelter shortly after the death of Snowball II . He drowns trying to catch a goldfish in an aquarium while Lisa is preparing his cat food in the kitchen for the first time .
= = = = Coltrane / Snowball IV = = = =
Coltrane was the Simpsons ' fourth cat , adopted from an animal shelter shortly after the death of Snowball III . Lisa is not certain she wants another cat , but her other one has haunted her handa , Coltrane 's name wins her over due to its resemblance to that of the jazz musician John Coltrane . Upon bringing Coltrane home , Lisa decides to play him some of John Coltrane 's music on her saxophone , but the noise frightens him and he commits suicide by jumping out the window . Coltrane was the Simpsons ' only cat since Snowball I to have been white , although he was the only one not to be named Snowball . However , Lisa evidently considers him as part of the Snowball lineage , as she names her next cat Snowball V , implying that Coltrane was Snowball IV .
= = = = Snowball V ( Snowball II ) = = = =
Snowball V , later renamed Snowball II , is the Simpsons ' fifth cat and is almost identical in appearance to Snowball II . In " I , ( Annoyed Grunt ) -Bot " , the Crazy Cat Lady gives Lisa one of her cats while she is mourning the death of her other three cats that are killed in the episode . Lisa then tells the cat to leave , because any cat that she owns is unlucky and is certain to be killed . As the cat starts to cross Evergreen Terrace , a car driven by Gil Gunderson drives past . As Gil swerves to avoid hitting the cat , his car hits a tree and bursts into flames , thereby giving him insurance compensation for his meals . Since the cat is intact and whole , Lisa takes it as a sign of good luck and adopts her . Lisa renames Snowball V " Snowball II " at the end of the episode , in her words " to save money on a new dish " , also promising to act as if the whole thing did not actually happen . Snowball V also is the focus of a subplot in the sixteenth season episode " The Seven @-@ Beer Snitch " , in which she becomes overweight after abandoning the Simpsons for brief periods to visit a different family but she then goes back to live with the Simpson family .
= = = Others = = =
Harry Plopper ( a spoof of Harry Potter ) is Homer Simpson 's pet Pig
Chirpy Boy and Bart JR were Bart 's pet Lizards
= = = = Stampy = = = =
Stampy was an African Elephant briefly owned by the Simpson family in the episode " Bart Gets an Elephant " .
= = = = Strangles = = = =
Strangles was a green python that Bart owned during the episode " Stop or My Dog Will Shoot " , during which time Santa 's Little Helper was a police dog . Strangles ' current owner is Groundskeeper Willie . Bart named the snake Strangles while it was strangling Homer on the dinner table .
= = = = Pokey = = = =
Pokey was a Guinea pig and Lisa 's first pet of her own . It appears in " The Simpsons : Tapped Out " and in the episode " The War of Art " where it destroyed the iconic artwork over the lounge .
= = = = Princess = = = =
In the episode " Lisa 's Pony " Homer bought Lisa a pony to show her that he loves her but he has to work two jobs to keep her . When Lisa discovers this she gives up the pony .
= = = = Pinchy = = = =
Pinchy was Homer 's pet lobster in " Lisa Gets an " A " " . Homer went to the supermarket to buy a lobster that he could cook for dinner . Homer found that the big lobsters were too expensive , so he bought a smaller lobster with the intention of fattening him up , but he grew attached to the lobster and decided to keep him as a pet instead , naming him Pinchy . At the end of the episode , Homer puts Pinchy in a hot bath , but accidentally boils and kills him . Since his body is cooked , a sobbing Homer eats Pinchy 's remains , saying that " That 's what he would want " .
= = Extended Simpson family = =
= = = Grampa Simpson = = =
Abraham Jay @-@ Jedediah " Abe " Simpson ( or just Grampa ) , voiced by Dan Castellaneta , is the patriarch of the Simpson family , the father of Homer . He is a World War II veteran who was later sent to the Springfield Retirement Castle by Homer . He is known for his borderline senility , his long rambling ( and probably apocryphal ) stories and his love of Matlock . He shares his name with one of Matt Groening 's relatives , in this case his grandfather . However , Groening says he refused to name him , leaving it to other writers to choose a name . By coincidence , the writers chose the name Abraham .
= = = Mona Simpson = = =
Mona Penelope Simpson ( née Olsen ) , voiced by Glenn Close , is Homer 's long @-@ lost mother and Abe 's estranged first wife . Her first major appearance was in " Mother Simpson " where she reveals that she was forced to abandon her family after being caught up in the hippie movement and participated in various acts of activism . The writers used this episode as an opportunity to solve several little puzzles , such as where Lisa 's intelligence came from . Prior to the seventh season , Mona Simpson had only made two brief flashback appearances , the first being season two 's " Oh Brother , Where Art | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
@ X ( or in the 1991 SCI remake , by pressing Ctrl @-@ Alt @-@ X ) .
= = = SCI version = = =
A version of the game with VGA graphics and sound card audio appeared in 1991 . Leisure Suit Larry 1 : In the Land of the Lounge Lizards used the new game engine Sierra 's Creative Interpreter and was released in 1991 for the Amiga , DOS , and Macintosh platforms . For the first remake , Al Lowe served as director and designer , also helping to program the game , and Ken Williams became executive producer . Other key people included Stuart Moulder ( producer ) , William R. Davis Sr. ( creative director ) , William D. Skirvin ( art designer ) , Mark Seibert ( music director ) , Oliver Brelsford ( lead programmer ) , and the music other than the theme song was composed by Chris Braymen .
The suggested retail price of the 1991 version was $ 59 @.@ 95 . Sierra offered owners of the original game an upgrade to the new game for $ 25 .
= = Reception = =
Larry 's sales were very poor at first , with only 4 @,@ 000 copies sold upon its release . Some resellers refused to handle the game , while others refused to advertise it , and one refused to list the game on its list of best sellers . A Sierra employee quit and a potential employee refused to work on Larry . Lowe stated , " My initial reaction was that I had wasted six months of my life . " Word @-@ of @-@ mouth spread quickly , however , and by the year 's end , the game became a commercial success , selling over 250 @,@ 000 copies . According to Sierra 's marketing director John Williams , " Obviously lots of retailers were selling lots of Leisure Suit Larry , but no one wanted to admit it " . It also became widely pirated , including in the Soviet Union . According to Lowe , a film adaptation was considered and he was flown to Hollywood to demonstrate the game in person . Footage from the game was used in the 1990 music video for Sailor 's song " The Secretary " . Sierra received what Williams described as a " deluge " of mail opposing its release of Larry after he wrote a series of articles for Computer Gaming World discussing his company and the industry 's views on adult software . The game 's success resulting in a long line of sequels and spin @-@ off titles .
Computer Gaming World 's reviewer Roy Wagner ( " a wholesome family man " ) stated that Larry " is a lot of fun to play and is very humorous ... with good graphics , good design , and good fun provided , who needs ' good taste ' ? " According to the review by Rob Steele of The Games Machine , the Atari ST version was entertaining and very enjoyable , even if " wholeheartedly sexist " . Jason Simmons from Amiga Action opined that the 1991 remake 's " advanced graphics and new control system have improved the game by a huge degree " , but " without a hard drive it is slow and almost a chore to play " and those who played the original " will probably find the new edition a waste of time and little more than an exercise in pretty pictures . " In 2004 , Adventure Gamers ' Rob Michaud wrote : " Despite its weaknesses , it 's a bona fide gaming classic , a must @-@ play for adventure history buffs as well as those who just like risqué humor . "
In 1988 , Leisure Suit Larry in the Land of the Lounge Lizards was given an award for the Best Adventure , or Fantasy / Role @-@ Playing Program of 1987 by the Software Publishers Association . In 1996 , Computer Gaming World ranked it as the 69th best game of all time , also ranking it as the fifth most funny computer game , and stating : " Base , sexist , sometimes scatological humor , with no concessions made to taste or sensibilities , this was the best of a funny series . " FHM included it on its 2011 list of six games " that shamelessly used sex to sell " but adding that it was actually " funny , well @-@ crafted , and well @-@ written " and " has become kind of like a cult classic among gaming fans . " In 2012 , Time named it one of the 100 greatest video games of all time , commenting : " A humor @-@ filled adventure game that wasn 't bashful about showing some skin ? The world hadn 't seen anything like it . "
= = Leisure Suit Larry : Reloaded = =
Developer N @-@ Fusion Interactive and publisher Replay Games created a modern point @-@ and @-@ click remake of the original game with updated HD graphics , fully vocalized audio , and various enhancements to the original like new puzzles and new characters . The game was developed for Microsoft Windows , Mac OS X , iOS , Android , and Linux , and released on June 27 , 2013 .
= Centennial Light =
The Centennial Light is the world 's longest @-@ lasting light bulb , burning since 1901 . It is at 4550 East Avenue , Livermore , California , and maintained by the Livermore @-@ Pleasanton Fire Department . Due to its longevity , the bulb has been noted by The Guinness Book of World Records , Ripley 's Believe It or Not ! , and General Electric . It is often cited as evidence for the existence of planned obsolescence in later @-@ produced light bulbs .
= = History = =
The Centennial Light was originally a 30 @-@ watt or 60 @-@ watt bulb but now is very dim , emitting about the same light as a 4 @-@ watt nightlight . The hand @-@ blown , carbon @-@ filament common light bulb was manufactured in Shelby , Ohio , by the Shelby Electric Company in the late 1890s ; many just like it still exist and can be found functioning . According to Zylpha Bernal Beck , the bulb was donated to the Fire Department by her father , Dennis Bernal , in 1901 . Bernal owned the Livermore Power and Water Company and donated the bulb to the fire station when he sold the company . That story has been supported by firefighter volunteers of that era .
Evidence suggests that the bulb has hung in at least four locations . It was originally hung in 1901 in a hose cart house on L Street , then moved to a garage in downtown Livermore used by the fire and police departments . When the fire department consolidated , it was moved again to a newly constructed City Hall that housed the unified departments .
Its unusual longevity was first noticed in 1972 by reporter Mike Dunstan . After weeks of interviewing people who had lived in Livermore all their lives , he wrote " Light Bulb May Be World 's Oldest " , published in the Tri @-@ Valley Herald . Dunstan contacted the Guinness Book of World Records , Ripley 's Believe It or Not , and General Electric , who all confirmed it as the longest @-@ lasting bulb known in existence . The article came to the attention of Charles Kuralt of the CBS @-@ TV program On the Road with Charles Kuralt .
In 1976 , the fire department moved to Fire Station # 6 with the bulb ; the bulb 's cord was severed for fear that unscrewing it could damage it . It was deprived of electricity for only 22 minutes during the transfer , which was made in a specially designed box and with full firetruck escort . An electrician was on hand to install the bulb into the new fire station 's emergency generator . Ripley 's Believe It Or Not stated that the short delay would not mar the bulb 's continuous burning record . In 2001 , the bulb 's 100th birthday was celebrated with a community barbecue and live music . Since that move , the bulb has run continuously for 38 years ; previously it had only been off the grid for short periods of time ( e.g. a week in 1937 for a renovation and the odd power outage ) .
On the evening of May 20 , 2013 , the general public witnessed , through a dedicated webcam , that the bulb had apparently burned out . The next morning , an electrician was called in to confirm its status . It was determined that the bulb had not burned out when the uninterruptible power supply was bypassed , using an extension cord . The dedicated power supply was found to have been faulty . Approximately seven hours had transpired before the light was reestablished .
The bulb is cared for by the Centennial Light Bulb Committee , a partnership of the Livermore @-@ Pleasanton Fire Department , Livermore Heritage Guild , Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories , and Sandia National Laboratories . The Livermore @-@ Pleasanton Fire Department plans to house and maintain the bulb for the rest of its life , regardless of length . When it does go out , they have no plans for it , although Ripley 's Believe it or Not ! has requested it for their museum . The bulb 's long life has been attributed to its low power , nearly continuous operation , and dedicated power supply .
= = Publicity = =
The bulb was officially listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as " the most durable light " in 1972 , replacing another bulb in Fort Worth , Texas . The bulb was listed in the book for the next 16 editions . It was not listed during 1988 – 2006 , without a reason being given , before returning in 2007 .
2010 French – Spanish documentary The Light Bulb Conspiracy dealing with planned obsolescence refers to the Centennial Light extensively .
According to the fire chief , every few months a news outlet will publish a story on the bulb , generating visitors and general interest , then it will drop back into obscurity for a while . Dozens of magazines and newspapers have featured articles on the bulb . The bulb has been visited and featured by many major news channels in the United States , including NBC , ABC , Fox , CBS , WB , CNN and NPR . The bulb has received letters acknowledging and celebrating its longevity from the city of Shelby , Ohio , the Alameda County Board of Supervisors , the California State Assembly , the California State Senate , Congresswoman Ellen Tauscher , Senator Barbara Boxer , and President George W. Bush . The bulb was featured on an episode of MythBusters on December 13 , 2006 . It was also in the Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS ) documentary Livermore . It was also briefly mentioned on Warehouse 13 in the season @-@ one episode " Regrets " . The light bulb was featured in an episode of 99 % Invisible .
= Forbidden Zone =
Forbidden Zone is a 1980 American musical fantasy comedy film directed and produced by Richard Elfman . Co @-@ written by Elfman and fellow Mystic Knights member Matthew Bright , the film is based upon the stage performances of the Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo . Originally shot on black @-@ and @-@ white film , the story involves an alternate universe accessed through a door in the house of the Hercules family .
The composing debut of Richard Elfman 's brother Danny , the film stars Hervé Villechaize , Susan Tyrrell , and members of the Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo , and features appearances by Warhol Superstar Viva , Joe Spinell , and The Kipper Kids . Villechaize kicked his cheque back into the production and even painted sets on weekends . The only actual paid actor was Phil Gordon , who played Flash ; all the other SAG actors kicked their cheques back into the show .
The film was made as an attempt to capture the essence of The Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo 's live performances on film , and also as a means for both Richard Elfman to retire from music to work on film projects , and to serve as a transition between Oingo Boingo 's former cabaret style and a new wave @-@ based style . Amid negative reactions to content in the film that had been perceived as being offensive , the film was screened as a midnight movie , received positive notice , and developed a cult following . In 2004 , the film was digitally restored and released on DVD , and in 2008 , the film was colorized .
Richard Elfman is currently working on a sequel that is in pre @-@ production . He has also licensed Forbidden Zone as an intellectual property for manufacturers to produce collectibles based on the film 's characters .
= = Plot = =
The film begins on " Friday , April 17 " at 4 pm in Venice , California . Huckleberry P. Jones , local pimp , narcotics peddler and slumlord , enters a vacant house that he owns . While stashing heroin in the basement , he stumbles upon a mysterious door and enters it , falling into the Sixth Dimension , from which he promptly escapes . After retrieving the heroin , he sells the house to the Hercules family . On their way to school , Frenchy Hercules and her brother Flash have a conversation with Squeezit Henderson , who tells them that , while being violently beaten by his mother , he had a vision of his transgender sister René , who had fallen into the Sixth Dimension through the door in the Hercules ' basement .
Frenchy returns home to confide in her mother , and decides to take just a " little peek " behind the forbidden door in the basement . After arriving in the Sixth Dimension , she is captured by the perpetually topless Princess , who brings Frenchy to the rulers of the Sixth Dimension , the midget King Fausto and his queen , Doris . When the king falls for Frenchy , Doris orders their frog servant , Bust Rod , to lock her up . In order to make sure that Frenchy is not harmed , Fausto tells Bust Rod to take Frenchy to Cell 63 , where the king keeps his favorite concubines ( as well as René ) .
The next day at school , Flash tries to convince Squeezit to help him rescue René and Frenchy . When Squeezit refuses , Flash enlists the help of Gramps instead . In the Sixth Dimension , they speak to an old Jewish man who tells them how to help Frenchy escape , but they soon are captured by Bust Rod . Doris interrogates Flash and Gramps and then lowers them into a large septic tank . She then plots her revenge against Frenchy , relocating all the denizens of Cell 63 to a torture chamber . She leaves the Princess to oversee Frenchy 's torture and execution , but when a fuse is blown , the torture is put on hold and the prisoners from Cell 63 are relocated to keep the King from finding them .
After escaping the septic tank , Flash and Gramps come across a woman who tells them that she was once happily married to the king , until Doris stole the throne by seducing her , " even though she 's not my type " . The ex @-@ queen has been sitting in her cell for 1 @,@ 000 years , and has been writing a screenplay in order to keep her sanity . Meanwhile , Pa Hercules is blasted through the stratosphere by an explosion caused by improperly extinguishing his cigarette in a vat of highly flammable tar during his work break at the La Brea Tar Pit Factory . After re @-@ entry , Pa falls through the Hercules family basement and into the Sixth Dimension , where he is imprisoned .
Finding a phone , Flash calls Squeezit and again asks for his help . Finally , Squeezit agrees to go into the Sixth Dimension to help rescue Frenchy and René . There , he is captured by Satan , with whom he makes a deal to bring him the Princess in exchange for Satan 's help freeing René and Frenchy . Squeezit accomplishes this task , but has failed to include himself in the deal to rescue his friends , and the devil has him decapitated . Queen Doris sends Bust Rod to keep an eye on the king , and to ensure he doesn 't find out where she 's hidden Frenchy .
Fausto catches Bust Rod and forces him to lead him to Frenchy and René , whom he orders to leave the Sixth Dimension to avoid the Queen 's wrath . However , en route to safety , René is stricken with pseudo @-@ menstrual cramps , and they are again captured by the frog . Squeezit 's head , which has now sprouted chicken wings , finds the king and informs him of what has happened .
While preparing to kill Frenchy , Doris is confronted by the ex @-@ queen , and the two engage in a cat @-@ fight , with Doris eventually coming out as the victor . Just as she is about to kill Frenchy , Fausto stops her , explaining that Satan 's Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo are holding the Princess hostage , and will kill her should anything befall Frenchy . Flash and Gramps arrive , and Flash is knocked down by Gramps . Ma Hercules enters and , seeing a seemingly dead Flash , shoots Doris . Fausto mourns Doris , then marries Frenchy .
The surviving characters look toward a great future as they plan to take over everyone and everything in the Galaxy .
= = Cast = =
Hervé Villechaize as King Fausto of the Sixth Dimension
Susan Tyrrell as Queen Doris of the Sixth Dimension / Ruth Henderson
Gisele Lindley as The Princess
Jan Stuart Schwartz as Bust Rod
Marie @-@ Pascale Elfman as Susan B. " Frenchy " Hercules
Virginia Rose as Ma Hercules
Ugh @-@ Fudge Bwana as Huckleberry P. Jones / Pa Hercules
Phil Gordon as Flash Hercules
Hyman Diamond as Gramps Hercules
Toshiro Boloney as Squeezit Henderson / René Henderson
Danny Elfman as Satan
Viva as The Ex @-@ Queen
Joe Spinell as Squeezit 's Father
The Kipper Kids as Themselves
Kedric Wolfe as Miss Feldman / Human Chandelier
Herman Bernstein as Mr. Bernstein , the Old Yiddish Man
= = Musical numbers = =
" Forbidden Zone " - Danny Elfman and The Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo
" Some of These Days " - Pa Hercules , Frenchy , and Ma Hercules
" Beautiful Dreamer " ( Excerpt ) - Ma Hercules
" Witch 's Egg " - Queen Doris
" Bim Bam Boom "
" Pleure " - Frenchy
" Alphabet Song " - Miss Feldman , Flash , Squeezit , and Chorus
" Queen 's Revenge " - Queen Doris , Frenchy , The Princess , René , and Chorus
" Pico and Sepulveda " - Pa Hercules and Chorus
" Squeezit the Moocher " - Squeezit , The Princess , Satan , and The Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo
" Yiddishe Charleston " - Mr. Bernstein and Queen Doris
" Finale " - Frenchy , King Fausto , Queen Doris , The Ex @-@ Queen , The Kipper Kids , The Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo , Flash , Gramps , René , Squeezit , Huckleberry , and Company
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo were formed in late 1972 by Richard Elfman , as a musical theatre troupe . As Richard 's interest shifted to filmmaking , he passed leadership of the band to younger brother Danny Elfman , who had begun to lose interest in musical theatre , and had gained interest in other musical styles such as ska , and had become " sick of lugging around so much stuff with the theatre troupe . Towards the end " , Elfman remembers , " it was a big production ... there was , like a semi full of stuff . And that was becoming burdensome . So , for me , the idea of being a band that can fit all their gear into a van and set up in a club , and an hour later be playing , became a goal . "
Production began during a transitional period when the group was moving from its cabaret style towards a more pop / rock format ; by the time the film was completed , the band had shortened its name to Oingo Boingo .
The film was originally conceived as The Hercules Family , a 16mm musical that consisted of twelve musical numbers and a story loosely constructed around them . But as the project grew to 35mm and the storyline evolved , Richard Elfman found himself re @-@ shooting many of the original scenes to fit the new film . Two sequences from the original 16mm footage were featured on the 2004 DVD release : one of Danny Elfman , as Satan , performing " Minnie the Moocher " ( later reshot with visual elements borrowed from the original 16mm sequence and alternate lyrics ) , and another of Marie @-@ Pascale Elfman , singing " Johnny " . The sequence with Elfman as Satan , and members of the Oingo Boingo as his minions , came from live shows , in which the band would perform Cab Calloway tunes like " St. James Infirmary Blues " in the same costumes .
Marie @-@ Pascale Elfman , at the time of shooting , was married to director Richard Elfman . She designed the film 's expressionistic sets and starred in the film . Actor and former Mystic Knight Gene Cunningham helped fund the film . When Cunningham and Elfman ran out of money during production , Richard and Marie @-@ Pascale Elfman helped finance by selling houses , before Carl Borack put money into the production in order for Elfman to complete the film . According to Elfman , he had originally intended the film to be screened in color , stating that the original plan was to ship the film to China , where each frame would be hand @-@ tinted , but that this plan was not practical within the production costs .
= = = Casting = = =
Actor Hervé Villechaize was a former roommate of co @-@ writer and co @-@ star Matthew Bright , Villechaize had previously dated co @-@ star Susan Tyrrell , but the two had already broken up by the time production on the film began . According to Richard Elfman , Tyrrell and Villechaize fought periodically throughout the production . The Elfmans ' grandfather , Herman Bernstein , also appeared in the film , and Richard Elfman 's accountant appeared under the name " Hyman Diamond " because Elfman had no idea whether or not he wanted to be credited . Others who worked on the film include The Kipper Kids ( Brian Routh and Martin von Haselberg ) , Joe Spinell , and former Warhol superstar Viva .
= = = Writing = = =
Forbidden Zone featured Bright 's first work on film , and his only work as an actor ( under the name " Toshiro Baloney " ) . A founding member of the Mystic Knights , Bright later became a screenwriter and director in his own right . Bright 's credits include Freeway , Ted Bundy , and Tiptoes . Bright and director Richard Elfman 's only dispute during the screenwriting process was over a scene in which his character , Squeezit , was originally to have been beaten up for eight minutes and having the walls wiped with his blood . Another scene cut from the script would have had Squeezit being castrated . According to Bright , " I didn 't have any sense of limits or balance then , at the time , I ... you know , I was just , didn 't know what I was doing . I needed reining in . " During filming , Bright was sitting on the set in costume when a lighting stand fell onto his head , cracking his skull , and he had to be rushed to the hospital . When Bright returned to work the next day , he had a mild concussion and whiplash , but he continued with filming .
= = = Directing = = =
Richard Elfman had never gone to film school when production started , and " I didn 't know what I was getting into . " The production , from its original 16mm roots to its finish , took three years . Cast and crew members would sleep on the film 's stage , wearing spare gorilla suits to stay warm . Among the film 's artistic influences included 1940s big band and jazz music and Max Fleischer cartoons of the 1930s ( such as Betty Boop ) . Some of the film 's cast was made up of non @-@ professionals cast off the street . In one scene , Richard Elfman brought in a young man to mouth the words of " Bim Bam Boom " , but when he was put in front of the camera , he stood there as the scene was shot . Elfman left the scene in the film by editing in Bright 's lips over the actor 's face . Another scene featured homeless men .
= = = Animation = = =
The film 's animation was created by then @-@ unknown animator John Muto . Because of the film 's low budget , Muto created all of the film 's animation sequences himself . Muto made frequent use of airbrush techniques to establish for himself a distinctive style . For sequences in which live @-@ action and animation were combined , the actors were photographed in tight head @-@ on and profile shots , and the photos were cut out and pasted into the animation in a style recalling Terry Gilliam 's work on Monty Python 's Flying Circus . Muto also credits The Fleischer Brothers as another inspiration .
= = = Music = = =
Forbidden Zone was the first film scored by Danny Elfman , who would eventually score , among other films , Batman , The Nightmare Before Christmas , and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory . The song Witch 's Egg was written by Georg Michalski and Tyrrell . In some scenes , characters lip synch to old records , including recordings by Cab Calloway , Josephine Baker , and others .
The alphabet song performed in a classroom scene was inspired by the " Swinging the Alphabet " song from The Three Stooges short Violent Is the Word for Curly .
For the " Yiddishe Charleston " scene , Richard Elfman had shot the sequence with him lip @-@ syncing to an old recording of the song , but was later unable to acquire the rights to the recording , and had to record a new version of the song while attempting to sync the new recording with the footage .
= = Release = =
Forbidden Zone was given limited distribution during its initial theatrical release , and not well received by critics . Some of the film 's sequences and characters led to director Richard Elfman being accused of racism ( because of its satirically surreal use of blackface ) , and even anti @-@ Semitism . According to Elfman , " I was attacked on every level . [ ... ] We were kicked out of theaters ; there were arson threats . " However , the film has since been rediscovered , and has gained new life as a cult film .
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , the film has an 88 % score based on 8 reviews , with an average rating of 7 @.@ 1 / 10 .
The film 's soundtrack has also become popular , and its theme song was eventually reused by Danny Elfman , who rearranged it as The Dilbert Zone for use as the theme for the television series Dilbert .
= = Home media = =
The film was released on VHS in the late 1980s and on DVD by Fantoma in 2004 for Region 1 viewers , and in 2006 for Region 2 by Arrow Film Distributors Ltd. with a region @-@ free Blu @-@ ray release by Arrow in 2012
In 2008 , the film was colorized by Legend Films . This version of the film is being sold as a download and on DVD from RiffTrax .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Sequel = = =
In June 2009 , it was revealed that a sequel was in pre @-@ production .
= = = Stage show = = =
In 2010 , Forbidden Zone was performed as a live stage show with the support of Richard Elfman . It is a production of the Sacred Fools Theater Company , and premiered there in Los Angeles on Friday , May 21 , 2010 .
= = = Mixed media = = =
Richard Elfman entered into a licensing deal with the creative resource company , PANGEA , to provide licensees with the opportunity to create merchandise based on the cult film . According to articles that appeared in the media on May 3 , 2016 , the arrangement calls for content to be created that will include a Storyboard Book of the original film , featuring commentary and anecdotal notes from director . Shot glasses and sculpted pieces were among the list of immediate items that would be released . A fantasy novella series was also noted as being under development .
Rocky Horror " shadow cast " companies have begun performing screenings of the film . Elfman sometimes participates in these live performances . He enters in a clown suit and beats a big bass drum that is accompanied by a Brazilian percussion ensemble — reminiscent of his former group , the Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo .
The Syfy Channel has run a teaser piece musical number , " Princess Polly " from Forbidden Zone 2 : The Forbidden Galaxy on its show Monster Man , starring Cleve Hall . Elfman opens the Forbidden Zone shadow cast shows ( after the march in ) with Erin Holt singing Princess Polly live in front of her screened “ monster ” image on stage .
= One Son =
" One Son " is the twelfth episode from the sixth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It first aired on February 14 , 1999 , on the Fox network . The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz , and directed by Rob Bowman . It explores the series ' overarching mythology and concludes the Syndicate story arc .
The series centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , who work on " X @-@ Files " — cases deemed " unsolvable " by the FBI , usually dealing with the paranormal . Although Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , and the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work , the two have developed a deep friendship . While Cassandra Spender ( Veronica Cartwright ) reveals the truth about the alien conspiracy to take over the Earth to Mulder , her ex @-@ husband , the Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) , does the same to her son , Jeffrey Spender ( Chris Owens ) , in an effort to convince him to work with the Syndicate . Even as Mulder is deceived by Diana Fowley ( Mimi Rogers ) , Scully stays true to the investigation , and the two find Spender to be a surprise ally . Meanwhile , the Syndicate reaches the climax of its plans , only to have its members systematically exterminated by the faceless alien rebels , who oppose colonization .
" One Son , " a direct continuation of the previous episode " Two Fathers , " was written , along with its predecessor , to eliminate the Syndicate and relaunch the series ' mythology in a different direction . Both the opening of the episode and the climactic scene featuring the demise of the Syndicate were filmed at the Marine Corps Air Station Tustin in Tustin , California . Spotnitz was particularly critical of some of the visual effects used in the episode , expressing a desire to one day revisit and redo them . The episode has also been analyzed for its thematic examination of family . " One Son " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 1 , and its first broadcast was watched by 16 @.@ 57 million people . The episode was well received by critics , who applauded the way the Syndicate 's story arc was wrapped up , although others felt the resolution was too simplistic .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
For the first five seasons of the series , FBI federal agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) have unravelled a conspiracy that involves the mysterious Syndicate , and their plans to aid in the alien colonization of Earth . The fifth season episodes " Patient X " and " The Red and the Black " reveal that , counter to the colonization effort , there is a faction of alien rebels opposed to colonization . In the previous episode , " Two Fathers " , one of the rebels tried to infiltrate the Syndicate and form an alliance , only to be killed . Meanwhile , Mulder learned that The Smoking Man 's ( William B. Davis ) ex @-@ wife Cassandra Spender ( Veronica Cartwright ) had successfully become an alien @-@ human hybrid — a signal to the aliens for them to begin colonizing the planet .
= = = Events = = =
Cassandra demands to be killed by Mulder but , before he can do anything , the group is quarantined by Diana Fowley ( Mimi Rogers ) . Mulder , Cassandra , and Scully are taken to a Centers for Disease Control ( CDC ) facility at Fort Marlene , where Fowley tells the agents Cassandra is carrying a contagious organism . Meanwhile , Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) reports on Cassandra 's escape to the Syndicate , noting that the alien rebels want Cassandra kept alive . However , the Syndicate decides to turn Cassandra over to the colonists and save themselves by commencing colonization .
At Fort Marlene , Mulder runs into the sickly looking Marita Covarrubias ( Laurie Holden ) , who tells Mulder that she was subjected to experiments by the Syndicate to create a black oil vaccine and that the colonists will begin colonization if they learn of Cassandra 's existence as an alien @-@ human hybrid . Scully , with help from the Lone Gunmen , looks into Fowley 's personal history and informs Mulder that Fowley has been collecting data on alien abductees and traveling to Tunisia every week , although there is no trace of her activities in FBI records . Although Mulder still trusts Fowley , he goes to her apartment to confront her .
Inside the apartment , Mulder 's search for clues is interrupted by the arrival of The Smoking Man , who tells Mulder that he has been betrayed by Jeffrey Spender ( Chris Owens ) , who is actually his son . The Smoking Man tells Mulder that , many years ago , the Syndicate agreed by majority vote , against Bill Mulder 's objections , to align with the alien colonists to be spared during colonization . The Syndicate was forced to give up family members to the colonists as collateral so that an alien fetus could be given to the Syndicate in order for them access alien DNA . Since Bill Mulder was slow to agree , Samantha Mulder was not taken until after the others . Using the fetus , the Syndicate worked on creating alien @-@ human hybrids who could survive colonization . The Smoking Man tells Mulder that colonization will begin once Cassandra is handed over and that Mulder will be able to see his sister again , providing him with an address to the hangar where the Syndicate members will be meeting the colonists .
Spender goes to the Syndicate 's headquarters , only to find Krycek , who tells him that the group 's members — with the exception of The Smoking Man , who has gone to retrieve Cassandra — are preparing to present the alien fetus to the aliens . Fowley returns to her apartment , where she finds Mulder . Fowley head to the hangar at El Rico Air Force Base , whereas Scully contacts Mulder and the two try and fail to stop the train car transporting Cassandra to El Rico . Spender arrives at Fort Marlene , where he runs into Covarrubias ; she tells him to go to El Rico Air Force Base to find his mother .
A Syndicate surgeon attempting to procure the alien fetus is killed by one of the alien rebels , who assumes his form . Krycek finds the dead surgeon and the fetus missing , and tells Spender that the rebels are now going to succeed in their goals to halt colonization . The Syndicate and its families gather at El Rico Air Force Base . Shortly after Fowley arrives , a white light appears around one end of the hangar . It is revealed to be the rebels , who surround and immolate the entire Syndicate — except for The Smoking Man and Fowley — who escape by car .
The next day , Mulder , Scully , Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) and Spender report to Assistant Director Alvin Kersh ( James Pickens , Jr . ) on the deaths of the Syndicate and Cassandra . Spender tells Kersh that Mulder and Scully could have prevented their demise , and recommends that they be reassigned to the X @-@ Files before abruptly leaving the room . Heading to the X @-@ Files office in the basement , Spender finds The Smoking Man , who first berates Spender for not being like Mulder and then shoots him in the head .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
" One Son " concluded the story that had begun in the preceding episode , " Two Fathers " , and wrapped up a large portion of the series ' mythology which had been centered around the Syndicate . The producers decided to pursue this route because the Syndicate 's story arc was creating a " narrative drag " on the series , and that many questions from the past five seasons were still unanswered . Another reason behind the resolution of the Syndicate arc was that series creator and episode co @-@ writer Chris Carter thought the series was going to be canceled by the spring of 2000 . Ultimately , " One Son " was written to resolve the show 's many arcs in preparation for a series finale . While promoting the episode , Carter said it would provide many long @-@ awaited answers , but create new questions for future episodes . The writing staff was also looking for ways to create a new story lines for the series , such as the " Super Soldiers " arc , which was created for the eighth and ninth seasons .
Carter also sought to rectify small issues that fans had with the 1998 feature film , The X @-@ Files , explaining , " I think if there was any trouble with the movie , it was that we promised so much that we didn 't deliver all of it . I think we wanted to deliver a lot , and all at once , in these two episodes " . Episode co @-@ writer Frank Spotnitz agreed , saying that when The X @-@ Files film was being promoted with the tagline " The Truth is Revealed , " he realized that the answers presented in the movie would not be the answers that many of the fans were wanting to hear . Spotnitz also felt that writing " One Son " was difficult because the episodes that gave answers seemed to be less entertaining for viewers than episodes that presented new questions . Spotnitz , however , acknowledged that this episode was necessary to help explain the complex mythology of the show ; he called the episode the " biggest chapter we had time to explore in the nine years we were on the air " .
Part of the problem with creating " mytharc " for the writers was due to the fact that , because there were so few mythology episodes each season , they were often forced to put as much material as they could into each episode . Originally , a large portion of the episode was supposed to reveal the history of the Syndicate via flashback . Reportedly , these scenes would have featured younger versions of Bill Mulder ( played by Peter Donat ) , The Smoking Man , Dr. Openshaw , the Elders , and many others . However , this never panned out , and Carter and Spotnitz had to reframe the episode around narration courtesy of the Smoking Man , which was filmed and edited under extreme pressure near the end of production . While the previous episode , " Two Fathers " , was titled after the duality of Bill Mulder and The Smoking Man , this episode was titled " One Son " to reflect the fact that Mulder was the only remaining son of either of these fathers , after the shooting of Jeffrey Spender and the rejection of Alex Krycek .
Several of the plot elements are self @-@ referential to other episodes of the series . Fort Marlene 's presence is a reference to the first season finale " The Erlenmeyer Flask , " when the alien fetus was first introduced ; the term " purity control " is also a reference to this episode . The references to MUFON were purposely placed in the episode to connect to the story @-@ arc involving Scully 's cancer , which had been discovered during the show 's fourth season . The episode also references and mirrors elements of popular culture . Fowley 's apartment was purposely located in the Watergate complex , a hotel notorious as the location of the 1970s Watergate scandal . The scenes featuring Mulder and Scully being decontaminated were based on a similar scene in the 1962 James Bond film Dr. No , according to Spotnitz . He felt that the scene successfully played upon the sexual tension between the two lead characters .
= = = Casting and filming = = =
" One Son " would be the last episode of the series to feature Owens ' character , Jeffrey Spender , until the ninth season entry " William " . Owens first learned that he would be killed off when Carter called him and told him , " You 're going to go out a hero , of sorts " . Owens was slightly disappointed , noting that he had just been introduced in the series during the conclusion of the previous season . Davis was upset that Owens was leaving the series , and reportedly told Owens during their last scene together , " I don 't want to shoot you ! I enjoy working with you ! " Owens , however , jokingly noted that Davis had no problems slapping him when the script called for it . In the episode , Laurie Holden , who played Marita Covarrubias , returns . Spotnitz crafted the sequence in which she confronts Mulder to be a way of " taking away [ her ] beauty and making her [ look ] as horrifying as possible " . To accomplish this , she was given " terrible @-@ looking " contact lenses and her hair was unkempt .
While the first five seasons of the series were mainly filmed in Vancouver , British Columbia , production of the show 's sixth season was based in Los Angeles , California . The scenes taking place in the hangar were filmed at the Marine Corps Air Station Tustin in Tustin , California . The hangar , constructed in 1942 as an airship base , is one of the largest all @-@ wooden hangars in the United States . Bill Roe , director of photography , and Rob Bowman were tasked with lighting the entire structure for the episode 's teaser and climax , a job that Spotnitz later called " amazing " . He noted that , after the series ' move to Los Angeles , production costs had risen , forcing the show to cut down on its " astonishing production values " . However , he applauded the use of the hangar , noting that it " was a way to try and create that cinematic scale and still keep [ the show ] affordable " . The episode also revisits trains as a setting , something that had previously been done in the third season episodes " 731 " and " Nisei " . However , for budgetary reasons , the scenes taking place on the trains did not take up much screen time . To give the effect that the train carrying Cassandra Spender is moving at a high speed , Manners utilized " sound effects , music , clever camera angles and quick cutting " . In reality , the train was never moving faster than eight miles an hour .
All of the sets in the episode were created by Corey Kaplan . Roe , meanwhile , was in charge of the cinematography . Spotnitz complimented Rob Bowman 's direction in this episode . However , he had a problem with the scene in which one of the Syndicate members changes into an alien rebel , reasoning that this was because the effect had been created on such short notice . He explained , " It was one of those cases where you just run out of time , sorry to say " . He later expressed a desire to one day go back and amend the effect .
The production staff originally wanted to show the alien rebels incinerating the Syndicate on screen . However , because they were filming in an all @-@ wooden hangar , the use of fire was not at all considered . The episode required extensive demands from makeup department head Cheri Montesanto @-@ Medcalf . She was required to create the illusion of the head surgeon 's head being frozen in liquid nitrogen , as well as to " de @-@ age " members of the Syndicate for the flashback sequences . To create the former , Montesanta @-@ Medcalf painted the actor 's face blue , then attached silicon icicles to his head .
= = Themes = =
The episode makes heavy use of the theme of family , which is notably reflected in its title . Meghan Deans of Tor.com highlighted the fact that the Syndicate hands over their family and loved ones to save the world as evidence of this permeating theme . She also highlighted the duality of fathers and sons . The Smoking Man is both a father to Mulder and Spender , but he favors Mulder . At the same time , both Spender and Krycek vie for the position of " son , " with the former falling from The Smoking Man 's grace , and the latter playing the role of " prodigal son " . However , both Spender and Krycek fail , leaving Mulder as the titular " one son " . Neal Justin of the Star Tribune also noted this theme , commenting that " it is interesting to note that the core of the story appears to be the relationship between parents and their children " . He compared the episode 's thematic mechanism to the same concern of the Star Wars films .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings and accolades = = =
" One Son " originally aired in the United States on the Fox network on February 14 , 1999 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on Sky1 on May 23 , 1999 . In the U.S. , the episode was watched by 16 @.@ 57 million viewers . It earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 1 , with a 16 share . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the U.S. This means that roughly 10 @.@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were watching the episode . In the U.K. , " One Son " was seen by 860 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the fourth most @-@ watched episode that week , behind ER , The Simpsons , and Friends . Dean Haglund 's name is misspelled as Dean Haglung in the opening credits .
Cartwright was nominated for an Emmy for " Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series " for her role in both this episode and " Two Fathers " . " One Son " was also nominated for " Outstanding Art Direction – Series " , and " One Son " and " Two Fathers " were co @-@ nominated for " Outstanding Makeup – Series " . The series won an Emmy for the latter . On November 5 , 2002 , the episode was released on DVD as part of the complete sixth season . The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization , a DVD collection that features episodes involved with the alien colonists ' plans to take over the Earth .
= = = Reviews = = =
Because the episode was promoted with the promise of answering questions , it caused increased media speculation . With the conclusion of " One Son " , many critics applauded the way the series was able to wrap up the Syndicate arc . A.M. Jamison of the Dayton Daily News wrote that " ' One Son ' ends dramatically , drawing to a close one quest and opening a new set of challenges not only for Mulder but the Earth as well " . Noel Holston and Justin of the Star Tribune awarded the episode four stars out of five , noting that it answered even more questions than " Two Fathers " . They also applauded the familial bonds that held the episode together . However , some critics felt that the answers were slightly rushed . Manuel Mendoza of The Dallas Morning News wrote that " Mr. Carter and his co @-@ writer Frank Spotnitz have a wonderfully indirect way of setting up dramatic situations and an unbelievably shorthand way of resolving them " .
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two enjoyed Davis ' performance , noting that he gave the role " real power " , and that he was " the emotional centre of the episode " . Shearman and Pearson were critical of the amount of attention Fowley 's allegiance received . However , they felt that the episode " reaches for both significance and closure , and mostly works " . Deans wrote that " One Son , " along with " Two Fathers , " is elevated above a " mytharc infodump " because of " its use of family , a theme woven deep and clear throughout " . She largely applauded the episode 's exploration of the various characters , and its central motif , noting that " the conspiracy [ the Syndicate ] is no longer the threat now . It 's the rebels and the colonists , fearful and unknown . Just like family " . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files wrote positively of the episode , saying " The ' Two Fathers ' / ' One Son ' was extremely powerful stuff . Tightly written , beautifully filmed and filled with more affirmations than revelations , but fascination looks at the characters in the drama " .
Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B " rating . He felt that the episode worked extremely well on a visual and character @-@ based level . Handlen felt that , because the show was " often scariest when it ’ s implying , rather than flat out stating , " its " mythology only really works as something just out of sight " . For this reason , he felt that the episode mixed " the compelling with the absurd " with " mixed results " . Handlen concluded that the episode " has its moment , " but is ultimately hurt by the fact that it refuses " to come to any serious conclusions , " as well as " the inherent limitations of the [ episode 's ] form " . Not all reviews were glowing . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . Vitaris criticized the death scene of the Syndicate , noting that it was " clumsily contrived , allowing [ The Smoking Man ] and Fowley to escape , but not because it makes sense , but because the show needs them to return at some point " .
Since its airing , " One Son " has been called one of the best episodes of The X @-@ Files . Joyce Millman from Salon magazine said the episode , along with " Two Fathers , " was one " of the most coherent , [ ... ] almost unbearably tense , hours in the series ' run " . She said that the episode gave some long @-@ waited answers , but created new questions , such as what has really happened to Samantha Mulder . Michigan Daily reviewer Melissa Runstrom said that " One Son , " along with " Two Fathers " and season finale " Biogenesis , " were the highlights of the sixth season . Earl Cressey from DVD Talk also named " One Son , " along with " Two Fathers , " as one of the " highlights of season six " .
= Skanderbeg 's Italian expedition =
Skanderbeg 's Italian expedition ( 1460 – 1462 ) was undertaken to aid his ally Ferdinand I of Naples , whose rulership was threatened by the Angevin Dynasty . George Kastrioti Skanderbeg was the ruler of Albania ( Latin : dominus Albaniae ) who had been leading a rebellion against the Ottoman Empire since 1443 and allied himself with several Western European monarchs in order to consolidate his domains . In 1458 , Alfonso V of Aragon , ruler of Sicily and Naples and Skanderbeg 's most important ally , died , leaving his illegitimate son , Ferdinand , on the Neapolitan throne ; René d 'Anjou , the French Duke of Anjou , laid claim to the throne . The conflict between René 's and Ferdinand 's supporters soon erupted into a civil war . Pope Calixtus III , of Spanish background himself , could do little to secure Ferdinand , so he turned to Skanderbeg for aid .
In 1457 , Skanderbeg had achieved his most famous victory over the Ottoman Empire at Albulena ( Ujëbardha ) , which was received with great enthusiasm throughout Italy . In order to repay Alfonso for the financial and military assistance given to him years before , Skanderbeg took up the pope 's pleas to help out Alfonso 's son by sending a military expedition to Italy . Before leaving , Skanderbeg tried to negotiate a ceasefire with Sultan Mehmed II , the conqueror of Constantinople , to ensure his domain 's safety . Mehmed had not declared a truce and he was still sending his armies against Bosnia and the Morea . It was not until 1459 , after Mehmed 's conquest of Serbia , that Mehmed not only declared a truce , but also a three @-@ year ceasefire with Skanderbeg . This gave Skanderbeg his opportunity to send his men to Italy .
Due to fears of an approaching Ottoman army , Skanderbeg first sent his nephew , Constantine , with 500 cavalry to Barletta . They were incorporated into Ferdinand 's forces to combat his Angevin rivals . They held back their enemy for a year , but did not gain much ground until Skanderbeg arrived in September 1461 . Before reaching Italy , Skanderbeg visited Ragusa ( Dubrovnik ) to convince its rectors to help fund his campaign . Meanwhile , his men landed in Italy and Angevin forces lifted their siege on Barletta . Upon arriving , Skanderbeg continued to pursue his ally 's enemies with great success . Ferdinand 's adversaries thus began to retreat from his territories and Skanderbeg went back to Albania ; a troop of his men stayed until Ferdinand managed to finally defeat the pretenders to his throne at the Battle of Orsara , although it is not known if Skanderbeg 's men participated .
= = Background = =
In 1456 , Skanderbeg 's ally , Janos Hunyadi , died , and his son , Mathias Corvinus , was crowned King of Hungary . Hunyadi had been an advocate for an offensive war against the Ottoman Empire , whereas the Hungarian nobility and his son promoted a defensive war . The next year , however , George Kastrioti Skanderbeg defeated a sizable Ottoman force at the Battle of Albulena ( Ujëbardha ) . Rome had been desperately waiting for such a victory after the Siege of Belgrade , as Pope Calixtus III had wanted to assure himself of the feasibility of a crusade before declaring one . Calixtus thus named Skanderbeg the Captain @-@ General of the Curia ; to secure the pope 's interests , Skanderbeg sent twelve Turkish prisoners of war that had been captured at Albulena to Rome . Despite seeing his forces defeated the year before , Sultan Mehmed II prepared another force to be sent into Albania . The country had been obstructing his ambitions for empire in the West and he grew restless to defeat Skanderbeg . Skanderbeg sent delegations to several Western European states to convince them to stop fighting each other and unite for Calixtus ' crusade .
= = = Italian situation = = =
On 27 September 1458 , Alfonso V of Aragon , Skanderbeg 's most important and helpful ally after the stipulation of the Treaty of Gaeta , died . In 1448 , as gesture of friendship with Alfonso , Skanderbeg sent a detachment of Albanian troops commanded by General Demetrios Reres to Crotone to quell a rebellion against Alfonso . The next year , many of these men were allowed to settle four villages in Sicily which Alfonso controlled . Upon hearing of his ally 's death , Skanderbeg sent emissaries to the new King of Naples , Ferdinand I , to give condolence for his father 's death , but also to congratulate him on his accession to the throne of Naples . The succession was not without turbulence , however : René d 'Anjou laid claim to the throne since his family had controlled Naples before Aragon had taken control of it , and also because Ferdinand was Alfonso 's illegitimate son . The Southern Italian nobility , many of Angevin background , supported René d 'Anjou over the Aragonese Ferdinand . Among them was Giovanni Antonio del Balzo Orsini , the Prince of Taranto , and Jacopo Piccinino , a famed condottieri who had been invited by the Angevins . Francisco Sforza , the Duke of Milan , who was wary of a French presence in Italy , sided with Ferdinand and sent his nephew , Alessandro Sforza , to command his army in southern Italy . Pope Calixtus , a Spaniard who wished to see his compatriot in control of Naples , was in no position to help the weak Ferdinand , so he turned to Skanderbeg for help . However , by that time , Piccinino and his men had conquered all of southern Italy except Naples , Capua , Aversa , Gaeta , Troia , and Barletta , where Ferdinand was besieged .
Skanderbeg had received much aid from Ferdinand 's father , Alfonso , and was still a vassal of the Crown of Aragon , so he felt the need to repay the Crown . He accepted the pope 's pleas to go to Italy and aid Ferdinand . Skanderbeg 's stated reasoning was twofold : he wanted to remain loyal to his ally and he wanted to prevent an Angevin takeover of Naples since they had maintained friendly relations with the Turks . Skanderbeg also feared that if the Angevins took Naples , they would turn to Albania where they had previously maintained a kingdom . On the other hand , before undertaking any action against the Angevins , he took measures to soften relations with Venice . Seeing that Southern Italy was locked in conflict , Venice no longer feared an Aragonese @-@ Albanian alliance and the Senate decided to take a friendlier approach in Albanian @-@ Venetian relations . Meanwhile , Pope Calixtus III had died and was succeeded by Pope Pius II . Sensing that war would soon begin , Pius tried to convince Giovanni Orsini , Ferdinand 's main rival , to settle his differences with the King . The French King , Louis XI , took up the Angevin stance and , in the hopes of convincing Pius to allow the French takeover of Naples , proposed the repeal of the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges which undermined the pope 's power and he even declared that he would be willing to lend 70 @,@ 000 men for the planned papal crusade . Pius , however , was wary of insincerity and disregarded these proposals . A further effort to deter Skanderbeg 's landing was made by Sigismondo Malatesta , the Lord of Rimini and Italy 's most feared petty tyrant , who had tried to invite Mehmed to Italy with a detailed map of the Adriatic if Ferdinand sent for the Albanian . The manuscript , however , never reached the sultan and fell into Pius ' hands .
= = = Albanian situation = = =
Constant news of Ottoman campaigns against Bosnia and Morea but not against Albania seemed to suggest to Skanderbeg that Mehmed II had been considering an armistice with Skanderbeg . The latter took advantage of this lull in the fighting by preparing for his voyage to Italy and by securing his northern frontiers from a possible attack by Skanderbeg 's elusive ally in northern Albania , Lekë Dukagjini , who had been trying to expand his realm by reaching an agreement with the Turks . In order to curb his ambitions , Skanderbeg seized Shat Fortress and presented it as a gift to Venice . Skanderbeg then established an alliance with Venice against Dukagjini , while Dukagjni was strengthening his Turkish alliance . The new pope issued a bull against Dukagjini , giving him fifteen days to break his alliance with the Ottomans and to reconcile with Skanderbeg , or be subject to interdiction ; Dukagjini conceded and chose the former option . He then reestablished his alliance with Skanderbeg and Venice and accepted all of its losses .
Pius II continued to support Skanderbeg , but did not provide him as much financial aid as Calixtus had since he believed that Skanderbeg 's military skill and his soldiers ' aptitude for battle were enough to hold back the Turkish armies . However , the pope still considered Skanderbeg 's assistance essential for his plans for an anti @-@ Ottoman crusade . In 1459 , after Mehmed II completed his conquest of Serbia , Ottoman envoys appealed for a three @-@ year armistice between Skanderbeg 's Albania and the Ottoman Empire . The sultan 's purpose was to distance Skanderbeg from the pope 's crusade as he believed the crusade 's only hope for success was Skanderbeg . In order to give Albania a break from fifteen years of continuous Ottoman invasion , Skanderbeg considered accepting the proposal but he had to get the pope 's approval . Pius did not allow such an agreement and began to doubt Skanderbeg 's loyalty . As the Ottomans were operating in the Western Balkans , Pius feared that the Ottoman soldiers would break the truce and pour into Albania . In order to regain the pope 's trust , Skanderbeg did not agree to the peace . Skanderbeg , nevertheless , was disappointed by Rome 's response and he responded by not participating in the Council of Mantua which was held to plan the future crusade . The Council ended in failure , signifying that Skanderbeg would receive no help from the West . He thus sent ambassadors to the pope saying that he would only be willing to land in Italy if a ceasefire with the Turks were arranged , something which Rome soon allowed .
Before sending his men to Italy , Ragusa ( Dubrovnik ) was to receive Skanderbeg 's envoy on 9 June 1460 . He requested the city 's support for the transport of his warriors to southern Italy over the Adriatic . Venice was not consulted since they pursued their own interests in Italy , whereas Ragusa held close economic relations with the Crown of Aragon . Meanwhile , Skanderbeg sent Martin Muzaka to Rome where he presented Pius with Skanderbeg 's plans , and Pius in turn notified Ferdinand . Pius then ordered Venice to guard the Albanian coastline . Skanderbeg then decided to send a troop of his men while he remained in Albania . In mid @-@ June 1461 , Skanderbeg agreed to a ceasefire with Mehmed who used this time to finally conquer Trebizond ( Trabzon ) in the northeastern part of modern Turkey . The truce was agreed to last for three years .
= = First landings = =
On 17 September 1460 , Skanderbeg sent 500 cavalry to Barletta in Apulia under the command of his nephew , Constantine , who at the time was 22 or 23 years old . The battles for the Crown of Naples up to that point had been minor with not much more than one @-@ thousand troops per belligerent . Ferdinand 's Neapolitan army as a whole stood at 7 @,@ 000 men . The addition of 500 Albanian cavalry , even though they were not cuirassed like their Italian counterparts , increased his force 's effectiveness . By this time , Ferdinand had lost most of his territory , and was left with some fortresses in Apulia and the area surrounding Naples . The Angevins were swiftly approaching Naples and Ferdinand prepared a counteroffensive . He first secured what he had by putting Roberto del Balzo Orsini in command , but Orsini 's incompetence held up the Neapolitan army . By this time , Skanderbeg 's men had already arrived , and Ferdinand commenced his offensive . Albanian light @-@ cavalry warfare was first noted here for its swiftness and effectiveness where they were reported to travel 30 – 40 miles ( 48 – 64 km ) per day as opposed to the Italian cavalry which could only travel 10 – 12 miles ( 16 – 19 km ) . The Albanians were encouraged by Ferdinand to fight in their traditional manner and to raid the territory ; Ferdinand informed Francisco Sforza that the Albanians had been devastating Apulia and taking whatever loot they could . These events worried the Angevins and prompted Giovanni Orsini to try to stop Skanderbeg from pouring his men into Italy . René d 'Anjou had been particularly surprised by Skanderbeg 's action since he believed that he had never offended the Albanian .
= = = Orsini – Skanderbeg correspondence = = =
Giovanni Orsini was the Prince of Taranto and Ferdinand ' | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
s fiercest rival . He had been , however , Alfonso 's faithful ally and had developed an admiration for Skanderbeg and his campaigns in Albania . After Skanderbeg had sided with his rival , Orsini allied with the Angevins and refused to recognize Ferdinand as King of Naples . He then sent a letter to convince Skanderbeg to pull his men out of Italy arguing that Ferdinand 's fortunes were hopeless , that Skanderbeg 's fame would die out after his supposed debacle , and that an alliance with René would be much more rewarding than an alliance with Ferdinand . Skanderbeg 's letter in response , dated to 10 October 1460 , stated that he was not a condottieri looking for fortune , but a mature man looking to help his ally . Furthermore , he sent another letter to Ferdinand assuring him his loyalty . Another letter was sent to Pius assuring him that the Albanians were fit for battle in Italy , something the Italian rulers did not believe . The letters elucidate Skanderbeg 's political motives behind his Italian expedition , presenting himself as a noble ally , and also illustrate the influence of the Renaissance in Skanderbeg 's court . They also served a psychological purpose to intimidate Ferdinand 's rivals : Skanderbeg compared himself to Pyrrhus of Epirus of antiquity who marched into Italy to defend the Greek city @-@ states from Roman expansion .
= = = Neapolitan counteroffensive = = =
By October 1460 , Ferdinand was able to recapture his western territories from Capua to Beneventum . In his eastern frontier , however , his enemies remained at large . The most dangerous among them was Piccinino . Piccinino had undertaken the task of blocking papal and Neapolitan troops en route to Apulia . Since Roberto Orsini , the man left in charge of the east and Giovanni Orsini 's brother who had remained loyal to Ferdinand , was deemed incompetent , Ferdinand invited Constantine to Naples , offering him a leading role in an operation against Piccinino . Along with Constantine 's cavalry , Francesco del Balzo , the Duke of Andria who had remained loyal to Ferdinand , managed to defeat Ercole d 'Este in Gargano . They then had control over the custom @-@ duties gathered there which brought 30 @,@ 000 ducats annually from which most of Piccinino 's pay came . The fighting continued for three months after which Constantine and Ferdinand were able to regain some lost territory . Piccinino prepared his own counteroffensive , along with Giovanni Orsini 's men , laying siege to the main castles . A fierce battle soon erupted over Venosa on 28 May 1461 where the Albanian cavalry took part . Ferdinand abandoned the city and fled back to Apulia . Near Troia , he met Skanderbeg 's ambassador , Gjokë Stres Balsha , who informed him that Skanderbeg was ready to land in Italy as soon as the proper galleys were provided .
= = Skanderbeg 's expedition = =
= = = Preparations and Ragusan voyage = = =
Before leaving for Italy , Skanderbeg needed to accumulate the appropriate finances . Pius ordered the Diocese of Dalmatia to give a third of what it had raised for the forthcoming crusade to Skanderbeg . The pope also ordered 1 @,@ 000 florins to be given to Skanderbeg from the Vatican 's funds . The Ragusan banks held this amount , but due to the threat of an Ottoman invasion , they refused to continue funding the crusade ; Stefan Vukčić of Zeta warned that the Ottomans would soon move into Dalmatia and Albania . They were thus reluctant to fund Skanderbeg 's expedition to Italy . Due to issues of finance and the lack of large ships ( he had , however , received several smaller ships to transport his troops ) , Skanderbeg 's arrival was delayed while Ferdinand was under siege in Barletta . Before the siege began , however , Ferndinand sent four galleys to the Albanian shores where Skanderbeg and his men were waiting . Skanderbeg had meanwhile sent an unnamed captain to his eastern frontiers to guard against an Ottoman attack and left his wife , Donika , in charge of his affairs .
A Venetian ambassador on his way from Constantinople reported that Skanderbeg had assembled 1 @,@ 000 cavalry and 2 @,@ 000 infantry along with several papal and Neapolitan ships at Capo @-@ di @-@ Lachi ( Albanian : Kepi i Lagjit ) near modern @-@ day Kavajë . He was still awaiting a supply of grain and two Neapolitan ships , however , so he continued to wait . On 21 – 22 August 1461 , the four galleys sent by Ferdinand arrived . He boarded soon thereafter but he did not send his entire force directly to Apulia . He sent Gjokë Balsha ( who had returned from Italy ) with 500 cavalry and 1 @,@ 000 infantry to the besieged Ferdinand , whereas Skanderbeg himself went to Ragusa to convince its rectors there to give him his needed funds . Balsha 's men landed in Barletta on 24 August 1461 . The Angevin forces , among whom was Giovanni Orsini , feared that Skanderbeg himself was the leader of this force , so they lifted the siege of Barletta immediately . Balsha then informed Ferdinand that Skanderbeg would arrive after his voyage to Ragusa . Ferdinand felt that Skanderbeg 's personal involvement was essential and began to worry when he did not come in two days , as Balsha had promised .
Skanderbeg reached Ragusa on 24 August 1461 along with the Pal Engjëlli , the Archbishop of Durrës . His men stayed on the ships anchored in the harbor while he went into the city . Due to papal pressure , the Ragusans had reconsidered Skanderbeg 's requests . His fame was visible when he walked through the city @-@ gates and the population poured into the streets to see him . He had been greeted with a ceremony and a tour of the city inspecting its walls and weaponry . He then received the financial sum he had come for . His men were also supplied with food for their coming campaign . His popularity allowed him to be well @-@ kept by the Ragusans where the largest Albanian community outside of Albania was present . On 29 August 1461 , Skanderbeg set off for Apulia , but a storm forced him to anchor off a Dalmatian island . On 3 September 1461 , Skanderbeg finally reached Barletta .
= = = Skanderbeg in Italy = = =
Even though they lifted the siege of Barletta upon seeing Skanderbeg 's approaching men the week before , Angevin forces remained active . Once Skanderbeg arrived , Ferdinand put him in command of the fortress of Barletta whereas the King himself went to Ariano Irpino . Once left in command of the fortress , Skanderbeg moved against Ferdinand 's rivals . Among them were Giovanni Orsini , Jean d 'Anjou ( the Duke of Calabria ) , Piccinino , and Francesco del Balzo . They had stationed themselves in Andria , where the Albanian assaults continued . The Albanian cavalry 's light armament , swift horses and loose ranks allowed them to quickly overcome the more heavily armed Italian cavalry , which fought in tight formations . In one of their operations , an Albanian warrior captured Alois Minutulo , the lord of the Castle of Monte Sant 'Angelo who was imprisoned in the Fortress of Barletta . Three years later , Ferdinand would present Skanderbeg with the castle as a token of his gratitude .
Ferdinand 's opponents , under Piccinino 's main command , tried to open battle with Skanderbeg , but due to the combined strength of Albanian and Neapolitan forces , they withdrew from the Andrian fields to Acquaviva delle Fonti . News of Piccinino 's retreat reached Venice who sent a message to Francisco Sforza . Skanderbeg then marched to Taranto , where Giovanni Orsini was prince . Orsini tried again to dissuade Skanderbeg from marching against him , but Ferdinand was wary of Orsini 's faithfulness , so Skanderbeg continued raiding Orsini 's territory . He split his army into three parts , one under Moisi Arianit Golemi , the other under Vladan Gjurica , and the last under his command . He led attacks against Ferdinand 's enemies in three directions without halt , thoroughly exhausting them . During the month of October , Skanderbeg continued to pillage Orisini 's territory from his bases at Barletta and Andria since the Angevins were not present ; Ferdinand meanwhile mopped up in Calabria , where he recaptured Cosenza and Castrovillari . At this point , Orsini asked Skanderbeg for a truce which the Albanian rejected . On 27 October , Skanderbeg reported that he had captured the town of Gisualdo . Piccinino then asked Skanderbeg to discontinue his campaign which Skanderbeg exuberantly accepted , believing that peace was near .
Piccinino , however , did not seek to maintain the agreement as one of his deserters reported . Upon learning this , Skanderbeg decided to open battle with Piccinino 's men . After feeding his men and preparing his horses , Skanderbeg set off by moonlight for the Angevin camp . He found the place empty , however , since one of Piccinino 's men had already informed Piccinino on the Albanians ' intentions . Skanderbeg then returned to Barletta where he was reinforced by Ferdinand and his men . He then split his army into two , one under Alessandro Sforza 's command , the other under his , and he approached Troia . Jean d 'Anjou and Piccinino were stationed in Lucera , however , eight miles from Troia . Knowing that battle would come between Troia and Lucera , Skanderbeg set out by night to capture Seggiano , a mountain lying between the two cities , where he stationed some of his men to protect it . Thence , his men could find refuge in case of defeat . Piccinino had the same objective in mind and set out to capture the mountain , but instead met Skanderbeg 's men . He thus kept his men in order for the coming battle . The next day , the two armies met . The battle lasted until dusk , but Jean 's men suffered a serious defeat and he was forced to flee . Piccinino then retreated from his campaigns . He went northwards where he joined Sigismondo Malatesta and 200 of his men to launch assaults on the papal state .
Skanderbeg 's next task was to recapture Trani , the second most important point in Apulia , aside from Barletta . He succeeded in capturing the commander of the garrison , Fuscia de Foxa , who had rebelled against Ferdinand . Fuscia was outside the walls of Trani with sixteen men when Skanderbeg saw him and surrounded him and then tried to convince him to abandon Orsini , whereby Fuscia refused for pecuniary reasons . On the morning of 28 December 1461 , with Fuscia 's pleas , Gracciani , the vice @-@ commander of the garrison , surrendered Trani . Both Fuscia and Gracciani , however , refused to hand over the garrison 's munitions . Skanderbeg threatened to imprison them if they did not surrender what they were asked to , forcing the two to hand over Trani 's stores . After weeks of marauding , Skanderbeg and his Aragonese colleagues joined Alessandro Sforza 's men . They then yielded all of the fortresses that they had recaptured to Ferdinand .
= = Aftermath = =
Seeing that their fortunes were dwindling , Ferdinand 's rivals tried to settle for peace with Francisco Sforza . Ferdinand sent Skanderbeg as an intermediary where Giovanni Orsini and Piccinino offered peace if paid 150 @,@ 000 and 110 @,@ 000 ducats respectively , something that Ferdinand refused . This was one of Skanderbeg 's last personal actions in Italy . He stayed in Apulia for another month until January 1462 when he returned to Albania , leaving his soldiers in Italy . His reason for leaving Italy is not clear , but it is believed that at that time Mehmed was preparing his campaign against Hungary , something which could be turned against Albania . On his return route , he again visited Ragusa , where he was likewise welcomed as a hero . He wanted to set off for Albania immediately , but bad weather forced him to stay . He was offered supplies by the Ragusan Rectors , suggesting that he wished to continue to Albania via land , but instead , after ten days in Ragusa , he sailed by ship to Albania . Before leaving , he purchased grain from Sicily for his soldiers in Apulia .
The war over the Crown of Naples continued for several more months after Skanderbeg left . It is not known if Albanian warriors fought in the ensuing battles . In August 1462 , Ferdinand achieved a decisive victory at Orsara . Skanderbeg 's expedition made him famous throughout Italy . In his book , De Bello Neapolitano ( English : The Neapolitan War ) , Iovianus Pontanus sees the Albanian landing as essential to Ferdinand 's victory : their quick maneuvering and swift assaults virtually immobilized the Italian warriors . Skanderbeg 's expedition succeeded in lifting the Siege of Barletta , capturing Trani through a ruse , forcing the Angevins to turn from an offensive to a defensive strategy , and devastating the land to the point where its inhabitants and Giovanni Orsini were forced to submit to Ferdinand , even allowing Ferdinand to safely attend the wedding of Antonio Piccolomini , Pius II 's nephew . Moreover , the campaign was instrumental in securing the Neapolitan kingdom for Ferdinand .
For his services , Ferdinand awarded Monte Sant 'Angelo to Skanderbeg where many of his men soon settled . They settled fifteen villages in the rolling landscapes to the east of Taranto . His return to Albania was greeted as a triumph by his followers . Despite the jubilation , however , Skanderbeg began to prepare for war . On 7 July 1462 , the Turkish army resumed its campaigns in Albania . The first major engagement was at Mokra on 7 July 1462 . In the following Macedonian campaign in August of the same year , Skanderbeg defeated three Ottoman armies in one month . On 27 April 1463 , Skanderbeg and Mehmed signed a new peace treaty , but later , on 9 September 1463 , Skanderbeg signed an alliance with Venice which had been preparing for war against the Ottomans . On 12 October 1463 , Pius grew confident enough to declare his crusade against the Ottoman Turks which Skanderbeg joined .
= Battle of Goodenough Island =
The Battle of Goodenough Island ( 22 – 27 October 1942 ) , also known as Operation Drake , was a battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II . The Allies attacked the Kaigun Rikusentai ( Special Naval Landing Force ) stranded on Goodenough Island , Papua , during the Battle of Milne Bay to deny the Japanese the ability to use the island prior to the Buna campaign . " Drake Force " , consisting of the Australian 2 / 12th Battalion and attachments , landed on the southern tip of Goodenough Island at Mud Bay and Taleba Bay on 22 October , and following a short but heavy fight , the Japanese forces withdrew to Fergusson Island on 27 October . After the battle , Goodenough Island was developed by the Allies and became a major base which they used for further operations later in the war .
= = Background = =
Goodenough Island is the northernmost of the D 'Entrecasteaux Islands , to the north @-@ east of Papua separated by the 15 @-@ mile ( 24 km ) wide Ward Hunt Strait . The island is located 65 miles ( 105 km ) by sea from Milne Bay and 185 miles ( 298 km ) from Port Moresby . It lies along the sea route between Buna and Milne Bay and was therefore strategically important during late 1942 . The island is roughly oval shaped , measuring 21 miles ( 34 km ) long and 13 miles ( 21 km ) across . The coastal belt is up to 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) in width , covered in grasslands and dissected by streams and coastal swamps . The island rises sharply to the central summit of Mount Vineuo , 8 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) above sea level .
While the western side of the island was covered in rain forest and jungle , there were grassy plains on the north @-@ eastern side covered in kunai and kangaroo grass . These were suitable sites for airfield development , but the best anchorages were at Mud Bay on the south eastern side , Taleba Bay on the south western , and Beli Beli Bay on the eastern side . Other sites could only accommodate shallow draught vessels drawing 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) or less , were obstructed by coral reefs , or were exposed to the weather thus making them unsuitable for development . The island had no roads , and there was no motor or animal transport . Neither the interior of the island nor the surrounding waters were adequately charted in 1942 . Important features were often missing from maps , and some features had different spellings .
Aircraft and ships headed from Milne Bay to Buna and vice versa had to pass close by Goodenough Island , so an Allied presence on the island could provide warning of Japanese operations while denying the Japanese the opportunity to observe Allied ships and aircraft . Goodenough Island also had flat areas suitable for the construction of emergency airstrips .
= = Prelude = =
In early August 1942 , a small detachment of an American fighter control squadron had been stationed on Goodenough Island to provide advance warning to the Australian fighters based at Milne Bay . On 7 August , five Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks of No. 76 Squadron made forced landings on the grassy plains . After makeshift airstrips were cut through the grass , four of them were able to be flown out again .
On 24 August , seven landing craft carrying 353 Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces troops of the 5th Sasebo Special Naval Landing Force , supplemented by a few engineers of the 14th and 15th Pioneer Units ( Setsueitai ) , set out from Cape Nelson in the dark to participate in the attack on the Allied forces at Milne Bay . Upon reaching Goodenough Island they were unable to locate a suitable hiding place for their landing craft during the day , and they had to be left on the beach , where they were discovered by the Allies . Their movement was reported by a coastwatcher at Cape Nelson , and a report was received at Milne Bay around midday on 25 August that they were on the west coast of Goodenough Island . Nine Kittyhawks from No. 75 Squadron RAAF were despatched to investigate . They located the landing craft and destroyed all seven , along with the Japanese force 's radio and most of its stores . Eight Japanese were killed in the raid ; the survivors , lacking transport , were stranded . Meanwhile , the American detachment on Goodenough Island destroyed its radios and withdrew from the island .
News of what had occurred on Goodenough Island reached the Japanese command on 9 September via an orderly who had made his way back to Buna in a canoe . The destroyers Yayoi and Isokaze set out from Rabaul to rescue the men on 10 September . They were sighted by Allied aircraft the next day . The destroyers USS Selfridge , Bagley , Henley and Helm were detached from Task Force 44 , under Captain Cornelius W. Flynn , USN , to intercept . They did not locate the Japanese destroyers , but five Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses did . Isokaze escaped , despite a near @-@ miss , but Yayoi sank after taking a direct hit on the stern that set her on fire . Her survivors reached Normanby Island , where they found themselves in a similar predicament to their compatriots on Goodenough Island . After the attack , Isokaze returned to the area where Yayoi had gone down , finding an oil slick , but no survivors . On 22 September , Isokaze returned again , this time with the destroyer Mochizuki , and together they found 10 survivors in a launch . The two destroyers then searched the coast of Normanby Island without success . However , the next day , another 10 survivors were spotted by a patrol plane , and they were rescued on 26 September .
The presence of shipwrecked Japanese sailors on Normanby Island presented no military threat to the Allied forces at Milne Bay , but Captain A. T. Timperley , the Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit ( ANGAU ) officer responsible for the D 'Entrecasteaux and Trobriand Islands , argued that they posed a threat to the native population and Australia 's reputation as its protector . As a result , C Company , 2 / 10th Infantry Battalion , under the command of Captain J. Brocksopp , was ordered to land on Normanby Island . Leaving Gili Gili on the destroyer HMAS Stuart on 21 September , Brocksopp 's company landed at Nadi Nadi on 22 September , and experienced no opposition . It took eight Japanese as prisoners before returning to Milne Bay on Stuart on 23 September .
Meanwhile , messages and food supplies had been air dropped by the Japanese to the troops on Goodenough on 10 and 12 September . On 3 October , the submarine I @-@ 1 arrived at Goodenough Island , and dropped off rations , ammunition , medical supplies , a radio and a landing craft . It took 71 sick or wounded men , all it could carry , back to Rabaul , along with the bodies of 13 dead . This left 285 Japanese troops on the island , most of whom were suffering from malaria . I @-@ 1 returned on 13 October with more rations and medical supplies , and a second landing craft , but was driven off by an Allied aircraft that dropped a flare . On 15 October , they received a radio message warning that the Allies were showing considerable interest in Goodenough Island and were likely to invade .
The Allied Supreme Commander of the South West Pacific Area , General Douglas MacArthur , issued new orders on 1 October :
Our Forces in the Southwest Pacific Area [ will ] attack with the immediate objective of driving the Japanese to the northward of the Kumusi River line . The New Guinea Force will :
Advance along the axes Nauro – Kokoda – Wairopi and Rigo – Dorobisolo – Jaure – Wairopi and / or Abau – Namudi – Jaure – Wairopi Trail , both inclusive , with the objective of securing the line of the Kumusi River from Awalama Divide to the crossing of the Kokoda – Buna Trail , both inclusive .
Occupy and hold Goodenough Island and the north coast of Southeastern New Guinea south of Cape Nelson in such force as to deny these areas to the Japanese forces .
Upon securing these objectives , all land forces will prepare for further advance to secure the area Buna – Gona upon further orders of this Headquarters .
= = Battle = =
As part of an operation codenamed " Drake " , the 2 / 12th Infantry Battalion , a Second Australian Imperial Force unit from the 18th Infantry Brigade , which was composed mainly of men from Queensland and Tasmania , was selected to invade Goodenough Island . Its commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Arnold , as the commander of Drake Force , was ordered to destroy the Japanese force there , re @-@ establish the coastwatching and radar warning posts , and reconnoitre the island for airfield sites . Intelligence reports indicated that there were approximately 300 Japanese troops on the island , mainly concentrated in the Galaiwau Bay – Kilia Mission area in the south east . The Japanese were believed to be short of food and ammunition , and suffering from malnutrition and disease .
Boarding the destroyers HMAS Stuart and Arunta on 22 October , the Australian troops were transported to Goodenough Island escorted by Task Force 44 . Arriving that night , the battalion disembarked on both sides of the island 's southern tip . It was planned to trap the Japanese between the main force of 520 troops , commanded by Arnold , which landed at Mud Bay , and a smaller force of 120 men , mostly from C Company , commanded by Major Keith Gatewood , which landed at Taleba Bay , about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) away . Australian landing craft were unavailable , but the 2 / 12th Infantry Battalion had three ketches , the Matoma , Maclaren King and Tieryo , three Japanese landing craft that had been captured in the Battle of Milne Bay , and two powered whaleboats . Seven days ' rations were carried on these craft , and another seven days ' on the two destroyers . Each man carried three days ' rations .
Drake Force had two AWA 3B Wireless Sets for maintaining communication with Milne Force . One was taken to Mud Bay while the other remained on Arunta . Two Army No. 101 Wireless Sets enabled battalion headquarters to communicate with Mud Bay . In addition , each company had an Army No. 108 Wireless Set to talk to battalion headquarters .
The Mud Bay force travelled in Arunta and came ashore at 23 : 00 in the Maclaren King , two of the ship 's launches , the three Japanese landing craft and the two powered whaleboats . A base was established ashore at Mud Bay , where a dressing station was prepared and heavy equipment , including all but one 2 @-@ inch mortar per company , was cached . The Australians then set out on a gruelling march to Kilia . As they did so , a violent thunderstorm broke , and it started to rain heavily . The force pushed on toward Kilia , but made slow progress that night due to the steep terrain and heavy rain . They were still half a mile from Kilia at 08 : 30 on 23 October , when they encountered the Japanese .
The Australians were crossing a creek behind which was a steep hill . The Japanese commander waited until the Australians were almost at his position before opening fire with machine guns and mortars . The troops who had crossed the creek found hand grenades were being rolled down the hill at them ; those behind it were pinned down by heavy and accurate fire . Arnold decided to pull back . That night , he formed a defensive position , and beat off a small Japanese counterattack .
Meanwhile , the Taleba Bay force , which travelled on Stuart , and came ashore in Tieryo , a ship 's launch and a ship 's whaleboat , was ashore by 03 : 30 on 23 October . They captured a Japanese machine gun position at about 06 : 00 . Two platoons went south where they were engaged by Japanese forces . The Japanese were driven beyond Niubulu Creek , but a heavy Japanese counterattack from the north at 09 : 00 inflicted casualties on the Australians and forced them to withdraw from the area . Gatewood broke radio silence and attempted to contact Arnold on the 108 set , but was unable to reach him . After this , they came under heavy mortar and machine gun fire , which inflicted heavy casualties . Having lost six men killed and ten wounded , with three more posted as missing , the Australians were forced to fall back under pressure from the pursuing Japanese . Lieutenant Clifford Hoskings would later receive the Military Cross for silencing a Japanese machine gun in the ensuing fighting . Faced with being overrun , Gatewood withdrew his force even further , at first back to Taleba Bay , and then to Mud Bay aboard Stuart , arriving on 24 October .
Gatewood could not get through on the radio because the petrol generator that supplied power to the radios at Mud Bay had broken down , thereby cutting Arnold 's link with Mud Bay , Milne Force and Taleba Bay . Arnold launched an attack on Kilia at 09 : 10 , supported by two 3 @-@ inch mortars and 100 rounds that had been brought up from Mud Bay . A promised air strike failed to arrive . Instead , Japanese aircraft strafed the Australian positions , as well as the ketch McLaren King in Mud Bay . It had some wounded men on board , and further casualties were caused . Arnold attempted a flanking movement with A Company , but it became lost in the jungle . The attack then became a frontal one against the main Japanese defences , which Arnold chose not to press .
With the Australian forces unable to advance , the Japanese were able to withdraw during the night . They were transported , along with their equipment and supplies , by the two landing craft to Fergusson Island , where they arrived at dawn on 25 October . From there , 261 men were collected by the light cruiser Tenryū the following day . The 2 / 12th Infantry Battalion then pressed on from Kilia to Galaiwai Bay , meeting no resistance and finding well @-@ prepared but unmanned defences .
The bombing and strafing of native villages by the Allied Air Forces caused some 600 Goodenough Islanders to flee to Fergusson Island , where Timperley 's ANGAU detachment had set up a refugee camp , and cared for them until the fighting was over and they could safely return . Australian losses on Goodenough Island were 13 killed in action or died of wounds , and 19 wounded . The Japanese suffered 20 killed and 15 wounded during the battle , but the 2 / 12th counted 39 dead . However , this was only an estimate as the Japanese had been able to retrieve and bury their dead , which had made it difficult for the Australians to accurately determine their casualties . Despite the evacuation , a number of Japanese were left behind . One was captured by islanders on 30 October and handed over to Timperley . There was also a group of three , of which two died from malaria in November 1942 , and the third , Shigeki Yokota , was taken prisoner in July 1943 .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Deception = = =
Two American officers , one each from the Air Corps and the Corps of Engineers , had accompanied the 2 / 12th Infantry Battalion 's landing on Goodenough Island with the mission of locating suitable sites for airbases and air warning facilities . They found good sites around Vivigani and Wataluma . The Vivigani site was cleared by local labourers who established a 4 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) by 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) emergency fighter landing strip . The 1st Battalion , 91st Engineer General Service Regiment was assigned the task of developing Vivigani Airfield into a major airbase capable of handling heavy bombers . The 2 / 12th Infantry Battalion remained on the island until the end of December , eventually being shipped to Oro Bay on the night of 28 – 29 December to join the attack on Buna on 31 December , leaving 75 men behind . The American engineers were withdrawn to Port Moresby .
Without the engineers , the plans to develop Goodenough Island had to be postponed . Due to the strategic importance of the island for the forthcoming operations against the Imperial Japanese forces in the South West Pacific Area , the small Australian occupation force used deception and camouflage to make the Japanese believe that a brigade @-@ sized force was occupying the island . They fabricated dummy structures , including a hospital , anti @-@ aircraft guns constructed of simple logs pointed at the sky , and barricades of jungle vines which looked like barbed wire . They also lit fires to appear as cooking fires for large numbers of soldiers , and sent messages in easily broken codes consistent with a brigade .
= = = Garrison = = =
A new garrison , the Australian 47th Infantry Battalion , a Militia unit under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Henry Tasker , arrived from Milne Bay on 4 March 1943 . This became the major component of Drake Force , which also included a company of the 4th Field Ambulance , C Troop of the 2 / 10th Field Battery , B Troop of the 2 / 17th Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Battery , a section of the 11th Field Company , and detachments of signals , workshop and camouflage units . In all , Drake Force had a total strength of about 720 men . On 5 and 6 March , Japanese bombers attacked ships in the anchorage , and the airstrip and village at Vivigani , but caused no damage and only wounded two men .
In the aftermath of the Battle of the Bismarck Sea , Japanese troops and sailors were again shipwrecked on Goodenough Island . Responding to reports from ANGAU , the police and civilian informants , patrols searched the island for Japanese survivors . In a week of vigorous patrolling between 8 and 14 March 1943 , the 47th Infantry Battalion located and killed 72 Japanese , captured 42 , and found another nine dead on a raft . A remarkable coup was achieved by a patrol under Captain Joseph Pascoe that killed eight Japanese who had landed in two flat @-@ bottomed boats . In the boats they found some documents in sealed tins . On translation by the Allied Translator and Interpreter Section , one document turned out to be a copy of the Japanese Army List , with the names and postings of every officer in the Japanese Army . It therefore provided a complete order of battle of the Japanese Army , including many units that had never been reported before . Moreover , a mention of any Japanese officer could now be correlated with his unit . Copies were made available to intelligence units in every theatre of war against Japan .
= = = Base development = = =
Meanwhile , a four @-@ man survey party from No. 5 Mobile Works Squadron RAAF arrived on Goodenough Island on 3 January 1943 . They selected Beli Beli Bay as a suitable site for an anchorage . Here , a 5 @,@ 000 ton ( 14 @,@ 000 m3 ) ship could anchor half a mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) offshore with a some degree of shelter from the south east and north west . A member of the survey team and 100 local workers recruited by ANGAU began constructing a jetty at Beli Beli Bay and improving the foot track to Vivigani . An advance party of 54 men from No. 5 Mobile Works Squadron arrived on 27 February 1943 .
Plans for Operation Chronicle , the invasion of Woodlark and Kiriwina Islands , called for fighter cover from Goodenough Island . The operation was scheduled for June 1943 , so the pace of construction work was lifted . The rest of No. 5 Airfield Construction Squadron arrived in late March , followed by No. 7 Mobile Works Squadron in April . A 5 @,@ 100 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) fighter strip was completed and sealed with a mixture of gravel and bitumen . P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks of No. 77 Squadron RAAF arrived on 12 June . It was joined by No. 76 Squadron RAAF and No. 79 Squadron RAAF on 16 June , and No. 73 Wing RAAF assumed control of the three fighter squadrons on the island . A 6 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) by 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) bomber strip was completed on 20 October , although No. 30 Squadron RAAF had already commenced operations from the strip on 10 October . Work on the airbase at Vivigani continued until November , by which time there were taxiways and dispersal areas for 24 heavy and 60 medium bombers , and 115 fighters . No. 7 Mobile Works Squadron also built two wharves for Liberty ships .
The island , now codenamed " Amoeba " , became a staging point and supply base for operations in New Guinea and New Britain , and USASOS Sub Base C was established on the island on 27 April 1943 . Sub Base C was abolished in July when responsibility for Goodenough Island passed to Alamo Force , whose headquarters opened on Goodenough Island on 15 August . From there , it directed operations in the Battles of Arawae and Cape Gloucester , and the landing at Saidor .
In August 1943 , Goodenough Island was chosen as the site for a number of hospitals to treat casualties incurred as Allied forces advanced through the Pacific . Work on the 750 @-@ bed 360th Station Hospital commenced on 15 September 1943 , followed by the 1 @,@ 000 @-@ bed 9th General Hospital on 4 November . A staging area for 60 @,@ 000 troops was also established on the island . Thousands of American troops later passed through Goodenough Island before the base was wound up at the end of 1944 .
= Sarah Stewart ( basketball ) =
Sarah Stewart ( born 13 June 1976 ) is a 3 @.@ 0 point wheelchair basketball player from Australia . She participated in the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens , where she won a silver medal ; in the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , where she won a bronze medal ; and the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , where she won a second silver medal .
Stewart has played in the Australian Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) and the National Wheelchair Basketball League ( NWBL ) since 2002 . She has won numerous awards , including being named to the 2004 , 2008 , 2009 , 2010 and 2012 WNWBL All @-@ Star Five ; the 2009 and 2010 WNWBL Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) in the 3 point class ; and the 2002 WNWBL Best New Talent . She was 2010 WNWBL Champion with the Sydney Uni Flames , and 2005 , 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , and 2009 WNWBL Champion with the Hills Hornets . She was the WNWBL 's Highest point scorer in 2010 . She was also a 2005 and 2004 NWBL Champion with the West Sydney Razorbacks .
Stewart was first selected to play for the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , in 2003 . Since then she has played over 150 international games for Australia , winning gold medals at the Asia @-@ Oceania 2012 and 2008 Paralympic Qualifiers , the Asia @-@ Oceania 2006 World Cup Qualifiers , and the 2009 , 2010 and 2012 Osaka Cup . She was named MVP of the 2012 Osaka Cup and was All @-@ Star Five in the Four @-@ Nation International in Sydney in 2007 .
= = Personal = =
Stewart was born on 13 June 1976 . When she was 17 years old she injured her right ankle when she tripped on the stairs . This developed into reflex sympathetic dystrophy . She then fractured a bone in her left leg , which set off dystrophy in that leg as well . This resulted in her needing a wheelchair for mobility . She plays the saxophone in a band . She attended University of New South Wales and Sydney University , where she took classes in Cognitive Science , English , and Philosophy . She has BSc ( Honours ) in Philosophy and Cognitive Science and a BA in English from the University of New South Wales .
Stewart earned the Sydney University Vice Chancellor 's Award for Academic and Sporting Achievement in 2004 , and the New South Wales Institute of Sport ( NSWIS ) University of Sydney Academic Excellence award in 2009 . In 2012 she was a PhD candidate at the University of Sydney . She is a vegan and used Twitter to connect with others about being vegan .
= = Wheelchair basketball = =
Stewart is a 3 @.@ 0 point player . She took up the sport while attending the University of NSW following a visit by a Wheelchair Sports NSW road show . " From the moment I jumped in the basketball chair and started playing " , she later recalled , " it felt like Quidditch on wheels ! " From 2003 to 2012 , she had a scholarship with the New South Wales Institute of Sport .
= = = Club = = =
Stewart has played in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) in Australia since 2002 , with the North Sydney Bears from 2002 to 2004 , the Hills Hornets from 2005 to 2010 , and the Sydney University Flames since 2011 . In the National Wheelchair Basketball League ( NWBL ) , a mixed competition , she played for the West Sydney Razorbacks from 2002 to 2011 . Since 2011 she has played for the Sydney University Wheelkings .
Stewart won the 2001 and 2002 Encouragement Award in the Women ’ s National Club Championships . In 2002 , she was also named the Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) of the Southern Challenge . She has won numerous awards , including named part of the 2004 , 2008 , 2009 , 2010 and 2012 WNWBL All @-@ Star Five ; the 2009 and 2010 WNWBL MVP in the 3 point class ; and the 2002 WNWBL Best New Talent . She was also the WNWBL 's highest point scorer in 2010 . She was part of the 2004 and 2005 NWBL Championship side with the West Sydney Razorbacks , the 2005 , 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , and 2009 WNWBL Championship winning Hills Hornets , and won the 2010 WNWBL Champion with the Sydney Uni Flames .
In the second round of the 2008 season , the Western Stars defeated the Hills Hornets 52 – 44 . Playing for the Hornets , Stewart scored 20 points in her team 's loss . Also in the second round that year , the team played the Dandenong Rangers , where Stewart scored 24 points in her team 's 72 – 38 victory .
= = = National team = = =
Stewart was first selected to play for the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , in 2003 . Since then she has played over 150 international games for Australia . Her international career highlights include gold medals at the Asia @-@ Oceania 2008 and 2012 Paralympic Qualifiers , the Asia @-@ Oceania 2006 World Cup Qualifiers , and the 2009 , 2010 and 2012 Osaka Cup . She was named MVP of the tournament at the 2012 Osaka Cup , and was All @-@ Star Five for the Four @-@ Nation International in Sydney in 2007 . She competed at the 2006 and 2010 World Wheelchair Basketball Championship . The Gliders finished fourth both times . She was selected to participate in a national team training camp in 2010 .
= = = = Paralympics = = = =
Stewart was part of the silver medal @-@ winning team , at the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens , and the bronze medal winning team at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing . She played in the team 's semi @-@ final loss to the United States and was one of Australia 's key defenders in the game .
Stewart was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London . In the group stage , the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2012 Summer Paralympics posted wins against Brazil , Great Britain , and the Netherlands , but lost to the Canada . This was enough to advance the Gliders to the quarter @-@ finals , where they beat Mexico . The Gliders then defeated the United States by a point to set up a final clash with Germany . The Gliders lost 44 – 58 , and earned a silver medal .
= = Statistics = =
= Panzer 35 ( t ) =
The Panzerkampfwagen 35 ( t ) , commonly shortened to Panzer 35 ( t ) or abbreviated as Pz.Kpfw. 35 ( t ) , was a Czechoslovak @-@ designed light tank used mainly by Nazi Germany during World War II . The letter ( t ) stood for tschechisch ( German : " Czech " ) . In Czechoslovak service , it had the formal designation Lehký tank vzor 35 ( Light Tank Model 35 ) , but was commonly referred to as the LT vz . 35 or LT @-@ 35 . A total of 434 were built ; of these , the Germans seized 244 when they occupied Bohemia @-@ Moravia in March 1939 and the Slovaks acquired 52 when they declared independence from Czechoslovakia at the same time . Others were exported to Bulgaria and Romania . In German service , it saw combat during the early years of World War II , notably the Invasion of Poland , the Battle of France and the invasion of the Soviet Union before being retired or sold off in 1942 . It was used for the remainder of the war by other countries and as a training tank in Bulgaria into the 1950s .
= = Description = =
The Panzerkampfwagen 35 ( t ) was assembled from a framework of steel " angle iron " beams to which the armor plates were riveted . A 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 in ) firewall separated the engine compartment from the crew . It had several mesh @-@ covered openings to allow access to the engine and improve ventilation by drawing air in through the commander 's hatch . This had the advantage of rapidly dispersing gun combustion gases when firing , but several disadvantages . The constant draft generated by the engine greatly affected the crew during cold weather , the danger of an engine fire reaching the crew compartment was increased and the engine noise and heat increased crew fatigue .
The driver sat on the right side of the tank using a 390 by 90 millimetres ( 15 @.@ 4 in × 3 @.@ 5 in ) observation port protected by 50 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of bulletproof glass and an armored shutter 28 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 1 in ) thick . To his right was a vision slit 120 by 3 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 72 in × 0 @.@ 12 in ) with a similar thickness of bulletproof glass . The Germans replaced the original three colored lights used by the Czechs to communicate with the driver with an intercom system . The radio operator sat on the left and had his own 150 by 75 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 in × 3 @.@ 0 in ) observation port with the same protection as the driver 's . His radios were mounted on the left wall of the hull . The hull machine gun was between the driver and radio operator in a ball mount capable of 30 ° of traverse , 25 ° of elevation and depressing up to 10 ° . Most of the machine gun 's barrel protruded from the mount and was protected by an armored trough . The mount had a spotting telescope , but open sights could be used if the plug at the top of the ball mount was removed . If necessary , the driver could lock the mount into position and fire it himself using a Bowden cable . The driver 's hatch was exposed to direct fire and could be damaged from the front .
The turret ring had a diameter of 1 @.@ 267 metres ( 49 @.@ 9 in ) . The turret had a flat face in the center of which was mounted the 3 @.@ 72 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 46 in ) main armament . On the right side was another 7 @.@ 92 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 312 in ) machine gun in a ball mount . The commander had four episcopes in his cupola and a monocular mirror , 1 @.@ 3 x 30 ° periscope which he could extend , once he had removed its armored cover in his hatch , to give vision while " buttoned @-@ up " . As the sole occupant of the turret , the commander was responsible for loading , aiming and firing the main gun and the turret machine gun while simultaneously commanding the tank . The Germans added an extra crewman on the right side of the turret to load the main gun and to operate the turret machine gun . Some ammunition had to be removed to accommodate him .
The 8 @.@ 62 @-@ litre ( 526 cu in ) Škoda T @-@ 11 / 0 four @-@ cylinder , water @-@ cooled engine produced 120 horsepower ( 89 kW ) at 1 @,@ 800 rpm . Two fuel tanks were fitted , the main tank with a capacity of 124 litres ( 33 US gal ) was on the left side of the engine and the 29 litres ( 7 @.@ 7 US gal ) auxiliary tank was on the other side . The engine could run on gasoline , an alcohol @-@ gasoline mixture , and " Dynalkohol " ( an alcohol @-@ benzole mixture ) . It was mounted in the rear along with the six @-@ speed transmission which drove rear @-@ mounted drive sprockets . The suspension was derived from the Vickers 6 @-@ Ton tank ; eight small pairs of road wheels on four bogies per side , each pair of bogies sprung by a single leaf spring , a front idler wheel , and four track return wheels . An unsprung road wheel was located directly underneath the idler wheel to improve obstacle crossing . The transmission , brakes and steering were mechanically assisted with compressed air , reducing driver fatigue . This last feature proved problematic in the extreme conditions of the Eastern Front .
The main armament was a Škoda ÚV vz . 34 ( German designation " KwK 34 ( t ) " ) gun with a pepperpot muzzle brake and a prominent armored recoil cylinder above the barrel . Škoda called it the A3 . It fired a .815 kilograms ( 1 @.@ 80 lb ) armor @-@ piercing shell at 690 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 300 ft / s ) . It was credited with penetrating a plate inclined at 30 ° from the vertical 37 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) thick at 100 metres ( 110 yd ) , 31 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick at 500 metres ( 550 yd ) , 26 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick at 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) , and 22 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 87 in ) thick at 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 yd ) . Kliment and Francev quote penetration of a vertical plate 45 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) thick at 500 metres ( 550 yd ) . The machine gun 's ball mount could be coupled to the main gun or used independently . Both weapons could elevate 25 ° and depress 10 ° . They both used 2.6x power sights with a 25 ° field of view . Initially the tank used Zbrojovka Brno ZB vz . 35 machine guns , but these were | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Barbara Leigh @-@ Hunt 's portrayal of Lady Catherine as " a marvellously imperious witch " and considered her scenes with David Bamber ( Mr. Collins ) " hilarious " .
However , O 'Connor remarked that American audiences might find the " languorous walks across meadows " and " ornately choreographed dances " of the British production too slow . In one of the most negative reviews , People Magazine considered the adaptation " a good deal more thorough than necessary " and " not the best Austen on the suddenly crowded market " . Although the reviewer thought Firth " magnificent " , he rebuked the casting of Jennifer Ehle as her oval face made her " look like Anaïs Nin in period clothes , and that ain 't right " . The official A & E Network magazine summarised a year later that " critics praised the lavish production , audiences adored it , and women everywhere swooned over Darcy . So much , in fact , that newspapers began to joke about ' Darcy fever . ' " Commendation for the serial continued in the years following its original transmission .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Pride and Prejudice received BAFTA Television Award nominations for " Best Drama Serial " , " Best Costume Design " , and " Best Make Up / Hair " in 1996 . Jennifer Ehle was honoured with a BAFTA for " Best Actress " , while Colin Firth and Benjamin Whitrow , nominated for " Best Actor " , lost to Robbie Coltrane of Cracker . Firth won the 1996 Broadcasting Press Guild Award for " Best Actor " , complemented by the same award for " Best Drama Series / Serial " . The serial was recognised in the United States with an Emmy for " Outstanding Individual Achievement in Costume Design for a Miniseries or a Special " , and was Emmy @-@ nominated for its achievements as an " Outstanding Miniseries " as well as for choreography and writing . Among other awards and nominations , Pride and Prejudice received a Peabody Award , a Television Critics Association Award , and a Golden Satellite Award nomination for outstanding achievements as a serial .
= = Influence and legacy = =
As one of the BBC 's and A & E 's most popular presentations ever , the serial was " a cultural phenomenon , inspiring hundreds of newspaper articles and making the novel a commuter favourite " . With the 1995 and 1996 films Persuasion , Sense and Sensibility and Emma , the serial was part of a wave of Jane Austen enthusiasm which caused the membership of the Jane Austen Society of North America to jump fifty percent in 1996 and to over 4 @,@ 000 members in the autumn of 1997 . Some newspapers like The Wall Street Journal explained this " Austen @-@ mania " as a commercial move of the television and film industry , whereas others attributed Austen 's popularity to escapism .
While Jennifer Ehle refused to capitalise on the success of the serial and joined the Royal Shakespeare Company at Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon , the role of Mr. Darcy unexpectedly elevated Colin Firth to stardom . Although Firth did not mind being recognised as " a romantic idol as a Darcy with smouldering sex appeal " in a role that " officially turned him into a heart @-@ throb " , he expressed the wish to not be associated with Pride and Prejudice forever and was reluctant to accept similar roles . He took on diverse roles and co @-@ starred in productions such as The English Patient ( 1996 ) , Shakespeare in Love ( 1998 ) , Bridget Jones 's Diary ( 2001 ) , Girl with a Pearl Earring ( 2003 ) , Love Actually ( 2003 ) and Bridget Jones : The Edge of Reason ( 2004 ) .
Pride and Prejudice continued to be honoured years later . A 2000 poll of industry professionals conducted by the British Film Institute ranked the serial at 99 in the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes of the 20th century , which the BFI attributed to its " managing to combine faithfulness to the novel with a freshness that appealed across the generations " . Radio Times included the serial in their list of " 40 greatest TV programmes ever made " in 2003 . It was also named by Entertainment Weekly as one of the 20 best miniseries of all time . In 2007 , the UK Film Council declared Pride and Prejudice one of the television dramas that have become " virtual brochures " for British history and society . Lyme Hall , Cheshire , which had served as the exterior of Pemberley , experienced a tripling in its visitor numbers after the series ' broadcast and is still a popular travel destination .
= = = Lake scene = = =
The adaptation is famous for a scene in its fourth episode where a fully dressed Darcy , having emerged from a swim in a lake at Pemberley , accidentally encounters Elizabeth . While many critics attributed the scene 's appeal to Firth 's sexual attractiveness , Andrew Davies thought that it unwittingly " rerobed , not disrobed , Austen " . When Davies wrote the scene ( it was not part of Austen 's novel ) , he did not intend a sexual connection between Elizabeth and Darcy but to create " an amusing moment in which Darcy tries to maintain his dignity while improperly dressed and sopping wet " . The BBC opposed Davies 's plan to have Darcy naked but the producers discarded the alternative of using underpants as fatuous . According to Davies , Firth had " a bit of the usual tension about getting [ his ] kit off " , the scene was filmed with Firth in linen shirt , breeches and boots . A stuntman , who appears in midair in a very brief shot , was hired because of the risk of infection with Weil 's disease at Lyme Park . A short underwater segment was filmed separately with Firth in a tank at Ealing Studios in west London .
The Guardian declared the lake scene " one of the most unforgettable moments in British TV history " . The sequence also appeared in Channel 4 's Top 100 TV Moments in 1999 , between the controversial programme Death on the Rock and the Gulf War . The New York Times compared the scene to Marlon Brando shouting " Stella ! " in his undershirt in A Streetcar Named Desire and Firth 's projects began alluding to it – screenwriter @-@ director Richard Curtis added in @-@ joke moments of Firth 's characters falling into the water to Love Actually and Bridget Jones : The Edge of Reason , and Firth 's character from the 2007 film St Trinian 's emerges from a fountain in a soaking wet shirt before meeting up with an old love . The creators of the 2008 ITV production Lost in Austen emulated the lake scene in their Pride and Prejudice through their contemporary heroine who cajoles Darcy into recreating the moment .
Cheryl L. Nixon suggested in Jane Austen in Hollywood that Darcy 's dive is a " revelation of his emotional capabilities " , expressing a " Romantic bond with nature , a celebration of his home where he can ' strip down ' to his essential self , a cleansing of social prejudices from his mind , or ... a rebirth of his love for Elizabeth " . Linda Troost and Sayre Greenfield wrote that the scene " tells us more about our current decade 's obsession with physical perfection and acceptance of gratuitous nudity than it does about Austen 's Darcy , but the image carves a new facet into the text " .
= = = Bridget Jones = = =
The fictional journalist Bridget Jones ( in reality Helen Fielding of The Independent ) wrote of her love of the serial in the paper 's Bridget Jones 's Diary column during the original British broadcast , mentioning her " simple human need for Darcy to get off with Elizabeth " and regarding the couple as her " chosen representatives in the field of shagging , or rather courtship " . Fielding loosely reworked the plot of Pride And Prejudice in her 1996 novel of the column , naming Bridget 's uptight love interest " Mark Darcy " and describing him exactly like Colin Firth . Following a first meeting with Firth during his filming of Fever Pitch in 1996 , Fielding asked Firth to collaborate in what would become a multi @-@ page interview between Bridget Jones and Firth in her 1999 sequel novel , Bridget Jones : The Edge of Reason . Conducting the real interview with Firth in Rome , Fielding lapsed into Bridget Jones mode and obsessed over Darcy in his wet shirt for the fictional interview . Firth participated in the editing of what critics called " one of the funniest sequences in the diary 's sequel " . Both novels make various other references to the BBC serial .
Andrew Davies collaborated on the screenplays for the 2001 and 2004 Bridget Jones films , in which Crispin Bonham @-@ Carter ( Mr. Bingley ) and Lucy Robinson ( Mrs. Hurst ) appeared in minor roles . The self @-@ referential in @-@ joke between the projects convinced Colin Firth to accept the role of Mark Darcy , as it gave him an opportunity to ridicule and liberate himself from his Pride and Prejudice character . Film critic James Berardinelli would later state that Firth " plays this part [ of Mark Darcy ] exactly as he played the earlier role , making it evident that the two Darcys are essentially the same " . The producers never found a way to incorporate the Jones @-@ Firth interview in the second film but shot a spoof interview with Firth as himself and Renée Zellweger staying in character as Bridget Jones after a day 's wrap . The scene , which extended Bridget 's Darcy obsession to cover Firth 's lake scene in Love Actually , is available as a bonus feature on the DVD .
= = = Other adaptations = = =
For almost a decade , the 1995 TV serial was considered " so dominant , so universally adored , [ that ] it has lingered in the public consciousness as a cinematic standard " . Comparing six Pride and Prejudice adaptations in 2005 , the Daily Mirror gave 9 / 10 to the 1995 serial ( " what may be the ultimate adaptation " ) and the 2005 film adaptation , leaving the other adaptations such as the 1940 film behind with six or fewer points . The 2005 film was " obviously [ not as ] daring or revisionist " as the 1995 adaptation but the youth of the film 's leads , Keira Knightley and Matthew Macfadyen , was mentioned favourably over the 1995 cast , as Jennifer Ehle had formerly been " a little too ' heavy ' for the role " . The president of the Jane Austen Society of North America noted in an otherwise positive review that the casting of the 2005 leads was " arguably a little more callow than Firth and Ehle " and that " Knightley is better looking than Lizzy should strictly be " . The critical reception of MacFadyen 's Darcy , whose casting had proven difficult because " Colin Firth cast a very long shadow " , ranged from praise to pleasant surprise and dislike . Several critics did not observe any significant impact of Macfadyen 's Darcy in the following years . Garth Pearce of The Sunday Times noted in 2007 that " Colin Firth will forever be remembered as the perfect Mr. Darcy " , and Gene Seymour stated in a 2008 Newsday article that Firth was " ' universally acknowledged ' as the definitive Mr. Darcy " .
= The World Is Not Enough =
The World Is Not Enough ( 1999 ) is the nineteenth film in the James Bond series , and the third to star Pierce Brosnan as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond . The film was directed by Michael Apted , with the original story and screenplay written by Neal Purvis , Robert Wade and Bruce Feirstein . It was produced by Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli . The title is taken from a line in the 1963 novel On Her Majesty 's Secret Service .
The film 's plot revolves around the assassination of billionaire Sir Robert King by the terrorist Renard , and Bond 's subsequent assignment to protect King 's daughter Elektra , who had previously been held for ransom by Renard . During his assignment , Bond unravels a scheme to increase petroleum prices by triggering a nuclear meltdown in the waters of Istanbul .
Filming locations included Spain , France , Azerbaijan , Turkey and the UK , with interiors shot at Pinewood Studios . Despite mixed critical reception , The World Is Not Enough earned $ 361 @,@ 832 @,@ 400 worldwide . It was also the first Eon @-@ produced Bond film to be officially released by Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer instead of United Artists , the original distributor .
= = Plot = =
MI6 agent James Bond meets a Swiss banker in Bilbao , Spain to retrieve money for Sir Robert King , a British oil tycoon and friend of M. Bond tells the banker that King was buying a report stolen from an MI6 agent who was killed for it , and wants to know who killed him . The banker is killed by his assistant before he can reveal the assassin 's name . Bond escapes with the money , but it is revealed to be booby @-@ trapped , and Sir Robert is killed by an explosion inside MI6 headquarters back in London . Bond gives chase to the assistant / assassin on a boat on the Thames to the Millennium Dome , where she attempts to escape via hot air balloon . Bond offers her protection , but she refuses , then causes the balloon to explode , killing herself .
Bond traces the recovered money to Renard , a KGB agent @-@ turned @-@ terrorist . Following an earlier attempt on his life by MI6 , Renard was left with a bullet in his brain which is gradually destroying his senses , making him immune to pain . M assigns Bond to protect King 's daughter , Elektra ; Renard previously abducted and held her for ransom , and MI6 believes that he is targeting her a second time . Bond flies to Azerbaijan , where Elektra is overseeing the construction of an oil pipeline . During a tour of the pipeline 's proposed route in the mountains , Bond and Elektra are attacked by a hit squad in armed , paraglider @-@ equipped snowmobiles .
Afterwards Bond visits Valentin Zukovsky at a casino to acquire information about Elektra 's attackers ; he discovers that Elektra 's head of security , Davidov , is secretly in league with Renard . Bond kills Davidov and boards a plane bound for a Russian ICBM base in Kazakhstan . He poses as a Russian nuclear scientist , meets American nuclear physicist Christmas Jones , and enters the silo . Inside , Renard is removing the GPS locator card and weapons @-@ grade plutonium from a nuclear bomb . Before Bond can kill him , Jones blows his cover . Renard drops a hint that he and Elektra are collaborating and flees with the plutonium , while Bond and Jones escape the exploding silo with the locator card .
Back in Azerbaijan , Bond discloses to M that Elektra may not be as innocent as she seems . An alarm sounds while he is handing M the locator card as proof of the theft , which reveals that the stolen bomb from Kazakhstan is attached to an inspection rig heading towards the oil terminal . Bond and Jones enter the pipeline to deactivate the bomb , and Jones discovers that half of the plutonium is missing . They both jump clear of the rig , a large section of pipeline is destroyed , and they are presumed killed . Back at the command centre , Elektra reveals she and Renard are conspirators and that she killed her father as revenge for using her as bait for Renard . She abducts M , whom she resents for advising her father not to pay the ransom money , and imprisons her in the Maiden 's Tower .
Bond accosts Zukovsky at his caviar factory in the Caspian Sea , which is then attacked by Elektra 's sawing helicopters . Later , Zukovsky reveals his arrangement with Elektra was in exchange for the use of a submarine , currently being captained by Zukovsky 's nephew , Nikolai . The group goes to Istanbul , where Jones realises that if Renard were to insert the stolen plutonium into the submarine 's nuclear reactor , the resulting nuclear explosion would destroy Istanbul , sabotaging the Russians ' oil pipeline in the Bosphorus while dramatically increasing the value of Elektra 's oil . Bond then gets a signal from the hacked locator card in the Maiden 's Tower just before Zukovsky 's underling , Bullion blows up the command centre . Zukovsky is knocked unconscious and Bond and Jones are captured by Elektra 's henchmen . Jones is taken aboard the submarine , which was seized by Renard 's men . Bond is taken to the tower , where Elektra tortures him with a garrote . Zukovsky and his men seize the tower , but Zukovsky is shot by Elektra , freeing Bond with his cane gun with his last act . Bond frees M and kills Elektra .
Bond dives after the submarine , boards it , and frees Jones . Following a fight , the submarine hits the bottom of the Bosphorus , causing its hull to rupture . Bond catches up with Renard and kills him after a lengthy fight in the submarine 's reactor . Bond and Jones escape from the submarine , leaving the flooded reactor to detonate safely underwater .
= = Cast = =
Pierce Brosnan as James Bond , 007 .
Sophie Marceau as Elektra King , an oil heiress who is seemingly being targeted by Renard , the world 's most wanted terrorist . Bond is tasked by M to protect her at all costs , although he suspects that there is more to her than meets the eye .
Robert Carlyle as Victor " Renard " Zokas , a former KGB agent turned high @-@ tech terrorist . Years ago , Renard kidnapped Elektra King in exchange for a massive ransom demand . The ordeal resulted in a failed assassination attempt by MI6 and left Renard with a bullet lodged in his brain which renders him impervious to pain as well as slowly killing off his other senses . Renard now seeks revenge on both the King family and MI6 .
Denise Richards as Dr. Christmas Jones , an American nuclear physicist assisting Bond in his mission . Richards stated that she liked the role because it was " brainy " , " athletic " , and had " depth of character , in contrast to Bond girls from previous decades " .
Robbie Coltrane as Valentin Zukovsky : A former Russian mafia boss and Baku casino owner . Bond initially seeks out Zukovsky for intel on Renard and is subsequently aided by him when Zukovsky 's nephew falls into Renard 's captivity . Coltrane reprises his role from GoldenEye .
Judi Dench as M : The head of MI6 .
Michael Kitchen as Bill Tanner : M 's Chief of Staff .
Colin Salmon as Charles Robinson : M 's Deputy Chief of Staff .
Desmond Llewelyn as Q : MI6 's " quartermaster " who supplies Bond with multi @-@ purpose vehicles and gadgets useful for the latter 's mission . The film would be Llewelyn 's final performance as Q. Although the actor was not officially retiring from the role , the Q character was training his eventual replacement in this film . Llewelyn was killed in a car accident shortly after the film 's premiere .
John Cleese as R : Q 's assistant and successor . The character is never formally introduced as " R " – This was simply an observation on Bond 's part : " If you 're Q .... does that make him R ? "
Samantha Bond as Miss Moneypenny : M 's secretary
Serena Scott Thomas as Dr. Molly Warmflash .
John Seru as Gabor : Elektra King 's bodyguard who is seen accompanying King wherever she travels .
Ulrich Thomsen as Sasha Davidov : Elektra King 's head of security in Azerbaijan and Renard 's secret liaison .
Goldie as Bull : Valentin Zukovsky 's gold @-@ toothed bodyguard . Although listed as ' Bull ' in the credits , Zukovsky refers to him as ' Bullion ' in the film .
Maria Grazia Cucinotta as Giulietta da Vinci , credited in the film as " Cigar Girl " : An experienced assassin working for Renard .
David Calder as Sir Robert King : Elektra 's father and an oil tycoon who is later killed during a bomb attack on MI6 headquarters .
= = Production = =
Joe Dante and then Peter Jackson were offered the opportunity to direct the film . Barbara Broccoli enjoyed Jackson 's Heavenly Creatures , and a screening of The Frighteners was arranged for her . She disliked the latter film , however , and showed no further interest in Jackson . Jackson , a lifelong Bond fan , remarked that as Eon tended to go for less famous directors , he would likely not get another chance to direct a Bond film after The Lord of the Rings .
The pre @-@ title sequence lasts for about 14 minutes , the longest pre @-@ title sequence in the Bond series to date . In the " making of " documentaries on the Ultimate Edition DVD release , director Michael Apted said that the scene was originally much longer than that . Originally , the pre @-@ credits sequence was to have ended with Bond 's leap from the window and descent to the ground , finishing as Bond rushes away from the area as police cars approach . Then , after the credits the sequence in MI6 headquarters would have been next , with the boat scenes the next major action sequence . However , the pre @-@ credits scenes were viewed as lacklustre when compared to ones from previous 007 films , so the credits were pushed back to appear after the boat sequence . The Daily Telegraph claimed that the British Government prevented some filming in front of the actual MI6 Headquarters at Vauxhall Cross , citing a security risk . However , a Foreign Office spokesperson rejected the claims and expressed displeasure with the article .
Initially the film was to be released in 2000 , rumoured to be titled Bond 2000 . Other rumoured titles included Death Waits for No Man , Fire and Ice , Pressure Point and Dangerously Yours . The title The World Is Not Enough is an English translation of the Latin phrase Orbis non sufficit , which in real life was the motto of Sir Thomas Bond . In the novel On Her Majesty 's Secret Service and its film adaptation , this is revealed to be the Bond family motto . The phrase originates from the epitaph of Alexander the Great .
Writers Neal Purvis and Robert Wade were hired after their work on Plunkett & Macleane . Dana Stevens did an uncredited rewrite before Bruce Feirstein , who worked in the previous two films , took over the script .
= = = Filming = = =
The pre @-@ title sequence begins in Bilbao , Spain , featuring the Guggenheim Museum . After the opening scene , the film moves to London , showcasing the SIS Building and the Millennium Dome on the Thames . Following the title sequence , Eilean Donan castle in Scotland is used by MI6 as a location headquarters . Other locations include Baku , Azerbaijan , the Azerbaijan Oil Rocks and Istanbul , Turkey , where Maiden 's Tower is shown .
The studio work for the film was shot as usual in Pinewood Studios , including Albert R. Broccoli 's 007 Stage . Bilbao , Spain was used briefly for the exterior of the Swiss bank and flyover @-@ bridge adjacent to the Guggenheim Museum . In London outdoor footage was shot of the SIS Building and Vauxhall Cross with several weeks filming the boat chase on the River Thames eastwards towards the Millennium Dome , Greenwich . The canal footage of the chase where Bond soaks the parking wardens was filmed at Wapping and the boat stunts in Millwall Dock and under Glengall Bridge were filmed at the Isle of Dogs . Chatham Dockyard was also used for part of the boat chase . Stowe School , Buckinghamshire , was used as the site of the King family estate on the banks of Loch Lomond . Filming continued in Scotland at Eilean Donan Castle which was used to depict the exterior of MI6 temporary operations centre " Castle Thane " . The skiing chase sequence in the Caucasus was shot on the slopes of Chamonix , France . Filming of the scene was delayed by an avalanche ; the crew helped in the rescue operation .
The interior ( and single exterior shot ) of L 'Or Noir casino in Baku , Azerbaijan , was shot at Halton House , the Officers ' Mess of RAF Halton . RAF Northolt was used to depict the airfield runway in Azerbaijan . Zukovsky 's quayside caviar factory was shot entirely at the outdoor water tank at Pinewood .
The exterior of Kazakhstan nuclear facility was shot at the Bardenas Reales , in Navarre , Spain , and the exterior of the oil refinery control centre at the Motorola building in Groundwell , Swindon . The exterior of the oil pipeline was filmed in Cwm Dyli , Snowdonia , Wales , while the production teams shot the oil pipeline explosion in Hankley Common , Elstead , Surrey . Istanbul , Turkey , was indeed used in the film and Elektra King 's Baku villa was actually in the city , also using the famous Maiden 's Tower which was used as Renard 's hideout in Turkey . The underwater submarine scenes were filmed in The Bahamas .
The BMW Z8 driven by Bond in the film was the final part of a three @-@ film product placement deal with BMW ( which began with the Z3 in GoldenEye and continued with the 750iL in Tomorrow Never Dies ) but , due to filming preceding release of the Z8 by a few months , several working mock @-@ ups and models were manufactured for filming purposes .
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack to The World Is Not Enough is the second Bond soundtrack to be composed by David Arnold . Arnold broke tradition by not ending the film with a reprise of the opening theme or , as with the previous three films , a new song . Originally , Arnold intended to use the song " Only Myself to Blame " at the end of the film ; however , Apted discarded this and the song was replaced by a remix of the " James Bond Theme " . " Only Myself to Blame " , written by Arnold and Don Black and sung by Scott Walker , is the nineteenth and final track on the album and its melody is Elektra King 's theme . The theme is heard in " Casino " , " Elektra 's Theme " and " I Never Miss " . Arnold added two new themes to the final score , both of which are reused in the following film , Die Another Day .
The title song , " The World Is Not Enough " , was written by David Arnold with Don Black and performed by Garbage . It is the fifth Bond theme co @-@ written by Black , preceded by " Thunderball " , " Diamonds Are Forever " , " The Man with the Golden Gun " , and " Tomorrow Never Dies " . Garbage also contributed to the music heard during the chase sequence ( " Ice Bandits " ) , which was released as the B @-@ side to their single release of the theme song . IGN chose " The World Is Not Enough " as the ninth @-@ best James Bond theme of all time . In 2012 Grantland ranked the song as the second @-@ best Bond song of all @-@ time , behind only " Goldfinger . " The song also appeared in two " best of 1999 " polls : # 87 in 89X 's " Top 89 Songs of 1999 " and No. 100 in Q101 's " Top 101 of 1999 " .
= = Release and reception = =
The World Is Not Enough premiered on 19 November 1999 in the United States and on 26 November 1999 in the United Kingdom . Its World Premiere was November 8 , 1999 at the Bruin & Fox Theatre , Los Angeles , USA . At that time MGM signed a marketing partnership with MTV , primarily for American youths , who were assumed to have considered Bond as " an old @-@ fashioned secret service agent " . As a result , MTV broadcast more than 100 hours of Bond @-@ related programmes immediately after the film was released , most being presented by Denise Richards .
The film opened at the top of the North American box office with $ 35 @.@ 5 million . Its final worldwide gross was $ 361 million worldwide , with $ 126 million in the United States alone . It became the highest grossing James Bond film of all time until the release of Die Another Day . The film was also selected for the first round of nominations for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects but failed . The film was nominated for a Best Action / Adventure / Thriller Film Saturn Award , Pierce Brosnan won both the Empire Award and the Blockbuster Entertainment Award as Best Actor , and David Arnold won a BMI Film Music Award for his score . The film became the first in the Bond series to win a Golden Raspberry when Denise Richards was chosen as " Worst Supporting Actress " at the 1999 Razzie Awards . Richards and Brosnan were also nominated for " Worst Screen Couple " .
The initial release of the DVD includes the featurette " Secrets of 007 " , which cuts into " making of " material during the film ; the documentary " The Making of The World Is Not Enough " ; two commentary tracks — one by director Michael Apted , and the other by production designer Peter Lamont , second unit director Vic Armstrong , and composer David Arnold ; a trailer for the video game , and the Garbage music video . The Ultimate Edition released in 2006 had as additional extras a 2000 documentary named " Bond Cocktail " , a featurette on shooting the Q Boat scenes , Pierce Brosnan in a press conference in Hong Kong , deleted scenes , and a tribute to Desmond Llewelyn .
Reception was mixed . Chicago Sun @-@ Times critic Roger Ebert said the film was a " splendid comic thriller , exciting and graceful , endlessly inventive " , and gave it three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . On the other hand , Eleanor Ringel Gillespie of The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution disliked the film , calling it " dated and confused " . Rotten Tomatoes gave The World Is Not Enough a 51 % rating , the lowest of the Brosnan films , and Metacritic gave the film a score of 59 out of 100 . Negative criticism was focused on the execution of the plot , and the action scenes were considered excessive . Entertainment Weekly picked it as the worst Bond film of all time , saying it had a plot " so convoluted even Pierce Brosnan has admitted to being mystified " . Norman Wilner of MSN chose it as the third worst film , above A View to a Kill and Licence to Kill , while IGN chose it as the fifth worst .
Richards was criticised as not being credible in the role of a nuclear scientist . She was ranked as one of the worst Bond girls of all time by Entertainment Weekly in 2008 .
= = Adaptations = =
The film was adapted into a trading card series which was released by Inkworks . Bond novelist Raymond Benson wrote his adaptation of The World Is Not Enough from the film 's screenplay . It was Benson 's fourth Bond novel and followed the story closely , but with some details changed . For instance , Elektra sings quietly before her death and Bond still carries his Walther PPK instead of the newer P99 . The novel also gave the cigar girl / assassin the name Giulietta da Vinci and retained a scene between her and Renard that was cut from the film ( this scene was also retained in the card series ) .
In 2000 , the film was adapted by Electronic Arts to create a first @-@ person shooter of the same name for the Nintendo 64 and PlayStation . The Nintendo 64 version was developed by Eurocom and the PlayStation version was developed by Black Ops . Versions of The World Is Not Enough for the PC and the PlayStation 2 were planned for release in 2000 , but both were cancelled . These versions would have used the id Tech 3 game engine . Although this game marks Pierce Brosnan 's fifth appearance in a Bond video game , the game includes only his likeness ; the character is voiced by someone else .
= Kepler @-@ 9 =
Kepler @-@ 9 is a sunlike star in the constellation Lyra . Its planetary system , discovered by the Kepler Mission in 2010 was the first detected with the transit method found to contain multiple planets .
= = Nomenclature and history = =
Kepler @-@ 9 was named for the Kepler Mission , a project headed by NASA that was designed to search for Earth @-@ like planets . Unlike stars such as Aldebaran or Sirius , Kepler @-@ 9 does not have a colloquial name .
In June 2010 , some 43 days after Kepler came online , its operating scientists submitted a list of over 700 exoplanet candidates for review . Of those , five were originally suspected to have more than one planet . Kepler @-@ 9 was one of the multiplanetary systems ; it was identified as such when scientists noticed significant variations in the time intervals at which Kepler @-@ 9 was transited . Kepler @-@ 9 holds the first multiplanetary system discovered using the transit method . It is also the first planetary system where transiting planets were confirmed through transit timing variations method , allowing to calculate the masses of planets . The discovery of the planets was announced on August 26 , 2010 .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 9 is located in the constellation Lyra that lies some 650 parsecs away from Earth . With a mass of 1 @.@ 07 M ☉ and a radius of 1 @.@ 02 R ☉ , Kepler @-@ 9 is almost exactly the same size and width of the Sun , being only 7 % more massive and 2 % wider . Kepler @-@ 9 has an effective temperature of 5777 ( ± 61 ) K , as compared to the Sun 's at 5778 K , and is approximately 32 % more metal @-@ rich ( in terms of iron ) than the Sun . Kepler @-@ 9 is younger than the Sun , and is estimated to be one billion years old .
= = Planetary system = =
There are three confirmed planets , all in direct orbit . The outer two planets , Kepler @-@ 9b ( the inner one ) and Kepler @-@ 9c ( the outer one ) , are low density gas giants that are respectively 25 % and 17 % the mass of Jupiter and around 80 % the radius of Jupiter . Both planets have a density less than that of water , similar to Saturn . The innermost planet , Kepler @-@ 9d , is a super @-@ Earth with a radius that is 1 @.@ 64 times that of Earth , orbiting the star every 1 @.@ 6 days . It is estimated that there is a 0 @.@ 59 % chance that the discoveries are false .
From Kepler @-@ 9d ( closest to star ) to Kepler @-@ 9b ( second from star ) , the ratio of their orbits is 1 : 12 . However , the ratio of the orbits of the two outer planets is 1 : 2 , a relationship known as a mean motion resonance . Kepler @-@ 9b and Kepler @-@ 9c are the first transiting planets detected in such an orbital configuration . The resonance causes the orbital speeds of each planet to change , and thus causes the transit times of the two planets to oscillate . The period of Kepler @-@ 9b is increasing by 4 minutes per orbit , while that of Kepler @-@ 9c is decreasing by 39 minutes per orbit . These orbital changes allowed the masses of the planets ( a parameter not normally obtainable via the transit method ) to be estimated using a dynamical model . The mass estimates were further refined using radial velocity measurements obtained with the HIRES instrument of the Keck 1 telescope .
Kepler @-@ 9b and 9c are thought to have formed beyond the " frost line " . They are then thought to have migrated inward due to interactions with the remains of the protoplanetary disk . They would have been captured into orbital resonance during this migration .
= Born Again ( Third Day song ) =
" Born Again " is a song recorded by the Christian rock band Third Day and alternative metal singer Lacey Mosley . Written by Mac Powell and composed by Third Day , " Born Again " was released as the third and final single from Third Day 's 2008 album Revelation . Musically , the song is a ballad featuring influences from the genres of folk music and pop music , while the song is lyrically a " study in self @-@ examination and celebration of a life redeemed " . It was included on the compilation album WOW Hits 2011 .
" Born Again " met with positive critical reception , with many critics praising Mosley 's vocals . It was nominated for two Grammy Awards at the 52nd Grammy Awards : the Grammy Award for Best Gospel Song and the Grammy Award for Best Gospel Performance . It was the third No. 1 single from Revelation and twenty @-@ seventh overall for Third Day , peaking atop the Billboard Christian AC Monitored chart ; it also peaked at No. 3 on the Hot Christian Songs chart , No. 4 on the Hot Christian AC chart , No. 10 on the Christian CHR chart , and No. 41 on the Heatseekers Songs chart . Billboard also ranked " Born Again " on their 2009 year @-@ end Hot Christian Songs , Hot Christian AC , and Christian CHR charts .
= = Background = =
The lyrics to the first verse of " Born Again " were written while Third Day 's lead singer , Mac Powell , was folding laundry . Powell recalled that " I was doing some chores at home . I was sitting down on the floor folding laundry and I had that song in my head . All of a sudden it just came out--a full first verse literally . It wasn ’ t like I said a line and worked out a few other lines , it literally just came out . I just spoke it and sang it and it scared me because that never happens " . Powell said he then " got up and I was running around the house , throwing stuff everywhere looking for a pen and a piece of paper " .
" Born Again " was written by Mac Powell and composed by Third Day . It was produced and programmed by Howard Benson and recorded by Mike Plontikoff at Bay 7 Studios in Valley Village , Los Angeles and at Sparky Dark Studio in Calabasas , California . The song was mixed by Chris Lord @-@ Alge at Resonate Music in Burbank , California and mastered by Bob Ludwig at Gateway Mastering in Portland , Maine . Digital editing was conducted by Paul DeCarli , while audio engineering was handled by Ashburn Miller with additional engineering handled by Hatsukazu Inagaki . Pre @-@ production was handled at Haunted Hollow Studio in Charlottesville , Virginia by Rob Evans and Steve Miller , at Tree Sound Studios in Norcross , Georgia by Don McCollister , and at Sonica Recording in Atlanta , Georgia by Jon Briglevich .
= = Composition = =
" Born Again " is a ballad with a length of three minutes and thirty @-@ six seconds . It is set in 6 / 8 time in the key of G major , with a moderately set tempo of 66 beats per minute and a vocal range spanning from D4 @-@ G5 . " Born Again " contains musical influences from the genres of folk and pop and features " gorgeous " and " soaring " vocals from Lacey Mosley of the alternative metal band Flyleaf . Lyrically , it is a " study in self @-@ examination and celebration of a life redeemed " and " a heartfelt expression of what it 's like to experience a change from within " . Third Day 's bassist , Tai Anderson , said the song " digs beneath " the " cliché " expression of being ' born again ' and into what the phrase is " supposed to mean " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
" Born Again " received positive reviews from music critics , some of whom praised the vocals from Lacey Mosley and regarded it as a highlight of Revelation . Deborah Evans Price of Billboard praised the vocal performance of Mosley as " gorgeous " , while Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today praised it as " a heartfelt expression of what it 's like to experience a change from within " . Matt Conner of CCM Magazine regarded " Born Again " as " one of the highlights on an album full of them " , while John DiBiase of Jesus Freak Hideout described it as a " folk @-@ flavored ballad ... which beautifully features Lacey Mosley from Flyleaf " . Debra Akins of Gospel Music Channel praised it as " one of the best tracks " off Revelation . Graeme Crawford of Cross Rhythms , however , said the " pop " feel of " Born Again " was " disappointing " .
" Born Again " was nominated for two Grammy Awards ( Best Gospel Song and Best Gospel Performance ) at the 52nd Grammy Awards .
= = = Chart performance = = =
On the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart , " Born Again " debuted at no . 25 for the chart week of 13 June 2009 . It advanced to no . 9 in its tenth chart week , and to no . 5 in its fourteenth chart week . In its twenty @-@ first chart week , " Born Again " reached its peak position of no . 3 ; it dropped out after twenty @-@ seven weeks on the Hot Christian Songs chart . On the Billboard Hot Christian AC chart , " Born Again " debuted at no . 27 for the chart week of June 13 , 2009 . It advanced to no . 18 in its fifth chart week and to no . 8 in its twelfth chart week . In its fifteenth chart week , " Born Again " reached its peak position of no . 4 on the chart ; " Born Again " dropped out after twenty @-@ eight weeks on the Hot Christian AC chart .
" Born Again " spent twenty weeks on the Billboard Christian CHR chart , peaking at no . 10 . It peaked at no . 1 on the Billboard Christian AC Indicator chart , making it Third Day 's third no . 1 single from Revelation and twenty @-@ seventh no . 1 single overall . It also spent eight weeks on the Billboard Heatseekers Songs chart , peaking at no . 41 . It ranked at no . 9 on the 2009 year @-@ end Hot Christian Songs chart , at no . 14 on the 2009 year @-@ end Hot Christian AC chart , and at no . 27 on the 2009 year @-@ end Christian CHR chart .
= = Live performances = =
Since its release , Third Day has performed " Born Again " in concert . At WinterJam 2010 , Third Day performed the song with Dawn Michele of Fireflight . On the opening night of the Make a Difference Tour , Third Day performed " Born Again " as part of their setlist . At a concert as part of their Make Your Move Tour in Wilkes Barre , Pennsylvania on 6 November 2011 , the band performed the song during an acoustic set ; the band took requests , and " Born Again " was one of the songs requested . Third Day also performed the song at a concert in Joplin , Missouri on 20 March 2011 ; following the devastating tornado that struck Joplin on 22 May 2011 , Third Day released the entire concert as a download , with all proceeds going to tornado relief for Joplin .
= = Personnel = =
( Credits lifted from the album liner notes )
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly = = =
= = = Year @-@ end = = =
= 24 : Redemption =
24 : Redemption is a television film based on the series 24 . It first aired on November 23 , 2008 , on Fox in the United States , and was released to DVD on November 25 . The film was written by executive producer Howard Gordon and was directed by Jon Cassar . 24 : Redemption takes place almost four years after sixth season and two months before seventh season in real time between 3 : 00 pm and 5 : 00 pm ( Sangala timezone ) on Inauguration Day in the United States .
The main setting is Sangala , a fictional African country , where Jack Bauer ( Kiefer Sutherland ) tries to find peace with himself , and works as a missionary with Carl Benton ( Robert Carlyle ) , who built the Okavango school to aid war orphans . Bauer is served a subpoena to appear before the United States Senate regarding human rights violations , but refuses to go , and a shadow organization among the United States government aids General Juma ( Tony Todd ) and his militia in a coup d 'état .
The working title was 24 : Exile . The concept of the film started since the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike , which delayed the seventh season for a year thus leaving a gap in the series during 2008 . Redemption was somewhat inspired by the Rwandan Genocide in 1994 . The majority of Redemption was filmed on location outside Cape Town , South Africa since it was difficult to mimic an authentic African scenery in America .
Two versions of the film were released to DVD , the original broadcast version and an extended directors cut . The original airing was seen by just over 12 million Americans , and received positive reviews , and was praised for showing a more human side to Bauer . 24 : Redemption was nominated for a Golden Globe as well as five Emmy Awards .
= = Plot = =
Redemption begins with a brief prologue showing a young boy being kidnapped at night , indoctrinated , and drafted along with other boys into a rebel militia so they could take part in a coup d 'état , which is being funded by a shadow organization led by Jonas Hodges ( Jon Voight ) .
While Bauer performs missionary work at the Okavango school in Sangala owned by Carl Benton ( Robert Carlyle ) , U.S. embassy official Frank Trammel ( Gil Bellows ) serves him a subpoena to appear before the Senate regarding torture charges , but Bauer refuses to go . Upon hearing the embassy will cut funding to Benton 's school if it continues to protect him , he decides to leave . Meanwhile , several children playing soccer are ambushed by Juma 's rebel soldiers and kidnapped for conscription . When two boys run away , the soldiers open fire , killing one . Benton learns that the rebels are planning to attack his school . He calls Bauer , who hides the children in an underground shelter , and kills several rebels before getting captured and tortured . Benton is able to ambush the remaining soldiers , and Bauer kills the leader , Youssou Dubaku ( Zolile Nokwe ) . His brother , Iké ( Hakeem Kae @-@ Kazim ) hears of his death and plots revenge , while Bauer and Benton leave with the children to get to the American embassy in the capital before the final helicopter evacuates the country .
In Washington , D.C. , Chris Whitley ( Kris Lemche ) is ordered by the conspirators who fund Juma 's militia to erase all information that would incriminate them . Instead , he calls his friend Roger Taylor ( Eric Lively ) , the son of President Elect Allison Taylor ( Cherry Jones ) , for help . After Roger hears of the conspiracy , Whitley returns to his home to forward the files , only to be stopped by Hodges 's men , Halcott and John Quinn ( Sebastian Roche ) who take the information , kill Whitley and bury the body in concrete .
Benton , Bauer and the boys are spotted by Iké 's helicopter . While they flee into the forest , Benton steps on a land mine . With little time to disarm it , Benton urges Bauer to leave , so he can buy time . When he is surrounded by Iké and his men , Benton takes his foot off the trigger and detonates the mine , killing himself and the rebels , though Iké survives . Bauer and the children continue to the capital , where he defeats another rebel ambush . At the gates of the embassy , Trammel denies the children entry and blackmails Bauer into surrendering for the children 's safety . He reluctantly accepts , thus sacrificing his freedom . While Taylor is inaugurated President , Bauer and the children evacuate , leaving chaotic Sangala behind .
= = Cast and characters = =
= = = Starring = = =
Kiefer Sutherland as Jack Bauer
Cherry Jones as President @-@ elect Allison Taylor
Bob Gunton as Secretary of Defense Ethan Kanin
Colm Feore as First Gentleman Henry Taylor
= = = Special guest stars = = =
Powers Boothe as President Noah Daniels
Robert Carlyle as Carl Benton
= = = Special guest appearance by = = =
Jon Voight as Jonas Hodges
= = = Guest starring = = =
While the majority of the characters are introduced , there are still a small number of original cast who appeared in the past , namely Kiefer Sutherland , who plays Jack Bauer and Bob Gunton , who plays Ethan Kanin from the sixth season and appears as the outgoing Secretary of Defense and new White House Chief of Staff . Powers Boothe continues to play Noah Daniels , the outgoing president . Peter MacNicol reprises his role as Tom Lennox from the sixth season also .
In Sangala , Robert Carlyle plays Carl Benton , an old friend of Jack Bauer , who runs a school for rescued war orphans . Carlyle suggested that there is a very close friendship between Benton and Bauer , since he seems to let Benton come closer to him than others . Towards the end of the film , he sacrifices himself in order to buy time for Bauer and the children to escape . Gil Bellows plays Frank Tramell , a U.S. State Department official who is ordered to subpoena Bauer . Native South African actor Sean Michael plays Charles Solenz , a UN aid worker helping at Benton 's school , and later abandons Benton and the children , claiming that the United Nations is " neutral " in the Sangala conflict .
Siyabulela Ramba plays Willie , one of the war orphans under the care of Benton , who befriends Bauer . Ramba felt an emotional connection with Sutherland during filming , and believes their friendship shows through onscreen . Isaach De Bankolé plays Ule Matobo , the Prime Minister of the nation , who is forced to evacuate the country during the coup . Among the antagonists in Sangala are General Benjamin Juma ( Tony Todd ) , a former dictator and leader of the People 's Freedom Army responsible for genocide in Sangala , and Iké Dubaku ( Hakeem Kae @-@ Kazim ) , one of Juma 's lieutenants in the coup . Zolile Nokwe plays Youssou Dubaku , Iké 's younger brother .
In Washington , Cherry Jones plays Allison Taylor , the first woman to be inaugurated President of the United States . Colm Feore plays Allison 's husband and First Gentleman Henry Taylor . Eric Lively plays Roger Taylor , the First Son and son of Taylor , and appears alongside Carly Pope as his girlfriend , Samantha Roth , and Kris Lemche , who plays friend Chris Whitley . Among the antagonists in Washington are Jon Voight , who plays Jonas Hodges , a " very serious villain " involved in a Blackwater @-@ type organization , as well as Mark Kiely , who plays Secret Service Agent Edward Vossler .
= = Production = =
The film was conceived as a result of the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike , which delayed the seventh season for an entire year ; the producers were exploring ways to get back on the air earlier . Ideas included airing webisodes or mobisodes . According to the President of Entertainment at Fox , " We were going to be off the air for a while and how do you bridge that gap . We thought about doing something online and after talking with [ executive producer ] Howard Gordon we decided to do it on air . " The working title for the film was 24 : Exile , until the change to 24 : Redemption .
In an interview , Kiefer Sutherland revealed that Redemption was inspired by the Rwandan Genocide and the U.S. Government 's response to it . " The truth is , one of the things that was said in the prequel , which I think has been a massive problem with how the Western world has dealt with Africa , no one can justify going there , because they have no viable reason – meaning oil or money . Here [ the president 's ] response is a human one . We can stop a genocide . I think that that 's something that Bill Clinton apologized for not doing with Rwanda and we centered a show around that . "
On April 30 , producers began scouting locations in Africa in order to film the feature in the upcoming weeks . The original plan was to shoot three days worth of scenes in Africa and then have Simi Valley , California fill in for the location . After realizing it would be difficult to fake , it was decided to shoot the majority of the film on location in Cape Town , South Africa . Filming took place from June 4 to June 20 with the final scenes being shot in Los Angeles , California . By July 13 , principal shooting of the film had been completed and post @-@ production had begun .
= = Reception = =
= = = Release and viewership = = =
Before release of Redemption , an exclusive six @-@ minute clip was shown to fans at San Diego Comic @-@ Con , 2008 , which showed Bauer escorting a group of African children to the U.S. embassy and becomes involved in a gunfight on a crowded street . On September 21 , 2008 , another trailer was soon uploaded by Fox , focusing more on the conflict in Africa and how Jonas Hodges is involved in the conflict . It premiered on November 23 , 2008 in the U.S. with the DVD released two days later . Fox also released an extended creator 's cut of the feature . Other extras include | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
, giving it a 2 out of 10 , calling it " un @-@ fun " , and stating that Bauer 's character has not changed at all from past seasons , and asking , " When does a rogue hero [ Bauer ] become a tired joke ? Based on this un @-@ fun movie , I would say yesterday . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
In total , the film itself and its lead actor , Kiefer Sutherland , were nominated for several awards , but none of them resulted in a win . Sutherland was nominated for this performance as " Best Actor in a Miniseries or TV Film " at the 66th Golden Globe Awards , an award which was won by Paul Giamatti for his performance in John Adams . The TV film was also nominated with five Primetime Emmys , including four Creative Arts Primetime Emmys in its 61st ceremony . Sutherland was again nominated for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or Movie for his role as Jack Bauer , but lost to Brendan Gleeson for his role as Winston Churchill in Into the Storm . Sean Callery was nominated for " Outstanding Music Composition for a Miniseries , Movie or a Special ( Original Dramatic Score ) " , but lost to Into the Storm composer Howard Goodall . Scott Powell was nominated for " Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Miniseries or a Movie " , which was won by Lee Percy and Brian A. Kates for Taking Chance . William D. Dotson , Catherine M. Speakman , Jeffrey R. Whitcher , Pembrooke Andrews , Shawn Kennelly , Daryl Fontenault , Melissa Kennelly , Jeffrey Charboneau , Laura Macias and Vincent Nicastro were nominated for " Outstanding Sound Editing for a Miniseries , Movie or a Special " , but lost to the crew of Generation Kill . Lastly , William Gocke , Colin McFarlane , Michael Olman and Kenneth Kobett were nominated for " Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Miniseries or a Movie " , which was won again by the crew of Generation Kill . Sutherland was also nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie but once again lost to Paul Giamatti in John Adams . Redemption was also nominated for the Satellite Award for Best Television Film but lost to the BBC docudrama Filth : The Mary Whitehouse Story .
= I Don 't Give A =
" I Don 't Give A " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna for her twelfth studio album MDNA ( 2012 ) . The song features rap vocals by Trinidadian recording artist Nicki Minaj . It was written and produced by Madonna and Martin Solveig , with additional songwriting by Minaj and Julien Jabre . " I Don 't Give A " is a pop song , with electronic and hip hop syncopated beats .
Lyrically , the song is about a day in Madonna 's life with some portions of it directed at her ex @-@ husband , film director Guy Ritchie , when she sings about a failed marriage . The song received generally favorable reviews from music critics who praised Minaj 's appearance and its personal lyrics . Following the release of MDNA , the song peaked at number 117 in the Gaon Chart of South Korea . Madonna performed the song on The MDNA Tour as the closing track of the show 's first segment .
= = Background and production = =
Madonna 's manager Guy Oseary had contacted Martin Solveig wanting to know if he would be available to work with the singer , to which he responded affirmative . In July 2011 , the singer invited Solveig for a writing session in London for her twelfth studio album , MDNA . This session produced three songs , including " I Don 't Give A " , " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " and " Turn Up the Radio " , the last two later becoming official singles off the album . According to the producer , few days after he had finished the composition , Madonna completed writing the lyrics of " I Don 't Give A " . Solveig understood that the lyrics were probable references towards Madonna 's life and thus received coverage in the press . However , he was not aware of the inner meaning behind the lyrics . With Billboard magazine , the producer further explained :
At first I thought we were going to work on one song ; that was the original plan . Let 's try to work on one song and take it from there -- not spend too much time thinking about the legend , and do something that just makes sense . [ ... ] We did one song and another song , and we were having fun making music . And actually it was a very privileged time . She wasn 't under any kind of pressure , she had time to spend on it ; it was the only thing she had to work on .
In an interview with Channel V Australia , he recalled that the two of them were able to communicate their thoughts about the tracks they developed , " on an organisational level " , thus accelerating the process . Madonna was completely involved in the recording which was a surprise for Solveig , since he had expected the singer not to stay more than an hour or two in the recording studio and then leave . Madonna expressed her thoughts about the composition , including the instrumentation to be used as Solveig added , " at some point she wanted to choose the sound of a snare drum or a synth and that kind of stuff . She was really in the session ! " Madonna reciprocated the feelings saying that she liked Solveig 's way of working : " He 's very organised and methodical in his thinking so I like his work process " . The singer also stated that she was able to disapprove something which she did not like without hurting his feelings .
Regarding having Minaj feature as a guest vocalist , Madonna explained that she wanted to collaborate with female singers she believed had a " strong sense of themselves " . They were shy of each other in the beginning but were able to pass that and dedicate to the tracks . Solveig described Minaj as a " pro " and recalled that she spent some time with the songs and wrote her rapping verse and recorded it within a short span of time .
= = Recording and composition = =
" I Don 't Give A " was written by Madonna , Solveig , Minaj and Julien Jabre . Production was handled by Madonna and Solveig , while Minaj provided rap vocals for the track . It was mixed by Demacio " Demo " Castellon for The Demolition Crew , while it was recorded by Castellon , Philippe Weiss and Graham Archer , with additional recording by Jason " Metal " Donkersgoed , also for The Demolition Crew . The recording took place at Sarm West Studios , London , England and MSR Studios , New York , New York . Minaj appeared for one day during the recording , finishing off her work in " I Don 't Give A " as well as " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " . Jabre also provided electric guitars , drums and synths , while Solveig provided additional instrumentation . Ron Taylor did the vocal editing for the track while Michael Turco added the outro music for The Demolition Crew . Other personnel working on the song included Romain Faure and Angie Teo , the latter of whom worked as mixing assistant .
" I Don 't Give A " is a midtempo pop song with a " ballsy " electronic hip hop and industrial beats . Tracklisted after the initial dance tunes in MDNA , the mood for the song is dark and somber , with a Sturm und Drang chorus and backed by an orchestra that The New York Times reviewer Jon Pareles compared to composer Carl Orff 's cantata , Carmina Burana . The ending of the song consists of a big outro , with " grandiose " choirs , " crashing " cymbals and " escalating " strings . Critics noted that Madonna 's rap in the song is similar to that on her 2003 single " American Life " .
Lyrically " I Don 't Give A " describes a day in the life of Madonna , with the singer working through her schedule . The verses during the chorus are representative of how Madonna had previously ignored her detractors , instead choosing to express it with her music with the lines , " I 'm moving fast , Can you follow my track , I 'm livin ' fast , And I like it like that , I do ten things all at once , And if you have a problem , I don 't give a . " During the bridge , the lyrics presumably talks about a marriage which did not work out for unknown reasons , " I tried to be a good girl / I tried to be your wife / I diminished myself / And I swallowed my light . " Many critics agreed that the song has pretty direct lyrics that seem to take aim at her ex @-@ husband , film director Guy Ritchie . However , when asked if Ritchie was indeed the subject of the song , Madonna 's representative Liz Rosenberg added that " [ Madonna ] has not explained the lyrics and if they are about someone specifically ... [ but ] I appreciate that people will speculate . " The song ends with Minaj uttering the final line , " There 's only one queen and that 's Madonna . Bitch ! . "
Brandon Soderberg from Spin observed how the song was a narrative against her " haters " , a theme predominant in rap music . This is enunciated with the lyrics addressing Ritchie and tabloids , along with some of Minaj 's verses being directed against pop singer Lady Gaga , with whom Madonna had been compared to previously . Soderberg deduced that Madonna might have noticed the shifting themes in rap music , where it had become acceptable to boast about one 's wealth , hence the lyrics had more of a Sex and the City vibe with its depiction of Madonna 's " fairly awesome life " .
= = Critical reception = =
" I Don 't Give A " received generally favorable reviews from music critics . Neal McCormick of The Daily Telegraph called it " an album highlight " , writing that " there is real energy to this Martin Solveig production , though Nicki Minaj 's explosive rap rather shows up Madonna 's more static delivery " . A writer from Virgin Media gave the song a rating of 4 out of 5 stars while complimenting the chorus . Michael Cragg of The Guardian labeled " I Don 't Give A " as " brilliantly odd " . He praised " the industrial beats " as well as " the spooky chants and out of nowhere [ appearance of ] Minaj " .
Jeremy Thomas of music website 411 Mania called the track as " incredibly in @-@ your @-@ face " , commending Minaj for delivering " one of the best flows we 've seen from her since she showed up on Kanye West 's ' Monster ' . " Joel Meares of Time Out shared this view , adding that Minaj 's rap verse was reminiscent of the times when Madonna 's own songs were as good as the former 's single " Starships " . The Village Voice 's Maura Johnston was also complimentary about Minaj , writing that , " [ She ] lays down a couple of rhymes that are by no means the best in her vast catalog , but her sudden presence shows that the music isn 't the song 's biggest weakness . " Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club also considered the rapper 's performance as " one of her better features in a while " , and better than her inclusion in the lead single " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " . Soderberg from Spin described the song as a " rap track that positions Nicki Minaj , as the brash , pop subversive in the tradition of Madonna " and criticized the latter 's rapping , finding the vocals to be weak . Conversely , he appreciated Minaj 's verses and vocal delivery , calling them " witty " and " confident " . He further wrote about Madonna 's vocals in detail :
[ Although Madonna 's ] MC voice is weak and silly , it 's admirably her , which is impressive now that the feigned " hood " accents of Iggy Azalea and Kreayshawn are in vogue . I would favorably compare Madonna 's verses to the much @-@ maligned Uffie , who was also brave / stupid / smart enough to just rap about her annoying , first world problems with no pretense to being down .
Keith Caulfield of Billboard called it " a very rat @-@ a @-@ tat @-@ tat song " ; He complimented the lengthy orchestral portion of the track and called it " epic and sweeping , but comes out of nowhere " . For Matthew Perpetua of Pitchfork Media the song showed how Madonna 's strong rapping was upstaged by Minaj , " who turns in an entertaining performance that is nevertheless below the standards of her usual features " . Nick Bond of Sydney Star Observer wrote that the song is " not her most GFC @-@ friendly track " , but explained that " Musically , it 's the damp squib that was Hard Candy done right . "
= = Live performance = =
Madonna performed " I Don 't Give A " on The MDNA Tour in 2012 . The performance of the song closed the show 's first segment known as Transgression , and found Madonna playing the guitar while Minaj appeared on the backdrops sitting on a throne singing her verse . Saeed Saeed of The National praised Madonna for " re @-@ emerging once again triumphant in rock star mode , " during the performance Kat Keogh of Birmingham Mail described that " The crowd was awash with a sea of camera phones as Madge grabbed a guitar for Nicki Minaj duet ' I Don ’ t Give A ' . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times was mixed in his review , writing that Madonna " still looks silly when , as she did in ' I Don ’ t Give A ' , she slings an electric guitar and makes rocker @-@ chick faces " and found it odd that " someone so physically disciplined can ’ t fake better guitar moves . " The performance was included on Madonna 's fourth live album , MDNA World Tour .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Management
Nicki Minaj appears courtesy of Young Money Entertainment / Cash Money Records
Webo Girl Publishing , Inc . ( ASCAP ) , EMI Music Publishing France ( SACEM ) , Money Mack Music / Harajuku Barbie Music adm. by Songs of Universal , Inc . ( BMI )
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of MDNA .
= = Charts = =
In South Korea , the song debuted at number 117 on the Gaon International Downloads Chart , selling 3 @,@ 101 copies .
= Loretta Jones =
Loretta Jones is a fictional character from the British Channel 4 soap operas Hollyoaks and Hollyoaks Later . The character is played by Melissa Walton and first appeared on @-@ screen on 26 November 2008 during the first series of the Hollyoaks spin @-@ off Hollyoaks Later as a new love interest for the character Dom Reilly . She made her first appearance in the Hollyoaks series in February 2009 and was the first character to be introduced to the series by producer Lucy Allan . In 2010 Loretta was axed from the series , along with 15 other characters , during a cast cull by executive producer Paul Marquess .
The character development has Loretta having worked as a pole dancer and Walton put extensive research into the role , including visiting strip clubs . Despite this occupation Loretta has been portrayed out of conjunction with the blonde stereotype . She has been involved in storylines which include facing prejudice , body scarring issues and stalking fellow characters . The character is most noted for the series intending to portray her as a child murderer trying to piece her life back together . The plot was subsequently axed having caused a great amount of controversy among the British public after newspapers alleged that the storyline was copying a real @-@ life case . Loretta has been positively received by the media for her appearance and has been dubbed a " blond bombshell " . Before Loretta 's departure from the series Marquess made changes to the characters persona : portraying her as a stalker being obsessive , calculating and pretending to have leukemia . In her final storyline it was revealed that she had been sexually abused as a child and admitted herself to a psychiatric hospital .
= = Character creation and casting = =
The character of Loretta was created as a temporary love interest for Dominic Reilly ( John Pickard ) and was intended to feature only in Hollyoaks Later , the spin @-@ off from the Hollyoaks series . In 2009 it was announced that the Hollyoaks ' producer Lucy Allan had decided to introduce both Loretta and Cheryl Brady ( Bronagh Waugh ) into the main show . Allan said , " Cheryl and Loretta will bring an energy and a sense of fun to the show . Both Melissa and Bronagh impressed me with their performances in Hollyoaks Later and I 'm sure viewers will warm to them quickly . " Loretta was initially paired with Dom and , after ending their relationship , was given links to other characters in the series . To prepare for the role Walton took pole @-@ dancing classes and visited a lap dancing club . After watching girls perform at the club she carried out routines in her underwear . She also had a pole set up in her living room to carry on practicing . Speaking of her research Walton stated : " I loved it . It 's really good exercise . It 's really good for toning . They didn 't ask me to , but I did ... I went and I had pole dancing classes . I had a pole put up in my living room . "
Though Walton had initially signed on for a three @-@ month stint Allan decided to renew her contract in 2009 and keep Loretta in the series until 2010 . In early 2010 it was announced that Allan had stepped down from the position of executive producer and that Paul Marquess had taken over the role . It was soon revealed that Marquess planned to give Hollyoaks a " shake up " , changing the productions team and beginning a cast cull by axing three established characters . Stephanie Waring ( who plays Cindy Hutchinson ) then revealed that all remaining cast members feared their own character would be axed . One month later Marquess announced his plans to axe a further 11 characters , including Loretta at the end of Walton 's contract . It was also revealed that Loretta would depart at the same time as her current love interest Jake Dean ( Kevin Sacre ) .
On 8 June 2010 Walton filmed her final scenes for the series , along with two fellow cast members Scare and Gerard McCarthy ( who plays Kris Fisher ) . She spoke of her upset over leaving her fellow cast members , but later said she was looking forward to pursuing other projects . Walton also confirmed that she was happy the door was left open for a potential return , stating that she would consider reprising her role as Loretta in the future . Walton also said she understood why Marquess axed her character , he did not feel Loretta had anywhere left to go after the cancellation of her main storyline . However , she also felt like she deserved another chance to prove herself .
= = Character development and impact = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
Loretta has stated on @-@ screen that she does not want to conform with the stereotype of a blond pole dancer , and makes it clear that she is a keen bird watcher and enjoys documentaries . Speaking of the character Walton stated , " I love that Loretta 's not a stereotypical stripper sort of girl — there ’ s a lot more depth to her . She ’ s actually quite shy and reserved . She ’ s got lots of interesting little hobbies , like bird @-@ watching and Roman history ! Then at night she skips off and turns into a stripper . It ’ s like two different lives , and I think many real @-@ life pole @-@ dancers are like that . They ’ re really nice , normal girls by day , and by night they turn into these temptresses . " Walton also praised the soap 's realistic portrayal of the occupation , saying that many pole dancers attend university or have good professions but rely on stripping for extra money , and that she has met people like her character in the strip club where Hollyoaks films scenes .
Walton hopes viewers will find Loretta 's alter ego as a stripper tasteful commenting , " As tasteful as you can be in a pink frilly bra and knicker set , with a little skirt that ’ s more like a belt , and back @-@ combed hair and fake eyelashes ! " Loretta 's stripper clothing is in stark contrast to her every day look of non @-@ revealing clothing .
Loretta 's relationships helped develop the character . Her first relationship is with Dom Reilly who shares her interests in bird watching , documentaries on ancient Rome and literature . The relationship immediately gave viewers an insight into the character . However , as their relationship progressed , it became apparent that Dom could not handle Loretta 's profession as he feared for her safety , which ultimately lead to their break up . Loretta 's second relationship is a short @-@ lived fling with Ravi Roy ( Stephen Uppal ) where she is determined to see the good in him , and help him while he suffers from a brain aneurysm , but ends the relationship when he attempts to assault her . Loretta then begins a secret romance with Jake , who had tried to murder his child and rape his wife . Loretta believes he had been misled and is still a good person , demonstrating Loretta 's willingness to give people second chances . Walton comments , " [ Loretta ] is just lovely – she sees the good in everyone . " When television listings magazine What 's on TV challenged Walton to explain why Loretta would be interested in Jake after his crimes Walton said , " Loretta 's big on forgiveness . She believes Jake ’ s changed , that he 's learnt from his time inside and he 's paid his debt to society . "
After Marquess decided to axe Loretta he changed the character 's direction and her persona . She became obsessive over men , controlling towards Jake , manipulative and began lying to get what she wanted . Jake later decides he does not want her , of this Walton states that : " She 's not going anywhere . She 's deluded and manipulative and he hasn 't seen anything yet ! " She also is shown have " bunny boiler " tendencies , with Walton agreeing to the label . Walton later revealed that Loretta began pole dancing to have power over men because of the abuse she suffered as a child although , as Loretta 's exit approached , she was now a dangerous and deluded woman .
= = = Child murderer controversy = = =
In November 2009 Loretta became the centre of media controversy when various media outlets announced that Loretta would be part of a storyline which revealed that she had murdered a child in her past . The controversy began when tabloid newspaper The Sun compared the storyline to the real life murder of James Bulger . Bulger had been murdered when he was two years old by two young children . Being just 10 years of age they were handed small sentences to serve and were later released with new identities . Soon afterwards various other news sources and lifestyle magazines picked up the story and mimicked The Sun and its claims . Bulger 's mother , Denise Fergus , condemned the storyline . While speaking to the news website Click Liverpool she criticised the decision to air a plot that allegedly mirrored her son 's death , stating they should have consulted her first . She said , " I 'm shocked and disgusted at what Hollyoaks is doing . They have clearly based this story on what happened to James and it 's outrageous that they should do this without consulting with me in any way . " She threatened to encourage a boycott of the show . Channel 4 released a statement defending the plot , explaining it had nothing to do with any real life case : " The forthcoming storyline is not based on any real @-@ life case and it will in no way seek to recreate real events . The storyline focuses on the psychological repercussions for two characters in the show who were responsible for the death of a 12 @-@ year @-@ old girl in the past . " The storyline would answer questions for viewers who had been speculating on Loretta 's secret past . It would reveal that Loretta had spent time in prison for her crime , was born with the name Joanna Norman , and is living under a false identity .
Speaking about delving into her character 's history Walton commented to entertainment website Digital Spy , " It took a little while and until now , we 've known little about her . Nobody in the village knows who she is or where she 's come from . She 's just planted herself in the village knowing hardly anybody . She 's quite a mysterious character . I 'm absolutely loving the opportunity to explore her backstory . " Speaking about her reaction to the plot she continued , " I was like , ' Oh my gosh ! ' I was so shocked but absolutely chuffed to bits because this is what all actors want – something massive like this to sink my teeth into . I feel so privileged that they 've trusted me with this story . I know they 've wanted to do it for a while and they 've finally chosen me ! "
In the same interview Walton described the storyline , " Loretta and Chrissy were best , best friends through childhood . They were closer than sisters . She somehow tracks Loretta down and turns up out of the blue after Loretta 's finished a dance class . What we learn is that when they were 12 , they bullied a young girl and didn 't stop until they killed her . They kept pushing and pushing and eventually killed her . Since then , Loretta and Chrissy have been completely separated from each other , their families and friends . They 've spent years in institutions having psychiatric and behavioural treatment . "
Kevin Sacre , whose character was directly involved in the storyline , voiced his support for the plot stating : " I think the fact that it 's the sort of thing that happens in real life means it 's something that should be addressed . Anyone who buries their head in the sand is a bit naïve . And I think soap is a medium where you can explore issues of real life . "
Just days before the episodes were set to transmit Channel 4 announced that it was axing the storyline , due in part to Fergus 's reaction to the storyline . Whilst Walton had previously claimed the storyline was about three twelve @-@ year @-@ old girls , Channel 4 admitted the similarities between the story and the Bulger case . " This particular storyline was not based on any real life case and was not intended to recreate actual events . However , after conversations with Denise Fergus we have agreed to amend certain aspects of the storyline . " Amber Hodgkiss , who was cast to play Chrissy , expressed her disappointment over the decision to axe the plot all together saying , " The storyline has been completely cut . I am not so happy about it . I would like it to go ahead , but I don 't have that decision . It wasn 't based on Jamie Bulger , but people portrayed it that way . It was quite a big storyline that could affect people , but it happens . " Fergus said she was grateful that the plot was axed saying , " I 'm grateful that they are respecting my wishes . I made it clear that I did not want those scenes broadcast and I 'm pleased to say they clearly understood my feelings . "
When episodes that were intended to feature the storyline transmitted , they instead featured a selection of then " last minute " scenes . In these scenes Hodgkiss portrays a new character , Caroline , who holds Loretta and Jake hostage .
= = = Stalker and exit storyline = = =
Marquess began writing scripts to facilitate Loretta 's departure as Walton 's filming was to finish in June 2010 , with a departure date of August that same year . Her exit from the series was described as dramatic , with Walton commenting on this during an interview with magazine programme Live from Studio Five stating , " I 'm very pleased with my exit , you know . I 'm very , very pleased with what I 've been given and I 've really enjoyed doing it . I 've probably enjoyed the last few months of filming more than I 've enjoyed anything else that I 've done , to be honest . "
Loretta 's backstory gradually began to unfold on @-@ screen . Loretta decided she needed to win Jake back . Her ex @-@ boyfriend Adam ( Vlach Ashton ) warned Jake that Loretta had previously stalked him . This starts to damage their relationship and during an interview with What 's on TV Walton commented on it saying that Jake was suspicious of Loretta 's motives . Loretta love for Jake turned into an obsession with Walton saying , " She 's definitely not giving up on him . What he thought was love is already actually an obsession . She wants to totally control him " . The story line reveals her past of obsessions with men and Walton stated , " You sense Adam wasn 't the only ex @-@ partner she stalked . She has a mobile full of men 's numbers . " Walton explains the cause of her behaviour , " You find out much later on that it 's because of something that happened in her past . Her obsession really is getting full @-@ on [ ... ] She 's jealous of anybody who gets Jake 's attention . " After Jake 's sister Steph Cunningham ( Carley Stenson ) is diagnosed with cervical cancer Loretta pretends she once had leukaemia in order to trap Jake . He throws her out though because his son had previously suffered from the illness . Loretta refuses to give up and her behaviour becomes more erratic .
In the final episodes of her departure Loretta manages to convince everyone that Jake was mentally ill once more . She takes Nancy Hayton ( Jessica Fox ) hostage for snooping into her life with Adam and Walton states , " Loretta is dangerous and deluded , Nancy 's terrified of her – she tries to escape but Loretta won 't let her She accidentally pushes Nancy , who crashes into a table and bangs her head badly " . Walton also revealed more of Loretta 's past saying , " Adam confesses that Loretta was violent towards him , basically she did some awful things to him that she 's doing to Jake now . " The storyline sought to explain all the unanswered questions left in her backstory with Walton saying , " He [ Jake ] tries to talk her round , and at that point she reveals she was sexually abused when she was very young . It 's supposedly the reason she went into stripping to have power over men . " Walton also defended Loretta 's final actions , saying the character was confused and did not mean to hurt anyone . In Loretta 's final scene she voluntarily admits herself into a psychiatric hospital after being convinced to by Jake .
= = Storylines = =
Loretta first appears as a stripper who works in a lap @-@ dancing club . During her job Loretta meets Dom . The pair like each other but she decides not to go out with him , she feels he is not yet over the death of his wife Tina ( Leah Hackett ) .
Loretta is not seen again until February 2009 , when she and Dom begin a relationship . Loretta clashes with Mercedes Fisher ( Jennifer Metcalfe ) who is not happy to find out that Dom has moved on from Tina . Loretta moves in with Cindy Cunningham ( Stephanie Waring ) and Darren Osborne ( Ashley Taylor Dawson ) . Loretta lies to Dom saying she has quit her job and does not tell him the truth until Darren finds out and begins to blackmail her . Loretta then quits her job for Dom , but later finds a new job as a stripper at a different club . Dom worries about Loretta 's safety at her job and gives her a rape alarm , much to her amusement . Loretta reassures him , but realises how serious it is for him when he reveals that Tina 's abduction and death has left him uptight about safety . They then end their relationship .
Loretta drunkenly teaches Nancy Hayton , Zoe Carpenter ( Zoë Lister ) , Hannah Ashworth ( Emma Rigby ) and Sarah Barnes ( Loui Batley ) how to dance in the Student Union bar . She slips and falls onto some glass bottles which break and cut her stomach . Loretta is horrified when she is left scarred by the glass . Her boss sacks her , because her scars have rendered her unattractive , and Loretta is given a job in Tan & Tumble by Ash Roy ( Junade Khan ) . Loretta develops a crush on Ravi Roy which makes his brother Ash jealous . After Loretta catches Ravi being violent towards his sister Leila ( Lena Kaur ) she distances herself from him and Ash starts flirting with her . Ash kisses Loretta and Ravi sees it and lashes out at . This leads an angry Ravi to fight in an illegal boxing match . After Ravi taunts Ash he punches Ravi , who was diagnosed with an aneurysm , and Ravi falls into a coma . Loretta explains to Kris Fisher ( Gerard McCarthy ) and Anita Roy ( Saira Choudhry ) that Ash tried to kiss her , which Kris believes and Ash tries to deny .
Loretta gradually becomes good friends with Nancy and Hannah . When Nancy 's abusive ex @-@ husband Jake Dean , who tried to rape her and kill his and his ex @-@ wife Becca 's son Charlie ( Joshua McConville ) , returns to the village Loretta consoles Nancy and moves in with her . Loretta grows close to Jake and , although initially hesitant , forms a relationship with him . After Jake and Loretta go public , Loretta is kicked out by Nancy and moves in with Jake . When Jake 's sister Steph Cunningham ( Carley Stenson ) suggests the pair are moving too quickly Loretta agrees , she talks to Jake who gets angry showing his temper to Loretta for the first time . The couple reconcile with the help of Steph . Loretta strikes up a friendship with Holly Hutchinson ( Lydia Waters ) who aspires to be a dancer like Loretta after feeling unnoticed by her mother Cindy . As they bond Loretta gives Holly advice on dancing . Loretta faces prejudice when she starts applying for new jobs , as no one will employ her due to her previous jobs as a stripper . She later lies during an interview , her interviewers discover her previous employment and make derogatory remarks to her .
Holly runs away from home and a large @-@ scale police investigation is put in place to find her . Many other residents in the village suspect Loretta 's boyfriend Jake of being her kidnapper , unaware that she is safe and hiding in Darren 's flat . Loretta leaves Jake after she begins to doubt his innocence but later reconciles with him . After Jake finds Holly he chases her , she falls over and takes a blow to the head and falls into a coma . Initially the police suspect that Jake was behind this but later release him . Loretta once more begins to doubt him . Upset , Jake goes to stay with his old friend Caroline ( Amber Hodgkiss ) . After sleeping with him Caroline drugs him , ties him up , tries to kill him , and holds him hostage for a few days . She is angered to learn he is going out with Loretta and sets out to try to kill Holly but Loretta is there by Holly 's bedside . Caroline tries to attack Loretta with a syringe needle but Jake saves Loretta and , in the process , Caroline is stabbed with the needle . After the ordeal Loretta disappears , having to accept the fact that Jake had cheated on her much to his dismay . She returns but while she was away Loretta had become involved with a realtor called Adam . At first Jake thought she was looking for a home . However , when he saw them both arguing , Jake realises something was not as it seemed . When Jake confronts Loretta she tells him that Adam was harassing her . This leads to Jake confronting Adam and warning him to stay away from Loretta . However Adam tells him that Loretta had been controlling his life and that she wants to be with him . Adam explains that Loretta had told him about Jake and that he was the biggest mistake of her life in the hope that Adam would take her back .
Later she goes on a night out to The Loft nightclub and threatens Charlotte Lau ( Amy Yamazaki ) . She says that she will kill Lau if she ever goes near Jake again , making viewers realise that Loretta had changed her personality and her behaviour since her absence . Loretta pretends she had Leukaemia but Jake finds out the truth and ends their relationship . She later convinces Steph that Jake lied when he told Steph that Loretta had said she was ill and she makes Frankie and Steph believe Jake is losing his mind again . She send messages from Jake 's mobile phone and plants defaced pictures of her and Jake in his coat to make it look real . Loretta reveals to Steph that she was sexually abused as a child . Jake gets back together with Loretta to stop her from getting him put back into a mental health clinic . Nancy finds out the truth about Loretta from Adam , she confronts Loretta who pushes her over and Nancy is badly hurt . Jake saves Nancy and she agree 's not to go to the police . Loretta reveals she did not lie when she was sexually abused and Jake asks her to get help and will stand by her . Loretta is last seen admitting herself into the hospital .
= = Reception = =
Loretta has been well received for her good looks and " sexy " image . According to British tabloid The Daily Star the character was extremely popular with viewers on Hollyoaks Later and " went down a storm " with them . They also add that she rivals other characters such as Carmel Valentine ( Gemma Merna ) and Mercedes Fisher ( Jennifer Metcalfe ) with her " hot babe " image . Loretta has been noted in the media because of her " sexy blonde " image . When she was axed from the series a magazine dedicated to " sexually attractive females " titled Babemag commented that the series would not be the same without her and praised Walton 's portrayal , stating , " Sundays may never be quite the same as news filters through that Hollyoaks star , Melissa Walton , is to get the chop from the teen soap . Horny Hollyoaks hangover TV might not be the same for us without the charms of Melissa Walton who plays Loretta Jones in the series . " She has also been dubbed a " blonde bombshell " by media sources such as Digital Spy and the South Wales Evening Post . Five 's soap opera reporting website Holy Soap describe Loretta 's finest moment as her food fight with Mercedes when they clashed over Dom . Jon Horsley writing for Yahoo ! included Loretta 's child killer plot in a feature about soap opera 's most controversial storylines .
= 1966 NASA T @-@ 38 crash =
The 1966 NASA T @-@ 38 crash occurred when a NASA Northrop T @-@ 38 Talon crashed at Lambert Field in St. Louis , Missouri , on February 28 , 1966 , killing two Project Gemini astronauts , Elliot See and Charles Bassett . The aircraft , piloted by See , crashed into the McDonnell Aircraft building where their Gemini 9 spacecraft was being assembled . The weather was poor with rain , snow , fog , and low clouds . A NASA panel , headed by the Chief of the Astronaut Office , Alan Shepard , investigated the crash . While the panel considered possible medical issues or aircraft maintenance problems , in addition to the weather and air traffic control factors , the end verdict was that the crash was caused by pilot error .
In the aftermath of the crash , the backup crew of Thomas Stafford and Eugene Cernan were moved up to the primary position for the Gemini 9 mission , scheduled for early June . Jim Lovell and Buzz Aldrin , who had formerly been the backup for Gemini 10 , became the mission 's backup crew , and through the normal rotation were assigned as prime crew for Gemini 12 . Without the Gemini experience , it is unlikely that Aldrin would have been assigned to the Apollo 11 mission , during which he became the second man to walk on the moon .
= = The accident = =
See and Bassett were the prime crew assigned to the Gemini 9 mission . They and the backup crew for the mission , Tom Stafford and Gene Cernan , were flying to St. Louis from their normal training base in Houston , Texas , for two weeks of simulator training for rendezvous and docking procedures at McDonnell Aircraft , the prime contractor for the Gemini spacecraft . It was a routine flight they had made many times previously .
See and Bassett flew in one Northrop T @-@ 38A Talon jet trainer , tail number NASA 901 ( Air Force serial number 63 @-@ 8181 ) , with See at the controls and Bassett in the rear seat . A second T @-@ 38 , NASA 907 , carried Stafford and Cernan in the same configuration . The two aircraft took off from Ellington Air Force Base in Texas at 7 : 35 a.m. CST , with See in the lead and Stafford in wing position . Weather at Lambert Field in St. Louis was poor , with rain , snow , and fog , broken clouds at 800 feet ( 240 m ) and a flight ceiling of 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 460 m ) , requiring an instrument approach . When the two aircraft emerged below the clouds shortly before 9 am , both pilots realized they had missed the outer marker and overshot the runway .
See then elected to perform a visual circling approach , a simplified landing procedure allowing flight under instrument rules , as long as the pilot can keep the airfield and any preceding aircraft in sight . The reported weather conditions at the airport were adequate for this type of approach , but visibility was irregular and deteriorating rapidly . Stafford began to follow See 's plane , but when he lost sight of it in the clouds he instead followed the standard procedure for a missed approach and pulled his aircraft up , back into the clouds for another attempt at an instrument landing .
See completed a full circle to the left at an altitude of 500 to 600 feet ( 150 to 180 m ) , and announced his intention to land on the southwest runway ( 24 ) . With landing gear down and full flaps , the plane dropped quickly but too far left of the runway . See turned on his afterburner to increase power while pulling up and turning hard right . Seconds later , at 8 : 58 a.m. CST , the plane struck the roof of McDonnell Building 101 on the northeast side of the airport . It lost its right wing and landing gear on impact , then cartwheeled and crashed in a parking lot beyond the building which was in use as a construction staging area .
Both astronauts instantly succumbed to trauma sustained in the crash . Inside Building 101 , 17 McDonnell employees and contractors received mostly minor injuries from falling debris . The crash set off several small fires inside the building , and caused minor flooding from a number of broken pipes and sprinklers . By coincidence , See and Bassett died within 500 feet ( 150 m ) of the very spacecraft that they were to have flown in orbit , which was in the final stages of assembly in another part of Building 101 . Spacecraft S / C9 was undamaged , but a piece of debris from the T @-@ 38 's wing struck the unfinished S / C10 spacecraft .
Meanwhile , Stafford and Cernan , still circling in the clouds in the second T @-@ 38 , had no idea what had happened to their flight partners . Air traffic controllers were confused by the two planes in flight attempting different abort actions after the initial missed approach , and moreover no one on the ground knew who was in the crashed plane . After some delay , Stafford and Cernan were asked to identify themselves and given permission to land , but they were not informed of the crash until on the ground . Although personally distraught over the loss of his close colleagues and friends , Stafford acted as NASA 's chief contact on the scene until other personnel arrived to relieve him later in the day .
= = Investigation and aftermath = =
NASA immediately appointed a 7 @-@ member panel to investigate the crash , headed by their Chief of the Astronaut Office , Alan Shepard . While the panel weighed possible medical issues , aircraft maintenance problems , weather conditions , and air traffic control factors , their end verdict was pilot error , citing See 's inability " to maintain visual reference for a landing " as the primary cause of the crash . See was described as a " cautious and conservative " pilot in the accident report . In his memoir , chief astronaut Deke Slayton was less diplomatic , calling See 's piloting skills " old @-@ womanish . " Others , including Neil Armstrong , who had worked with See on the backup crew for Gemini 5 , have since defended See 's piloting ability .
Since the crash did not affect space flight operations and the spacecraft itself was undamaged — it was shipped to NASA two days after the crash — the accident caused neither delays nor engineering changes in the U.S. space program . However , the loss of the Gemini 9 crew did cause NASA to reshuffle the crew assignments for subsequent Gemini and Apollo missions ; Stafford and Cernan were moved up to the primary position for Gemini 9 , re @-@ designated Gemini 9A . Jim Lovell and Buzz Aldrin , who had formerly been the backup for Gemini 10 , became the back @-@ up crew for Gemini 9A , and through the normal rotation were then assigned as prime crew for Gemini 12 . Without experience during the Gemini mission , Buzz Aldrin would have been an unlikely choice for the Apollo 11 mission , during which he became the second man to walk on the moon .
= Elogium =
" Elogium " is the fourth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Voyager , the 20th episode overall . The episode first aired on the UPN network on February 18 , 1995 . The story was written by freelancers Jimmy Diggs and Steve J. Kay , based on Diggs ' experience while serving in the United States Navy . It was rewritten by executive producer Jeri Taylor and guest writer Kenneth Biller .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the Starfleet and Maquis crew of the starship USS Voyager after they were stranded in the Delta Quadrant far from the rest of the Federation . In this episode , Voyager encounters a swarm of space @-@ borne lifeforms , which mistake the vessel for a member of their species . The presence of the aliens induce a premature mating cycle in Kes ( Jennifer Lien ) , causing her and Neelix ( Ethan Phillips ) to question whether or not they are ready to have children .
Taylor incorporated Diggs ’ suggestion to name a character " Samantha Wildman " after an organ donor who saved his wife ’ s life . The script was Biller 's first work for the series and earned him a permanent spot on the Voyager writing staff after impressing the producers . The episode received Nielsen ratings of 5 @.@ 7 / 9 percent , placing it in 87th position for the week overall . The episode was praised by the cast , although director Winrich Kolbe was satisfied but felt that Kes could have been taken further in the episode . Critics gave the episode a mixed response , lauding Lien 's performance while criticizing the character dynamics and the message about women wanting to become a mother .
= = Plot = =
On stardate 48921 @.@ 3 , when the USS Voyager encounters a cloud of space @-@ dwelling lifeforms , Captain Janeway ( Kate Mulgrew ) takes the ship in for a closer look . The ship is soon drawn in and engulfed by the swarm of creatures , whose proximity disables the helm controls and shields . The crew endeavor to escape without harming the creatures , but when they begin attaching themselves to the Voyager 's hull , they wreak even more havoc on the ship ’ s systems . A version of the creatures as large as the Voyager arrives , and the crew realize that they have been mistaken for a male of the species ; the smaller creatures are attempting to mate with the ship . When the male attacks , the Voyager adopts a position of submission , based on behavior the crew observed in the smaller members of the species . Losing interest , the smaller creatures detach from the Voyager and allow it to leave .
In response to Voyager 's exposure to the swarm of aliens , Kes ( Jennifer Lien ) begins eating abnormally , including insects and soil . In sickbay , she has a fever , a dangerously elevated pulse and blood pressure , and a tumorous growth on her back . She resists the Doctor ’ s ( Robert Picardo ) treatment and locks herself in his office , finally relenting only to explain to Captain Janeway that she ’ s undergoing the elogium : the Ocampa mating cycle . This process only happens once and usually affects Ocampa between four and five years old — but Kes is not even two years old yet . Neelix ( Ethan Phillips ) and Kes agonize over whether to have children and the ramifications of becoming parents . After discussing children and family with Lieutenant Tuvok ( Tim Russ ) , Neelix decides he ’ s ready to be a father , while Kes has instead decided against it . Ultimately , because The Doctor believes the elogium was artificially induced by the creatures ’ proximity to the ship , it may come upon her again later in her life when she is ready .
Throughout the episode , a concern over shipboard fraternization arises . After Captain Janeway and Chakotay ( Robert Beltran ) discuss whether the ship is an appropriate place to raise children , Ensign Samantha Wildman ( Nancy Hower ) announces that she is pregnant by her husband , who is still in the Alpha Quadrant .
= = Production = =
" The Alamak " and " The Running " were temporary titles during the development of the episode , before settling on the final title : " Elogium " . The episode was originally written for the show 's first season , but was held over by UPN to give the second season a jump @-@ start on other networks ' programming . In other countries , including the United Kingdom , the episode was included in the first season . Executive producer and co @-@ creator Jeri Taylor described " Elogium " as a fitting end to that season " because it leaves us with the revelation that someone aboard the U.S.S. Voyager is pregnant ! " Though the production of the episode required extensive computer graphics , " Elogium " ' s production required little other extra production features like extra cast or sets , making it a bottle episode .
Jimmy Diggs wrote the A @-@ story of " Elogium " based on an experience he had while serving in the United States Navy . One starless night when he was tasked with cleaning the ship as it came into port , giant spotlights were employed to assist the sailors . As the ship traveled , Diggs witnessed the gradual accumulation of thousands of sea creatures following the ship . That " special , unique memory " was the basis for his first script sold to Star Trek . He was already working as an intern on the staff on the basis of a previous script when he met with Taylor and Brannon Braga to pitch further stories , including " Elogium " . He later said that the story was sold on the strength of a single line of dialogue : when the crew finally figures out how to shed the alien creatures , Tuvok 's line of " Captain , I believe that we 've lost our sex appeal . " made Braga laugh and caused him to " say the magic word , ' Sold . ' " With this , Diggs became the third African American to write for Star Trek . The composition of shots including the Voyager and the alien creatures were accomplished with heavy use of computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) produced by Amblin Imaging and Santa Barbara Studios . When viewing the alien swarm at a distance , the special effect was a composition from magnified footage of sperm . When viewed close @-@ up however , the alien swarm was computer @-@ generated . Jeri Taylor rewrote the script to weave in Kes ' need to mate as the B @-@ story .
Diggs later wrote to Jeri Taylor , requesting a character be named after Samantha Wildman , a young girl whose kidney donation saved his wife 's life . Taylor wrote in the character of Samantha Wildman , who recurred as the department head of xenobiology because her namesake had been a fervent animal lover . Diggs described his motivation for lobbying for the name : " ' I couldn 't imagine the selflessness of people who , in the middle of their grief over the loss of their child , could think about someone else , could save someone else 's life . ' Jimmy says that in ancient times , the gods would immortalize heroes by placing them in the stars . ' Samantha Wildman will live on , ' he says . ' She 's taken her [ place ] in the stars . ' "
The teleplay was written by Kenneth Biller and Taylor ; Biller wrote the A @-@ story that focused on the swarm of alien creatures while Taylor focused on the B @-@ story of Kes ' elogium . Instead of writing from Digg 's full prose story , Biller worked from a seven @-@ page treatment . Biller reacted to the plot with the thought : " a show about eating and sex — these are things I know a lot about … " Biller explained in a later interview that he fought for Neelix and Kes to already be living together and having sex when drafting the teleplay , but he was shot down by Taylor and Rick Berman out of concern for Kes ' young age and that it would be more interesting to show the couple grappling with this for the first time .
" Elogium " inaugurated Biller 's term as a writer for Star Trek : Voyager . When he brought in the script for series co @-@ creators Michael Piller and Jeri Taylor to review , he was told that it was a very good script . However , Piller said that " I don 't think the teaser works at all . " Biller received so many notes on the script that he began to feel as though the experience were an audition . After rewriting the script , Taylor expressed his pleasure with Biller 's technical descriptions within the script and asked if Biller had a science background ; ironically , Biller had instead attended Brown University specifically to avoid taking science courses — the technical details were all made up . The day after presenting the rewrite , Taylor asked Biller to join the Voyager writing staff . Biller had been unaware of the vacancy , having come on board for the $ 15 @,@ 000 fee and expecting nothing more . Though initially reluctant , Biller took Taylor 's offer for the " opportunity to write television that was about something . " Taylor and Biller conceded that it was UPN 's holding back of the episode until the second season that resulted in Ensign Wildman 's strange gestation period of seven or eight months .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Elogium " was first broadcast on September 18 , 1995 . According to Nielsen Media Research , it received ratings of 5 @.@ 7 / 9 percent . This meant that it was watched by 5 @.@ 7 percent of all televisions in the United States , and 9 percent of those watching television at the time . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " Projections " , which received ratings of 6 @.@ 1 / 10 percent and less than the following episode , " Non Sequitur " , which was rated at 6 @.@ 0 / 9 percent . " Elogium " was placed in 87th position overall for the highest ratings for the week of broadcast .
= = = Cast and crew response = = =
Several members of the cast of Voyager found the episode enjoyable . Mulgrew praised " Elogium " for her opportunity to interact with the Kes character on a maternal level . Mulgrew thought the episode was a great vessel for Lien to stretch her acting chops , calling her " a constant and wonderful surprise . " Lien herself thought that the episode was a great vehicle to learn more about her character and the Ocampa species ; she said " [ i ] t really took my character to a different level . " Russ thought that " Elogium " ( along with " Emanations " ) were stories that challenged concepts , ideas , attitudes , and traditions — all things that Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry originally wrote science fiction about : " That , I think , is the most important part of Star Trek . " Director Winrich Kolbe praised Lien 's performance in " Elogium " , but was disappointed that he could not take the character even further , saying that " [ t ] he show went soft at the end . " Kolbe complained that it wasn 't uncommon for a wonderful concept to fall victim to a failing of courage and determination .
= = = Critical response = = =
However , critics had a more mixed response . In his book Delta Quadrant : The unofficial guide to Voyager , David McIntee found Chakotay 's revelation and Lien 's acting the only high points of the episode . Otherwise , he felt the " sexual @-@ politics statements " were cheesy and overdone , and that all of the possible clichés of Kes ' elogium ( puberty , PMS , pregnancy , abortion , and menopause ) were trodden upon and ill @-@ used . McIntee accused the plot of being dull and the acting as subpar ; although he thought the plot was supposed to touch on teenage pregnancy , it instead emphasized that all women wish to be mothers , and all men are " immature bastards . " He rated the episode 1 out of 10 .
Cinefantastique 's Dale Kutzera thought the episode flowed well , and that the treknobabble was reasonable and logical , but that the episode didn 't make good use of the characters . He said that each character fitted a certain role : Neelix was the jealous boyfriend , B 'Elanna Torres ( Roxann Dawson ) was the shoot @-@ first Klingon , and Kes was the perky @-@ looking alien sounding board for other characters . Furthermore , Kutzera felt that the themes of the episode were more appropriate for an early first @-@ season episode , not being as pertinent or believable a year later . He gave the episode 2 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars .
= = Home media release = =
The first home media release for " Elogium " came as part of a two episode release on VHS alongside " Projections " in the United Kingdom in 1995 . In the United States , it was released on a single episode cassette on September 5 , 2000 . The first DVD release was also in the UK , as part of the first season box set on May 3 , 2004 . In the United States , it formed part of the second season , which was released on DVD on May 18 , 2004 .
= Vow ( song ) =
" Vow " is a song by alternative rock band Garbage . It was released as their debut single in early 1995 by Discordant , a label set up by Mushroom Records to launch the group , and Almo Sounds in North America .
" Vow " was quietly licensed to a Volume magazine / CD sampler publication at the end of 1994 ; it was subsequently picked up and broadcast by BBC Radio 1 DJs Steve Lamacq and John Peel , and then playlisted by modern rock radio stations in Los Angeles and Seattle . " Vow " generated such significant buzz through positive reviews and word @-@ of @-@ mouth that it was eventually chosen as Garbage 's first single release . After a low @-@ key independent record label pressing in the United Kingdom , where it was packaged in a very limited edition logo embossed aluminium case , " Vow " went on to top the alternative charts in Australia and register on the Hot 100 singles chart in the United States .
The song began as a demo during sessions between band members Butch Vig , Duke Erikson and Steve Marker , and the composition finished after singer Shirley Manson joined the band . The lyrics for " Vow " deal with themes of revenge and retaliation , and were inspired by a newspaper article on domestic abuse . In 2007 , " Vow " was remastered and included as the opening track on Garbage 's greatest hits compilation , Absolute Garbage .
= = Development and composition = =
" Vow " began in rough demo form in January , 1994 , as band members Butch Vig , Duke Erikson and Steve Marker performed sessions in Marker 's basement recording studio and Vig and Marker 's own Smart Studios business in Madison , Wisconsin . After Marker saw Shirley Manson 's group Angelfish on 120 Minutes , the band invited Manson to Smart Studios to sing on a couple of tracks . After a dreadful first audition , she returned to Angelfish , which folded shortly thereafter . Manson decided to test for Garbage again , and after the successful second audition , she began to work on the then @-@ skeletal " Queer " and " Vow " . While performing " Vow " , Manson ad @-@ libbed the lyrics " I can 't use what I can 't abuse " and " like Joan of Arc coming back for more " . The song is written in the key of A minor , set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 126 beats per minute . It opens with Erikson playing a guitar through a noise gate " with a lot of echo on it " , and has a chord progression is A – C @-@ F in the verses , D @-@ B ♭ -A @-@ Em @-@ D @-@ B ♭ -F in the bridge , and F @-@ C @-@ D @-@ G in the chorus , with a segue into F # minor in the interlude .
According to Vig , the inspiration for the song was a newspaper article about a woman who had gone back to get revenge on an abusive husband , " so we thought it would be cool to get a bit of retribution in there . " Vig also said he noted violence could also come from psychological stand point by seeing the story of a sado @-@ masochistic couple who could not keep away from each other . Lyrically , Manson claimed " ' Vow ' is about having feelings [ of vengeance ] . You have to face your feelings of revenge and work out why you feel that way . It 's about that conundrum when you 're really angry but in reality you 're in a pitiful state . Angry , twisted , but deep down , vulnerable . " During promotion for the song , Garbage joked to journalists that " Vow " was about John and Lorena Bobbitt .
Garbage had not initially planned to release " Vow " as their first single , as a single at all , or even include it on their debut album . The band felt that " Vow " was not representative of the album 's genre @-@ hopping body of work , although they later came to appreciate the situation that led to the song becoming their debut . Manson declared that " now we can do whatever and people won 't know what to expect " , but if the band had instead settled for " of the more clubby tunes " as a single , " we would have been pigeonholed as a dance band and that 's a hard tag to shake " .
= = Single release = =
= = = United Kingdom = = =
Midway through the recording sessions for the band 's debut album , the band 's label , Mushroom Records , secured the group an inclusion on Volume , a magazine that released compilation albums . However , the deadline given for accepting a track was only three days . The only song the band had completed in any shape or form was " Vow " . After Volume was released in December 1994 , " Vow " began to receive radio airplay from BBC Radio 1 DJs Steve Lamacq , John Peel and Johnnie Walker , and record stores in the United Kingdom began to receive requests for a single that did not yet exist . Word @-@ of @-@ mouth on " Vow " took the track back to the United States , where KROQ @-@ FM in Los Angeles and KNDD in Seattle discovered the song , and put it into rotation on their station playlists . By May 1995 , alternative radio stations across the country had picked up on " Vow " , and it began to receive heavy rotation nationwide . Garbage were still putting the finishing touches to their debut set , which was still three months away from release .
On the back of the surprise attention that " Vow " had garnered , the band 's UK record label Mushroom were keen to capitalise on the song . The terms of the licensing deal regarding the inclusion of " Vow " on Volume meant that the track could only be released on a limited basis . Concerned that at the time that their label was only known in the UK for the Neighbours theme tune , Mushroom founded the Discordant label for the sole purpose of launching Garbage . Prior to its release " Vow " had already topped NME 's playlist chart for 5 weeks and received " Single of the Week " status in seven publications .
On March 20 , 1995 " Vow " was issued in a limited edition 7 " vinyl format , backed with a remix of the title track and packaged in an embossed aluminium sleeve . A total of 1 @,@ 000 copies were pressed , of which only 934 were made available to buy , barely enough to reach the U.K. Top 100 . " Vow " sold out in one day . The single was the first of six specially packaged Garbage singles Mushroom Records released between 1995 and 1996 , which were costly investment - posting a 70p per @-@ unit loss on each single - but the investment paid off as each subsequent single became bigger hits . The limited pressing helped the " Vow " single to become a highly sought collectible , with copies selling for £ 100 by the time Mushroom launched follow @-@ up single " Subhuman " .
= = = United States = = =
In the United States , " Vow " debuted on the Modern Rock Tracks chart at # 39 in mid @-@ June 1995 . Garbage ' | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
about that photo because the make @-@ up was incomplete . After all the work that went into it , we would have wanted our design in proper form . The photo was like a pirated version of our make @-@ up , because none of us would ever approved it under those circumstances . " Michael Okuda designed a rank designation tattoo which Westmore applied to the right part of each Ferengi forehead . The symbol means " Dog eat dog " and was painted green as that is the colour of American dollar bills . Each bar ( referred to by the production crew as a " rocker " ) to the side of the symbol designated a rank with more bars meaning a higher rank .
= = = Writing and casting = = =
In Richard Krzemien 's original draft , Portal was referred to as Dilo . Executive producer Maurice Hurley saw Portal as being a sort of guard @-@ dog , but thought that the Ferengi turned the concept into " silliness " . Director Richard Colla felt that the episode had problems which were only identified after shooting was completed . Riker 's notion of sending Chinese finger traps to the Ferengi vessel at the end of the episode was a reference to The Original Series episode " The Trouble with Tribbles " where Chief Engineer Scott beams over a shipload of tribbles to a Klingon ship . Wil Wheaton later recalled that the cast were unhappy with the episode as they didn 't like several aspects of it including the fingercuffs joke and the Ferengi in general . The episode also featured the first occasion that Geordi La Forge gave a report to the bridge from the engineering section . The producers liked this image so much that from season two onwards the character became the Chief Engineer .
The guest stars in this episode re @-@ appeared in different roles later in the series . Both Tracey Walter and Mike Gomez re @-@ appeared as other Ferengi in the sixth season episode " Rascals " . This was the second recorded performance of Armin Shimerman in a TNG episode , although the first to be broadcast . He has gone uncredited in a previously filmed role as the face of a Betazoid gift box in " Haven " . He made a further appearance as a different Ferengi in " Peak Performance " before gaining the main cast role of the Ferengi Quark in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . In that role he would also shoot a scene for the movie Star Trek : Insurrection , but it was cut from the final version of the film . He said of his performance in " The Last Outpost " , " I was pretty much playing over @-@ the @-@ top villain – that turned out to be very comical . I thought I was being serious , but obviously , it was not serious . It 's because there was no subtlety to the performance , there was no attempt to try to give them some real cajones ... It was bad acting . It was just bad acting . They liked it , god bless them , Star Trek liked it . "
= = Reception and home media release = =
" The Last Outpost " aired in broadcast syndication during the week commencing October 17 , 1987 . It received Nielsen ratings of 8 @.@ 9 , reflecting the percentage of all households watching the episode during its timeslot . This was the lowest ratings received by any episode during the first season .
There was initial criticism regarding the Ferengi from reviewers . Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Keith DeCandido reviewed the episode for Tor.com in May 2011 , and praised Mike Gomez as the first Ferengi seen in Star Trek , but thought that they were " far too comical to be taken in any way seriously as the threat the script desperately wanted them to be " . He said that apart from the first appearance of the Ferengi and Armin Shimerman that the episode wasn 't " anything to write home about " . He gave it a score of three out of ten . Cast member Wil Wheaton watched the episode for AOL TV in October 2006 . He thought that the episode saw some character growth but felt that the Ferengi " were a total joke " until they were later partially redeemed by Shimmerman as Quark in Deep Space Nine . He thought that the episode didn 't show a great deal of improvement after " The Naked Now " and " Code of Honor " and may have resulted in the show losing viewers . He gave it a grade of C.
James Hunt wrote about the episode in October 2012 for the website Den of Geek . He thought it worked " surprisingly well " and that the ending was " Star Trek at its best - big idea philosophical nonsense " . He praised the plot twists and said that the Ferengi " while completely ridiculous , are genuinely hilarious " . Zack Handlen watched the episode for The A.V. Club in April 2010 . He described the Ferengi as " really , really terrible " , and said that Portal was a lazy device reminiscent of such god @-@ like beings in The Original Series . He gave the episode a grade of C- .
The first home media release of " The Last Outpost " was on VHS cassette was on April 1 , 1992 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 , and was released as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
= Martha Layne Collins =
Martha Layne Collins ( née Hall , born December 7 , 1936 ) is an American former businesswoman and politician from the U.S. state of Kentucky ; she was elected as the state 's 56th governor from 1983 to 1987 , the first woman to hold the office and the only one to date . Prior to that , she served as the 48th Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky , under John Y. Brown , Jr . Her election made her the highest @-@ ranking Democratic woman in the U.S. She was considered as a possible running mate for Democratic presidential nominee Walter Mondale in the 1984 presidential election , but Mondale chose Congresswoman Geraldine Ferraro instead .
After graduating from the University of Kentucky , Collins worked as a school teacher while her husband finished a degree in dentistry . She became interested in politics , and worked on both Wendell Ford 's gubernatorial campaign in 1971 and Walter " Dee " Huddleston 's U.S. Senate campaign in 1972 . In 1975 , she was chosen secretary of the state 's Democratic Party and was elected clerk of the Kentucky Court of Appeals . During her tenure as clerk , a constitutional amendment restructured the state 's judicial system , and the Court of Appeals became the Kentucky Supreme Court . Collins continued as clerk of the renamed court and worked to educate citizens about the court 's new role .
Collins was elected lieutenant governor in 1979 , under Governor John Y. Brown , Jr . Brown was frequently out of the state , leaving Collins as acting governor for more than 500 days of her four @-@ year term . In 1983 , she defeated Republican Jim Bunning to become Kentucky 's first woman governor . Her administration had two primary focuses : education and economic development . After failing to secure increased funding for education in the 1984 legislative session , she conducted a statewide public awareness campaign in advance of a special legislative session the following year ; the modified program was passed in that session . She successfully used economic incentives to bring a Toyota manufacturing plant to Georgetown , Kentucky in 1986 . Legal challenges to the incentives – which would have cost the state the plant and its related economic benefits – were eventually dismissed by the Kentucky Supreme Court . The state experienced record economic growth under Collins ' leadership .
At the time , Kentucky governors were not eligible for reelection . Collins taught at several universities after her four @-@ year term as governor . From 1990 to 1996 , she was the president of Saint Catharine College near Springfield , Kentucky . The 1993 conviction of Collins ' husband , Dr. Bill Collins , in an influence @-@ peddling scandal damaged her hopes for a return to political life . Prior to her husband 's conviction it had been rumored that she would be a candidate for the U.S. Senate , or would take a position in the administration of President Bill Clinton . From 1998 to 2012 , Collins served as an executive scholar @-@ in @-@ residence at Georgetown College .
= = Early life = =
Martha Layne Hall was born December 7 , 1936 , in Bagdad , Kentucky , the only child of Everett and Mary ( Taylor ) Hall . When Martha was in the sixth grade , her family moved to Shelbyville , Kentucky , and opened the Hall @-@ Taylor Funeral Home . Martha was involved in numerous extracurricular activities both in school and at the local Baptist church . Her parents were active in local politics , working for the campaigns of several Democratic candidates , and Hall frequently joined them , stuffing envelopes and delivering pamphlets door @-@ to @-@ door .
Martha attended Shelbyville High School where she was a good student and a cheerleader . She frequently competed in beauty pageants and won the title of Shelby County Tobacco Festival Queen in 1954 . After high school , Hall enrolled at Lindenwood College , then an all @-@ woman college in Saint Charles , Missouri ( It is now a co @-@ ed university ) . After one year at Lindenwood , she transferred to the University of Kentucky in Lexington , Kentucky . She was active in many clubs , including the Chi Omega social sorority , the Baptist Student Union , and the home economics club , and was also the president of her dormitory and vice president of the house presidents council .
In 1957 , Hall met Billy Louis Collins while attending a Baptist camp in Shelby County . He was a student at Georgetown College in Georgetown , Kentucky , about 13 miles from Lexington ; he and Hall dated while finishing their degrees . Hall earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Home Economics in 1959 . Having won the title of Kentucky Derby Festival Queen earlier that year , she briefly considered a career in modeling . Instead , she and Collins married shortly after her graduation . While Billy Collins pursued a degree in dentistry at the University of Louisville , Martha taught at Seneca and Fairdale high schools , both located in Louisville . While living in Louisville , the couple had two children , Steve and Marla .
In 1966 , the Collinses moved to Versailles , Kentucky , where Martha taught at Woodford County Junior High School . The couple became active in several civic organizations , including the Jaycees and Jayceettes and the Young Democratic Couples Club . Through the club , they worked on behalf of Henry Ward 's unsuccessful gubernatorial campaign in 1967 .
= = Early political career = =
By 1971 , Collins was the president of the Jayceettes ; through her work there , she came to the attention of Democratic state senator Walter " Dee " Huddleston . Huddleston asked Collins to co @-@ chair Wendell Ford 's gubernatorial campaign in the 6th District . J.R. Miller , then @-@ chairman of the state Democratic Party , commented that " She organized that district like you wouldn 't believe . " After Ford 's victory , he named Collins as a Democratic National Committeewoman from Kentucky . She quit her teaching job and went to work full @-@ time at the state Democratic Party headquarters , as secretary of the state Democratic party and as a delegate to the 1972 Democratic National Convention . The following year , she worked for Huddleston 's campaign for the U.S. Senate .
In 1975 , Collins won the Democratic nomination for Clerk of the Kentucky Court of Appeals in a five @-@ way primary . In the general election , she defeated Republican Joseph E. Lambert by a vote of 382 @,@ 528 to 233 @,@ 442 . During her term , an amendment to the state constitution changed the name of the Court of Appeals to the Kentucky Supreme Court ; Collins was the last person to hold the office of Clerk of the Court of Appeals and the first to hold the office of Clerk of the Supreme Court . As Clerk , she compiled and distributed a brochure about the new role of the Supreme Court , and worked with the state department of education to create a teacher 's manual for use in the public schools , detailing the changes effected in the court system as a result of the constitutional amendment . The Woodford County chapter of Business and Professional Women chose Collins as its 1976 Woman of Achievement , and in 1977 , Governor Julian Carroll named her Kentucky Executive Director of the Friendship Force .
In a field that included six major candidates , Collins secured the Democratic nomination for lieutenant governor in the 1979 primary , garnering 23 percent of the vote . She handily defeated Republican Hal Rogers in the general election 543 @,@ 176 to 316 @,@ 798 . As lieutenant governor , she traveled the state , attending ceremonies in place of Democratic Governor John Y. Brown , Jr . , who disliked such formal events and often chose not to attend . By the end of her term , she declared that she had visited all 120 counties in Kentucky . Governor Brown was frequently out of the state , leaving Collins as acting governor for more than 500 days of her four @-@ year term .
As lieutenant governor , Collins presided oer the state Senate . Members of both major parties praised Collins for her impartiality and knowledge of parliamentary procedure in this role . She was twice called upon to break tie votes in the Senate , once on a bill allowing the state 's teachers to engage in collective bargaining and another on a bill to allow branch banking across county lines within the state ; in both instances she voted in the negative , killing the bill . During her tenure , she also chaired the National Conference of Lieutenant Governors , becoming the first woman to hold that position . In 1982 , she was named to the board of regents of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in Louisville .
= = Gubernatorial election of 1983 = =
Nearing the end of her term as lieutenant governor , Collins announced her intent to run for governor in 1983 . Her opponents for the Democratic nomination included Louisville mayor Harvey Sloane and Grady Stumbo , the former secretary of the state 's Department of Human Resources . Collins had the support of many leaders in the Democratic Party , but just before the primary , Governor Brown endorsed Stumbo , charging that both Sloane and Collins would use their gubernatorial appointment power to dispense party patronage . Although this was a common practice at the time , Brown notably shunned it during his term . With 223 @,@ 692 votes , Collins edged out Sloane ( 219 @,@ 160 votes ) and Stumbo ( 199 @,@ 795 votes ) to secure the nomination . Sloane asked for a recanvass of the ballots , but ultimately decided it would not change the outcome and conceded defeat .
In the general election , Collins faced Republican state senator Jim Bunning , who was later elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame for his achievements as a professional pitcher . The National Organization for Women , the National Women 's Campaign Fund , and the Women 's Political Caucus all refused to endorse Collins , citing her lukewarm support for the Equal Rights Amendment and her opposition to abortion except in cases of rape , incest , or when the mother 's life was in danger . But , Bunning was not personable on the campaign trail and had difficulty finding issues that would draw traditionally Democratic voters to him . His Catholicism was a political liability among the majority @-@ Protestant voters . Collins won the election by a vote of 561 @,@ 674 to 454 @,@ 650 , becoming the first , and to date only , woman to be elected governor of Kentucky .
Following her election , Collins donated the surplus $ 242 @,@ 000 from her campaign coffers to the state Democratic Party . When Collins ' husband was named state treasurer for the party – at an annual salary of $ 59 @,@ 900 – the state press charged that the move was a plot to funnel Collins ' campaign funds into her personal account . ( The previous Democratic state treasurer had received no salary during his tenure . ) Following the media criticism , Dr. Collins resigned his post as treasurer . All of the involved individuals insisted that Governor Collins had not been briefed on the details of her husband 's appointment . The media 's criticism of Collins continued as many of the appointments to her executive cabinet went to what they characterized as inexperienced personnel who had held key positions in her past campaigns . When newly appointed Insurance Commissioner Gilbert McCarty approved a 17 % rate increase requested by Blue Cross Blue Shield – a request that his predecessor had denied a few days earlier – Collins quickly countermanded the approval pending a public hearing on the matter .
= = Governor = =
In her first address to the legislature , Collins asked for an additional $ 324 million from the Kentucky General Assembly , most of it allocated for education . The additional revenue was to be derived from Collins ' proposed tax package , which included increasing the income tax on individuals making more than $ 15 @,@ 000 annually , extending the sales tax to cover services such as auto repair and dry cleaning , and increasing the corporate licensing tax . After opposition to her proposal developed among legislators during the 1984 biennial legislative session , Collins revised the tax package . She retained the corporate licensing tax increase , but replaced the sales tax and income tax modifications with a flat five percent personal income tax and phasing out the deductions for depreciation which corporations could claim on their state taxes .
With the state still recovering from an economic recession and an election year upcoming , legislators refused to raise taxes . Collins eventually withdrew her request and submitted a continuation budget instead . Some education proposals advocated by Collins were passed , including mandatory kindergarten , remedial programs for elementary school children , mandatory testing and internship for teachers , and the implementation of academic receivership for underperforming schools . Among the other accomplishments of the 1984 legislative session were passage of a tougher drunk driving law , and a measure allowing state banking companies to purchase other banks within the state .
= = = Consideration for vice @-@ president = = =
By virtue of her election as Kentucky 's governor , Collins became the highest @-@ ranking Democratic woman in the nation . The only two women in the U.S. Senate at the time were Republicans , and Collins was the only woman governor of any state . Shortly after her election , she appeared on Good Morning America , where she was asked about her interest in the vice @-@ presidency and gave a non @-@ committal answer . Four days after her inauguration as governor , she was chosen to deliver the Democratic response to President Ronald Reagan 's weekly radio address . At a news conference following her speech , Collins was asked again if she would be willing to be considered as the Democrats ' vice @-@ presidential candidate in the upcoming election ; she replied " No , not at this time . "
In mid @-@ 1984 , the Democratic National Committee chose Collins to preside over the 1984 Democratic National Convention in San Francisco . This engagement prevented Collins from chairing the state delegation to the convention , as was typical of governors . The party appointed Collins ' son , Steve as state chair . Prior to the convention , Walter Mondale , the presumptive presidential nominee , interviewed Collins as a possible vice @-@ presidential candidate before choosing Geraldine Ferraro as his running mate . A writer for The Miami Herald later opined , based on interviews with Mondale advisers , that Collins was never given serious consideration by Mondale . He reported that she was included in his list of potential running mates primarily to blunt potential charges of " tokenism " in considering other women and minorities .
= = = Education proposals = = =
In January 1985 , Collins renewed her push for additional education funding and changes by appointing herself secretary of the state Education and Humanities Cabinet . Following the announcement , Collins and several key legislators held a series of meetings in every county , advocating for her proposed changes and seeking information about what types of changes the state 's citizens desired . At the meetings , Collins was careful to separate the issues of her proposed education plan and potential tax increases . She believed that opposition to increased taxes had prevented her previous package from being enacted .
Collins announced a new education package in June 1985 that included a five percent across @-@ the @-@ board pay raise for teachers , a reduction in class sizes , funding for construction projects , aides for every kindergarten teacher in the state , and a " power equalization " program to make funding for poorer school districts more equal to that of their more affluent counterparts . After favorable reaction to the plan from legislators , she called a special legislative session to convene July 8 to consider the plan . After two weeks of deliberation , the General Assembly approved Collins ' education plan , tripling the corporate licensing tax to $ 2 @.@ 10 per $ 1 @,@ 000 in order to pay for the package . The Assembly rejected a proposed five @-@ cents @-@ per @-@ gallon increase in the state gasoline tax to finance other spending .
Collins followed up her success in the 1985 special session with a push for more higher education funding in the 1986 legislative session . Lawmakers obliged by approving an additional $ 100 million for higher education in the biennial budget . They also approved implementation of a pilot preschool program and the purchase of new reading textbooks , but failed to act on Collins ' request for an additional $ 3 @.@ 9 million to improve the state 's vocational education system . Legislators approved calling a referendum on a constitutional amendment – supported by Collins – to make the state superintendent of education an appointive , rather than elective , office . The amendment was defeated by the state 's voters in November 1986 , despite a Collins @-@ led campaign in favor of it . The increased corporate tax intended to cover the cost of the increased education budget was , however , inadequate . In 1987 , a plan to increase revenue through changes in the state income tax was abandoned when Wallace Wilkinson , the Democratic gubernatorial nominee who would go on to succeed Collins , announced his opposition to it .
= = = Toyota Assembly Plant = = =
In March 1985 , Collins embarked on the first of several trade missions to Japan . She returned there in October 1985 , and also visited China – a first for any Kentucky governor – to encourage opening Chinese markets for Kentucky goods and to establish a " sister state " relationship with China 's Jiangxi province . Collins ' efforts in Japan yielded her most significant accomplishment as governor – convincing Toyota to locate an $ 800 million manufacturing plant in Georgetown . According to published reports , the Kentucky location was chosen over proposed sites in Indiana , Missouri , Tennessee , and Kansas .
The agreement with Toyota was contingent upon legislative approval of $ 125 million in incentives promised to Toyota by Collins and state Commerce Secretary Carroll Knicely . They included $ 35 million to buy and improve a 1 @,@ 600 acres ( 650 ha ) tract to be given to Toyota for the plant , $ 33 million for initial training of employees , $ 10 million for a skills development center for employees , and $ 47 million in highway improvements near the site . The incentive package was approved in the 1986 legislative session . State Attorney General David L. Armstrong expressed concerns that the incentives might conflict with the state constitution by giving gifts from the state treasury to a private business , but concluded that the General Assembly had made " a good @-@ faith effort to be in compliance with the constitution " .
Given Armstrong 's concerns , the administration employed general counsel J. Patrick Abell to file a friendly test case to determine the constitutionality of the incentive package . While the suit was pending , the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader reported that the administration had failed to include the interest on the bonds used to finance the expenditures in its estimation of the cost ; this , plus the cost overruns reported by the Herald @-@ Leader , had already pushed the total cost of the package to about $ 354 million by late September 1986 . In October , Toyota agreed to cover the cost overruns associated with preparing the site for construction .
Opponents of the economic enticements for Toyota joined the state 's test suit . In October 1986 , Franklin County Circuit Court Judge Ray Corns issued an initial ruling that the package did not violate the state constitution , but both sides asked the Kentucky Supreme Court to make a final decision . On June 11 , 1987 , the Kentucky Supreme Court ruled 4 – 3 that the package served a public purpose and were therefore constitutional .
Shortly after the announcement that Toyota was moving to Georgetown , Martha Lane Collins , within her capacity as Governor condemned a portion of land belonging to real estate developer Gordon Taub . Taub owned 60 acres within the Toyota plant site and 4 @.@ 2 acres were condemned to build a four @-@ lane highway to the Toyota plant entrance . Taub challenged the condemnation stating that the Commonwealth did not have the right to condemn private property for the use of a for profit , public corporation . At trial , Martha Lane Collins became the first sitting governor of Kentucky to testify in court.She was represented by former governor , Bert T. Combs , Taub was represented by former governor Louis B. Nunn ; this was also the first time in the history of Kentucky that two former governors represented opposing parties in a legal action .
Later , Toyota set up several assembly plants across the state ; near the end of Collins ' term , the state Commerce Cabinet reported that 25 automotive @-@ related manufacturing plants had been constructed in 17 counties since the Toyota announcement .
In 1987 , Collins promised $ 10 million in state aid to Ford to incentivize the company to expand its truck assembly plant in Louisville . The state experienced record job growth under Collins ' economic development plan , which included attempts to attract both domestic and international companies . The state 's unemployment rate fell from 9 @.@ 7 percent in October 1983 to 7 @.@ 2 percent in October 1987 ; according to the administration 's own figures , they created a net increase of 73 @,@ 000 jobs in the state during Collins ' tenure .
= = = Other matters during Collins ' term = = =
On October 7 , 1987 , Collins called a special legislative session to close a deficit between state contributions to the worker 's compensation Special Fund and disbursements . The Special Fund was designated for payments to workers with occupational diseases and workers whose work @-@ related injuries could not be traced to any single employer . A plan proposed by Democratic state senator Ed O 'Daniel was expected to provide the framework for legislation considered in the session . Under O 'Daniel 's plan , additional revenue for the Special Fund would be raised by increasing assessments on worker 's compensation premiums for 30 years . Assessments for coal companies were increased more than those on other businesses because the majority of the claims paid from the Special Fund were for black lung , a breathing disease common among coal miners ; consequently , it was opposed by legislators from heavily coal @-@ dependent counties . Nevertheless , after nine days of negotiations , a bill substantially similar to O 'Daniel 's original plan was approved by the legislature and signed by Collins .
Collins chaired the Tennessee – Tombigbee Waterway Authority and held that position when the waterway opened to the public in 1985 . On May 10 , 1985 , she was named to the University of Kentucky Alumni Association 's Hall of Distinguished Alumni . She also chaired the Southern Growth Policies Board , Southern States Energy Board , and was co @-@ chair of the Appalachian Regional Commission .
= = Activities after leaving office = =
Collins ' term expired on December 8 , 1987 , and under the restrictions then present in the Kentucky Constitution , she was ineligible for consecutive terms . In 1988 , she accepted a position as " executive in residence " at the University of Louisville , giving guest lectures to students in the university 's business classes . She also started an international trade consulting firm in Lexington . When Western Kentucky University president Kern Alexander resigned to accept a position at Virginia Tech in 1988 , Collins was among four finalists to succeed him . Some faculty members publicly expressed concerns about Collins ' lack of experience in academia , and she withdrew her name from consideration shortly before the new president was announced .
After fulfilling her one @-@ year commitment to the University of Louisville , Collins was named a fellow of the Harvard Institute of Politics ' John F. Kennedy School of Government , teaching non @-@ credit classes on leadership styles once a week . Concurrent with her position at Harvard , Collins was named to the board of regents for Midway College in 1989 ; the following year , she was removed from the board of regents of Southern Baptist Theological Seminary . Her removal was automatically triggered after she missed three consecutive board meetings between 1986 and 1989 . In 1990 , Collins accepted the presidency of Saint Catharine College in Springfield , Kentucky , becoming the first president of the small , Catholic college who was not a Dominican nun . College officials stated that Collins was recruited for the presidency to raise the college 's profile .
In 1993 , Collins ' husband , Bill , was charged in an influence @-@ peddling scandal . The prosecution claimed that while Collins was governor , Dr. Collins exploited a perception that he could influence the awarding of state contracts through his wife . It was alleged that he exploited this perception to pressure people who did business with the state to invest nearly $ 2 million with him . He was convicted on October 14 , 1993 , after a seven @-@ week trial ; he was given a sentence of five years and three months in federal prison , which was at the low end of the range prescribed by the federal sentencing guidelines . He was also fined $ 20 @,@ 000 for a conspiracy charge that involved kickbacks disguised as political contributions . Governor Collins was called to testify in the trial , but was not charged . The scandal tarnished her image , however , and may have cost her an appointment in the administration of President Bill Clinton . Collins was also rumored to be considering running for the U.S. Senate , a bid which never materialized following her husband 's conviction . The Collinses reunited following Dr. Collins ' release from prison on October 10 , 1997 .
In 1996 , Collins resigned as president of Saint Catharine College to direct the International Business and Management Center at the University of Kentucky . Later that year , she was a co @-@ chair of the Credentials Committee at the Democratic National Convention . When her contract with the University of Kentucky expired in 1998 , Collins took a part @-@ time position as " executive scholar in residence " at Georgetown College , which allowed her more time to pursue other interests . In 1999 , she was named Honorary Consul General of Japan in Kentucky , a position which involved promoting Japanese interests in Kentucky , encouraging Japanese investment in the state , and encouraging cultural understanding between Kentucky and Japan . In 2001 , Governor Paul E. Patton named her co @-@ chair of the Kentucky Task Force on the Economic Status of Women . In January 2005 , she became the chairwoman and chief executive officer of the Kentucky World Trade Center . She has held positions on the boards of directors for several corporations , including Eastman Kodak .
= = = Awards and honors = = =
Women Leading Kentucky , a non @-@ profit group designed to promote education , mentorship , and networking among Kentucky professional women , created the Martha Layne Collins Leadership Award in 1999 to recognize " a Kentucky woman of achievement who inspires and motivates other women through her personal , community and professional lives " ; Collins was the first recipient of the award . In 2003 , Kentucky 's Bluegrass Parkway was renamed the Martha Layne Collins Bluegrass Parkway in her honor ; Collins also received the World Trade Day Book of Honor Award for the state of Kentucky from the World Trade Centers Association that year . In 2009 , she was inducted into the Order of the Rising Sun , Gold and Silver Star by the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs for her contributions " to strengthening economic and cultural exchanges between Japan and the United States of America " . Martha Layne Collins High School in Shelby County was named in her honor and opened in 2010 .
= Siege of Mantua ( 1799 ) =
The Siege of Mantua ( 1799 ) was a four @-@ month effort by the Austrian army to regain a presence in northern Italy after being excluded from that region by Napoleon Bonaparte through the successful French Siege of Mantua in 1797 . In April 1799 , the Austrians placed a military blockade around Mantua as part of the War of the Second Coalition with the intent of withering the French by attrition . While the diminishing food supplies and losses weakened the French army , the Austrians received reinforcements and attacked on 4 July 1799 . By the end of the month , the French agreed to surrender .
= = Prelude = =
By 1799 , the fortress of Mantua on the river Mincio in northern Italy was in poor shape . It was commanded by viscount lieutenant general François @-@ Philippe de Foissac @-@ Latour ( 1750 @-@ 1804 ) and garrisoned by a diverse force of 10 @,@ 000 , including French , Polish ( Polish Legionnaires under general Józef Wielhorski ) , Italian ( Republic of Alba and Cisalpine Republic ) , Swiss and German units . From the beginning of his assignment , Foissac @-@ Latour , an engineer , was convinced that the fortress would be indefensible in any serious siege .
= = Siege = =
In April , Austrian forces approached Mantua and started their siege . At first , the Austrians were content to simply blockade the fortress , but with the artillery duels and occasional skirmishes , attrition began taking its toll on the defenders . The defenders were also weakened by diminishing food supplies , and their morale was undermined by lack of payment .
On 18 June , the French suffered a defeat at the Battle of Trebbia , and consequently the Austrians were able to move more decisively against Mantua . On 4 July the siege entered a new stage , with Austrian reinforcements arriving , and the besieging force growing from 8 @,@ 000 to 40 @,@ 000 . The Austrians were commanded by Hungarian general Baron Pal von Kray , an artillery expert . Artillery bombardment was constant . On 24 @-@ 25 July the assault begun ; and the Austrians slowly advanced over the next few days . On 27 July Foissac @-@ Latour began negotiating surrender terms .
= = Capitulation = =
The Austrians agreed to release most of the French garrison , keeping the officers for three months , and with soldiers pledging not to take arms until the prisoners were exchanged by the fighting sides . In a secret protocol , however , the Austrians demanded full sovereignty over " deserters from the Austrian army " . After protests from the Polish officers — who were afraid that due to recent partitions of Poland in which Austria gained control over parts of Poland that the Austrians may want to take custody of the Polish legionnaires — the Austrian negotiator clarified officially that they meant any deserters from the current Austrian army or former Austrian soldiers serving in the Cisalpine Republic Army .
On 30 July the French and allied troops left the fortress . The garrison troops were split into French and non @-@ French units ( of whom Poles still constituted 1 @,@ 800 ) ; the Austrian soldiers observing the marching non @-@ French garrison troops were given permission to physically assault those " recognized " as deserters and most of them were eventually arrested . Polish officers — particularly those from the Austrian partition — were forced to enlist in the Austrian army or deported to partitioned Poland , and a similar fate befell Polish NCOs and regular soldiers , many of whom were also forced to suffer physical punishment by being beaten with rods . This marked the end of the Second Legion of the Polish Legions . Foissac @-@ Latour was later criticized by the Poles for what they considered " betrayal " , but also by the French : for his surrender , Napoleon himself ordered Foissac @-@ Latour stricken from the list of generals and forbade him to wear a military uniform .
= Battle of Nassau =
The Battle of Nassau ( March 3 – 4 , 1776 ) was a naval action and amphibious assault by American forces against the British port of Nassau , Bahamas , during the American Revolutionary War ( also known as the American War of Independence ) . It is considered the first cruise and one of the first engagements of the newly established Continental Navy and the Continental Marines , the progenitors of the United States Navy and Marine Corps . The action was also the marines ' first amphibious landing . It is sometimes known as the " Raid of Nassau " .
Departing from Cape Henlopen , Delaware , on February 17 , 1776 , the fleet arrived in the Bahamas on March 1 , with the objective of seizing gunpowder and munitions that were known to be stored there . Two days later the marines went ashore and seized Fort Montagu at the eastern end of the Nassau harbor but did not advance to the town , where the gunpowder was stored . That night , Nassau 's governor had most of the gunpowder loaded aboard ships that then sailed for St. Augustine . On March 4 , the Continental Marines advanced and took control of the poorly defended town .
The Continental forces remained at Nassau for two weeks and took away all the remaining gunpowder and munitions they could . The fleet returned to New London , Connecticut , in early April , after capturing a few British supply ships , and failed to capture HMS Glasgow in an action on April 6 .
= = Background = =
When the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1775 , Lord Dunmore , the British provincial governor of the Colony of Virginia , with the British forces under his command , had removed Virginia 's store of provincial arms and gunpowder to the island of New Providence in the Crown Colony of the Bahamas , in order to keep it from falling into the hands of the rebel militia . Montfort Browne , the Bahamian governor , was alerted by General Thomas Gage in August 1775 that the rebel colonists might make attempts to seize these supplies .
The desperate shortage of gunpowder available to the Continental Army had led the Second Continental Congress to organize a naval expedition , one of whose goals was the seizure of the military supplies at Nassau . While the orders issued by the congress to Esek Hopkins , the fleet captain selected to lead the expedition , included only instructions for patrolling and raiding British naval targets on the Virginia and Carolina coastline , additional instructions may have been given to Hopkins in secret meetings of the congress ' naval committee . The instructions that Hopkins issued to his fleet 's captains before it sailed from Cape Henlopen , Delaware , on February 17 , 1776 , included instructions to rendezvous at Great Abaco Island in the Bahamas .
The fleet that Hopkins launched consisted of Alfred , Hornet , Wasp , Fly , Andrew Doria , Cabot , Providence , and Columbus . In addition to ships ' crews , it carried 200 marines under the command of Samuel Nicholas . In spite of gale force winds , the fleet remained together for two days , when Fly and Hornet became separated from the fleet . Hornet was forced to return to port for repairs , and Fly eventually caught up with the fleet at Nassau , after the raid took place . Hopkins did not let the apparent loss of the two ships dissuade him ; he had intelligence that much of the British fleet was in port due to the high winds .
= = Prelude = =
Browne received further intelligence in late February that a rebel fleet was assembling off the Delaware coast , but apparently took no significant actions to prepare a defense . New Providence 's harbor had two primary defenses , Fort Nassau and Fort Montagu . Fort Nassau was located in Nassau , but was poorly sited to defend the port against amphibious attacks , and had walls that were not strong enough to support the action of its 46 cannons . As a result , Fort Montagu had been constructed in 1742 on the eastern end of the harbor , commanding its entrance . At the time of the raid , it was fortified with 17 cannons , although most of the gunpowder and ordnance was at Fort Nassau .
The fleet arrived at Abaco Island on March 1 , 1776 . The force captured two sloops owned by Loyalists , one of those men being Captain Gideon Lowe of Green Turtle Cay , and pressed their owners to serve as pilots . George Dorsett , a local ship 's captain , got away from Abaco and alerted Browne to the presence of the rebel fleet . The landing force was transferred to the two captured sloops and Providence the next day , and plans were formulated for the assault . While the main fleet held back , the three ships carrying the landing force were to enter the port at daybreak on March 3 , and gain control of the town before the alarm could be raised .
The decision to land at daybreak turned out to be a mistake , as the alarm was raised in Nassau when the three ships were spotted in the morning light , rousing Browne from his bed . He ordered four guns fired from Fort Nassau to alert the militia ; two of the guns came off their mounts when they were fired . At 7 : 00am he held a discussion with Samuel Gambier , one of his councilors , over the idea that the gunpowder should be removed from the islands on the Mississippi Packet , a fast ship docked in the harbor . They ultimately did not act on the idea , but Browne ordered thirty mostly unarmed militiamen to occupy Fort Montagu , before retiring to his house to make himself " a little decent " .
= = Battle = =
= = = Landing and capture = = =
When the guns at Fort Nassau were heard by the attackers , they realized their surprise was lost and aborted the assault . The elements of the fleet rejoined in Hanover Sound , about six nautical miles east of Nassau . There Hopkins held council , and a new plan of attack was developed . According to accounts now discredited , Hopkins ' lieutenant , John Paul Jones , suggested a new landing point and then led the action . Jones was unfamiliar with the local waters , unlike many of the captains present in the council . It is more likely that the landing force was led by Cabot 's lieutenant , Thomas Weaver , who was also familiar with the area . With the force enlarged by 50 sailors , the three ships , with the Wasp offering additional covering support , carried it to a point south and east of Fort Montagu , where they made an unopposed landing between 12 : 00 and 2 : 00 pm . This was the first landing of what eventually became the United States Marine Corps .
A Lieutenant Burke led a detachment out from Fort Montagu to investigate the rebel activity . Given that he was severely outnumbered , he opted to send a truce flag to determine their intentions . From this he learned that their objective was the powder and military stores . In the meantime , Browne arrived at Fort Montagu with another eighty militiamen . Upon learning the size of the advancing force , he ordered three of the fort 's guns fired , and withdrew all but a few men back to Nassau . He himself retired to the governor 's house , while most of the militiamen , rather than attempting to make a stand , also returned to their homes . Browne sent Burke out to parley with the rebels a second time , in order to " wait on the command officer of the enemy to know his errand and on what account he had landed his troops . "
The firing of Montagu 's guns had given Nichols pause for concern , but his men had occupied the fort , and he was consulting with his officers on their next move when Burke arrived . They obligingly repeated to Burke that they had arrived to take the powder and weapons , and were prepared to assault the town . Burke brought this news back to Browne around 4 : 00 pm . Rather than advance further on Nassau , Nichols and his force remained at Fort Montagu that night . Browne held a war council that evening , in which the decision was made to attempt the removal of the gunpowder . At midnight , 162 of 200 barrels of gunpowder were loaded onto the Mississippi Packet and HMS St. John , and at 2 : 00 am they sailed out of Nassau harbor , bound for Saint Augustine . This feat was made possible because Hopkins had neglected to post even a single ship to guard the harbor 's entrance channels , leaving the fleet safely anchored in Hanover Sound .
Nichols ' marines occupied Nassau without resistance the next morning after a leaflet written by Hopkins was distributed throughout the town . They were met en route by a committee of the town 's leaders , who offered up the town 's keys .
= = = Return voyage = = =
Hopkins and his fleet remained at Nassau for two weeks , loading as much weaponry as would fit onto the ships , including the remaining 38 casks of gunpowder . He pressed into service a local sloop , the Endeavour , to carry some of the material . Browne complained that the rebel officers consumed most of his liquor stores during the occupation , and also wrote that he was taken in chains like a " felon to the gallows " when he was arrested and taken to the Alfred .
During their sojourn at Nassau , the Fly arrived . Her captain reported that she and the Hornet had fouled their riggings together and that Hornet suffered significant damage as a consequence . On March 17 , the fleet sailed for Block Island Channel off Newport , Rhode Island , with Browne and other officials as prisoners . The return voyage was uneventful until the fleet reached the waters of Long Island . On April 4 they encountered and captured HMS Hawk , and the next day they captured the Bolton , which was laden with stores that included more armaments and powder . The fleet finally met resistance on April 6 , when it encountered HMS Glasgow , a sixth @-@ rate ship . In the ensuing action , the outnumbered Glasgow managed to escape capture , severely damaging the Cabot in the process , wounding her captain , Hopkins ' son John Burroughs Hopkins , and killing or wounding eleven others .
The fleet sailed into the harbor at New London , Connecticut on April 8 .
= = Aftermath = =
Browne was eventually exchanged for American general William Alexander ( Lord Stirling ) , and was roundly criticized for his handling of the whole affair . Nassau remained relatively poorly defended and was again subjected to American rebel threat in January 1778 . It was then seized by Spanish forces under Bernardo de Gálvez in 1782 , and returned to British control after the war .
While Hopkins was initially lauded for the success at Nassau , the failure to capture the Glasgow and crew complaints about some of the captains led to a variety of investigations and courts martial . As a result of these , the Providence 's captain was relieved of his command , which was given to Jones . Jones , who had performed well in the Glasgow encounter in spite of a crew reduced by disease , thereafter received a captain 's commission in the Continental Navy .
The manner by which Hopkins distributed the spoils was criticized , and his failure to follow his orders to patrol the Virginia shore resulted in censure by the Continental Congress . After a series of further missteps and accusations , Hopkins was forced out of the navy in 1778 .
Two ships of the United States Navy have been christened USS Nassau ; USS Nassau ( LHA @-@ 4 ) , an amphibious assault ship , is named specifically in recognition of this battle , while USS Nassau ( CVE @-@ 16 ) was named for Nassau Sound , the body of water between Florida and the Bahamas .
= Andy 's Ancestry =
" Andy 's Ancestry " is the third episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office . The episode originally aired on NBC on October 4 , 2012 . The episode was written by Jonathan Green and Gabe Miller , and was directed by David Rogers . The episode guest stars Randall Park as Jim | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Club Band and was included on the soundtrack of the same name , recorded in September 1977 and produced by George Martin . Gibb 's version was released as a single , with " Nowhere Man " as the B @-@ side ( also recorded by him and intended for the film ) . Also in 1978 , his version was used as the B @-@ side of Robin Gibb 's version of " Oh ! Darling " released only in Italy .
= Hurricane Katrina ( 1981 ) =
Hurricane Katrina was a late @-@ forming tropical cyclone that impacted portions of the Greater Antilles and Bahamas in November 1981 . The twenty @-@ first tropical cyclone , eleventh named storm , and seventh hurricane of the 1981 Atlantic hurricane season , Katrina developed from an area of cloudiness in the western Caribbean Sea early on November 3 . The initial tropical depression deepened slowly , and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Katrina on November 5 . About six hours later , Katrina peaked with sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . The storm made landfall along the south coast of Camagüey Province in Cuba early on November 6 . Katrina quickly weakened to a tropical storm , before emerging into the Atlantic Ocean hours later . The system then accelerated northeastward and crossed the Bahamas late on November 6 . Katrina dissipated late on November 7 , shortly before merging with a frontal system .
On Grand Cayman , a waterspout ripped out a grape tree and slammed it into the Brac Reef Hotel 's bar . Heavy rainfall was observed on Cuba , peaking at 15 @.@ 74 inches ( 400 mm ) . As a result , Cuba experienced flash flooding in mountainous areas as Katrina moved across the country . In southern Camagüey Province , several bridges and railroads were reportedly washed out . Two sugar mills suffered damage . An estimated 4 @,@ 641 homes suffered impact , 39 of which were destroyed . In addition , approximately 80 % of sugar cane crops were damaged . Two people drowned in Cuba while attempting to cross a swollen river in Camagüey Province . The Bahamas received up to 14 in ( 360 mm ) of rain , causing flood damage to watermelon , tomato and corn crops , particularly on Long Island .
= = Meteorological history = =
On November 1 , an area of disturbed weather – a mass of cloudiness and thunderstorms – developed over the western Caribbean Sea . Subsequently , a low pressure area began to form . The system was designated a tropical depression early on November 3 , while located about 150 miles ( 240 km ) to the south of the Cayman Islands . Operationally , the National Hurricane Center began issuing advisories on the tropical depression at 2200 UTC on November 3 . In the initial advisory , it was noted that the depression would slowly strengthen , but reach tropical storm status within 24 hours due to " strong " convection . The depression remained disorganized through early on November 4 , with satellite imagery and weather stations in the Caribbean Sea region indicating no intensification . However , only a few hours later , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Katrina , while drifting northward .
Continuing to strengthen , Katrina slowly recurved north @-@ northeastward and eventually to the northeast . The National Hurricane Center operationally classified Katrina as a tropical depression until 1600 UTC on November 4 , after a reconnaissance aircraft flight reported tropical storm force winds . At 0600 UTC on November 5 , the storm strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Later that same day , Katrina attained its peak intensity after another reconnaissance aircraft flight reported a minimum barometric pressure of 980 mbar ( 29 inHg ) , and observed maximum sustained winds of about 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) on the surface . However , Katrina weakened slightly while approaching Cuba . Early on November 6 , the storm made landfall in Camagüey Province with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Shortly after moving inland , the system weakened to a tropical storm . A deepening trough offshore the East Coast of the United States caused Katrina to accelerate east @-@ northeastward . By 1330 UTC on November 6 , the storm emerged into the Atlantic Ocean . Katrina slowly weakened while crossing through the central Bahamas later that day . After a reconnaissance aircraft flight failed to locate a closed circulation , the system dissipated late on November 7 , while located about 380 miles ( 610 km ) south @-@ southeast of Bermuda .
= = Preparations and impact = =
In anticipation of Katrina , 150 @,@ 000 people and 120 @,@ 000 head of cattle in central Cuba were evacuated , according to a broadcast by Havana radio . As a result , Cuban Civil Defense officers issued a storm alert for five provinces . A hurricane watch was declared for the central and eastern Bahamas . Along the southeast coast of Florida , small craft were advised to remain close to port . However , the storm was not expected to , and did not , pose a threat to the United States .
Throughout the Cayman Islands , Katrina dropped up to 12 inches ( 300 mm ) of precipitation . In Grand Cayman , a waterspout ripped out a grape tree and slammed it into the Brac Reef Hotel 's Bar . The highest observed 24 @-@ hour precipitation total in Cuba was 13 @.@ 03 inches ( 331 mm ) , while rainfall in the nation peaked at 15 @.@ 74 inches ( 400 mm ) . As a result , Cuba experienced flash flooding in mountainous areas as Katrina moved across the country . In southern Camagüey Province , a number of bridges and railroads were washed out . Two sugar mills suffered damage . About 4 @,@ 641 homes suffered impact , 39 of which were destroyed . In addition , an estimated 80 % of sugar cane crops were damaged . Two people drowned in Cuba while attempting to cross a swollen river in Camagüey Province . The Bahamas received up to 14 in ( 360 mm ) of rain . Although no deaths or injuries were reported there , heavy rains in the central islands caused flood damage to watermelon , tomato and corn crops on Long Island . Bad weather from Hurricane Katrina caused the cancellation of the 15th running of the Benson and Hedges Gold Cup Race .
= Žirmūnai =
Žirmūnai ( pronounced : [ ʒirˈmuːnɐi ] ; Polish : Żyrmuny ; Russian : Жирму ́ най ) is the most populous administrative division ( elderate ) in Vilnius . It is also a neighbourhood in the Lithuanian capital city Vilnius , encompassing the city district of the same name , built in the 1960s .
Žirmūnai 's history has been traced to the late 14th century , when a Lithuanian fishing village was founded across the River Neris from Vilnius ' Old Town . Several historic sites in Žirmūnai are internationally significant ; it is the home of Lithuania 's largest Jewish cemetery , as well as the location of mass graves of soldiers belonging to Napoleon 's Grande Armée and victims of the NKGB 's and MGB 's executions after World War II . Tuskulėnai Manor , built in 1825 , and the surrounding Peace Park are important historical and cultural attractions in Vilnius .
The area was given the name Žirmūnai during the early 1960s , when it became the site of an award @-@ winning residential construction project ; it was the first city district in the Lithuanian SSR to be constructed applying urban planning concepts established in the USSR at the time . The massive Palace of Concerts and Sports and Žalgiris Stadium are other relics of Žirmūnai 's Soviet history . Žirmūnai was important to the industrial sector in the USSR ; since that time , this function has been replaced or supplanted by newer businesses , including some of Lithuania 's leading companies .
Žirmūnai has undergone major renovation and development in the 21st century . Šiaurės miestelis ( " North Town " ) is an area of Žirmūnai that has rapidly evolved into one of the key business and residential districts of the city . This quarter was used by a number of regimes as a military garrison , and internationally significant historical findings have been made in the area .
= = Geography = =
The Žirmūnai elderate occupies 5 @.@ 7 km ² or 1 @.@ 4 % of the total area of the municipality of Vilnius according to data used for the 2001 census . Žirmūnai is located north of central Vilnius , along the western bank of the River Neris , on a flat plain which rises to the north . The elderate extends for about 4 @.@ 4 kilometres from north to south , and is about 1 @.@ 5 kilometres across at its widest point . The southernmost point of the Žirmūnai elderate is only some 450 metres from Vilnius ' Cathedral Square , in the centre of the city . Žirmūnai is bordered by the elderates of Verkiai in the north and Šnipiškės in the west , and is separated from Vilnius ' Old Town and Antakalnis by the Neris . Žirmūnai 's western boundary is defined by the following streets ( from north to south ) : Verkių , Žvalgų , Kalvarijų , Žalgirio , and Rinktinės . The River Neris serves as Žirmūnai 's northern , eastern and southern boundary . Žirmūnų Street is the district 's main artery .
Despite the proximity of the city centre , the Žirmūnai bank of the River Neris is covered with a strip of dense deciduous forest that begins at the Žirmūnai Bridge and continues upstream ( northeasterly ) . The forested strip is largely uninterrupted , with gaps near bridges . At the approximate centrepoint of the Žirmūnai shoreline , the forest surrounds a backwater , which had been used to park disused passenger ferries . The forest 's northernmost section is part of a botanical nature reserve within Verkiai Regional Park .
The Žirmūnai bank of the River Neris , from a point near Žirmūnai Bridge and continuing downstream , was stabilised during the 1980s with a steeply @-@ sloped concrete net @-@ like structure which includes patches of grass between the " webbing " of the net ; the lower part of the fortification is a concrete tiled walkway , ending just over 4 kilometres downstream , beyond Liubartas Bridge in Žvėrynas . The walkway is used extensively by walkers , joggers , and cyclists , as well as providing seating for anglers . Construction vehicles sometimes use it to reach work areas . The walkway is submerged during the river floods , mostly in springtime .
= = Demographics = =
= = = Ethnicity = = =
As of the census taken in April 2001 , the ethnic makeup of Žirmūnai was 59 @.@ 2 % Lithuanian , 16 @.@ 8 % Russian ( the third highest percentage among Vilnius ' elderates , behind Naujoji Vilnia and Naujininkai ) , 14 @.@ 4 % Poles , 3 @.@ 8 % Belarusian , 1 @.@ 7 % Ukrainian , 0 @.@ 8 % Jewish , 0 @.@ 2 % Tatar , 0 @.@ 1 % Latvian , 0 @.@ 1 % Armenian , and 2 @.@ 9 % other or unspecified ethnicity .
= = = Population = = =
According to the 2001 census , Žirmūnai was the most populous elderate in Vilnius ( 47 @,@ 410 residents , comprising 8 @.@ 7 % of Vilnius ' total population ) and the third most populous in Lithuania after Šilainiai and Dainava , Kaunas . The population density was 8 @,@ 317 @.@ 5 / km ² . According to the census , there were 21 @,@ 363 private households in the Žirmūnai elderate , making for an average household size of about 2 @.@ 2 persons . The population of Žirmūnai has been rapidly increasing , largely due to construction of residential buildings in the Šiaurės miestelis section of the elderate . A former elder of Žirmūnai estimated its 2002 population to be about 60 @,@ 000 residents – an increase of about 13 @,@ 000 over the 2001 census figure . This rapid growth has placed a strain on city services .
= = = Age cohorts = = =
Žirmūnai is occasionally described as a " borough of elderly people " or even a " borough of elderly women " . There is a certain statistical basis to the claim : according to the data of the April 2001 census , only about 43 @.@ 5 % of Žirmūnai 's population were male , the second lowest percentage in Vilnius , after Žvėrynas ( 43 @.@ 1 % ) ; 27 @.@ 4 % of the population ( 33 @.@ 2 % of women and 19 @.@ 9 % of men ) were of legal retirement age , which was 57 @.@ 5 years for women and 61 @.@ 5 years for men at the time . This is the highest percentage in Vilnius ; accordingly , Žirmūnai had the lowest percentage of residents that were statistically of working age ( defined as over age 15 and up to the retirement age ) in Vilnius , only 56 @.@ 4 % in total : 52 @.@ 8 % of women and 61 @.@ 1 % of men .
The heavy proportion of elderly persons in the district may be attributed to the settled way of life of those residents who arrived during the building boom of the 1960s : the children of these residents moved elsewhere to live , leaving their parents in the old dwelling . The skewed male – female ratio is probably an artifact of the differential between male and female lifespans in Lithuania ( male average lifespan in Lithuania was 66 years in 2004 , as against 78 for females ) , according to the World Health Organization .
At the time of the 2001 census , persons aged between 0 and 15 years comprised 16 @.@ 1 % of Žirmūnai 's population , the second lowest percentage among Vilnius ' elderates , slightly higher than Viršuliškės at 15 @.@ 5 % . However , it is likely that the average age of Žirmūnai 's residents has decreased since the last census , and will continue to decrease , as a result of the active construction of new dwellings , which are acquired primarily by younger people . As housing prices rise , retirees are motivated to sell their apartments with the goal of acquiring cheaper housing elsewhere with funds to spare .
= = = Crime statistics = = =
In 2005 , 2 @,@ 317 crimes were registered in the Žirmūnai elderate . This is the third highest figure among Vilnius ' elderates , behind the Old Town and Naujamiestis . Using the population data of the latest available census ( 2001 ) , this would amount to about 48 @.@ 9 crimes per 1 @,@ 000 residents per year ( only the eighth highest figure , due to the elderate 's large population ; Vilnius ' total crime rate , using the same population data , would be about 51 crimes per 1 @,@ 000 residents ) . In terms of crime density , 406 @.@ 5 crimes per 1 square kilometre were registered ( the fourth highest figure , behind the Old Town , Naujamiestis and Šnipiškės ; Vilnius ' total crime density , using the same population data , would be about 70 @.@ 4 ) .
However , thanks largely to the crime prevention programme Saugus miestas ( " Safe City " ) , crime rates in Žirmūnai , as in all other elderates of Vilnius , are declining . For instance , 886 crimes were registered in Žirmūnai during the first four months of 2005 , versus 672 during the same period of 2006 , a decline of about 24 % . If this trend continues , Žirmūnai 's crime rate for 2006 would decrease to about 37 @.@ 2 crimes per 1 @,@ 000 residents .
The most frequently registered crimes during the first four months of 2006 were : theft ( 335 instances , including 19 car thefts , constituting about 50 % of the total number of crimes ) ; rape ( 259 instances or about 38 @.@ 5 % of the total ) ; robbery ( 44 instances or about 6 @.@ 5 % ) ; and bodily injury ( 20 instances or about 3 % ) . Percentage data may overlap as one criminal act may have several features , which are registered separately , but the total number of crimes is calculated per incident .
= = History = =
The elderate of Žirmūnai embraces three historical suburbs of Vilnius : Žvejai , Tuskulėnai and Šiaurės miestelis . Fishing village Žvejai dating to the 14th century included the only glass factory in the 16th century Lithuania , as well as the largest Jewish cemetery . It became an integral part of Vilnius in the 16th century . The area south of Žvejai became known after the name of the Tusculanum Manor . Manor itself was a property of noble families and officials , and is the oldest building in Žirmūnai . In the 19th century , a military garrison was established in the present @-@ day Šiaurės miestelis , which was used by Russian , French and Polish armies . These territories were consolidated into Vilnius city during the period of rapid growth that occurred in the 1950s and 1960s . The Tuskulėnai Manor was used as the KGB officers ' apartments back then . In the last years , a housing renovation program was launched in Žirmūnai . Military structures in Šiaurės miestelis of a historical value have been preserved and restored . Šiaurės miestelis became one of the most sought – after residential and commercial areas of Vilnius .
= = = 14th – 19th centuries = = =
Žirmūnai 's southernmost section , which lies on the bank of the River Neris opposite the Vilnius Castle Complex , was part of the settlement known as Žvejai ; another part of that settlement is now located within the elderate of Šnipiškės . According to archaeological surveys from 2005 , a fishing village may have been located here as early as the late 14th century , giving the area its name , literally , Fishermen ; it was later settled by craftsmen and housed the Orthodox Church of St Barbara . During the 16th century , the only glass factory in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was located in the suburb of Žvejai . In 1563 , after the construction of the first bridge over the River Neris ( at the approximate location of today 's Mindaugas Bridge ) , the suburb of Žvejai became an integral part of the city of Vilnius . During Tsarist rule in the 19th century , the name of Žvejai was superseded by that of Piramont , originating from the small estate of Piramont in the area ( now Kalvarijų 1 ) . Piramontskij Alley can be seen in a 1904 map of Vilnius where today 's A. Juozapavičiaus Street in the elderate of Šnipiškės is located , close to the boundary of Žirmūnai . The usage of Piramont as a placename gradually became limited to the southern part of Žvejai .
The heritage of Žvejai was retained in the name of Žvejų ( " Fishermen 's " ) Street , which runs alongside the River Neris in southern Šnipiškės and Žirmūnai . However , the Žirmūnai section of this street was renamed Olimpiečių ( " Olympians " ) in 2000 to commemorate the achievements of Lithuanian Olympic athletes in the Sydney Olympics .
The largest and oldest Jewish cemetery in Lithuania , first mentioned in 1592 , was also located in Žvejai . It was known in the local Jewish community as Shnipishok . The Yiddish placename later became associated with the whole borough of Šnipiškės , now bordering Žirmūnai on the west . Although the cemetery was officially closed in 1830 and was subject to gradual deterioration , there were further interments . Vilna Gaon , as well as other famous Vilnian Jews , were interred in the cemetery .
During the years of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth , in the area on the right bank of the River Neris opposite the St. Peter and St. Paul 's Church in Antakalnis , a Royal Manor called Derevnictva ( Polish : Derewnictwo ) , was established in the mid @-@ 16th century by King Sigismund Augustus as an outpost of the Vilnius Castles . The manor was held by the kings Sigismund III Vasa and Władysław IV Vasa , nobleman M. Piegłowski , the Wołowicz family , the Grand Hetman of Lithuania Michał Kazimierz Pac , as well by the Tyzenhaus family after 1741 . In the mid @-@ 18th century , Lateran monks acquired the manor and named it Tusculanum , after the resort outside the ancient Roman city of Tusculum . ( see also : Villa Rufinella ) The surrounding forests were used as a game reserve and for sport fishing . Towards the end of the century , the manor was separated into the folwarks of Tuskulėnai , based on the core of the old royal manor , and Derevnictva .
Under the rule of the Russian Empire in the 19th century , the Tuskulėnai Manor was held by various noble families and high @-@ ranking state officials , including Governor General of Lithuanian – Vilna Governorate , Alexander Rimsky @-@ Korsakov . In the mid @-@ 19th century the main palace was transformed into a guesthouse that became a cultural center in Vilnius , often visited by Stanislaw Moniuszko and Józef Ignacy Kraszewski . The manor passed into the possession of Julija Safranovich after 1886 , and then was held by Olga Melentjeva and her noble family until World War II .
The area surrounding Tuskulėnai Manor was referred to as Tuskulėnai ( Russian : Tuskuljany ; Polish : Tuskulanum ) until World War II . This area was also known as Losiovka or Losiuvka , colloquially named after A. Losev , colonel of Special Corps of Gendarmes and later general of the Russian Empire , who owned the folwark of Tuskulėnai in 1869 . The placenames are associated primarily with individual wooden houses , built in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , some of which are still scattered among the apartment buildings .
A military garrison was built in the approximate location of the modern Šiaurės miestelis ( " North Town " , that is , north of Old Vilnius ) section of Žirmūnai by the Russian Empire during the 19th century . This area went on to be used as a garrison by a number of armies : Napoleon 's Grande Armée in 1812 , Tsarist for the rest of the 19th century and in the beginning of the 20th century ( see : the 27th infantry division 's camp in the map of 1904 ) , the Bolsheviks during World War I , the Polish army in the inter @-@ war period , and the Red Army from the 1950s to 1992 .
= = = 20th century = = =
During the interwar period , when Vilnius was under Polish control , the southern part of Žvejai was known as Pióromont ; the entire Žvejai area was referred to as Rybaki ( Polish for " Fishermen " ) ; modern Šiaurės miestelis had been called Plac broni ( Polish for the " Military training ground " ) ; and the old placename of Derewnictwo , dating back to the times of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth , applied to the area north of Tuskulėnai Manor .
A map of Vilnius published in 1942 , while the city was under Nazi rule , shows the northern part of Žirmūnai as Paneriškės , the middle section as Kareiviškės ( " place of soldiers " ) and the southern part , close to the Tuskulėnai Manor , as Mantiškės ( " a place named in honour of Mantas " ) . One of the streets in the area , Enriko Manto Street , referred to Herkus Mantas ( Herkus Monte ) , a hero of the Great Prussian Uprising ; today H. Manto Street is a short street in the Šnipiškės elderate ending at the boundary of Žirmūnai .
A Soviet military base was established in the current Šiaurės miestelis section of Žirmūnai during the 1950s . The heavily wooded northernmost part of the elderate was thinly populated until the 1960s .
During the 1960s , Žirmūnai attracted the attention of urban planners ; it became the first city district in the Lithuanian SSR to be constructed applying urban planning concepts established in the USSR at that time . Designed in 1962 , the district consisted of three microdistricts - residential and industrial sections centred around public facilities and had been the largest residential area in the city .
The first microdistrict , or " Žirmūnai I " , which is district 's middle section , was built in 1962 — 67 in accordance with a project by architect Birutė Kasperavičienė , who was avarded the USSR State Prize in 1968 , together with architect Bronislovas Krūminis and engineers Ṧmuelis Liubeckis and Vaclovas Zubras ; it was the first time this award had been presented to the designers of a large @-@ scale residential construction . The second microdistrict , " Žirmūnai II " , which is the southernmost of the three , was built in 1964 — 68 , its architect being Nijolė Chlomauskienė . And the third , the northernmost microdistrict , " Žirmūnai III " designed by architect Laima Burneikienė was built in 1964 — 69 in the site of the former village of Paneriškės . The city district was then named after the formerly Lithuanian village of Žirmūnai ( Russian : Zhirmuny ) , now situated 16 kilometres from the Lithuania – Belarus border in the Voranauski District , Hrodna Province of Belarus . This village is where Karol Podczaszyński , an architect and designer of Tuskulėnai Manor , was born . Hence the future district 's major street Žirmūnų was named after the village as it is seen in the map of 1942 and gave its name to the entire district .
The new residential housing in the microdistrict consisted almost exclusively of five @-@ story prefabricated concrete block apartment buildings popularly known as khrushchyovkas . Three nine @-@ story high @-@ rise apartment buildings were built in 1969 , and several more were constructed later , as well as seven brick @-@ built twelve @-@ storeys . The apartment buildings were meant primarily to accommodate industrial workers who came to Vilnius from other regions of the Lithuanian SSR and from other Soviet Republics . They typify the Brutalist architecture of the era . The principles governing the design of the microdistrict were set forth in books by the University of Moscow planners , for instance in New Element of Populating . En Route to the New City published in the USSR in 1966 ( although the concept of the " new element " has been dated to 1959 ) ; the book was later published as The Ideal Communist City in the United States , United Kingdom and Italy . According to the book , the optimal apartment size was about 600 square feet ( 56 square metres ) , with one bathroom and two bedrooms . Single @-@ family homes were considered " too autonomous " .
The ancient Jewish cemetery in Žvejai stood in the way of the expansion . Many tombstones were destroyed in 1950 during the construction of Žalgiris Stadium ; the cemetery was completely demolished in 1955 in accordance with a decree issued by local authorities in 1948 . The bodies of Vilna Gaon and several members of his immediate family were relocated , after receiving special permission from the Soviet authorities ; this relocation has been the subject of historical controversy . The cemetery was the subject of an archaeological survey in the late 1990s . A memorial stone was placed in the southeastern portion of the former cemetery with an inscription in Yiddish and Lithuanian , stating that the cemetery was established there in 1478 ( this dating is disputed ) .
An incident in Žirmūnai 's history that has been difficult to reconstruct occurred in 1975 , when a pontoon bridge across the River Neris , that was customarily set up from spring to autumn , collapsed due to the weight of a crowd returning from a concert in the Palace of Concerts and Sports . It was rumoured that the bridge supports were not fully connected at the time . There were witnessed fatalities involving drownings and crushing by the bridge structures . Public discussion of the disaster was restricted and the number of casualties remains unknown . The pontoon bridge was never re @-@ erected at the site ; the Mindaugas Bridge now serves this need .
Tuskulėnai Manor had been nationalised in 1940 and was later used as KGB officers ' apartments and as a kindergarten . During excavations that took place between 1994 and 1996 in its territory , the remains of 706 bodies were found ; 40 were identified . The area had been used to hide the bodies of Lithuanian residents – mostly resistance fighters against the Soviet occupation and Nazi collaborators – who had been executed by the NKGB and MGB in the Vilnius ' KGB Palace between 1944 and 1947 but also those who died fighting Polish Armia Krajowa soldiers . The remains from the mass grave were placed in a columbarium built underground , beneath an artificial hill , and consecrated in 2004 .
In 2001 , workers laying telephone line in Šiaurės miestelis , near the former garrison , discovered a mass grave that was found to contain the bodies of about 2 @,@ 000 soldiers – the remnants of Napoleon 's Grande Armée as it retreated from Moscow . In December 1812 , temperatures in Vilnius had sunk to − 30 ° C , and the frozen ground made proper burials impossible . The Grande Armée at that time comprised French , Portuguese , Italians , Germans , Austrians , Spaniards , and Croats , as well as Lithuanians and Poles . The bones have been intensively studied by forensic pathologists ; DNA evidence showed that many of the deaths were caused by typhus . Most of the remains were re @-@ interred in Antakalnis Cemetery . Other findings included buttons stamped with Napoleon ’ s image , crucifixes , wedding rings , belt buckles , boots and pieces of French uniforms . Footage from the location has been used in the TV series Moments in Time produced by Discovery Channel and Meet the Ancestors by BBC . The archaeological surveys were partially sponsored by the producers .
The Red Army military base in Žirmūnai was abandoned in 1992 , a few years after Lithuania 's independence from the Soviet Union ; a grace period was granted in order to ensure the orderly resettlement of the soldiers and their families .
= = = 21st century = = =
Due to the Soviet principles of urban planning , Žirmūnai , according to the 2001 census data , was among the three Vilnius elderates ( the other two being Karoliniškės and Viršuliškės ) with the lowest percentage of single @-@ family housing in the city ( 0 @.@ 1 % ) . Of the remaining residents , 0 @.@ 4 % owned a share of individual housing , 0 @.@ 7 % lived in hostels , and almost 99 % lived in apartments . The scarcity of lots means that the number of single @-@ family dwellings is not likely to increase ; a reverse process is taking place : old wooden houses are being demolished , making room for new residential and commercial constructions . As of 2007 , there were only a few modern single @-@ family houses in Žirmūnai .
Žirmūnai 's housing , especially in its central sections , is in need of extensive renovation , due to wear and tear of its low or medium @-@ quality construction . A program to renew old apartment buildings ( including the installation of better insulation ) is ongoing in Vilnius , partially assisted by the Vilnius City Municipality ; the first finished renovation project – a completely renewed 60 @-@ apartment building built in 1965 – is located in Žirmūnai . The area is , in some ways , analogous to public housing districts in Chicago and London ; although much of the housing was quickly and inexpensively erected in the 1960s , its proximity to downtown Vilnius , its transportation infrastructure , and its access to the River Neris account for its popularity . The principles of Soviet urban planning that led to its growth have converged with the modern concept of " Smart growth " .
The Šiaurės miestelis section of Žirmūnai is growing rapidly and in 2007 was one of Vilnius ' most sought @-@ after residential and commercial areas .
Many of the military structures that were built in the late 19th century in Šiaurės miestelis have been preserved and restored . Meanwhile , much of the construction that was not deemed to be of permanent value , erected during the Soviet times , has been demolished , leaving room for new streets and housing . The combination of military heritage sites and newer construction is a distinctive feature of Šiaurės miestelis .
Reflecting its military history , numerous street names in and around Šiaurės miestelis allude to military concepts , including Kareivių ( " Soldiers " ) , Lakūnų ( " Pilots " ) , Žygio ( " March " ) , Apkasų ( " Trenches " ) , Ulonų ( " Light Cavalry " ) . The new streets built in Šiaurės miestelis during the beginning of the 21st century were named for prominent figures in Lithuanian military history : Povilas Lukšys , Lithuanian army volunteer , the first to perish in the Independence Wars in 1919 with the Bolshevik forces , as well as Kazys Ladyga , Silvestras Žukauskas , Jonas Galvydis @-@ Bikauskas , Vladas Nagevičius , and Jurgis Kubilius , prominent officers of the inter @-@ war Lithuanian Army , whose histories are not directly related to the area . On the contrary , these personalities distinguished themselves by opposing the Bolshevik and Polish armies that were historically garrisoned in Šiaurės miestelis . The naming was suggested by the Ministry of Defence . There are more streets not far from Šiaurės miestelis that bear military @-@ themed names : Raitininkų ( " Cavalrymen " ) , Žvalgų ( " Scouts " ) and Rinktinės ( " Platoon " ) .
An international dispute arose in the 2000s over construction near the Jewish cemetery , with organizations expressing concerns that gravesites could be disturbed .
= = Education = =
The educational institutions in Žirmūnai include three secondary schools , all Lithuanian @-@ language . Tuskulėnai Secondary School ( Lithuanian : Tuskulėnų vidurinė mokykla , formerly Vilnius ' Secondary School No. 31 ) had 1 @,@ 463 students in 2006 , which made it the fifth largest school in Vilnius . The school features advanced classes in the visual arts . St. Christopher 's Gymnasium ( Lithuanian : Šv . Kristoforo gimnazija , formerly Vilnius ' Secondary School No. 9 ) was the eighth largest in Vilnius with 1 @,@ 391 students in 2006 . Žirmūnai Gymnasium ( Lithuanian : Žirmūnų gimnazija , formerly Vilnius Secondary School No. 7 ) had 800 students in 2006 . The school was granted the title Gymnasium in 2000 ; it is home to the acclaimed brass band Septima , established in 1966 .
There are three elementary schools located in Žirmūnai : Antoni Wiwulski , Emilia Plater , and St. Christopher . Šarūnas Marčiulionis Basketball School and Vilnius Sports School offer physical education . The Vilnius School of Radioelectronics and Precision Mechanics ( Lithuanian : Vilniaus radioelektronikos ir tiksliosios mechanikos mokykla ) was established in 1965 to prepare workers for Vilma , a manufacturer of electrical products still operating in Žirmūnai . The Vilnius School of Tourism and Commerce ( Lithuanian : Vilniaus turizmo ir prekybos verslo mokykla ) offers certificates in retailing , basic bookkeeping , hotel and restaurant services , and other business areas . Vilnius Gija Youth School serves those students who have special needs and do not succeed in traditional classroom settings . Žirmūnai also has one of the three Children 's Foster Homes in Vilnius .
As of the census taken in April 2001 , 26 @.@ 2 % of Žirmūnai 's residents aged 10 or older possessed a bachelor 's or higher degree .
= = Facilities = =
= = = Parks and museums = = =
Tuskulėnai Manor is Žirmūnai 's oldest extant architectural structure . The manor was built in 1825 , following a design by Karol Podczaszyński in the neoclassical style . It consists of the principal building ( the palace ) , an officina ( storage house ) , and several adjacent buildings , including a small eclectic chapel of St. Theresa located about 100 metres south of the principal building . The " Little White Manor " , also known as the villa of Franciszek Walicki , was built in 1866 further south from the manor , acquired by Walicki in 1928 , and reconstructed to serve as a summer residence . All of these structures have been restored by 2009 , and are a part of the 7 @.@ 5 @-@ hectare Peace Park ( Rimties parkas ) that includes the Tuskulėnai Manor , hosting a museum of martyrology in Lithuania in the second half of the 20th century ( a branch of the Lithuanian Museum of Genocide Victims ) , restored landscaping , as well as the columbarium .
A Museum of Computing was opened in 2001 in Žirmūnai by the Lithuanian software company Sintagma , showcasing the history of Lithuanian computing science and hardware production . It was based on a museum opened in 1985 by Sigma , one of the leading computer manufacturers in the former Soviet Union . The museum 's exhibits include EV @-@ 80 , the first Soviet vacuum tube computing machine manufactured by Sigma , and a copy of the IBM 604 .
Three of the 19 brick chapels of the Vilnius Stations of the Cross ( Vilniaus Kalvarijos ) , part of Verkiai Regional Park , are located at the extreme northwestern corner of Žirmūnai , just within the elderate 's border . Once destroyed in 1963 and completely rebuilt , the three chapels , symbolizing the Mount of Olives and the Gardens of Gethsemane , are found only 20 meters away from the relatively busy Verkių Street , and about a hundred meters downhill from a group of Soviet multi @-@ storey apartment buildings .
The forested area along the banks of the River Neris in Žirmūnai and its walkways are a popular recreational destination for many Vilnians .
= = = Governmental offices = = =
As a primarily residential area , Žirmūnai hosted only 7 @.@ 4 % of Vilnius ' public offices in 2003 . Žirmūnai is the location of the Personal Identity Documents Centre of Lithuania 's Ministry of the Interior which produces all of Lithuania 's identity cards , passports , and driver 's licenses , as well as residency permits . Issuance of residence permits is controlled by Vilnius City Migration Service , which is housed in Žirmūnai too . The State Tax Inspectorate has an office in Šiaurės Miestelis , providing services to private as well as legal persons . There are also several medicine @-@ related institutions , such as the Ministry of Health 's State Public Health Service , the Vilnius city morgue . The Institute of Forensic Medicine of the Mykolas Romeris University was headquartered in Šiaurės Miestelis as well . The Lithuanian National Olympic Committee , the Vilnius Department of the Lithuanian Labour Exchange at the Ministry of Social Security and Labour , the Honorary Vice @-@ Consulate of the Kingdom of Spain , and the National Examination Center , established by the Ministry of Education to organize centralized nationwide examinations of high school graduates , all have headquarters in Žirmūnai .
= = = Sports and entertainment venues = = =
Several notable sports facilities are located in Žirmūnai , including Žalgiris Stadium , Lithuania 's largest stadium , and Impuls Plus fitness club . Rowing practices take place on the River Neris ; there is a base of operation , as well as several piers , on the Žirmūnai bank of the river . One of Lithuania 's largest indoor public swimming pools was situated in Žirmūnai until the 1990s . Part of the annual international Vilnius Marathon course runs along the Žirmūnai bank of the River Neris .
The Vilnius Palace of Concerts and Sports ( Koncertų ir sporto rūmai ) , built in 1971 in the southernmost part of Žirmūnai in the middle of the former cemetery , is an example of Soviet Constructivism and Brutalist architecture , remarkable for its vessel @-@ like exterior . The Palace , once one of the architectonic icons of Soviet Vilnius , was , until the 1990s , a major venue for sporting events , especially local and international basketball matches , as well as concerts and shows . Its seating capacity is about 4 @,@ 400 . On 22 – 23 October 1988 the building hosted the statutory meeting of Sąjūdis , the Lithuanian political organization that led the struggle for Lithuanian independence ; on 14 – 15 January 1991 , a public funeral for the victims of the January Events took place at the Palace . Later in the 1990s , the building was used as a temporary shopping mall where space was leased to small entrepreneurs for business exhibitions and fairs . In the 2000s developers announced plans to build multifunctional complexes , incorporating sports , business and residential structures , that would replace Žalgiris Stadium and the Palace of Concerts and Sports ; the projects have been stalled due to the inclusion of the Palace into the list " Registry of Cultural Values " in July 2006 , and related litigation .
The Vilnius Palace of Culture , Entertainment and Sports ( an example of Soviet functionalism built in 1980 as the Palace of Culture and Sports of the Ministry of Interior ) , hosts several amateur art clubs ( choirs in particular ) , and is also used for indoor sports ( wrestling , martial arts , artistic gymnastics , volleyball , basketball ) , as well as lawn tennis , including two clay courts .
Oskaras Koršunovas Theatre has occupied the former Lietuvos Rytas Arena which was the home of Lithuania 's starring basketball team Lietuvos Rytas until the 2004 season , and was also used by the former women 's basketball team BC Teo . Along with the Vilnius Palace of Culture , Entertainment and Sports , it was used in 2006 as part of the set for 9 / 11 : The Twin Towers , a docudrama about the September 11 , 2001 attacks in New York City , a Dangerous Films production for BBC and Discovery Channel . Ūkio banko teatro arena ( " Ūkio Bankas Theater Arena " ) is now the venue of performances of Eimuntas Nekrošius of Meno Fortas and Anželika Cholina Dance Theatre .
Southern Žirmūnai 's sporting connections are reflected in the names of the streets along the Žirmūnai side of the River Neris : Sporto ( " Sports " ) and Olimpiečių ( " Olympians " ) . The Palace of Students ' Technical Creative Work of the Republic is Lithuania 's largest facility for high school students ' after @-@ school activities of a technical nature , such as model building and go @-@ kart racing . The Grand Theater of Vilnius ( Didysis Vilniaus teatras ) is a small theater ( its misnomer is intentional ) that is formally based in Šiaurės miestelis ; it has no venue of its own and holds performances in other theaters .
A building close to the western border of the Žirmūnai elderate , an example of Socialist historicism built soon after the end of World War II , was the home of the Tėvynė ( " Motherland " ) Cinema until the early 1990s ; it has been hosting the New York musical theatre and club since 2004 . It is unclear whether this building will be demolished to make way for underground parking lots or saved by virtue of its inclusion into the Registry of Cultural Values .
= = = Commercial and industrial facilities = = =
1 @,@ 414 businesses , comprising 8 @.@ 7 % of all Vilnius ' businesses , were headquartered in the Žirmūnai elderate in 2003 . Lithuania 's largest electricity distribution network operator , Rytų skirstomieji tinklai , operates from Žirmūnai , as well as TELE2 , one of Lithuania 's three mobile communications operators ; Ogmios , one of Lithuania 's largest retailers and wholesalers of home appliances ; and Vilpra , Lithuania 's largest dealer of heating equipment .
In 1992 , the former prominent Lithuanian basketball player Šarūnas Marčiulionis and his business partners opened the Šarūnas Hotel in Žirmūnai .
The Banginis and Rimi Hypermarket , located in Šiaurės miestelis , are among Lithuania 's largest shopping centers . Vilniaus duona ( " The Bread of Vilnius " ) , Lithuania 's largest baking company , operates one of its bakeries in Žirmūnai .
An abundance of automotive service facilities and car dealerships are located in the elderate , including some of the Lithuania 's largest Opel , SAAB , Chevrolet ( Žaibo ratas ) , and Nissan ( Raitas ) dealerships .
The northern part of Žirmūnai was an important part of the Lithuanian SSR 's industrial sector during the 1960s , 1970s , and 1980s . The Kuro aparatūros gamykla ( Fuel Equipment Factory ) is now bankrupt ; Sigma , formerly one of the leading manufacturers of electronics and computer components in the Soviet Union , which contributed to the description of the Lithuanian SSR as " The Soviet Silicon Valley " , continues to operate at a minimum level ; and Vilma remains Lithuania 's largest manufacturer of electrical products .
= = Transport = =
Žirmūnai is well @-@ served by Vilnius ' bus and trolleybus transportation network . One of Vilnius ' trolleybus hubs is located in the northernmost part of Žirmūnai elderate , and Vilniaus Autobusai , Vilnius ' main bus operator , is headquartered and has its main depot in Žirmūnai . Žirmūnai suffers from rush hour traffic jams . The street network in the district was primarily designed in the Soviet era for a much lower vehicle traffic .
Žirmūnai is linked to the elderate of Antakalnis by three bridges over the River Neris : Valakampiai Bridge , the longest bridge in Vilnius , built in 1972 ; the Šilas Bridge , | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
dollars a week .
Cooper 's first important film role was in The Winning of Barbara Worth ( 1926 ) with Ronald Colman and Vilma Bánky . In the film , Cooper plays a young engineer , Abe Lee , who helps a rival suitor save the woman he loves and her town from an impending dam disaster . Cooper 's experience living among the Montana cowboys gave his performance an " instinctive authenticity " , according to biographer Jeffrey Meyers . The film premiered on October 14 and was a major success . Critics singled out Cooper as a " dynamic new personality " and future star . Goldwyn rushed to offer the actor a long @-@ term contract , but Cooper held out for a better deal — finally signing a five @-@ year contract with Jesse L. Lasky at Paramount Pictures for $ 175 a week . In 1927 , with help from established movie star Clara Bow , Cooper landed high @-@ profile roles in Children of Divorce and Wings , the latter being the first film to win an Academy Award for Best Picture . That year , Cooper also appeared in his first starring roles in Arizona Bound and Nevada — both films directed by John Waters .
In 1928 , Paramount paired Cooper with a youthful Fay Wray in The Legion of the Condemned and The First Kiss — advertising them as the studio 's " glorious young lovers " . Their on @-@ screen chemistry failed to generate much excitement with audiences . With each new film , Cooper 's acting skills improved and his popularity continued to grow , especially among female movie @-@ goers . During this time , he was earning as much as $ 2 @,@ 750 per film and receiving a thousand fan letters a week . Looking to exploit Cooper 's growing audience appeal , the studio placed him opposite popular leading ladies such as Evelyn Brent in Beau Sabreur , Florence Vidor in Doomsday , and Esther Ralston in Half a Bride . That year , Cooper also made Lilac Time with Colleen Moore for First National Pictures , his first movie with synchronized music and sound effects . It became one of the most commercially successful films of 1928 .
= = = Hollywood stardom , 1929 – 35 = = =
Cooper became a major movie star in 1929 with the release of his first sound picture , The Virginian , which was directed by Victor Fleming and co @-@ starred Mary Brian and Walter Huston . Based on the popular novel by Owen Wister , The Virginian was one of the first sound films to define the Western code of honor and helped establish many of the conventions of the Western movie genre that have lasted to the present day . According to biographer Jeffrey Meyers , the romantic image of the tall , handsome , and shy cowboy hero who embodied male freedom , courage , and honor was created in large part by Cooper in the film . Unlike some silent film actors who had trouble adapting to the new sound medium , Cooper transitioned naturally , with his " deep and clear " and " pleasantly drawling " voice , which was perfectly suited for the characters he portrayed on screen , also according to Meyers . Looking to capitalize on Cooper 's growing popularity , Paramount cast him in several Westerns and wartime dramas in 1930 , including Only the Brave , The Texan , Seven Days ' Leave , A Man from Wyoming , and The Spoilers .
One of the more important performances in Cooper 's early career was his portrayal of a sullen legionnaire in Josef von Sternberg 's 1930 film Morocco with Marlene Dietrich in her introduction to American audiences . During production , von Sternberg focused his energies on Dietrich and treated Cooper dismissively . Tensions came to a head after von Sternberg yelled directions at Cooper in German . The 6 @-@ foot @-@ 3 @-@ inch ( 191 cm ) actor approached the 5 @-@ foot @-@ 4 @-@ inch ( 163 cm ) director , physically picked him up by the collar and said , " If you expect to work in this country you 'd better get on to the language we use here . " Despite the tensions on the set , Cooper produced " one of his best performances " , according to Thornton Delehanty of the New York Evening Post . In 1931 , after returning to the Western genre in Zane Grey 's Fighting Caravans with French actress Lili Damita , Cooper appeared in the Dashiell Hammett crime film City Streets playing a westerner who gets involved with big @-@ city gangsters in order to save the woman he loves . Cooper concluded the year with appearances in two unsuccessful films : I Take This Woman with Carole Lombard , and His Woman with Claudette Colbert . The demands and pressures of making ten films in two years left Cooper exhausted and in poor health , suffering from anemia and jaundice . He had lost thirty pounds ( fourteen kilograms ) during that period , and felt lonely , isolated , and depressed by his sudden fame and wealth . In May 1931 , Cooper left Hollywood and sailed to Algiers and then Italy , where he lived for the next year .
During his time abroad , Cooper stayed with the Countess Dorothy di Frasso at the Villa Madama in Rome , where she taught him about good food and vintage wines , how to read Italian and French menus , and how to socialize among Europe 's nobility and upper classes . After guiding him through the great art museums and galleries of Italy , she accompanied him on a ten @-@ week big @-@ game hunting safari on the slopes of Mount Kenya in East Africa , where he was credited with over sixty kills , including two lions , a rhinoceros , and various antelopes . His safari experience in Africa had a profound influence on Cooper and intensified his love of the wilderness . After returning to Europe , he and the countess set off on a Mediterranean cruise of the Italian and French Rivieras . Rested and rejuvenated by his year @-@ long exile , a healthy Cooper returned to Hollywood in April 1932 and negotiated a new contract with Paramount for two films per year , a salary of $ 4 @,@ 000 a week , and director and script approval .
In 1932 , after completing Devil and the Deep with Tallulah Bankhead to fulfill his old contract , Cooper appeared in A Farewell to Arms , the first film adaptation of an Ernest Hemingway novel . Co @-@ starring Helen Hayes , a leading New York theatre star and Academy Award winner , and Adolphe Menjou , the film presented Cooper with one of his most ambitious and challenging dramatic roles , playing an American ambulance driver wounded in Italy who falls in love with an English nurse during World War I. Critics praised his highly intense and emotional performance , and the film became one of the year 's most commercially successful pictures . In 1933 , after making Today We Live with Joan Crawford and One Sunday Afternoon with Fay Wray , Cooper appeared in the Ernst Lubitsch comedy film Design for Living , based on the successful Noël Coward play . Co @-@ starring Miriam Hopkins and Fredric March , the film received mixed reviews and did not do well at the box office . Cooper 's performance — playing an American artist in Europe competing with his playwright friend for the affections of a beautiful woman — was singled out for its versatility and revealed his genuine ability to do light comedy . Cooper changed his name legally to " Gary Cooper " in August 1933 .
In 1934 , Cooper was loaned out to MGM for the Civil War drama film Operator 13 with Marion Davies , about a beautiful Union spy who falls in love with a Confederate soldier . Despite Richard Boleslawski 's imaginative direction and George J. Folsey 's lavish cinematography , the film did poorly at the box office . Back at Paramount , Cooper appeared in his first of seven films by director Henry Hathaway , Now and Forever , with Carole Lombard and Shirley Temple . In the film , he plays a confidence man who tries to sell his daughter to the relatives who raised her , but is eventually won over by the adorable girl . Impressed by Temple 's intelligence and charm , Cooper developed a close rapport with her , both on and off screen . The film was a box @-@ office success .
The following year , Cooper was loaned out to Samuel Goldwyn Productions to appear in King Vidor 's romance film The Wedding Night with Anna Sten , who was being groomed as " another Garbo " . In the film , Cooper plays an alcoholic novelist who retreats to his family 's New England farm where he meets and falls in love with a beautiful Polish neighbor . Cooper delivered a performance of surprising range and depth , according to biographer Larry Swindell . Despite receiving generally favorable reviews , the film was not popular with American audiences , who may have been offended by the film 's depiction of an extramarital affair and its tragic ending . That same year , Cooper appeared in two Henry Hathaway films : the melodrama Peter Ibbetson with Ann Harding , about a man caught up in a dream world created by his love for a childhood sweetheart , and the adventure film The Lives of a Bengal Lancer , about a daring British officer and his men who defend their stronghold at Bengal against rebellious local tribes . While the former was more successful in Europe than in the United States , the latter was nominated for six Academy Awards and became one of Cooper 's most popular and successful adventure films . Hathaway had the highest respect for Cooper 's acting ability , calling him " the best actor of all of them " .
= = = American folk hero , 1936 – 43 = = =
= = = = From Mr. Deeds to The Real Glory = = = =
The year 1936 marked an important turning point in Cooper 's career . After making Frank Borzage 's romantic comedy film Desire with Marlene Dietrich at Paramount — delivering a performance considered by some contemporary critics as one of his finest — Cooper returned to Poverty Row for the first time since his early silent film days to make Frank Capra 's screwball comedy Mr. Deeds Goes to Town with Jean Arthur for Columbia Pictures . In the film , Cooper plays the character of Longfellow Deeds , a quiet , innocent writer of greeting cards who inherits a fortune , leaves behind his idyllic life in Vermont , and travels to New York where he faces a world of corruption and deceit . Capra and screenwriter Robert Riskin were able to use Cooper 's well @-@ established screen persona as the " quintessential American hero " — a symbol of honesty , courage , and goodness — to create a new type of " folk hero " for the common man . Commenting on Cooper 's impact on the character and the film , Capra observed :
As soon as I thought of Gary Cooper , it wasn 't possible to conceive anyone else in the role . He could not have been any closer to my idea of Longfellow Deeds , and as soon as he could think in terms of Cooper , Bob Riskin found it easier to develop the Deeds character in terms of dialogue . So it just had to be Cooper . Every line in his face spelled honesty . Our Mr. Deeds had to symbolize uncorruptibility , and in my mind Gary Cooper was that symbol .
Both Desire and Mr. Deeds opened in April 1936 to critical praise and were major box @-@ office successes . In his review in The New York Times , Frank Nugent wrote that Cooper was " proving himself one of the best light comedians in Hollywood " . For his performance in Mr. Deeds , Cooper received his first Academy Award nomination for Best Actor .
Cooper appeared in two other Paramount films in 1936 . In Lewis Milestone 's adventure film The General Died at Dawn with Madeleine Carroll , he plays an American soldier of fortune in China who helps the peasants defend themselves against the oppression of a cruel warlord . Written by playwright Clifford Odets , the film was a critical and commercial success . In Cecil B. DeMille 's sprawling frontier epic The Plainsman — his first of four films with the director — Cooper portrays Wild Bill Hickok in a highly fictionalized version of the opening of the American western frontier . The film was an even greater box @-@ office hit than its predecessor , due in large part to Jean Arthur 's definitive depiction of Calamity Jane and Cooper 's inspired portrayal of Hickock as an enigmatic figure of " deepening mythic substance " . That year , Cooper appeared for the first time on the Motion Picture Herald exhibitor 's poll of top ten film personalities , where he would remain for the next twenty @-@ three years .
In late 1936 , while Paramount was preparing a new contract for Cooper that would raise his salary to $ 8 @,@ 000 a week , Cooper signed a contract with Samuel Goldwyn for six films over six years with a minimum guarantee of $ 150 @,@ 000 per picture . Paramount brought suit against Goldwyn and Cooper , and the court ruled that Cooper 's new Goldwyn contract afforded the actor sufficient time to also honor his Paramount agreement . Cooper continued to make films with both studios , and by 1939 the United States Treasury reported that Cooper was the country 's highest wage earner , at $ 482 @,@ 819 ( equivalent to $ 8 @.@ 21 million in 2015 ) .
In contrast to his output the previous year , Cooper appeared in only one picture in 1937 , Henry Hathaway 's adventure film Souls at Sea . A critical and box @-@ office failure , Cooper referred to it as his " almost picture " , saying , " It was almost exciting , and almost interesting . And I was almost good . " In 1938 , he appeared in Archie Mayo 's biographical film The Adventures of Marco Polo . Plagued by production problems and a weak screenplay , the film became Goldwyn 's biggest failure to that date , losing $ 700 @,@ 000 . During this period , Cooper turned down several important roles , including the role of Rhett Butler in Gone with the Wind . Cooper was producer David O. Selznick 's first choice for the part . He made several overtures to the actor , but Cooper had doubts about the project , and did not feel suited to the role . Cooper later admitted , " It was one of the best roles ever offered in Hollywood ... But I said no . I didn 't see myself as quite that dashing , and later , when I saw Clark Gable play the role to perfection , I knew I was right . "
Back at Paramount , Cooper returned to a more comfortable genre in Ernst Lubitsch 's romantic comedy Bluebeard 's Eighth Wife ( 1938 ) with Claudette Colbert . In the film , Cooper plays a wealthy American businessman in France who falls in love with an impoverished aristocrat 's daughter and persuades her to become his eighth wife . Despite the clever screenplay by Charles Brackett and Billy Wilder , and solid performances by Cooper and Colbert , audiences had trouble accepting Cooper in the role of a shallow philanderer . For many of his fans , Cooper had become " Mr. Deeds incarnate " . In the fall of 1938 , Cooper appeared in H. C. Potter 's romantic comedy The Cowboy and the Lady with Merle Oberon , about a sweet @-@ natured rodeo cowboy who falls in love with the wealthy daughter of a presidential hopeful , believing her to be a poor , hard @-@ working lady 's maid . The efforts of three directors and several eminent screenwriters could not salvage what could have been a fine vehicle for Cooper . While more successful than its predecessor , the film was Cooper 's fourth consecutive box @-@ office failure .
In the next two years , Cooper was more discerning about the roles he accepted and made four successful large @-@ scale adventure and cowboy films . In William A. Wellman 's adventure film Beau Geste ( 1939 ) , he plays one of three daring English brothers who join the French Foreign Legion in the Sahara to fight local tribes . Filmed in the same Mojave Desert locations as the original 1926 version with Ronald Colman , Beau Geste provided Cooper with magnificent sets , exotic settings , high @-@ spirited action , and a role tailored to his personality and screen persona . This was the last film in Cooper 's contract with Paramount . In Henry Hathaway 's The Real Glory ( 1939 ) , he plays a military doctor who accompanies a small group of American Army officers to the Philippines to help the Christian Filipinos defend themselves against Muslim radicals . Many film critics praised Cooper 's performance , including author and film critic Graham Greene who recognized that he " never acted better " .
= = = = From The Westerner to For Whom the Bell Tolls = = = =
Cooper returned to the Western genre in William Wyler 's The Westerner ( 1940 ) with Walter Brennan and Doris Davenport , about a drifting cowboy who defends homesteaders against Roy Bean , a corrupt judge known as the " law west of the Pecos " . Screenwriter Niven Busch relied on Cooper 's extensive knowledge of Western history while working on the script . The film received positive reviews and did well at the box @-@ office , with reviewers praising the performances of the two lead actors . That same year , Cooper appeared in his first all @-@ Technicolor feature , Cecil B. DeMille 's adventure film North West Mounted Police ( 1940 ) . In the film , Cooper plays a Texas Ranger who pursues an outlaw into western Canada where he joins forces with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police who are after the same man , a leader of the North @-@ West Rebellion . While not as popular with critics as its predecessor , the film was another box @-@ office success — the sixth @-@ highest grossing film of 1940 .
The early 1940s were Cooper 's prime years as an actor . In a relatively short period , he appeared in five critically successful and popular films that produced some of his finest performances . When Frank Capra offered him the lead role in Meet John Doe before Robert Riskin even developed the script , Cooper accepted his friend 's offer , saying , " It 's okay , Frank , I don 't need a script . " In the film , Cooper plays Long John Willoughby , a down @-@ and @-@ out bush @-@ league pitcher hired by a newspaper to pretend to be a man who promises to commit suicide on Christmas Eve to protest all the hypocrisy and corruption in the country . Considered by some critics to be Capra 's best film at the time , Meet John Doe was received as a " national event " with Cooper appearing on the front page of Time magazine on March 3 , 1941 . In his review in the New York Herald Tribune , Howard Barnes called Cooper 's performance a " splendid and utterly persuasive portrayal " and praised his " utterly realistic acting which comes through with such authority " . Bosley Crowther , in The New York Times , wrote , " Gary Cooper , of course , is ' John Doe ' to the life and in the whole — shy , bewildered , non @-@ aggressive , but a veritable tiger when aroused . "
That same year , Cooper made two films with director and good friend Howard Hawks . In the biographical film Sergeant York , Cooper portrays war hero Alvin C. York , one of the most decorated American soldiers in World War I. The film chronicles York 's early backwoods days in Tennessee , his religious conversion and subsequent piety , his stand as a conscientious objector , and finally his heroic actions at the Battle of the Argonne Forest , which earned him the Medal of Honor . Initially , Cooper was nervous and uncertain about playing a living hero , so he traveled to Tennessee to visit York at his home , and the two quiet men established an immediate rapport and discovered they had much in common . Inspired by York 's encouragement , Cooper delivered a performance that Howard Barnes of the New York Herald Tribune called " one of extraordinary conviction and versatility " , and that Archer Winston of the New York Post called " one of his best " . After the film 's release , Cooper was awarded the Distinguished Citizenship Medal by the Veterans of Foreign Wars for his " powerful contribution to the promotion of patriotism and loyalty " . York admired Cooper 's performance and helped promote the film for Warner Bros. Sergeant York became the top @-@ grossing film of the year and was nominated for eleven Academy Awards . Accepting his first Academy Award for Best Actor from his friend James Stewart , Cooper said , " It was Sergeant Alvin York who won this award . Shucks , I 've been in the business sixteen years and sometimes dreamed I might get one of these . That 's all I can say ... Funny when I was dreaming I always made a better speech . "
Cooper concluded the year back at Goldwyn with Howard Hawks to make the romantic comedy Ball of Fire with Barbara Stanwyck . In the film , Cooper plays a shy linguistics professor who leads a team of seven scholars who are writing an encyclopedia . While researching slang , he meets Stanwyck 's flirtatious burlesque stripper Sugarpuss O 'Shea who blows the dust off their staid life of books . The screenplay by Charles Brackett and Billy Wilder provided Cooper the opportunity to exercise the full range of his light comedy skills . In his review for the New York Herald Tribune , Howard Barnes wrote that Cooper handled the role with " great skill and comic emphasis " and that his performance was " utterly delightful " . Though small in scale , Ball of Fire was one of the top @-@ grossing films of the year — Cooper 's fourth consecutive picture to make the top twenty .
Cooper 's only film appearance in 1942 was also his last under his Goldwyn contract . In Sam Wood 's biographical film The Pride of the Yankees , Cooper portrays baseball star Lou Gehrig who established a record with the New York Yankees for playing in 2 @,@ 130 consecutive games . Cooper was reluctant to play the seven @-@ time All @-@ Star , who only died the previous year from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis ( ALS ) — now commonly called " Lou Gehrig 's disease " . Beyond the challenges of effectively portraying such a popular and nationally recognized figure , Cooper knew very little about baseball and was not left @-@ handed like Gehrig . After Gehrig 's widow visited the actor and expressed her desire that he portray her husband , Cooper accepted the role that covered a twenty @-@ year span of Gehrig 's life — his early love of baseball , his rise to greatness , his loving marriage , and his struggle with illness , culminating in his farewell speech at Yankee Stadium on July 4 , 1939 before 62 @,@ 000 fans . Cooper quickly learned the physical movements of a baseball player and developed a fluid , believable swing . The handedness issue was solved by reversing the print for certain batting scenes . The film was one of the year 's top ten pictures and received eleven Academy Award nominations , including Best Picture and Best Actor ( Cooper 's third ) .
Soon after the publication of Ernest Hemingway 's novel For Whom the Bell Tolls , Paramount paid $ 150 @,@ 000 for the film rights with the express intent of casting Cooper in the lead role of Robert Jordan , an American explosives expert who fights alongside the Republican loyalists during the Spanish Civil War . The original director , Cecil B. DeMille , was replaced by Sam Wood who brought in Dudley Nichols for the screenplay . After the start of principal photography in the Sierra Nevada in late 1942 , Ingrid Bergman was brought in to replace ballerina Vera Zorina as the female lead — a change supported by Cooper and Hemingway . The love scenes between Bergman and Cooper were " rapturous " and passionate . Howard Barnes in the New York Herald Tribune wrote that both actors performed with " the true stature and authority of stars " . While the film distorted the novel 's original political themes and meaning , For Whom the Bell Tolls was a critical and commercial success and received ten Academy Award nominations , including Best Picture and Best Actor ( Cooper 's fourth ) .
Cooper did not serve in the military during World War II due to his age and health , but like many of his colleagues , he got involved in the war effort by entertaining the troops . In June 1943 , he visited military hospitals in San Diego , and often appeared at the Hollywood Canteen serving food to the servicemen . In late 1943 , Cooper undertook a 23 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 37 @,@ 000 km ) tour of the South West Pacific with actresses Una Merkel and Phyllis Brooks , and accordionist Andy Arcari . Traveling on a B @-@ 24A Liberator bomber , the group toured the Cook Islands , Fiji , New Caledonia , Queensland , Brisbane — where General Douglas MacArthur told Cooper he was watching Sergeant York in a Manila theater when Japanese bombs began falling — New Guinea , Jayapura , and throughout the Solomon Islands . The group often shared the same sparse living conditions and K @-@ rations as the troops . Cooper met with the servicemen and women , visited military hospitals , introduced his attractive colleagues , and participated in occasional skits . The shows concluded with Cooper 's moving recitation of Lou Gehrig 's farewell speech . When he returned to the United States , he visited military hospitals throughout the country . Cooper later called his time with the troops the " greatest emotional experience " of his life .
= = = Mature roles , 1944 – 52 = = =
In 1944 , Cooper appeared in Cecil B. DeMille 's wartime adventure film The Story of Dr. Wassell with Laraine Day — his third movie with the director . In the film , Cooper plays American doctor and missionary Corydon M. Wassell , who leads a group of wounded sailors through the jungles of Java to safety . Despite receiving poor reviews , Dr. Wassell was one of the top @-@ grossing films of the year . With his Goldwyn and Paramount contracts now concluded , Cooper decided to remain independent and formed his own production company , International Pictures , with Leo Spitz , William Goetz , and Nunnally Johnson . The fledgling studio 's first offering was Sam Wood 's romantic comedy Casanova Brown with Teresa Wright , about a man who learns his soon @-@ to @-@ be ex @-@ wife is pregnant with his child , just as he is about to marry another woman . The film received poor reviews , with the New York Daily News calling it " delightful nonsense " , and Bosley Crowther , in The New York Times , criticizing Cooper 's " somewhat obvious and ridiculous clowning " . The film was barely profitable . In 1945 , Cooper starred in and produced Stuart Heisler 's Western comedy Along Came Jones with Loretta Young for International . In this lighthearted parody of his past heroic image , Cooper plays comically inept cowboy Melody Jones who is mistaken for a ruthless killer . Audiences embraced Cooper 's character , and the film was one of the top box @-@ office pictures of the year — a testament to Cooper 's still vital audience appeal . It was also International 's biggest financial success during its brief history before being sold off to Universal Studios in 1946 .
Cooper 's career during the post @-@ war years drifted in new directions as American society was changing . While he still played conventional heroic roles , his films now relied less on his heroic screen persona and more on novel stories and exotic settings . In November 1945 , Cooper appeared in Sam Wood 's nineteenth century period drama Saratoga Trunk with Ingrid Bergman , about a Texas cowboy and his relationship with a beautiful fortune @-@ hunter . Filmed in early 1943 , the movie 's release was delayed for two years due to the increased demand for war movies . Despite poor reviews , Saratoga Trunk did well at the box office and became one of the top money @-@ makers of the year for Warner Bros. Cooper 's only film in 1946 was Fritz Lang 's romantic thriller Cloak and Dagger , about a mild @-@ mannered physics professor recruited by the OSS during the last years of World War II to investigate the German atomic bomb program . Playing a part loosely based on physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer , Cooper was uneasy with the role and was unable to convey the " inner sense " of the character . The film received poor reviews and was a box @-@ office failure . In 1947 , Cooper appeared in Cecil B. DeMille 's epic adventure film Unconquered with Paulette Goddard , about a Virginia militiaman who defends settlers against an unscrupulous gun trader and hostile Indians on the Western frontier during the eighteenth century . The film received mixed reviews , but even long @-@ time DeMille critic James Agee acknowledged the picture had " some authentic flavor of the period " . This last of four films made with DeMille was Cooper 's most lucrative , earning the actor over $ 300 @,@ 000 in salary and percentage of profits . Unconquered would be his last unqualified box @-@ office success for the next five years .
In 1948 , after making Leo McCarey 's romantic comedy Good Sam , Cooper sold his company to Universal Studios and signed a long @-@ term contract with Warner Bros. that gave him script and director approval and a guaranteed $ 295 @,@ 000 per picture . His first film under the new contract was King Vidor 's drama The Fountainhead ( 1949 ) with Patricia Neal and Raymond Massey . In the film , Cooper plays an idealistic and uncompromising architect who struggles to maintain his integrity and individualism in the face of societal pressures to conform to popular standards . Based on the novel by Ayn Rand who also wrote the screenplay , the film reflects her Objectivist philosophy and attacks the concepts of altruism and collectivism while promoting the virtues of selfishness and individualism . For most critics , Cooper was hopelessly miscast in the role of Howard Roark . In his review for The New York Times , Bosley Crowther concluded he was " Mr. Deeds out of his element " . Cooper returned to his element in Delmer Daves ' war drama Task Force ( 1949 ) , about a retiring rear admiral who reminisces about his long career as a naval aviator and his role in the development of aircraft carriers . Cooper 's performance and the Technicolor newsreel footage supplied by the United States Navy made the film one of Cooper 's most popular during this period . In the next two years , Cooper made four poorly received films : Michael Curtiz ' period drama Bright Leaf ( 1950 ) , Stuart Heisler 's Western melodrama Dallas ( 1950 ) , Henry Hathaway 's wartime comedy You 're in the Navy Now ( 1951 ) , and Raoul Walsh 's Western action film Distant Drums ( 1951 ) .
Cooper 's most important film during the post @-@ war years was Fred Zinnemann 's Western drama High Noon ( 1952 ) with Grace Kelly for United Artists . In the film , Cooper plays retiring sheriff Will Kane who is preparing to leave town on his honeymoon when he learns that an outlaw he helped put away and his three henchmen are returning to seek their revenge . Unable to gain the support of the frightened townspeople , and abandoned by his young bride , Kane nevertheless stays to face the outlaws alone . During the filming , Cooper was in poor health and in considerable pain from stomach ulcers . His ravaged face and discomfort in some scenes " photographed as self @-@ doubt " , according to biographer Hector Arce , and contributed to the effectiveness of his performance . Considered one of the first " adult " Westerns for its theme of moral courage , High Noon received enthusiastic reviews for its artistry , with Time magazine placing it in the ranks of Stagecoach and The Gunfighter . Bosley Crowther , in The New York Times , wrote that Cooper was " at the top of his form " , and John McCarten , in The New Yorker , wrote that Cooper was never more effective . The film earned $ 3 @.@ 75 million in the United States and $ 18 million worldwide . Following the example of his friend James Stewart , Cooper accepted a lower salary in exchange for a percent of the profits , and ended up making $ 600 @,@ 000 . Cooper 's understated performance was widely praised , and earned him his second Academy Award for Best Actor .
= = = Later films , 1953 – 61 = = =
After appearing in André de Toth 's Civil War drama Springfield Rifle ( 1952 ) — a standard Warner Bros. film that was overshadowed by the success of its predecessor — Cooper made four films outside the United States . In Mark Robson 's drama Return to Paradise ( 1953 ) , Cooper plays an American wanderer who liberates the inhabitants of a Polynesian island from the puritanical rule of a misguided pastor . Cooper endured spartan living conditions , long hours , and ill health during the three @-@ month location shoot on the island of Upolu in Western Samoa . Despite its beautiful cinematography , the film received poor reviews . Cooper 's next three films were shot in Mexico . In Hugo Fregonese 's action adventure film Blowing Wild ( 1953 ) with Barbara Stanwyck , he plays a wildcatter in Mexico who gets involved with an oil company executive and his unscrupulous wife with whom he once had an affair . In 1954 , Cooper appeared in Henry Hathaway 's Western drama Garden of Evil with Susan Hayward , about three soldiers of fortune in Mexico hired to rescue a woman 's husband . That same year , he appeared in Robert Aldrich 's Western adventure Vera Cruz with Burt Lancaster . In the film , Cooper plays an American adventurer hired by Emperor Maximilian I to escort a countess to Vera Cruz during the Mexican Rebellion of 1866 . All of these films received poor reviews but did well at the box @-@ office . For his work in Vera Cruz , Cooper earned $ 1 @.@ 4 million in salary and percent of the gross .
During this period , Cooper struggled with health problems . As well as his ongoing treatment for ulcers , he suffered a severe shoulder injury during the filming of Blowing Wild when he was hit by metal fragments from a dynamited oil well . During the filming of Vera Cruz , he reinjured his hip falling from a horse , and was burned when Lancaster fired his rifle too close and the wadding from the blank shell pierced his clothing . In 1955 , he appeared in Otto Preminger 's biographical war drama The Court @-@ Martial of Billy Mitchell , about the World War I general who tried to convince government officials of the importance of air power , and was court @-@ martialed after blaming the War Department for a series of air disasters . Some critics felt that Cooper was miscast , and that his dull , tight @-@ lipped performance did not reflect Mitchell 's dynamic and caustic personality . In 1956 , Cooper was more effective playing a gentle Indiana Quaker in William Wyler 's Civil War drama Friendly Persuasion with Dorothy McGuire . Like Sergeant York and High Noon , the film addresses the conflict between religious pacifism and civic duty . For his performance , Cooper received his second Golden Globe nomination for Best Motion Picture Actor . The film was nominated for six Academy Awards , was awarded the Palme d 'Or at the 1957 Cannes Film Festival , and went on to earn $ 8 million worldwide .
In 1956 , Cooper traveled to France to make Billy Wilder 's romantic comedy Love in the Afternoon with Audrey Hepburn and Maurice Chevalier . In the film , Cooper plays a middle @-@ aged American playboy in Paris who pursues and eventually falls in love with a much younger woman . Despite receiving some positive reviews — including from Bosley Crowther who praised the film 's " charming performances " — most reviewers concluded that Cooper was simply too old for the part . While audiences may not have welcomed seeing Cooper 's heroic screen image tarnished by his playing an aging roué trying to seduce an innocent young girl , the film was still a box @-@ office success . The following year , Cooper appeared in Philip Dunne 's romantic drama Ten North Frederick In the film , which was based on the novel by John O 'Hara , Cooper plays an attorney whose life is ruined by a double @-@ crossing politician and his own secret affair with his daughter 's young roommate . While Cooper brought " conviction and controlled anguish " to his performance , according to biographer Jeffrey Meyers , it was not enough to save what Bosley Crowther called a " hapless film " .
Despite his ongoing health problems and several operations for ulcers and hernias , Cooper continued to work in action films . In 1958 , he appeared in Anthony Mann 's Western drama Man of the West ( 1958 ) with Julie London and Lee J. Cobb , about a reformed outlaw and killer who is forced to confront his violent past when the train he is riding in is held up by his former gang members . The film has been called Cooper 's " most pathological Western " , with its themes of impotent rage , sexual humiliation , and sadism . According to biographer Jeffrey Meyers , Cooper , who struggled with moral conflicts in his personal life , " understood the anguish of a character striving to retain his integrity ... [ and ] brought authentic feeling to the role of a tempted and tormented , yet essentially decent man " . Mostly ignored by critics at the time , the film is now well @-@ regarded by film scholars and is considered Cooper 's last great film .
After his Warner Bros. contract ended , Cooper formed his own production company , Baroda Productions , and made three unusual films in 1959 about redemption . In Delmer Daves ' Western drama The Hanging Tree , Cooper plays a frontier doctor who saves a criminal from a lynch mob , and later tries to exploit his sordid past . Cooper delivered a " powerful and persuasive " performance of an emotionally scarred man whose need to dominate others is transformed by the love and sacrifice of a woman . In Robert Rossen 's historical adventure They Came to Cordura with Rita Hayworth , he plays an army officer who is found guilty of cowardice and assigned the degrading task of recommending soldiers for the Medal of Honor during the Pancho Villa Expedition of 1916 . While Cooper received positive reviews , Variety and Films in Review felt he was too old for the part . In Michael Anderson 's action drama The Wreck of the Mary Deare with Charlton Heston , Cooper plays a disgraced merchant marine officer who decides to stay aboard his sinking cargo ship in order to prove the vessel was deliberately scuttled and to redeem his good name . Like its two predecessors , the film was physically demanding . Cooper , who was a trained scuba diver , did most of his own underwater scenes . Biographer Jeffrey Meyers observed that in all three roles , Cooper effectively conveyed the sense of lost honor and desire for redemption — what Joseph Conrad in Lord Jim called the " struggles of an individual trying to save from the fire his idea of what his moral identity should be " .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Marriage and family = = =
Cooper was formally introduced to his future wife , twenty @-@ year @-@ old New York debutante Veronica Balfe , on Easter Sunday 1933 at a party given by her uncle , art director Cedric Gibbons . Called " Rocky " by her family and friends , she grew up on Park Avenue and attended finishing schools . Her stepfather was Wall Street tycoon Paul Shields . Cooper and Rocky were quietly married at her parents ' Park Avenue residence on December 15 , 1933 . According to his friends , the marriage had a positive impact on Cooper , who turned away from past indiscretions and took control of his life . Athletic and a lover of the outdoors , Rocky shared many of Cooper 's interests , including riding , skiing , and skeet @-@ shooting . She organized their social life , and her wealth and social connections provided Cooper access to New York high society . Cooper and his wife owned homes in the Los Angeles area in Encino ( 1933 – 36 ) , Brentwood ( 1936 – 53 ) , and Holmby Hills ( 1954 – 61 ) , and owned a vacation home in Aspen , Colorado ( 1949 – 53 ) .
Cooper 's daughter Maria Veronica Cooper was born on September 15 , 1937 . By all accounts , he was a patient and affectionate father , teaching Maria to ride a bicycle , play tennis , ski , and ride horses . Sharing many of her parents ' interests , she accompanied them on their travels and was often photographed with them . Like her father , she developed a love for art and drawing . As a family they vacationed together in Sun Valley , Idaho , spent time at Rocky 's parents ' country house in Southampton , New York , and took frequent trips to Europe . Cooper and Rocky were legally separated on May 16 , 1951 , when Cooper moved out of their home . For over two years , they maintained a fragile and uneasy family life with their daughter . Cooper moved back into their home in November 1953 , and their formal reconciliation occurred in February 1954 .
= = = Romantic relationships = = =
Prior to his marriage , Cooper had a series of romantic relationships with leading actresses , beginning in 1927 with Clara Bow , who advanced his career by helping him get one of his first leading roles in Children of Divorce . Bow was also responsible for getting Cooper a role in Wings , which generated an enormous amount of fan mail for the young actor . In 1928 , he had a relationship with another experienced actress , Evelyn Brent , whom he met while filming Beau Sabreur . In 1929 , while filming The Wolf Song , Cooper began an intense affair with Lupe Vélez , which was the most important romance of his early life . During their two years together , Cooper also had brief affairs with Marlene Dietrich while filming Morocco in 1930 and with Carole Lombard while making I Take This Woman in 1931 . During his year abroad in 1931 – 32 , Cooper had an affair with the married Countess Dorothy di Frasso , while staying at her Villa Madama in Rome .
After he was married in December 1933 , Cooper remained faithful to his wife until the summer of 1942 , when he began an affair with Ingrid Bergman during the production of For Whom the Bell Tolls . Their relationship lasted through the completion of filming Saratoga Trunk in June 1943 . In 1948 , after finishing work on The Fountainhead , Cooper began an affair with actress Patricia Neal , his co @-@ star . At first they kept their affair discreet , but eventually it became an open secret in Hollywood , and Cooper 's wife confronted him with the rumors , which he admitted were true . He also confessed that he was in love with Neal , and continued to see her . Cooper and his wife were legally separated in May 1951 , but he did not seek a divorce . Neal ended their relationship in late December 1951 . During his three @-@ year separation from his wife , Cooper had affairs with Grace Kelly , Lorraine Chanel , and Gisèle Pascal .
= = = Friendships , interests , and character = = =
For me the really satisfying things I do are offered me , free , for nothing . Ever go out in the fall and do a little hunting ? See the frost on the grass and the leaves turning ? Spend a day in the hills alone , or with good companions ? Watch a sunset and a moonrise ? Notice a bird in the wind ? A stream in the woods , a storm at sea , cross the country by train , and catch a glimpse of something beautiful in the desert , or the farmlands ? Free to everybody ...
Cooper 's twenty @-@ year friendship with Ernest Hemingway began at Sun Valley in October 1940 . The previous year , Hemingway drew upon Cooper 's image when he created the character of Robert Jordan for the novel For Whom the Bell Tolls . The two shared a passion for the outdoors , and for years they hunted duck and pheasant , and skied together in Sun Valley . Both men admired the work of Rudyard Kipling — Cooper kept a copy of the poem " If — " in his dressing room — and retained as adults Kipling 's sense of boyish adventure . As well as admiring Cooper 's hunting skills and knowledge of the outdoors , Hemingway believed his character matched his screen persona , once telling a friend , " If you made up a character like Coop , nobody would believe it . He 's just too good to be true . " They saw each other often , and their friendship remained strong through the years .
Cooper 's social life generally centered on sports , outdoor activities , and dinner parties with his family and friends from the film industry , including directors Henry Hathaway , Howard Hawks , William Wellman , and Fred Zinnemann , and actors Joel McCrea , James Stewart , Barbara Stanwyck , and Robert Taylor . As well as hunting , Cooper enjoyed riding , fishing , skiing , and later in life , scuba diving . He never abandoned his early love for art and drawing , and over the years , he and his wife acquired a private collection of modern paintings , including works by Pierre @-@ Auguste Renoir , Paul Gauguin , and Georgia O 'Keeffe . Cooper owned several works by Pablo Picasso , whom he met in 1956 . Cooper had a lifelong passion for automobiles , with a collection that included a 1930 Duesenberg .
Cooper was naturally reserved and introspective , and loved the solitude of outdoor activities . Not unlike his screen persona , his communication style frequently consisted of long silences with an occasional " yup " and " shucks " . He once said , " If others have more interesting things to say than I have , I keep quiet . " According to his friends , Cooper could also be an articulate , well @-@ informed conversationalist on topics ranging from horses , guns , and Western history to film production , sports cars , and modern art . He was modest and unpretentious , frequently downplaying his acting abilities and career accomplishments . His friends and colleagues described him as charming , well @-@ mannered , and thoughtful , with a lively boyish sense of humor . Cooper maintained a sense of propriety throughout his career and never misused his movie star status — never sought special treatment or refused to work with a director or leading lady . His close friend Joel McCrea recalled , " Coop never fought , he never got mad , he never told anybody off that I know of ; everybody that worked with him liked him . "
= = = Political views = = =
Cooper was a conservative Republican like his father , and voted for Calvin Coolidge in 1924 , Herbert Hoover in 1928 and 1932 , and campaigned for Wendell Willkie in 1940 . When Franklin D. Roosevelt ran for an unprecedented fourth presidential term in 1944 , Cooper campaigned for Thomas E. Dewey and criticized Roosevelt for being dishonest and adopting " foreign " ideas . In a radio address that he paid for himself just prior to the election , Cooper said , " I disagree with the New Deal belief that the America all of us love is old and worn @-@ out and finished — and has to borrow foreign notions that don 't even seem to work any too well where they come from ... Our country is a young country that just has to make up its mind to be itself again . " He also attended a Republican rally at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum that drew 93 @,@ 000 Dewey supporters .
Cooper was one of the founding members of the Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals , a conservative organization dedicated , according to its statement of principles , to preserving the " American way of life " and opposing communism and fascism . The organization — whose membership included Walt Disney , Clark Gable , Ronald Reagan , Barbara Stanwyck , and John Wayne — pressured the United States Congress to investigate communist influence in the motion picture industry . On October 23 , 1947 , Cooper appeared before the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee ( HUAC ) and was asked if he had observed any " communistic influence " in Hollywood . Cooper recounted statements he 'd heard suggesting that the Constitution was out of date and that Congress was an unnecessary institution — comments that Cooper said he found to be " very un @-@ American " . He also testified that he had rejected several scripts because he thought they were " tinged with communist ideas " . Unlike some other witnesses , Cooper did not name any individuals during his testimony .
= = = Religion = = =
Cooper was baptized in the Anglican Church in December 1911 in England , and was raised in the Episcopal Church in the United States . While he was never an observant Christian during his adult life , many of his friends believed he had a deeply spiritual side .
On June 26 , 1953 , Cooper accompanied his wife and daughter , who were devout Catholics , to Rome , where they had an audience with Pope Pius XII . Cooper and his wife were still separated at the time , but the papal visit marked the beginning of their gradual reconciliation . In the coming years , Cooper contemplated his mortality and his personal behavior , and started discussing Catholicism with his family . He began attending church with them regularly , and met with their parish priest , who offered Cooper spiritual guidance . After several months of study , Cooper was baptized as a Roman Catholic on April 9 , 1959 , before a small group of family and friends at the Church of the Good Shepherd in Beverly Hills .
= = Final year and death = =
On April 14 , 1960 , Cooper underwent surgery at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston for prostate cancer after it had metastasized to his colon . He fell ill again on May 31 and underwent further surgery at Lebanon Hospital in Los Angeles in early June to remove a malignant tumor from his large intestine . After recuperating over the summer , Cooper took his family on vacation to the south of France before traveling to England in the fall to make his last film , The Naked Edge . In December 1960 , he worked on the NBC television documentary The Real West , which was part of the company 's Project 20 series . On December 27 , his wife learned from their family doctor that Cooper 's cancer had spread to his lungs and bones and was inoperable . His family decided not to tell him immediately .
On January 9 , 1961 , Cooper attended a dinner given in his honor at the Friars Club hosted by Frank Sinatra and Dean Martin . Attended by many of his industry friends , the dinner concluded with a brief speech by Cooper who said , " The only achievement I 'm proud of is the friends I 've made in this community . " In mid @-@ January , Cooper took his family to Sun Valley for their last vacation together . Cooper and Hemingway hiked through the snow together for the last time . On February 27 , after returning to Los Angeles , Cooper learned that he was dying . He later told his family , " We 'll pray for a miracle ; but if not , and that 's God 's will , that 's all right too . " On April 17 , Cooper watched the Academy Awards ceremony on television and saw his good friend James Stewart , who had presented Cooper with his first Oscar years earlier , accept on Cooper 's behalf an honorary award for lifetime achievement — his third Oscar . Speaking to Cooper , an emotional Stewart said , " Coop , I want you to know I 'll get it to you right away . With it goes all the friendship and affection and the admiration and deep respect of all of us . We 're very , very proud of you , Coop . " The following day , newspapers around the world announced the news that Cooper was dying . In the coming days he received numerous messages of appreciation and encouragement , including telegrams from Pope John XXIII and Queen Elizabeth II , and a phone call from President John F. Kennedy .
On May 4 , Cooper , in his last public statement , said , " I know that what is happening is God 's will . I am not afraid of the future . " He received the last rites on May 12 . Cooper died quietly the following day , Saturday , May 13 , 1961 , at 12 : 47 pm , less than a week after his sixtieth birthday . A requiem mass was held on May 18 at the Church of the Good Shepherd , attended by many of Cooper 's friends , including James Stewart , Henry Hathaway , Joel McCrea , Audrey Hepburn , Jack L. Warner , John Ford , John Wayne , Edward G. Robinson , Frank Sinatra , Dean Martin , Randolph Scott , Walter Pidgeon , Bob Hope and Marlene Dietrich . Cooper was buried in the Grotto of Our Lady of Lourdes in Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City , California . In May 1974 , after his family relocated to New York , Cooper 's remains were exhumed and reburied in Sacred Hearts Cemetery in Southampton . His grave is marked by a three @-@ ton boulder from a Montauk quarry .
= = Acting style and reputation = =
Naturalness is hard to talk about , but I guess it boils down to this : You find out what people expect of your type of character and then you give them what they want . That way , an actor never seems unnatural or affected no matter what role he plays .
Cooper 's acting style consisted of three essential characteristics : his ability to project elements of his own personality onto the characters he portrayed , to appear natural and authentic in his roles , and to underplay and deliver restrained performances calibrated for the camera and the screen . Acting teacher Lee Strasberg once observed : " The simplest examples of Stanislavsky 's ideas are actors such as Gary Cooper , John Wayne , and Spencer Tracy . They try not to act but to be themselves , to respond or react . They refuse to say or do anything they feel not to be consonant with their own characters . " Film director François Truffaut ranked Cooper among " the greatest actors " because of his ability to deliver great performances " without direction " . This ability to project elements of his own personality onto his characters produced a continuity across his performances to the extent that critics and audiences were convinced that he was simply " playing himself " .
Cooper 's ability to project his personality onto his characters played an important part in his appearing natural and authentic on screen . Actor John Barrymore said of Cooper , " This fellow is the world 's greatest actor . He does without effort what the rest of us spend our lives trying to learn — namely , to be natural . " Charles Laughton , who played opposite Cooper in Devil and the Deep agreed , " In truth , that boy hasn 't the least idea how well he acts ... He gets at it from the inside , from his own clear way of looking at life . " William Wyler , who directed Cooper in two films , called him a " superb actor , a master of movie acting " . In his review of Cooper 's performance in The Real Glory , Graham Greene wrote , " Sometimes his lean photogenic face seems to leave everything to the lens , but there is no question here of his not acting . Watch him inoculate the girl against cholera — the casual jab of the needle , and the dressing slapped on while he talks , as though a thousand arms had taught him where to stab and he doesn 't have to think anymore . "
Cooper 's style of underplaying before the camera surprised many of his directors and fellow actors . Even in his earliest feature films , he recognized the camera 's ability to pick up slight gestures and facial movements . Commenting on Cooper 's performance in Sergeant York , director Howard Hawks observed , " He worked very hard and yet he didn 't seem to be working . He was a strange actor because you 'd look at him during a scene and you 'd think ... this isn 't going to be any good . But when you saw the rushes in the projection room the next day you could read in his face all the things he 'd been thinking . " Sam Wood , who directed Cooper in four films , had similar observations about Cooper 's performance in Pride of the Yankees , noting , " What I thought was underplaying turned out to be just the right approach . On the screen he 's perfect , yet on the set you 'd swear it 's the worst job of acting in the history of motion pictures . " His fellow actors also admired his abilities as an actor . Commenting on her two films playing opposite Cooper , actress Ingrid Bergman concluded , " The personality of this man was so enormous , so overpowering — and that expression in his eyes and his face , it was so delicate and so underplayed . You just didn 't notice it until you saw it on the screen . I thought he was marvelous ; the most underplaying and the most natural actor I ever worked with . "
= = Career assessment and legacy = =
Cooper 's career spanned thirty @-@ six years , from 1925 to 1961 . During that time , he appeared in eighty @-@ four feature films in a leading role . He was a major movie star from the end of the silent film era to the end of the golden age of Classical Hollywood . His natural and authentic acting style appealed powerfully to both men and women , and his range of performances included roles in most major movie genres , including Westerns , war films , adventure films , drama films , crime films , romance films , comedy films , and romantic comedy films . He appeared on the Motion Picture Herald exhibitor 's poll of top ten film personalities for twenty @-@ three consecutive years , from 1936 to 1958 . According to Quigley 's annual poll , Cooper was one of the top money @-@ making stars for eighteen years , appearing in the top ten in 1936 – 37 , 1941 – 49 , and 1951 – 57 . He topped the list in 1953 . In Quigley 's list of all @-@ time money @-@ making stars , Cooper is listed fourth , after John Wayne , Clint Eastwood , and Tom Cruise . At the time of his death , it was estimated that his films grossed well over $ 200 million ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 58 billion in 2015 ) .
In over half of his feature films , Cooper portrayed Westerners , soldiers , pilots , sailors , and explorers — all men of action . In the rest he played a wide range of characters , included doctors , professors , artists , architects , clerks , and baseball players . Cooper 's heroic screen image changed with each period of his career . In his early films , he played the young naive hero sure of his moral position and trusting in the triumph of simple virtues ( The Virginian ) . After becoming a major star , his Western screen persona was replaced by a more cautious hero in adventure films and dramas ( A Farewell to Arms ) . During the height of his career , from 1936 to 1943 , he played a new type of hero — a champion of the common man willing to sacrifice himself for others ( Mr. Deeds , Meet John Doe , and For Whom the Bell Tolls ) . In the post @-@ war years , Cooper attempted broader variations on his screen image , which now reflected a hero increasingly at odds with the world who must face adversity alone ( The Fountainhead and High Noon ) . In his final films , Cooper 's hero rejects the violence of the past , and seeks to reclaim lost honor and find redemption ( Friendly Persuasion and Man of the West ) . The screen persona he developed and sustained throughout his career represented the ideal American hero — a tall , handsome , and sincere man of steadfast integrity who emphasized action over intellect , and combined the heroic qualities of the romantic lover , the adventurer , and the common man .
On February 6 , 1960 , Cooper was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6243 Hollywood Boulevard for his contribution to the film industry . He was also awarded a star on the sidewalk outside the Ellen Theater in Bozeman , Montana . On May 6 , 1961 , he was awarded the French Order of Arts and Letters in recognition of his significant contribution to the arts . On July 30 , 1961 , he was posthumously awarded the David di Donatello Special Award in Italy for his career achievements . In 1966 , he was inducted into the Hall of Great Western Performers at the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum in Oklahoma City . The American Film Institute ( AFI ) ranked Cooper eleventh on its list of the 25 male stars of classic Hollywood . Three of his characters — Will Kane , Lou Gehrig , and Sergeant York — made AFI 's list of the one hundred greatest heroes and villains , all of them as heroes . His Lou Gehrig line , " Today , I consider myself the luckiest man on the face of the earth . " , is ranked by AFI as the thirty @-@ eighth greatest movie quote of all time . More than a half century after his death , Cooper 's enduring legacy , according to biographer Jeffrey Meyers , is his image of the ideal American hero preserved in his film performances . Charlton Heston once observed , " He projected the kind of man Americans would like to be , probably more than any actor that 's ever lived . "
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Filmography = =
The following is a list of feature films in which Cooper appeared in a leading role .
= Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In Theater Restaurant =
The Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In Theater Restaurant is a theme restaurant at Disney 's Hollywood Studios , one of the four main theme parks at Walt Disney World in Bay Lake , Florida , United States . Established in May 1991 , the restaurant is modeled after a 1950s drive @-@ in theater . Walt Disney Imagineering designed the booths to resemble convertibles of the period , and some servers act as carhops while wearing roller skates . While eating , guests watch a large projection screen displaying film clips from such 1950s and 1960s films as Frankenstein Meets the Space Monster , Plan 9 from Outer Space , and Attack of the 50 Foot Woman .
The restaurant serves traditional cuisine of the United States . Popcorn functions as a complimentary hors d 'oeuvre . Initially , the menu listed items with themed names , such as " Tossed in Space " ( garden salad ) , " The Cheesecake that Ate New York " , and " Attack of the Killer Club Sandwich " , but these playful names were later altered so that they now describe the dishes in a more standard and straightforward manner .
In 1991 , the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In opened along with nineteen other new Walt Disney World attractions marking the complex 's twentieth anniversary . By the following year , the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In was serving upwards of 2 @,@ 200 people daily during peak periods , making it the park 's most popular restaurant . Thai movie theater operator EGV Entertainment opened the EGV Drive @-@ in Cafe in Bangkok in 2003 , in a very similar style to the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In .
The Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In has received mixed reviews . USA Today 's list of the best restaurants in American amusement parks ranks the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In fifteenth , but many reviewers rate it more highly for its atmosphere than for its cuisine . Ed Bumgardner of the Winston @-@ Salem Journal wrote that the food is more expensive than it is worth , specifically calling the restaurant 's roast beef sandwich both delicious and a ripoff . In their book Vegetarian Walt Disney World and Greater Orlando , Susan Shumaker and Than Saffel call the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In " the wackiest dining experience in any Disney park " .
= = History = =
The Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In , located on Commissary Lane across from Star Tours and adjacent to ABC Commissary , opened in May 1991 as one of the twenty new attractions opened at Walt Disney World to mark the complex 's twentieth anniversary . The restaurant was created with a strong emphasis on theme , in emulation of the 50 's Prime Time Café , which had opened two years prior . Disney hoped that the focus on theme would bring the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In the level of success that had been garnered by the 50 's Prime Time Café . Within five weeks of opening , it was serving between 1 @,@ 500 and 2 @,@ 000 meals on a daily basis , just as the 50 's Prime Time Café was doing . A year after opening , the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In had become the most popular restaurant in the park , serving more than 2 @,@ 200 people per day at peak periods . Starting from its earliest days , the restaurant equipped its servers with point of sale mobile devices that relayed orders to a printer in the kitchen , which was considered at the time to be in keeping with the science fiction theme because the technology had been developed shortly prior .
In 2003 , there were twenty character meals offered at Walt Disney World , during which actors portraying various Disney characters would interact with guests while they ate at the parks ' restaurants , and Disney was in the process of increasing the presence of costumed characters in the parks at the time . Nonetheless , Minnie Mouse character meals held at Hollywood & Vine were discontinued that year , and Robert Johnson of the Orlando Sentinel partially attributed this cancellation to competition from the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In , which he said " almost always has a line of customers waiting " .
= = Theme = =
The Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In is modeled after a 1950s drive @-@ in theater . The entrance is made to look like a box office , and guests can walk from there along a tall fence to the dining room , where guests sit at formica countertops in booths made to look like convertibles from the 1940s and 1950s . These booths were designed by Walt Disney Imagineering and are made of fiberglass with much chrome plating . The cars have whitewall tires , and speakers are mounted on poles next to each car . The license plates are dated from 1955 , and each convertible seats four people , although these mock vehicles were initially six @-@ seaters when the restaurant first opened . There are six picnic tables near the back of the room that are only used when the rest of the restaurant is full and there are guests who are willing to forego the experience of sitting in the cars . All guests who make reservations are seated in the cars , although this was not the case the year the restaurant first opened . The restaurant has a total seating capacity of 260 .
Some of the servers at the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In wear roller skates , acting as carhops , while others improvise characters such as a police officer ostensibly in search of people who have sneaked into the theater without paying . The dining room is dark and air @-@ conditioned , and measures 8 @,@ 400 square feet ( 780 m2 ) . The ceiling simulates a night sky replete with twinkling stars made from optical fibers . There is the facade of a snack counter at the back of the room , behind which is the kitchen . The upper walls of the dining room display a cyclorama of Southern California as seen over a fence .
While eating at the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In , guests watch film clips from 1950s and 1960s science fiction films , B horror films , monster movies , pseudo @-@ documentaries , bizarre newsreels , and animated cartoons , all on a loop that lasts 47 minutes . The film clips are taken from such films as The Blob , Frankenstein Meets the Space Monster , Teenagers from Outer Space , The Amazing Colossal Man , Plan 9 from Outer Space , Invasion of the Saucer Men , and Cat @-@ Women of the Moon . The original Attack of the 50 Foot Woman trailer is also included . The clips are shown on a large projection screen . During Star Wars Weekends , a special breakfast is offered called the Star Wars Dine @-@ In Galactic Breakfast , during which guests can interact with Star Wars characters and watch clips from the Star Wars films .
= = Food = =
At the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In , lunch guests stay for an average of fifty minutes and dinner guests for an average of just longer than an hour , with lunch and dinner guests being served their food on average five and ten minutes after ordering respectively . The restaurant participates in the Disney Dining Plan . Meals are served starting at 10 : 30 a.m. on Sundays and Wednesdays , and starting at 11 : 00 a.m. every other day of the week . The restaurant closes each day at the same time that the park does , which is in the late evening . The menu is the same all day , without a distinction between lunch and dinner . A full bar service is available , and there is also a limited wine selection .
Food selection at the restaurant comes from the traditional cuisine of the United States . Popcorn is served as a free hors d 'oeuvre . Other food items include milkshakes , hot fudge sundaes , seafood salad , turkey sloppy joes , fried pickles , St. Louis @-@ style barbecue ribs , beef @-@ and @-@ blue @-@ cheese salads , sautéed shrimp with farfalle , French fries , cucumber salads , Buffalo wings , Boca Burgers , Tofutti , and steaks . Drinks include souvenir phosphorescent ice cubes . The desserts are served in larger portions than are customary elsewhere . There are vegetarian options . The chefs at the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In sometimes cater for special requests in advance . The cookbook Delicious Disney Just for Kids contains a recipe for the BLT soup served at the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In .
Items in the restaurant 's menu used to have themed names , such as " The Galactic Grill " ( triple @-@ decker grilled cheese sandwich ) , " Beast from 1 @,@ 000 Islands " ( Reuben sandwich ) , " Tossed in Space " ( garden salad ) , " The Cheesecake that Ate New York " , " Attack of the Killer Club Sandwich " , " Beach Party Panic " ( fish fillet ) , " Saucer Sightings " ( rib eye steak ) , " Terror of the Tides " ( broiled fish ) , and " Journey to the Center of the Pasta " ( vegetable lasagne ) , but these have since been replaced with more descriptive names . A popcorn bisque was once on the menu , but it was removed due to poor reception .
= = Imitation = =
In 2003 , EGV Entertainment , a movie theater operator in Thailand , opened the EGV Drive @-@ in Cafe in Bangkok , explicitly modeling the restaurant after the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In . Wichai Poolwaraluk , the company 's executive president and chief executive officer , visited the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In in 2000 , and was inspired to open a similar restaurant . He said that | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
and woodland grasshopper ( Omocestus rufipes ) . Several nationally scarce species of moth , beetle , bee and ant also occur .
Street Heath is a nature reserve , managed by Somerset Wildlife Trust , and has outstanding examples of communities which were once common on the Somerset Levels . The vegetation consists of wet and dry heath , species @-@ rich bog and carr woodland , with transitions between all these habitats . Rare ferns present include marsh fern ( Thelypteris palustris ) and royal fern ( Osmunda regalis ) . Old peat workings and rhynes have a wetland community which includes bulrush ( Typha latifolia ) , yellow flag iris ( pseudacorus ) , cyperus @-@ like sedge ( Carex pseudocyperus ) and lesser bur @-@ reed ( Sparganium natans ) . Insects recorded include 33 species of butterflies , 200 moths and 12 grasshoppers and crickets , with several notable rarities . Birds breeding in the carr woodland include the local willow tit
Merriman Park is named after Nathaniel James Merriman . He was Curate then Vicar of Street , until he emigrated to South Africa . He rose to become Archdeacon of Grahamstown then Dean of Cape Town before being elevated the Episcopate .
= = = Climate = = =
Along with the rest of South West England , Street has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of the country . The annual mean temperature is approximately 10 ° C ( 50 @.@ 0 ° F ) . Seasonal temperature variation is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom because of the adjacent sea temperatures . The summer months of July and August are the warmest with mean daily maxima of approximately 21 ° C ( 69 @.@ 8 ° F ) . In winter mean minimum temperatures of 1 ° C ( 33 @.@ 8 ° F ) or 2 ° C ( 35 @.@ 6 ° F ) are common . In the summer the Azores high pressure affects the south @-@ west of England , however convective cloud sometimes forms inland , reducing the number of hours of sunshine . Annual sunshine rates are slightly less than the regional average of 1 @,@ 600 hours . In December 1998 there were 20 days without sun recorded at Yeovilton . Most the rainfall in the south @-@ west is caused by Atlantic depressions or by convection . Most of the rainfall in autumn and winter is caused by the Atlantic depressions , which is when they are most active . In summer , a large proportion of the rainfall is caused by sun heating the ground leading to convection and to showers and thunderstorms . Average rainfall is around 700 mm ( 28 in ) . About 8 – 15 days of snowfall is typical . November to March have the highest mean wind speeds , and June to August have the lightest winds . The predominant wind direction is from the south @-@ west .
= = C. and J. Clark Ltd = =
The Society of Friends established itself here in the mid @-@ 17th century , and among the close @-@ knit group of Quaker families were the Clarks : Cyrus started a business in sheepskin rugs , later joined by his brother James , who introduced the production of woollen slippers and , later , boots and shoes . Under James 's son , William , the business flourished , but most of the profits were ploughed back into employee welfare , housing and education .
C & J Clark still has its headquarters in Street , behind a frontage which includes the clock tower and water tower , but shoes are no longer manufactured there . Instead , in 1993 , redundant factory buildings were converted to form Clarks Village , the first purpose @-@ built factory outlet in the United Kingdom . Despite strong concerns being voiced by local retailers at the time , the retail outlets have not led to a demise of the existing shops . The Shoe Museum provides information about the history of Clarks and footwear manufacture in general , and a selection of shop display showcards from the 1930s , 1950s and 1960s , and television advertisements .
The Clark family mansion and its estate at the edge of the village are now owned by Millfield School . The company , through the Society of Friends , also had its own small sanatorium and convalescent home on Ivythorn Hill overlooking the town . In 1931 , this chalet style building was leased to the Youth Hostel Association and became the first youth hostel in Somerset . It is still used for this purpose .
= = Transport = =
In Roman times Street was close to the route of the Fosse Way and is now on the route of the modern A39 road which runs from Bath to Cornwall , and the A361 .
Glastonbury and Street railway station was the biggest station on the original Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway main line from Highbridge to Evercreech Junction until closed in 1966 under the Beeching axe . Opened in 1854 as Glastonbury , and renamed in 1886 , it had three platforms , two for Evercreech to Highbridge services and one for the branch service to Wells . The station had a large goods yard controlled from a signal box . The site is now a timber yard for a local company . The nearest stations are now around 13 miles away , at Castle Cary and Bridgwater . Replica level crossing gates have been placed at the old station entrance .
= = Education = =
Primary infant / junior schools include Avalon , Brookside , Hindhayes , and Elmhurst .
Crispin School is a secondary school teaching 11- to 16 @-@ year @-@ old students from Street and many local villages . It has 1084 students between the ages of 11 and 16 years enrolled . The school shares its campus with Strode College of further education . In 1997 it became the first Beacon School in Somerset . It is a Technology College and has a second specialism as a Language College . The school shares its campus with Strode College , a tertiary institution and further education college which provides education for 16 + students after they leave secondary school , these courses are usually A @-@ levels or Business and Technology Education Councils ( BTECs ) . The college also provides education for older / mature students , and provides some university level courses . The college is part of The University of Plymouth Colleges network .
At the edge of town is Millfield School , an independent co @-@ educational boarding school which currently caters for 1 @,@ 260 pupils , of which 910 are boarders . It was founded in 1935 by Boss Meyer , in the house and grounds originally owned by the Clark family , who owned and ran the major shoe manufacturer Clarks .
= = Sport and leisure = =
Street has a Non @-@ League football club Street F.C. who play at The Tannery .
Street has two public swimming pools , one indoor and one outdoor . The indoor pool forms part of the Strode complex . The outdoor pool , Greenbank , is open daily from early May until mid September each year .
The only single use cinema in Street was closed down and converted into a nightclub in the 1990s . Strode Theatre , linked to the Crispin School and Strode College complex , is now the only place to see films , exhibitions and live performances . It opened on 5 October 1963 with a performance by the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra . In 1999 the theatre was expanded with a new foyer , bar and box office along with improved rehearsal space and stage access , at a cost of £ 750 @,@ 000 by the Steel , Coleman Davis partnership who received an award for the design . The expansion was funded by the Arts Council England .
The town is on the route of the Samaritans Way South West .
= = Religious sites = =
The Anglican Parish Church of The Holy Trinity dates from the 14th century but underwent extensive restoration in the 19th century . It has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade I listed building . The chancel pre dates the rest of the building , having been built about 1270 . The first recorded Rector was John de Hancle in 1304 . The parish is linked with Street Mission Church in Vestry Road and the church in Walton . There is also a Baptist church on Glaston Road . The Quaker Friends Meeting House was built in 1850 , by J. Francis Cottrell of Bath .
= = Notable people = =
Helen Chamberlain , an English television presenter was born in Street in 1967 @,@
Henry John " Harry " Patch , known as " the Last Fighting Tommy " moved to Street in the early 1940s , he ran a plumbing company in the town until his retirement at age 65 .
Jaye Jacobs , actress
John Hinde was born in Street before going on to become a photographer whose idealistic and nostalgic style influenced the art of postcard photography and was widely known for his meticulously planned shoots .
John X. Merriman was born in Street in 1841 , His parents were Nathaniel James Merriman , curate of the parish of Street and later third Bishop of Grahamstown , and the former Julia Potter . He emigrated to the Cape Colony with his parents in 1849 , aged 8 . He was the last prime minister of the Cape Colony before the formation of the Union of South Africa in 1910 .
Laurence Housman an English playwright , writer and illustrator , lived in Street for 35 years before his death in 1959 .
Edwin Edwards ( organist ) , organist , composer , Director of Music at Rugby College , was born in Street in 1830 .
= Mauna Loa =
Mauna Loa ( / ˌmɔːnə ˈloʊ.ə / or / ˌmaʊnə ˈloʊ.ə / ; Hawaiian : [ ˈmɐwnə ˈlowə ] ; English : Long Mountain ) is one of five volcanoes that form the Island of Hawaii in the U.S. state of Hawaiʻi in the Pacific Ocean . The largest subaerial volcano in both mass and volume , Mauna Loa has historically been considered the largest volcano on Earth . It is an active shield volcano with relatively gentle slopes , with a volume estimated at approximately 18 @,@ 000 cubic miles ( 75 @,@ 000 km3 ) , although its peak is about 120 feet ( 37 m ) lower than that of its neighbor , Mauna Kea . Lava eruptions from Mauna Loa are silica @-@ poor and very fluid , and they tend to be non @-@ explosive .
Mauna Loa has probably been erupting for at least 700 @,@ 000 years , and may have emerged above sea level about 400 @,@ 000 years ago . The oldest @-@ known dated rocks are not older than 200 @,@ 000 years . The volcano 's magma comes from the Hawaii hotspot , which has been responsible for the creation of the Hawaiian island chain over tens of millions of years . The slow drift of the Pacific Plate will eventually carry Mauna Loa away from the hotspot within 500 @,@ 000 to one million years from now , at which point it will become extinct .
Mauna Loa 's most recent eruption occurred from March 24 to April 15 , 1984 . No recent eruptions of the volcano have caused fatalities , but eruptions in 1926 and 1950 destroyed villages , and the city of Hilo is partly built on lava flows from the late 19th century . Because of the potential hazards it poses to population centers , Mauna Loa is part of the Decade Volcanoes program , which encourages studies of the world 's most dangerous volcanoes . Mauna Loa has been monitored intensively by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory since 1912 . Observations of the atmosphere are undertaken at the Mauna Loa Observatory , and of the Sun at the Mauna Loa Solar Observatory , both located near the mountain 's summit . Hawaii Volcanoes National Park covers the summit and the southeastern flank of the volcano , and also incorporates Kīlauea , a separate volcano .
= = Geology = =
= = = Setting = = =
Like all Hawaiian volcanoes , Mauna Loa was created as the Pacific tectonic plate moved over the Hawaiian hotspot in the Earth 's underlying mantle . The Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that , over 70 million years , has created the 3 @,@ 700 mi ( 6 @,@ 000 km ) -long Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain . The prevailing view states that the hotspot has been largely stationary within the planet 's mantle for much , if not all of the Cenozoic Era . However , while the Hawaiian mantle plume is well @-@ understood and extensively studied , the nature of hotspots themselves remain fairly enigmatic .
Mauna Loa is one of five subaerial volcanoes that make up the island of Hawaiʻi , created by the Hawaii hotspot . The oldest volcano on the island , Kohala , is more than a million years old , and Kīlauea , the youngest , is believed to be between 300 @,@ 000 and 600 @,@ 000 years of age . Lōʻihi Seamount on the island 's flank is even younger , but has yet to breach the surface . At 1 million to 700 @,@ 000 years of age , Mauna Loa is the second youngest of the five volcanoes on the island , making it the third youngest volcano in the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain , a chain of shield volcanoes and seamounts extending from Hawaii to the Kuril – Kamchatka Trench in Russia .
Following the pattern of Hawaiian volcano formation , Mauna Loa would have started as a submarine volcano , gradually building itself up through underwater eruptions of alkali basalt before emerging from the sea through a series of surtseyan eruptions about 400 @,@ 000 years ago . Since then , the volcano has remained active , with a history of effusive and explosive eruptions , including 33 eruptions since the first well @-@ documented eruption in 1843 . Although Mauna Loa 's activity has been overshadowed in recent years by that of its neighbor Kīlauea , it remains active .
= = = Structure = = =
Mauna Loa is the largest subaerial and second largest overall volcano in the world ( behind Tamu Massif ) , covering a land area of 5 @,@ 271 km2 ( 2 @,@ 035 sq mi ) and spans a maximum width of 120 km ( 75 mi ) . Consisting of approximately 65 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 km3 ( 15 @,@ 600 to 19 @,@ 200 cu mi ) of solid rock , it makes up more than half of the surface area of the island of Hawaiʻi . Combining the volcano 's extensive submarine flanks ( 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 400 ft ) to the sea floor ) and 4 @,@ 170 m ( 13 @,@ 680 ft ) subaerial height , Mauna Loa rises 9 @,@ 170 m ( 30 @,@ 085 ft ) from base to summit , greater than the 8 @,@ 848 m or 29 @,@ 029 ft elevation of Mount Everest from sea level to its summit . In addition , much of the mountain is invisible even underwater : its mass depresses the crust beneath it by another 8 km ( 5 mi ) , in the shape of an inverse mountain , meaning the total height of Mauna Loa from the start of its eruptive history is about 17 @,@ 170 m ( 56 @,@ 000 ft ) .
Mauna Loa is a typical shield volcano in form , taking the shape of a long , broad dome extending down to the ocean floor whose slopes are about 12 ° at their steepest , a consequence of its extremely fluid lava . The shield @-@ stage lavas that built the enormous main mass of the mountain are tholeiitic basalts , like those of Mauna Kea , created through the mixing of primary magma and subducted oceanic crust . Mauna Loa 's summit hosts three overlapping pit craters arranged northeast @-@ southwest , the first and last roughly 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) in diameter and the second an oblong 4 @.@ 2 km × 2 @.@ 5 km ( 2 @.@ 6 mi × 1 @.@ 6 mi ) feature ; together these three craters make up the 6 @.@ 2 by 2 @.@ 5 km ( 3 @.@ 9 by 1 @.@ 6 mi ) summit caldera Mokuʻāweoweo , so named for the Hawaiian ʻāweoweo fish ( Priacanthus meeki ) , purportedly due to the resemblance of its eruptive fires to the coloration of the fish . Mokuʻāweoweo 's caldera floor lies between 170 and 50 m ( 558 and 164 ft ) beneath its rim and it is only the latest of several calderas that have formed and reformed over the volcano 's life . It was created between 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 500 years ago by a large eruption from Mauna Loa 's northeast rift zone , which emptied out a shallow magma chamber beneath the summit and collapsed it into its present form . Additionally , two smaller pit craters lie southwest of the caldera , named Lua Hou ( New Pit ) and Lua Hohonu ( Deep Pit ) .
Mauna Loa 's summit is also the focal point for its two prominent rift zones , marked on the surface by well @-@ preserved , relatively recent lava flows ( easily seen in satellite imagery ) and linearly arranged fracture lines intersected by cinder and splatter cones . These rift zones are deeply set structures , driven by dike intrusions along a decollement fault that is believed to reach down all the way to the volcano 's base , 12 to 14 km ( 7 to 9 mi ) deep . The first is a 60 km ( 37 mi ) rift trending southwest from the caldera to the sea and a further 40 km ( 25 mi ) underwater , with a prominent 40 ° directional change along its length ; this rift zone is historically active across most of its length . The second , northeastern rift zone extends towards Hilo and is historically active across only the first 20 km ( 12 mi ) of its length , with a nearly straight and , in its latter sections , poorly defined trend . The northeastern rift zone takes the form of a succession of cinder cones , the most prominent of which the 60 m ( 197 ft ) high Puu Ulaula , or Red Hill . There is also a less definite northward rift zone that extends towards the Humuula Saddle marking the intersection of Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea .
Simplified geophysical models of Mauna Loa 's magma chamber have been constructed , using interferometric synthetic aperture radar measures of ground deformation due to the slow buildup of lava under the volcano 's surface . These models predict a 1 @.@ 1 km ( 1 mi ) wide magma chamber located at a depth of about 4 @.@ 7 km ( 3 mi ) , 0 @.@ 5 km ( 0 mi ) below sea level , near the southeastern margin of Mokuʻāweoweo . This shallow magma chamber is significantly higher @-@ placed than Mauna Loa 's rift zones , suggesting magma intrusion into the deeper and occasional dike injections into the shallower parts of the rift zone drive rift activity ; a similar mechanism has been proposed for neighboring Kīlauea . Earlier models based on Mauna Loa 's two most recent eruptions made a similar prediction , placing the chamber at 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) deep in roughly the same geographic position .
Mauna Loa has complex interactions with its neighbors , Hualālai to the west , Mauna Kea to the north , and particularly Kīlauea to the east . Lavas from Mauna Kea intersect with Mauna Loa 's basal flows as a consequence of Kea 's older age , and Mauna Kea 's original rift zones were buried beneath post @-@ shield volcanic rocks of Mauna Loa ; additionally , Mauna Kea shares Mauna Loa 's gravity well , depressing the ocean crust beneath it by 6 km ( 4 mi ) . There are also a series of normal faults on Mauna Loa 's northern and western slopes , between its two major rift zones , that are believed to be the result of combined circumferential tension from the two rift zones and from added pressure due to the westward growth of neighboring Kīlauea .
Because Kīlauea lacks a topographical prominence and appears as a bulge on the southeastern flank of Mauna Loa , it was historically interpreted by both native Hawaiians and early geologists to be an active satellite of Mauna Loa . However , analysis of the chemical composition of lavas from the two volcanoes show that they have separate magma chambers , and are thus distinct . Nonetheless , their proximity has led to a historical trend in which high activity at one volcano roughly coincides with low activity at the other . When Kīlauea lay dormant between 1934 and 1952 , Mauna Loa became active , and when the latter remained quiet from 1952 to 1974 , the reverse was true . This is not always the case ; the 1984 eruption of Mauna Loa started during an eruption at Kīlauea , but had no discernible effect on the Kīlauea eruption , and the ongoing inflation of Mauna Loa 's summit , indicative of a future eruption , began the same day as new lava flows at Kīlauea 's Puʻu Ōʻō crater . Geologists have suggested that " pulses " of magma entering Mauna Loa 's deeper magma system may have increased pressure inside Kīlauea and triggered the concurrent eruptions .
Mauna Loa is slumping eastward along its southwestern rift zone , leveraging its mass into Kīlauea and driving the latter eastward at a rate of about 10 cm ( 4 in ) per year ; the interaction between the two volcanoes in this manner has generated a number of large earthquakes in the past , and has resulted in a significant area of debris off of Kīlauea 's seaward flank known as the Hilina Slump . A system of older faults exists on the southeastern side of Mauna Loa that likely formed before Kilauea became large enough to impede Mauna Loa 's slump , the lowest and northernmost of which , the Kaoiki fault , remains an active earthquake center today . The west side of Mauna Loa , meanwhile , is unimpeded in movement , and indeed is believed to have undergone a massive slump collapse between 100 @,@ 000 and 200 @,@ 000 years ago , the residue from which , consisting of a scattering of debris up to several kilometers wide and up to 50 km ( 31 mi ) distant , is still visible today . The damage was so extensive that the headwall of the damage likely intersected its southwestern rift zone . There is very little movement there today , a consequence of the volcano 's geometry .
Mauna Loa is tall enough to have experienced glaciation during the last ice age , 25 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 years ago . Unlike Mauna Kea , on which extensive evidence of glaciation remains even today , Mauna Loa was at the time and has remained active , having grown an additional 150 to 300 m ( 492 to 984 ft ) in height since then and covering any glacial deposits beneath new flows ; strata of that age doesn 't occur until at least 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 562 ft ) down from the volcano 's summit , too low for glacial growth . Mauna Loa also lacks its neighbor 's summit permafrost region , although sporadic ice persists in places . It is speculated that extensive phreatomagmatic activity occurred during this time , contributing extensively to ash deposits on the summit .
= = Eruptive history = =
= = = Prehistoric eruptions = = =
To have reached its enormous size within its relatively short ( geologically speaking ) 600 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 years of life , Mauna Loa would logically have had to have grown extremely rapidly through its developmental history , and extensive charcoal @-@ based radiocarbon dating ( perhaps the most extensive such prehistorical eruptive dating on Earth ) has amassed a record of almost two hundred reliably dated extant flows confirming this hypothesis .
The oldest exposed flows on Mauna Loa are thought to be the Ninole Hills on its southern flank , subaerial basalt rock dating back approximately 100 to 200 thousand years . They form a terrace against which younger flows have since banked , heavily eroded and incised against its slope in terms of direction ; this is believed to be the result of a period of erosion because of a change in the direction of lava flow caused by the volcano 's prehistoric slump . These are followed by two units of lava flows separated by an intervening ash layer known as the Pāhala ash layer : the older Kahuka basalt , sparsely exposed on the lower southwest rift , and the younger and far more widespread Kaʻu basalt , which appear more widely on the volcano . The Pāhala ashes themselves were produced over a long period of time circa 13 to 30 thousand years ago , although heavy vitrification and interactions with post and pre- creation flows has hindered exact dating . Their age roughly corresponding with the glaciation of Mauna Loa during the last ice age , raising the distinct possibility that it is the product of phreatomagmatic interaction between the long @-@ gone glaciers and Mauna Loa 's eruptive activities .
Studies have shown that a cycle occurs in which volcanic activity at the summit is dominant for several hundred years , after which activity shifts to the rift zones for several more centuries , and then back to the summit again . Two cycles have been clearly identified , each lasting 1 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 000 years . This cyclical behavior is unique to Mauna Loa among the Hawaiian volcanoes . Between about 7 @,@ 000 and 6 @,@ 000 years ago Mauna Loa was largely inactive . The cause of this cessation in activity is not known , and no known similar hiatus has been found at other Hawaiian volcanoes except for those currently in the post @-@ shield stage . Between 11 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 years ago , activity was more intense than it is today . However , Mauna Loa 's overall rate of growth has probably begun to slow over the last 100 @,@ 000 years , and the volcano may in fact be nearing the end of its tholeiitic basalt shield @-@ building phase .
= = = Recent history = = =
Ancient Hawaiians have been present on Hawaiʻi island for about 1 @,@ 500 years , but they preserved almost no records on volcanic activity on the island beyond a few fragmentary accounts dating to the late 18th and early 19th centuries . Possible eruptions occurred around 1730 and 1750 and sometime during 1780 and 1803 . A June 1832 eruption was witnessed by a missionary on Maui , but the 190 km ( 118 mi ) between the two islands and lack of apparent geological evidence have cast this testimony in doubt . Thus the first entirely confirmed historically witnessed eruption was a January 1843 event , since which Mauna Loa has erupted anew 32 times .
Historical eruptions at Mauna Loa are typically Hawaiian in character and rarely violent , starting with the emergence of lava fountains over a several kilometer long rift colloquially known as the " curtain of fire " ( often , but not always , propagating from Mauna Loa 's summit ) and eventually concentrating at a single vent , its long @-@ term eruptive center . Activity centered on its summit are usually followed by flank eruptions up to a few months distant , and although Mauna Loa is historically less active than that of its neighbor Kilauea , it tends to produce greater volumes of lava over shorter periods of time . Most eruptions are centered at either the summit or either of its two major rift zones ; within the last two hundred years , 38 percent of eruptions occurred at the summit , 31 percent at the northeast rift zone , 25 percent at the southwest rift zone , and the remaining 6 percent from northwest vents . 40 percent of the volcano 's surface consists of lavas less than a thousand years old , and 98 percent of lavas less than 10 @,@ 000 years old . In addition to the summit and rift zones , Mauna Loa 's northwestern flank has also been the source of three historical eruptions .
The 1843 event was followed by eruptions in 1849 , 1851 , 1852 , and 1855 , with the 1855 flows being particularly extensive . 1859 marked the largest of the three historical flows that have been centered on Mauna Loa 's northwestern flank , producing a long lava flow that reached the ocean on Hawaii island 's west coast , north of Kiholo Bay . An eruption in 1868 occurred alongside the enormous 1868 Hawaii earthquake , a magnitude eight event that claimed 77 lives and remains the largest earthquake ever to hit the island . Following further activity in 1871 , Mauna Loa experienced nearly continuous activity from August 1872 through 1877 , a long @-@ lasting and voluminous eruption lasting approximately 1 @,@ 200 days and never moving beyond its summit . A short single @-@ day eruption in 1877 was unusual in that it took place underwater , in Kealakekua Bay and within a mile of the shoreline ; curious onlookers approaching the area in boats reported unusually turbulent water and occasional floating blocks of hardened lava . Further eruptions occurred in 1879 and then twice in 1880 , the latter of which extended into 1881 and came within the present boundaries of the island 's largest city , Hilo ; however at the time the settlement was a shore @-@ side village located further down the volcano 's slope , and so was unaffected .
Mauna Loa continued its activity , and of the eruptions that occurred in 1887 , 1892 , 1896 , 1899 , 1903 ( twice ) , 1907 , 1914 , 1916 , 1919 , and 1926 , three ( in 1887 , 1919 , and 1926 ) were partially subaerial . The 1926 eruption in particular is noteworthy for having inundated of a village near Hoopuloa , destroying 12 houses , a church , and a small harbor . After an event in 1933 , Mauna Loa 's 1935 eruption caused a public crisis when its flows started to head towards Hilo . A bombing operation was decided upon to try and divert the flows , planned out by then @-@ lieutenant colonel George S. Patton . The bombing , conducted on December 27 , was declared a success by Thomas A. Jaggar , director of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory , and lava stopped flowing by January 2 , 1936 . However , the role the bombing played in ending the eruption has since been heavily disputed by volcanologists . A longer but summit @-@ bound event in 1940 was comparatively less interesting .
Mauna Loa 's 1942 eruption occurred only four months after the attack on Pearl Harbor and United States entry into World War II , and created a unique problem for the wartime United States . Occurring during an enforced nighttime blackout on the island , the eruption 's luminosity forced the government to issue a gag order on the local press , hoping to prevent news of its occurrence spreading for fear that the Japanese would use it to launch a bombing run on the island . However , as flows from the eruption rapidly spread down the volcano 's flank and threatened the ʻOlaʻa flume , Mountain View 's primary water source , the United States Air Force decided to drop its own bombs on the island in the hopes of redirecting the flows away from the flume ; sixteen bombs weighing between 300 and 600 lb ( 136 and 272 kg ) each were dropped on the island , but produced little effect . Eventually the eruption ceased on its own .
Following a 1949 event the next major eruption at Mauna Loa occurred in 1950 . Originating from the volcano 's southwestern rift zone , the eruption remains the largest rift event in the volcano 's modern history , lasting 23 days , emitting 376 million cubic meters of lava , and reaching 24 km ( 15 mi ) out to the ocean within 3 hours . The 1950 eruption was not the most voluminous eruption on the volcano ( the long @-@ lived 1872 @-@ 1877 event produced more than twice as much material ) but it was easily one of the fastest @-@ acting , producing the same amount of lava as the 1859 eruption in a tenth of the time . Flows overtook the village of Hoʻokena @-@ mauka in South Kona , crossed Hawaii Route 11 , and reached the sea within four hours of eruption , and although there was no loss of life the village was permanently destroyed . After the 1950 event Mauna Loa entered an extended period of dormancy , interrupted only by a small single @-@ day summit event in 1975 . However it rumbled to life again in 1984 , manifesting first at Mauna Loa 's summit and then producing a narrow , channelized ' a 'a flow that advanced downslope to within 6 km ( 4 mi ) of Hilo , close enough to illuminate the city at nighttime . However the flow got no closer , as two natural levees further up its pathway consequently broke and diverted active flows .
Mauna Loa has not erupted since , and as of January 2013 has remained quiet for nearly 29 years , its longest period of quiet in recorded history .
= = = Hazards = = =
Mauna Loa has been designated a Decade Volcano , one of the sixteen volcanoes identified by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth 's Interior ( IAVCEI ) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of large , destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas . The United States Geological Survey maintains a hazard zone mapping of the island done on a one to nine scale , with the most dangerous areas corresponding the smallest numbers . Based on this classification Mauna Loa 's continuously active summit caldera and rift zones have been given a level one designation . Much of the area immediately surrounding the rift zones is considered level two , and about 20 percent of the area has been covered in lava in historical times . Much of the remainder of the volcano is hazard level three , about 15 to 20 percent of which has been covered by flows within the last 750 years . However , two sections of the volcano , the first in the Naalehu area and the second on the southeastern flank of Mauna Loa 's rift zone , are protected from eruptive activity by local topography , and have thus been designated hazard level 6 , comparable with a similarly isolated segment on Kīlauea .
Although volcanic eruptions in Hawaiʻi rarely produce casualties ( the only direct historical fatality due to volcanic activity on the island occurred at Kīlauea in 1924 , when an unusually explosive eruption hurled rocks at an onlooker ) , property damage due to inundation by lava is a common and costly hazard . Hawaiian @-@ type eruptions usually produce extremely slow @-@ moving flows that advance at walking pace , presenting little danger to human life , but this is not strictly the case ; Mauna Loa 's 1950 eruption emitted as much lava in three weeks as Kīlauea 's current eruption produces in three years and reached sea level within four hours of its start , overrunning the village of Hoʻokena Mauka and a major highway on the way there . An earlier eruption in 1926 overran the village of Hoʻōpūloa Makai , and Hilo , partly built on lavas from the 1880 @-@ 81 eruption , is at risk from future eruptions . The 1984 eruption nearly reached the city , but stopped short after the flow was redirected upstream .
A potentially greater hazard at Mauna Loa is a sudden , massive collapse of the volcano 's flanks , like the one that struck the volcano 's west flank between 100 @,@ 000 and 200 @,@ 000 years ago and formed the present @-@ day Kealakekua Bay . Deep fault lines are a common feature on Hawaiian volcanoes , allowing large portions of their flanks to gradually slide downwards and forming structures like the Hilina Slump and the ancient Ninole Hills ; large earthquakes could trigger rapid flank collapses along these lines , creating massive landslides and possibly triggering equally large tsunamis . Undersea surveys have revealed numerous landslides along the Hawaiian chain and evidence of two such giant tsunami events : 200 @,@ 000 years ago , Molokaʻi experienced a 75 m ( 246 ft ) tsunami , and 100 @,@ 000 years ago a megatsunami 325 m ( 1 @,@ 066 ft ) high struck Lānaʻi . A more recent example of the risks associated with slumps occurred in 1975 , when the Hilina Slump suddenly lurched forward several meters , triggering a 7 @.@ 2 Mw earthquake and a 14 m ( 46 ft ) tsunami that killed two campers at Halape .
= = = Monitoring = = =
Established on Kīlauea in 1912 , the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory ( HVO ) , presently a branch of the United States Geological Survey , is the primary organization associated with the monitoring , observance , and study of Hawaiian volcanoes . Thomas A. Jaggar , the observatory 's founder , attempted a summit expedition to the volcano to observe its 1914 eruption , but was rebuffed by the arduous trek required ( see Ascents ) . After soliciting help from Lorrin A. Thurston , in 1915 he was able to persuade the US Army to construct a " simple route to the summit " for public and scientific use , a project completed in December of that year ; the Observatory has maintained a presence on the volcano ever since .
Eruptions on Mauna Loa are almost always preceded and accompanied by prolonged episodes of seismic activity , the monitoring of which was the primary and often only warning mechanism in the past and which remains viable today . Seismic stations have been maintained on Hawaiʻi since the Observatory 's inception , but these were concentrated primarily on Kīlauea , with coverage on Mauna Loa improving only slowly through the 20th century . Following the invention of modern monitoring equipment , the backbone of the present @-@ day monitoring system was installed on the volcano in the 1970s . Mauna Loa 's July 1975 eruption was forewarned by more than a year of seismic unrest , with the HVO issuing warnings to the general public from late 1974 ; the 1984 eruption was similarly preceded by as much as three years of unusually high seismic activity , with volcanologists predicting an eruption within two years in 1983 .
The modern monitoring system on Mauna Loa is constituted not only by its locally seismic network but also of a large number of GPS stations , tiltmeters , and strainmeters that have been anchored on the volcano to monitor ground deformation due to swelling in Mauna Loa 's subterranean magma chamber , which presents a more complete picture of the events proceeding eruptive activity . The GPS network is the most durable and wide @-@ ranging of the three systems , while the tiltmeters provide the most sensitive predictive data , but are prone to erroneous results unrelated to actual ground deformation ; nonetheless a survey line across the caldera measured a 76 mm ( 3 in ) increase in its width over the year preceding the 1975 eruption , and a similar increase in 1984 eruption . Strainmeters , by contrast , are relatively rare . The Observatory also maintains two gas detectors at Mokuʻāweoweo , Mauna Loa 's summit caldera , as well as a publicly accessible live webcam and occasional screenings by interferometric synthetic aperture radar imaging .
= = Human history = =
= = = Pre @-@ contact = = =
The first Ancient Hawaiians to arrive on Hawaii island lived along the shores where food and water were plentiful . Flightless birds that had previously known no predators became a staple food source . Early settlements had a major impact on the local ecosystem , and caused many extinctions , particularly amongst bird species , as well as introducing foreign plants and animals and increasing erosion rates . The prevailing lowland forest ecosystem was transformed from forest to grassland ; some of this change was caused by the use of fire , but the main reason appears to have been the introduction of the Polynesian Rat ( Rattus exulans ) .
Ancient Hawaiian religious practice holds that the five volcanic peaks of the island are sacred , and regards Mauna Loa , the largest of them all , with great admiration ; but what mythology survives today consists mainly of oral accounts from the 18th century first compiled in the 19th . Most of these stories agree that the Hawaiian volcano deity , Pele , resides in Halemaʻumaʻu Crater on Kilauea ; however a few place her home at Mauna Loa 's summit caldera Mokuʻāweoweo , and the mythos in general associates her with all volcanic activity on the island . Regardless , Kīlauea 's lack of a geographic outline and strong volcanic link to Mauna Loa led to it being considered an offshoot of Mauna Loa by the Ancient Hawaiians , meaning much of the mythos now associated with Kīlauea was originally directed at Mauna Loa proper as well .
Ancient Hawaiians constructed an extensive trail system on Hawaiʻi island , today known as the Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail . The network consisted of short trailheads servicing local areas along the main roads and more extensive networks within and around agricultural centers . The positioning of the trails were practical , connecting living areas to farms and ports and regions to resources , with a few upland sections reserved for gathering and most lines marked well enough to remain identifiable long after regular use has ended . One of these trails , the Ainapo Trail , ascended from the village of Kapāpala over 3 @,@ 400 m ( 11 @,@ 155 ft ) in about 56 km ( 35 mi ) and ended at Mokuʻāweoweo at Mauna Loa 's summit . Although the journey was arduous and required several days and many porters , ancient Hawaiians likely made the journey during eruptions to leave offerings and prayers to honor Pele , much as they did at Halemaʻumaʻu , neighboring Kilauea 's more active and more easily accessible caldera . Several camps established along the way supplied water and food for travelers .
= = = European summiting attempts = = =
James Cook 's third voyage was the first to make landfall on Hawaiʻi island , in 1778 , and following adventures along the North American west coast Cook returned to the island in 1779 . On his second visit John Ledyard , a corporal of the Royal Marines aboard the HMS Resolution , proposed and receiving approval for an expedition to summit Mauna Loa to learn " about that part of the island , particularly the peak , the tip of which is generally covered with snow , and had excited great curiosity . " Using a compass , Ledyard and small group of ships ' mates and native attendants attempted to make a direct course for the summit . However , on the second day of traveling the route became steeper , rougher , and blocked by " impenetrable thickets , " and the group was forced to abandon their attempt and return to Kealakekua Bay , reckoning they had " penetrated 24 miles and we suppose [ were ] within 11 miles of the peak " ; in reality , Mokuʻāweoweo lies only 32 km ( 20 mi ) east of the bay , a severe overestimation on Ledyard 's part . Another of Cook 's men , Lieutenant James King , estimated the peak to be at least 5 @,@ 600 m ( 18 @,@ 373 ft ) high based on its snow line .
The next attempt to summit Mauna Loa was an expedition led by Archibald Menzies , a botanist and naturalist on the 1793 Vancouver Expedition . In February of that year Menzies , two ships ' mates , and a small group of native Hawaiian attendants attempted a direct course for the summit from Kealakekua Bay , making it 26 km ( 16 mi ) inland by their reckoning ( an overestimation ) before they were turned away by the thickness of the forest . On a second visit by the expedition to the island in January of the next year Menzies was placed in charge of exploring the island interior , and after traversing the flanks of Hualālai he and his party arrived at the high plateau separating the two volcanoes . Menzies decided to make a second attempt ( above the objections of the accompanying island chief ) , but again his progress was arrested by unassailable thickets .
Menzies made a third attempt to summit Mauna Loa in February of 1794 . This time the botanist consulted King Kamehameha I for advice and learned that he could take canoes to the south and follow the ʻAinapō Trail , not knowing of its existence beforehand . Significantly better prepared , Menzies , Lieutenant Joseph Baker and Midshipman George McKenzie of the Discovery , and a servant ( most likely Jonathan Ewins , listed on the ship 's muster as " Botanist 's L 't " ) reached the summit , which Menzies estimated to be 4 @,@ 156 m ( 13 @,@ 635 ft ) high with the aid of a barometer ( consistent with a modern value of 4 @,@ 169 m ( 13 @,@ 678 ft ) ) . He was surprised to find heavy snow and morning temperatures of − 3 ° C ( 27 ° F ) , and was unable to compare the heights of Mauna Loa and Kea but correctly supposed the latter to be taller based on its larger snow cap . The feat of summitting Mauna Loa was not to be repeated for forty years .
The Hawaiian Islands were the site of fervent missionary work , with the first group of missionaries arrived at Honolulu in 1820 and the second in 1823 . Some of these missionaries left for Hawaiʻi island , and spent ten weeks traveling around it , preaching at local villages and climbing Kilauea , from which one of its members , William Ellis , observed Mauna Loa with the aid of a telescope and ascertained it and Kea to be " perhaps 15 @,@ 000 to 16 @,@ 000 feet above the level of the sea " ; they did not , however , attempt to climb the volcano itself . It is sometimes reported that the missionary Joseph Goodrich reached the summit around this time , but he never claimed this himself , though he did summit Mauna Kea and describe Mokuʻāweoweo with the aid of another telescope .
The next successful ascent was made on January 29 , 1834 , 40 years later , by the Scottish botanist David Douglas , who also reached the summit caldera using the ʻAinapō Trail . By the time Douglas reached the summit the environment had put him under extreme duress , but he nonetheless stayed overnight to make measurements of the summit caldera 's proportions and record barometric data on its height , both now known to be widely inaccurate . Douglas collected biological samples on the way both up and down , and after a difficult and distressing descent began collating his samples ; he planned to return to England , but instead several months later his body was mysteriously discovered crushed in a pit besides a dead wild boar .
Isidor Löwenstern successfully climbed Mauna Loa in February 1839 , only the third successful climb in 60 years .
= = = Wilkes expedition = = =
The United States Exploring Expedition led by Lieutenant Charles Wilkes was tasked with a vast survey of the Pacific Ocean starting in 1838 . In September 1840 they arrived in Honolulu , where repairs to the ships took longer than expected . Wilkes decided to spend the winter in Hawaii and take the opportunity to explore its volcanoes while waiting for better weather to continue the expedition . King Kamehameha III assigned American medical missionary Dr. Gerrit P. Judd to the expedition as a translator .
Wilkes sailed to Hilo on the island of Hawaiʻi and decided to climb Mauna Loa first , since it looked easier than Mauna Kea . On December 14 he hired about 200 porters , but after he left he realized only about half the equipment had been taken , so he had to hire more Hawaiians at higher pay . When they reached Kīlauea after two days , their guide Puhano headed off to the established ʻAinapō Trail . Wilkes did not want to head back downhill so he blazed his own way through dense forest directed by a compass . The Hawaiians were offended by the waste of sacred trees which did not help morale . At about 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) elevation they established a camp called " Sunday Station " at the edge of the forest .
Two guides joined them at Sunday Station : Keaweehu , " the bird @-@ catcher " and another whose Hawaiian name is not recorded , called " ragsdale " . Although Wilkes thought he was almost to the summit , the guides knew they were less than halfway up . Since there was no water at Sunday Station , porters had to be sent back ten miles ( 16 km ) to a lava tube on ʻAinapō Trail which had a known supply . After an entire day replenishing stocks , they continued up to a second camp they called " Recruiting Station " at about 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) elevation . After another full day 's hike they established " Flag Station " on December 22 , and by this time were on the ʻAinapō Trail . Most of the porters were sent back down to get another load .
At the Flag Station Wilkes and his eight remaining men built a circular wall of lava rocks and covered the shelter with a canvas tent . A snowstorm was in progress and several suffered from altitude sickness . That night ( December 23 ) , the snow on the canvas roof caused it to collapse . At daylight some of the group went down the trail to retrieve firewood and the gear abandoned on the trail the day before . After another day 's climb , nine men reached the rim of Mokuʻāweoweo . They could not find a way down its steep sides so chose a smooth place on the rim for the camp site , at coordinates 19 ° 27 ′ 59 ″ N 155 ° 34 ′ 54 ″ W. Their tent was pitched within 60 feet ( 18 m ) of the crater 's edge , secured by lava blocks .
The next morning they were unable to start a fire using friction due to the thin air at that altitude , and sent for matches . By this time , the naval officers and Hawaiians could not agree on terms to continue hiring porters , so sailors and marines were ordered from the ships . Dr. Judd traveled between the summit and the Recruiting Station to tend the many who suffered from altitude sickness or had worn out their shoes on the rough rock . Christmas Day was spent building rock walls around the camp to give some protection from the high winds and blowing snow . It took another week to bring all the equipment to the summit , including a pendulum designed for measuring slight variations in gravity .
On December 31 , 1840 the pre @-@ fabricated pendulum house was assembled . Axes and chisels cut away the rock surface for the pendulum 's base . It took another three days to adjust the clock to the point where the experiments could begin . However , the high winds made so much noise that the ticks could often not be heard , and varied the temperature to make measurements inaccurate . Grass had to be painstakingly brought from the lowest elevations for insulation to get accurate measurements .
On Monday , January 11 , Wilkes hiked around the summit crater . Using an optical method , he estimated Mauna Kea was only 193 feet ( 59 m ) higher ( modern measurements are 104 feet ( 32 m ) ) . On January 13 , 1841 , he had " Pendulum Peak , January 1841 U.S. Ex , Ex . " cut into a rock at the site . The tents were dismantled and Hawaiians carried the gear down over the next three days , while Wilkes enjoyed a lomilomi Hawaiian massage . He continued his measurements at lower elevations and left the island on March 5 . For all the effort he did not obtain any significant results , attributing gravity discrepancies to " the tides " .
The Wilkes expedition 's camp site 's ruins are the only known physical evidence in the Pacific of the U. S. Exploring Expedition . The camp site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on July 24 , 1974 as site 74000295 , and is state historic site 10 @-@ 52 @-@ 5507 .
= = = Today = = =
A summit shelter was built with some of the stones from Wilkes ' camp site and mortar in 1934 . In 1916 Mokuʻāweoweo was included in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park , and a new trail was built directly from park headquarters at Kīlauea , an even more direct route than the one taken by Wilkes . This trail , arriving at the summit from the east via Red Hill , became the preferred route due to its easier access and gentler slope . The historic ʻAinapō Trail fell into disuse , and was reopened in the 1990s . A third modern route to the summit is from the Saddle Road up to the Mauna Loa Observatory which is at 11 @,@ 135 feet ( 3 @,@ 394 m ) elevation a few miles north of Mokuʻāweoweo and the North Pit trail .
= = Climate = =
Trade winds blow from east to west across the Hawaiian islands , and the presence of Mauna Loa strongly affects the local climate . At low elevations , the eastern ( windward ) side of the volcano receives heavy rain ; the city of Hilo is the wettest in the United States . The rainfall supports extensive forestation . The western ( leeward ) side has a much drier climate . At higher elevations , the amount of precipitation decreases , and skies are very often clear . Very low temperatures mean that precipitation often occurs in the form of snow , and the summit of Mauna Loa is described as a periglacial region , where freezing and thawing play a significant role in shaping the landscape .
Mauna Loa has a tropical climate with warm temperatures at lower elevations and cool to cold temperatures higher up year @-@ round . Below is the table for the slope observatory , which is at 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) in the alpine zone . The highest recorded temperature was 85 ° F ( 29 ° C ) and the lowest was 18 ° F ( − 8 ° C ) on February 18 , 2003 and February 20 , 1962 , respectively .
= = Observatories = =
The location of Mauna Loa has made it an important location for atmospheric monitoring by the Global Atmosphere Watch and other scientific observations . The Mauna Loa Solar Observatory ( MLSO ) , located at 11 @,@ 155 feet ( 3 @,@ 400 m ) on the northern slope of the mountain , has long been prominent in observations of the Sun . The NOAA Mauna Loa Observatory ( MLO | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
, is named after the surrounding neighbourhood of Maksimir and has hosted national team games since Croatia 's competitive home debut against Lithuania . The Croatian Football Federation ( HNS ) previously agreed on extensive plans with the government to renovate the stadium and increase its current forty @-@ thousand seating capacity , however the proposal was eventually rejected by Zagreb Mayor Milan Bandić in 2008 due to high construction costs .
Some home matches are occasionally played at other , smaller venues around the country . The Poljud Stadium in Split has hosted several qualifying fixtures since 1995 , the first being a 1 – 1 draw with Italy . In the period between 1995 and 2011 , Croatia never won a competitive match at Poljud , which the local media dubbed " Poljudsko prokletsvo " ( " the Poljud curse " ) . The run was finally ended after the team came from behind to beat Georgia on 3 June 2011 . Qualifying fixtures have also been played at the Stadion Kantrida in Rijeka , along with the Gradski vrt stadium in Osijek and the Stadion Anđelko Herjavec in Varaždin . However , these venues are rarely used due to their remote locations and smaller seating capacity , despite objections from local residents and some players .
= = = Home venues record = = =
The following table provides a summary Croatia results at various venues used for home games . Since Croatia 's first match in October 1990 , they played home games at eleven stadiums around the country . The following table provides a summary of Croatia 's results at home venues .
Key : Pld – games played , W – games won , D – games drawn ; L – games lost , % – win percentage
Last updated : Croatia vs. San Marino , 4 June 2016 . Statistics include official FIFA @-@ recognised matches only .
= = Supporters = =
Football is Croatia 's most popular team sport , and the national team has developed an extensive fan @-@ base since its official formation in 1991 . Following Croatia 's successful 1998 World Cup campaign , three years after the Croatian war of independence , there was a rapid rise in domestic and global attention for the national side . British journalist Marcus Tanner of Balkan Insight commented that the national team became a symbol of Croatian independence from Yugoslavia . However , after the death of former @-@ president Franjo Tuđman , local political ties with the national team have loosened .
A large part of the team 's support base consists of fans of Hajduk Split and Dinamo Zagreb , the two best @-@ supported clubs in the Croatian domestic league , the Prva HNL . The clubs ' ultra @-@ style supporter groups , the Bad Blue Boys of Zagreb and The Torcida from Split , have both been associated with hooliganism , though violence between the two groups does not usually occur at international games . Heavy support for the Croatian national team also comes from Croats in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , particularly from fans of Zrinjski Mostar . The official Croatia supporters ' club endorsed by the Croatian Football Federation is called Uvijek Vjerni ( Always Faithful ) .
Fans ' behaviour at international games has led to various sanctions against the national team . Croatia was penalized and threatened with expulsion from UEFA for reports of racist behaviour by travelling fans at Euro 2004 . UEFA and FIFA have both penalized the Croatian Football Federation ( HNS ) for similar incidents in the past . During a friendly match against Italy in Livorno , a small group of Croatia fans formed the shape of a swastika . Croatian fans were also heavily scrutinized for racist behavior against Turkey in 2008 , as well as an incident of racial abuse towards English striker Emile Heskey in 2010 . During the 2006 World Cup a Croatian fan evaded security at a German venue and approached Croatian players on the field ; he was arrested and banned for trespassing . There were also reports of violent clashes between Croatian and Turkish supporters at Euro 2008 , as well as improper conduct by Croatia fans at Euro 2012 and the 2014 World Cup .
Croatia supporters often use flares during international matches , which has also caused sanctions as the use of pyrotechnics is strictly banned . In November 2014 , the Croatian fans again attracted criticism by chanting the Ustaše slogan " Za Dom ! Spremni " led by defender Josip Šimunić after beating Iceland in the World Cup play @-@ offs . Croatia 's Euro 2016 qualifying fixture against Italy in Milan was temporarily suspended due to flares being thrown onto the field by a small section of Croatia supporters . The players and manager condemned this behavior as detrimental to the national team . The incident was suspected to be a protest against the Croatian Football Federation for allegations of corruption . In June 2015 , during the home game against Italy , played behind closed doors in Split , a swastika appeared embedded on the pitch . Croatian Football Federation called the incident an act of " sabotage " against the national team . The federation later apologized for the incident and called for a criminal investigation against the perpetrators .
Maksimir Stadium was the scene of a politically @-@ fueled riot between Croat and Serb fans at a Dinamo Zagreb – Red Star Belgrade game following the 1990 parliamentary election . However , there have been no major issues between Croatian and Serbian supporters since then . The Croatian Football Federation and the Football Association of Serbia ( FSS ) both agreed to play the scheduled 2014 World Cup qualifying matches between the two sides without away supporters .
The team 's games are regularly broadcast live on HRT . Shortly after becoming manager , Slaven Bilić and his rock band released a single , " Vatreno Ludilo " ( Fiery Madness ) , which recalled the team 's progress during the 1998 World Cup and praised their present ambitions . The song reached the top position on the Croatian music charts and was widely played during Euro 2008 . Other Croatian artists such as Dino Dvornik , Connect , Prljavo Kazalište and Baruni have recorded songs in support of the team , among which are " Malo nas je al nas ima " ( We are few , but we exist ) , " Samo je jedno " ( There is but one thing [ in my life ] ) , " Moj dom je Hrvatska " ( My Home is Croatia ) , " Srce vatreno " ( Fiery Heart ) , and " Hrvatska je prvak svijeta " ( Croatia are World Champions ) .
= = Rivalries = =
Croatia has a fierce rivalry with Serbia . This rivalry stems from political roots , and is listed as one of the 10 greatest international rivalries by Goal.com and as the most politically @-@ charged football rivalry by Bleacher Report .
= = Competitive record = =
= = = FIFA World Cup = = =
Croatia qualified for and competed in three consecutive World Cup finals between 1998 and 2006 , but failed to qualify for the 2010 World Cup in South Africa after finishing 3rd in Group 6 of their Qualification Group behind England , and Ukraine . Although they had joined both FIFA and UEFA by 1992 , they were unable to enter the 1994 World Cup as qualification had started before the side was officially recognised . The nation 's best performance came in their first World Cup where they finished third . In their following two World Cup campaigns they were eliminated after finishing third in their groups .
Champions Runners @-@ up Third Place Fourth Place
* Draws include knockout matches decided on penalty kicks ; correct as of 23 June 2014 ( Croatia v. Mexico )
= = = UEFA European Championship = = =
Croatia 's best results in UEFA Championships were quarter final finishes on their debut , in 1996 , and in 2008 . They did not qualify for the 2000 tournament . The HNS raised an unsuccessful joint bid with the Hungarian Football Federation to co @-@ host the 2012 tournament , which was awarded instead to Poland and Ukraine .
* Draws include knockout matches decided on penalty kicks ; correct as of 21 June 2016 ( Croatia v. Spain )
= = Recent results and fixtures = =
= = = 2015 – 2016 = = =
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
The following is the final list of players for the UEFA Euro 2016.Caps , goals and numbers correct as of 25 June 2016 after the match against Portugal .
Statistics include official FIFA @-@ recognised matches only .
= = = Recent call @-@ ups = = =
The following players have also been called up to the Croatia squad in the last 12 months and are still eligible for selection .
Status is applicable for the last game only .
Notes
INJ
= Not eligible because of injury
RET =
Retired
= = = Previous squads = = =
= = Statistics = =
= = = Managers = = =
Before Croatia 's independence distinct Croatian football federations and teams were occasionally formed separately from the official Yugoslavian organisations . Ivo Kraljević served as the manager of the initial federation , established in 1939 , and organised non @-@ sanctioned matches played by unofficial national squads up to 1956 . These temporary sides , playing non @-@ competitive fixtures , were led by seven different managers .
Statistically , Dražan Jerković and Vlatko Marković are the most successful managers in Croatia 's history ; they both recorded victories in each of their few games in charge . Miroslav Blažević holds the highest number of competitive victories , having led Croatia to their best performances at major international tournaments .
The following table provides a summary of the complete record of each Croatia manager including their results regarding World Cups and European Championships .
Key : Pld – games played , W – games won , D – games drawn ; L – games lost , % – win percentage
Last updated : Croatia vs. Portugal , 25 June 2016 . Statistics include official FIFA @-@ recognised matches only .
= = = Most appearances = = =
Last updated : Croatia vs. Portugal , 25 June 2016 . Statistics include official FIFA @-@ recognised matches only .
= = = Top goalscorers = = =
Last updated : Croatia vs. Portugal , 25 June 2016 . Statistics include official FIFA @-@ recognised matches only .
= = = 1940s participants = = =
From 1940 to 1944 , FIFA affiliated national teams played under the banner of the Banovina of Croatia ( part of Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) in four matches and Independent State of Croatia fourteen friendly matches , of which it won nine , drew four and lost six . Twelve players scored for the team during this period .
= = Records = =
Dario Šimić was Croatia 's first player to reach 100 appearances , doing so before his retirement in 2008 . This allowed him to surpass Robert Jarni 's previous record of 81 appearances . On 6 February 2013 , captain Darijo Srna , Josip Šimunić and Stipe Pletikosa each also played their 100th cap for Croatia in a 4 – 0 friendly victory over South Korea in London . The trio went on to set a new joint @-@ record of 101 appearances for the national team on 22 March 2013 in a World Cup qualifying victory against Serbia in Zagreb . Srna eventually surpassed his teammates and accrued 121 international caps for Croatia ( as of November 2014 ) . Ivica Olić has since also appeared 100 times for Croatia , with his 100th cap coming against Italy at San Siro on 16 November 2014 .
With 45 goals scored , Davor Šuker , the current president of the Croatian Football Federation , is the team 's highest @-@ scoring player . He was named Croatia 's " Golden Player " at the UEFA jubilee celebration in 2004 in recognition of this achievement . Eduardo reached a distant second position with 29 goals before announcing his retirement from international football in 2014 . Mladen Petrić holds the national team record for goals in a single match , having scored four times during Croatia 's 7 – 0 home victory over Andorra on 7 October 2006 .
The national team 's record for highest @-@ scoring victory was achieved in 2016 , a 10 – 0 result over San Marino . Croatia 's worst defeat is a joint record ; the Independent State of Croatia side lost 5 – 1 to Germany twice in the 1940s . The modern Croatian team also lost to England by the same scoreline in a 2010 World Cup qualifying fixture in London .
= = = All @-@ time team record = = =
The following tables show Croatia 's all @-@ time international record , correct as of 25 June 2016 after the match against Portugal .
* Draws include knockout matches decided on penalty kicks .
= = = = Modern Croatian team ( 1990 – present ) = = = =
= = = = Pre @-@ independence team ( 1940 – 1944 , 1956 ) = = = =
For explanation see : Croatia national football team games – 1940s , Croatia v Indonesia ( 1956 ) , Pre @-@ independence period ( above ) , Croatia – List of international matches .
All fixtures were friendly .
= = Honours = =
FIFA World Cup
03 ! Third place ( 1 ) : 1998
= = = Friendly titles = = =
King Hassan II Cup
01 ! Winners ( 1 ) : 1996
Korea Cup
01 ! Winners ( 1 ) : 1999
= = = Other awards = = =
Best Mover of the Year
1994
1998
= = = Books = = =
Ramet . P , Sabrina ( 2005 ) . Thinking about Yugoslavia . Cambridge University . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 85151 @-@ 3 .
Klemenčić , Mladen ( 2004 ) . Nogometni leksikon . Miroslav Krleža lexicographic institute . ISBN 953 @-@ 6036 @-@ 84 @-@ 3 .
Foster , Jane ( 2004 ) . Footprint Croatia . Footprint Travel Guides . ISBN 1 @-@ 903471 @-@ 79 @-@ 6 .
Bellamy . J , Alex ( 2003 ) . The Formation of Croatian National Identity . Manchester University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7190 @-@ 6502 @-@ X.
Giulianotti , Richard ( 1997 ) . Entering the Field : New Perspectives on World Football . Berg Publishers . ISBN 1 @-@ 85973 @-@ 198 @-@ 8 .
= Kristallnacht =
Kristallnacht ( German pronunciation : [ kʁɪsˈtalnaχt ] ; English : " Crystal Night " ) or Reichskristallnacht [ ˌʁaɪçs.kʁɪsˈtalnaχt ] , also referred to as the Night of Broken Glass , Reichspogromnacht [ ˌʁaɪçs.poˈɡʁoːmnaχt ] or simply Pogromnacht [ poˈɡʁoːmnaχt ] , and Novemberpogrome [ noˈvɛmbɐpoɡʁoːmə ] , was a pogrom against Jews throughout Nazi Germany on the 9 – 10 November 1938 , carried out by SA paramilitary forces and German civilians . German authorities looked on without intervening . The name Kristallnacht comes from the shards of broken glass that littered the streets after Jewish @-@ owned stores , buildings , and synagogues had their windows smashed .
Estimates of the number of fatalities caused by the pogrom have varied . Early reporting estimated that 91 Jewish people were murdered during the attacks . Modern analysis of German scholarly sources by historians such as Richard J. Evans puts the number much higher . When deaths from post @-@ arrest maltreatment and subsequent suicides are included , the death toll climbs into the hundreds . Additionally , 30 @,@ 000 were arrested and incarcerated in Nazi concentration camps .
Jewish homes , hospitals , and schools were ransacked , as the attackers demolished buildings with sledgehammers . Over 1 @,@ 000 synagogues were burned ( 95 in Vienna alone ) and over 7 @,@ 000 Jewish businesses destroyed or damaged . Martin Gilbert writes that no event in the history of German Jews between 1933 and 1945 was so widely reported as it was happening , and the accounts from the foreign journalists working in Germany sent shock waves around the world . The Times wrote at the time : " No foreign propagandist bent upon blackening Germany before the world could outdo the tale of burnings and beatings , of blackguardly assaults on defenseless and innocent people , which disgraced that country yesterday . "
The pretext for the attacks was the assassination of the German diplomat Ernst vom Rath by Herschel Grynszpan , a German @-@ born Polish Jew living in Paris . Kristallnacht was followed by additional economic and political persecution of Jews , and is viewed by historians as part of Nazi Germany 's broader racial policy , and the beginning of the Final Solution and The Holocaust .
= = Etymology = =
The incident was originally referred to as die Kristallnacht ( literally " crystal night " ) , alluding to the enormous number of glass windows broken throughout the night , mostly in synagogues and Jewish @-@ owned shops . The prefix Reichs- ( imperial ) was later added ( Reichskristallnacht ) as a sardonic comment on the Nazis ' propensity to add this prefix to various terms and titles like Reichsführer @-@ SS or Reichsmarschall .
= = Background = =
= = = Early Nazi persecutions = = =
In the 1920s , most German Jews were fully integrated into German society as German citizens . They served in the German army and navy and contributed to every field of German business , science and culture . Conditions for the Jews began to change after the appointment of Adolf Hitler ( the Austrian @-@ born leader of the National Socialist Workers ' Party ) as Chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933 , and the Enabling Act ( 23 March 1933 ) assumption of power by Hitler after the Reichstag fire of 27 February 1933 . From its inception , Hitler 's régime moved quickly to introduce anti @-@ Jewish policies . Nazi propaganda singled out the 500 @,@ 000 Jews in Germany , who accounted for only 0 @.@ 86 % of the overall population , as an enemy within who were responsible for Germany 's defeat in the First World War and for its subsequent economic disasters , such as the 1920s hyperinflation and Wall Street Crash Great Depression . Beginning in 1933 , the German government enacted a series of anti @-@ Jewish laws restricting the rights of German Jews to earn a living , to enjoy full citizenship and to gain education , including the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service of 7 April 1933 , which forbade Jews to work in the civil service . The subsequent 1935 Nuremberg Laws stripped German Jews of their citizenship and forbade Jews to marry non @-@ Jewish Germans .
These laws resulted in the exclusion of Jews from German social and political life . Many sought asylum abroad ; hundreds of thousands emigrated , but as Chaim Weizmann wrote in 1936 , " The world seemed to be divided into two parts — those places where the Jews could not live and those where they could not enter . " The international Évian Conference on 6 July 1938 addressed the issue of Jewish and Gypsy immigration to other countries . By the time the conference took place , more than 250 @,@ 000 Jews had fled Germany and Austria , which had been annexed by Germany in March 1938 ; more than 300 @,@ 000 German and Austrian Jews continued to seek refuge and asylum from oppression . As the number of Jews and Gypsies wanting to leave increased , the restrictions against them grew , with many countries tightening their rules for admission . By 1938 , Germany " had entered a new radical phase in anti @-@ Semitic activity " . Some historians believe that the Nazi government had been contemplating a planned outbreak of violence against the Jews and were waiting for an appropriate provocation ; there is evidence of this planning dating to 1937 . In a 1997 interview , the German historian Hans Mommsen claimed that a major motive for the pogrom was the desire of the Gauleiters of the NSDAP to seize Jewish property and businesses . Mommsen stated :
The need for money by the party organization stemmed from the fact that Franz Xaver Schwarz , the party treasurer , kept the local and regional organizations of the party short of money . In the fall of 1938 , the increased pressure on Jewish property nourished the party 's ambition , especially since Hjalmar Schacht had been ousted as Reich minister for economics . This , however , was only one aspect of the origin of the November 1938 pogrom . The Polish government threatened to extradite all Jews who were Polish citizens , but would stay in Germany , thus creating a burden of responsibility on the German side . The immediate reaction by the Gestapo was to push the Polish Jews — 16 @,@ 000 persons — over the borderline , but this measure failed due to the stubbornness of the Polish customs officers . The loss of prestige as a result of this abortive operation called for some sort of compensation . Thus , the overreaction to Herschel Grynszpan 's attempt against the diplomat Ernst vom Rath came into being and led to the November pogrom . The background of the pogrom was signified by a sharp cleavage of interests between the different agencies of party and state . While the Nazi party was interested in improving its financial strength on the regional and local level by taking over Jewish property , Hermann Göring , in charge of the Four @-@ Year Plan , hoped to acquire access to foreign currency in order to pay for the import of urgently @-@ needed raw material . Heydrich and Himmler were interested in fostering Jewish emigration " .
The Zionist leadership in the British Mandate of Palestine wrote in February 1938 that according to " a very reliable private source — one which can be traced back to the highest echelons of the SS leadership " , there was " an intention to carry out a genuine and dramatic pogrom in Germany on a large scale in the near future " .
= = = Expulsion of Polish Jews in Germany = = =
In August 1938 the German authorities announced that residence permits for foreigners were being cancelled and would have to be renewed . This included German @-@ born Jews of foreign origin . Poland stated that it would not accept Jews of Polish origin after the end of October . In the so @-@ called " Polenaktion " , more than 12 @,@ 000 Polish @-@ born Jews , among them the philosopher and theologian Rabbi Abraham Joshua Heschel , and future literary critic Marcel Reich @-@ Ranicki , were expelled from Germany on 28 October 1938 , on Hitler 's orders . They were ordered to leave their homes in a single night , and were allowed only one suitcase per person to carry their belongings . As the Jews were taken away , their remaining possessions were seized as loot both by the Nazi authorities and by their neighbors .
The deportees were taken from their homes to railway stations and were put on trains to the Polish border , where Polish border guards sent them back over the river into Germany . This stalemate continued for days in the pouring rain , with the Jews marching without food or shelter between the borders . Four thousand were granted entry into Poland , but the remaining 8 @,@ 000 were forced to stay at the border . They waited there in harsh conditions to be allowed to enter Poland . A British newspaper told its readers that hundreds " are reported to be lying about , penniless and deserted , in little villages along the frontier near where they had been driven out by the Gestapo and left . " Conditions in the refugee camps " were so bad that some actually tried to escape back into Germany and were shot " , recalled a British woman who was sent to help those who had been expelled .
= = = Shooting of vom Rath = = =
Among those expelled was the family of Sendel and Riva Grynszpan , Polish Jews who had emigrated to Germany in 1911 and settled in Hanover , Germany . At the trial of Adolf Eichmann in 1961 , Sendel Grynszpan recounted the events of their deportation from Hanover on the night of 27 October 1938 : " Then they took us in police trucks , in prisoners ' lorries , about 20 men in each truck , and they took us to the railway station . The streets were full of people shouting : ' Juden raus ! Auf nach Palästina ! ' " ( " Jews out , out to Palestine ! " ) . Their seventeen @-@ year @-@ old son Herschel was living in Paris with an uncle . Herschel received a postcard from his family from the Polish border , describing the family 's expulsion : " No one told us what was up , but we realised this was going to be the end ... We haven 't a penny . Could you send us something ? " He received the postcard on 3 November 1938 .
On the morning of Monday , 7 November 1938 , he purchased a revolver and a box of bullets , then went to the German embassy and asked to see an embassy official . After he was taken to the office of Ernst vom Rath , Grynszpan fired five bullets at Vom Rath , two of which hit him in the abdomen . Vom Rath was a professional diplomat with the Foreign Office who expressed anti @-@ Nazi sympathies , largely based on the Nazis ' treatment of the Jews , and was under Gestapo investigation for being politically unreliable . Grynszpan made no attempt to escape the French police and freely confessed to the shooting . In his pocket , he carried a postcard to his parents with the message , " May God forgive me ... I must protest so that the whole world hears my protest , and that I will do . "
The next day , the German government retaliated , barring Jewish children from German state elementary schools , indefinitely suspending Jewish cultural activities , and putting a halt to the publication of Jewish newspapers and magazines , including the three national German Jewish newspapers . A newspaper in Britain described the last move , which cut off the Jewish populace from their leaders , as " intended to disrupt the Jewish community and rob it of the last frail ties which hold it together . " Their rights as citizens had been stripped .
= = Pogrom = =
= = = Death of vom Rath = = =
Ernst vom Rath died of his wounds on 9 November . Word of his death reached Hitler that evening while he was with several key members of the Nazi party at a dinner commemorating the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch . After intense discussions , Hitler left the assembly abruptly without giving his usual address . Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels delivered the speech , in his place , and said that " the Führer has decided that ... demonstrations should not be prepared or organized by the party , but insofar as they erupt spontaneously , they are not to be hampered . " The chief party judge Walter Buch later stated that the message was clear ; with these words Goebbels had commanded the party leaders to organize a pogrom .
Some leading party officials disagreed with Goebbels ' actions , fearing the diplomatic crisis it would provoke . Heinrich Himmler wrote , " I suppose that it is Goebbels 's megalomania ... and stupidity which are responsible for starting this operation now , in a particularly difficult diplomatic situation . " The Israeli historian Saul Friedländer believes that Goebbels had personal reasons for wanting to bring about Kristallnacht . Goebbels had recently suffered humiliation for the ineffectiveness of his propaganda campaign during the Sudeten crisis , and was in some disgrace over an affair with a Czech actress , Lída Baarová . Goebbels needed a chance to improve his standing in the eyes of Hitler . At 01 : 20 am on 10 November 1938 , Reinhard Heydrich sent an urgent secret telegram to the Sicherheitspolizei ( Security Police ) and the Sturmabteilung ( SA ) , containing instructions regarding the riots . This included guidelines for the protection of foreigners and non @-@ Jewish businesses and property . Police were instructed not to interfere with the riots unless the guidelines were violated . Police were also instructed to seize Jewish archives from synagogues and community offices , and to arrest and detain " healthy male Jews , who are not too old " , for eventual transfer to ( labor ) concentration camps .
= = = Riots = = =
The timing of the riots varied from unit to unit . The Gauleiters started at about 10 : 30pm , only two hours after news of Vom Rath 's death reached Germany . They were followed by the SA at 11pm , and the SS at around 1 : 20am . Most were wearing civilian clothes and were armed with sledgehammers and axes , and soon went to work on the destruction of Jewish property . The orders given to these men were very specific , however : no measures endangering non @-@ Jewish German life or property were to be taken ( synagogues too close to non @-@ Jewish property were smashed rather than burned ) ; Jewish businesses or dwellings could be destroyed but not looted ; foreigners ( even Jewish foreigners ) were not to be the subjects of violence ; and synagogue archives were to be transferred to the Sicherheitsdienst ( SD ) . The men were also ordered to arrest as many Jews as the local jails would hold , the preferred targets being healthy young men .
The SA of adjacent cities shattered the storefronts of about 7 @,@ 500 Jewish stores and businesses , hence the appellation Kristallnacht ( Crystal Night ) . Jewish homes were ransacked all throughout Germany . Although violence against Jews had not been explicitly condoned by the authorities , there were cases of Jews being beaten or assaulted .
This pogrom damaged , and in many cases destroyed , about 200 synagogues ( constituting nearly all Germany had ) , many Jewish cemeteries , more than 7 @,@ 000 Jewish shops , and 29 department stores . Some Jews were beaten to death while others were forced to watch . More than 30 @,@ 000 Jewish men were arrested and taken to concentration camps ; primarily Dachau , Buchenwald , and Sachsenhausen . The treatment of prisoners in the camps was brutal , but most were released during the following three months on condition that they leave Germany . The number of German Jews killed is uncertain . The number killed in the two @-@ day riot is most often cited as 91 . In addition , it is thought that there were hundreds of suicides . Counting deaths in the concentration camps , around 2 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 500 deaths were directly or indirectly attributable to the Kristallnacht pogrom . A few non @-@ Jewish Germans , mistaken for Jews , were also killed .
The synagogues , some centuries old , were also victims of considerable violence and vandalism , with the tactics the Stormtroops practised on these and other sacred sites described as " approaching the ghoulish " by the United States Consul in Leipzig . Tombstones were uprooted and graves violated . Fires were lit , and prayer books , scrolls , artwork and philosophy texts were thrown upon them , and precious buildings were either burned or smashed until unrecognisable . Eric Lucas recalls the destruction of the synagogue that a tiny Jewish community had constructed in a small village only twelve years earlier :
It did not take long before the first heavy grey stones came tumbling down , and the children of the village amused themselves as they flung stones into the many coloured windows . When the first rays of a cold and pale November sun penetrated the heavy dark clouds , the little synagogue was but a heap of stone , broken glass and smashed @-@ up woodwork.'
After this , the Jewish community was fined 1 billion reichsmarks . In addition , it cost 4 million marks to repair the windows . Events in recently annexed Austria were no less horrendous . Of the entire Kristallnacht , only the pogrom in Vienna was completed . Most of Vienna 's 94 synagogues and prayer @-@ houses were partially or totally destroyed . People were subjected to all manner of humiliations , including being forced to scrub the pavements whilst being tormented by their fellow Austrians , some of whom had been their friends and neighbours . Official figures released after the event by Reinhard Heydrich stated that 191 synagogues were destroyed , with 76 completely demolished ; 100 @,@ 000 Jews were arrested ; three foreigners were arrested ; 174 people were arrested for looting Jewish shops ; and 815 Jewish businesses were destroyed .
The Daily Telegraph correspondent , Hugh Greene , wrote of events in Berlin :
Mob law ruled in Berlin throughout the afternoon and evening and hordes of hooligans indulged in an orgy of destruction . I have seen several anti @-@ Jewish outbreaks in Germany during the last five years , but never anything as nauseating as this . Racial hatred and hysteria seemed to have taken complete hold of otherwise decent people . I saw fashionably dressed women clapping their hands and screaming with glee , while respectable middle @-@ class mothers held up their babies to see the " fun " .
Many Berliners were however deeply ashamed of the pogrom , and some took great personal risks to offer help . The son of a US consular official heard the janitor of his block cry :
'They must have emptied the insane asylums and penitentiaries to find people who 'd do things like that ! '
Tucson News TV channel briefly reported on a 2008 remembrance meeting at a local Jewish congregation . According to eye @-@ witness Esther Harris :
They ripped up the belongings , the books , knocked over furniture , shouted obscenities .
Historian Gerhard Weinberg is quoted as saying :
Houses of worship burned down , vandalized , in every community in the country where people either participate or watch .
= = = Concentration camps = = =
The violence was officially called to a stop by Goebbels on 11 November , but it continued against the Jews in the concentration camps despite orders requesting " special treatment " to ensure that this did not happen . On 23 November , the News Chronicle of London published an article on an incident which took place at the concentration camp of Sachsenhausen . Sixty @-@ two Jews suffered punishment so severe that the police , " unable to bear their cries , turned their backs " . They were beaten until they fell and , when they fell , they were further beaten . At the end of it , " twelve of the sixty @-@ two were dead , their skulls smashed . The others were all unconscious . The eyes of some had been knocked out , their faces flattened and shapeless " . The 30 @,@ 000 Jewish men who had been imprisoned during Kristallnacht were released over the next three months but , by then , more than 2 @,@ 000 had died .
= = Aftermath = =
Hermann Göring , who was in favor of expropriating the Jews rather than destroy Jewish property as had happened in the progrom , complained directly to Chief of Police and Head of Reich Main Security Office Reinhard Heydrich immediately after the events : " I 'd rather you guys had done in two @-@ hundred Jews than destroy so many valuable assets ! " ( " Mir wäre lieber gewesen , ihr hättet 200 Juden erschlagen und hättet nicht solche Werte vernichtet ! " ) . Göring met with other members of the Nazi leadership on 12 November to plan the next steps after the riot , setting the stage for formal government action . In the transcript of the meeting , Göring said ,
I have received a letter written on the Führer 's orders requesting that the Jewish question be now , once and for all , coordinated and solved one way or another ... I should not want to leave any doubt , gentlemen , as to the aim of today 's meeting . We have not come together merely to talk again , but to make decisions , and I implore competent agencies to take all measures for the elimination of the Jew from the German economy , and to submit them to me .
The persecution and economic damage done to German Jews continued after the pogrom , even as their places of business were ransacked . They were forced to pay Judenvermögensabgabe , a collective fine of one billion marks for the murder of vom Rath ( equal to roughly $ US 5 @.@ 5 billion in today ’ s currency ) , which was levied by the compulsory acquisition of 20 % of all Jewish property by the state . Six million Reichsmarks of insurance payments for property damage due to the Jewish community were to be paid to the government instead as " damages to the German Nation " .
The number of emigrating Jews surged , as those who were able left the country . In the ten months following Kristallnacht , more than 115 @,@ 000 Jews emigrated from the Reich . The majority went to other European countries , the US and Palestine , and at least 14 @,@ 000 made it to Shanghai , China . As part of government policy , the Nazis seized houses , shops , and other property the émigrés left behind . Many of the destroyed remains of Jewish property plundered during Kristallnacht were dumped near Brandenburg . In October 2008 , this dumpsite was discovered by Yaron Svoray , an investigative journalist . The site , the size of four Association football fields , contained an extensive array of personal and ceremonial items looted during the riots against Jewish property and places of worship on the night of 9 November 1938 . It is believed the goods were brought by rail to the | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
reality such stories were not unheard of , women entered into prostitution for a variety of reasons , often mundane . Rural immigrants in search of work could sometimes find themselves at the mercy of unscrupulous employers , or manipulated into the sex trade by underhand means . Some entries in Harris 's List illustrate how some women managed to lift themselves out of penury . Becky LeFevre , once a streetwalker , used her business sense to amass considerable wealth , as did a Miss Marshall and Miss Becky Child , who are each mentioned in several editions . Many of these women had rich keepers , and some married wealthy aristocrats ; Harriet Powell married Kenneth Mackenzie , 1st Earl of Seaforth , and Elizabeth Armistead married Charles James Fox .
Elements of politicisation appear in some entries . The famed prostitute Betsy Cox 's 1773 listing describes how , when refused entry to a gathering of polite society at the newly opened Pantheon , she was helped by , among others , the Duke of Fife , who drew his sword to enforce her entry . Some lists also contain defences of prostitution ; earlier editions claim that the trade guarded against the seduction of young women , provided an outlet for frustrated married men , and kept other young men from " le péche [ sic ] que la Nature désavoue [ the sin that Nature repudiates ] " , or sodomy . However , no such views were expressed with regard to lesbianism , which in England , unlike sexual acts between men , has never been illegal . Miss Wilson of Cavendish Square thought that " a female bed @-@ fellow can give more real joys than ever she experienced with the male part of the sex " , and Anne and Elanor Redshawe provided a discreet service in Tavistock Street , catering for " Ladies in the Highest Keeping " and other women who preferred to keep their activities private .
A common complaint regarding street prostitution was the foul language used , and while generally most entries in the lists look favourably on those women who refrained from swearing , the views expressed in the 1793 edition of Harris 's List tend towards equivocation . Mrs Cornish 's genteel nature was , on occasion , interrupted by " a volley of small shot " , and Miss Johnson 's proclivity towards " vulgarity of expression and a coarseness of manner " apparently suffered no shortage of admirers . Mrs Russell , attractive to " a number of clients among the youth , who are fond of beholding that mouth of the devil from whence all corruption issueth " , was admired for her " vulgarity more than any thing else , she being extremely expert at uncommon oaths " . Drinking , intrinsically linked with prostitution , was also frowned on . Mrs William 's entry of 1773 is full of remorse , her having returned home " so intoxicated so as not to be able to stand , to the no small amusement of her neighbors " , and Miss Jenny Kirbeard had , in 1788 , a " violent attachment to drinking " . Not all entries were disapproving though ; Mrs Harvey would , in 1793 , " often toss off a sparkling bumper , " while remaining " a lady of great sensibility ... not a little clever in the performance of the act of friction . " More generally , most entries are flattering , although some are less than complimentary ; the 1773 listing for Miss Berry denounces her as " almost rotten , and her breath cadaverous " . Prostitutes may have paid money to appear in the lists , and in Denlinger 's view such commentary may indicate a degree of annoyance on the writer 's part , the women concerned perhaps having refused to pay . Some listings also imply a degree of dissatisfaction on the part of the customer ; in the 1773 edition , Miss Dean exhibited " great indifference " while entertaining her client , busying herself by cracking nuts while he was " acting his joys " . Others are scorned for wearing too much makeup , and some for being " lazy bedfellows " . A popular view that prostitutes were licentious , hot @-@ blooded and hungry for sex was incompatible with the knowledge that most worked for money , and the lists therefore criticise women whose demands for payment appeared a little too mercenary .
= = = Possible authors = = =
The identity of the lists ' authors is uncertain . Some editions may have been written by Samuel Derrick , a Grub Street hack born in 1724 in Dublin , who had moved to London to become an actor . With little success there , he had turned instead to writing , publishing works including The dramatic censor ; being remarks upon the conduct , characters , and catastrophe of our most celebrated plays ( 1752 ) , A Voyage to the Moon ( 1753 ) ( a translation of Cyrano de Bergerac 's L 'Autre Monde : ou les États et Empires de la Lune ) , and The Battle of Lora ( 1762 ) . Derrick , who lived with the actress Jane Lessingham , was an acquaintance of Samuel Johnson and James Boswell . The latter viewed him as " but a poor writer " , while Johnson admitted that " if Derrick 's letters had been written by one of a more established name , they would have been thought very pretty letters . "
Hallie Rubenhold 's 2005 book The Covent Garden Ladies sets out her interpretation of the story behind Harris 's List . She claims that John Harrison — otherwise known as Jack Harris , a savvy businessman and pimp who worked at the Shakespear 's Head Tavern in Covent Garden — was the list 's originator . Born perhaps around 1720 – 1730 , Harris apparently had expert knowledge of prostitutes working in Covent Garden and beyond , as well as access to rented rooms and premises for his clients ' use . He kept a record of the women he pimped and the properties he had access to , possibly in the form of a small ledger or notebook . Derrick , having previously authored The Memoirs of the Shakespear 's Head , and possibly also its companion piece , The Memoirs of the Bedford Coffee House , was probably familiar with the Shakespear 's Head . The former book details " Jack , a waiter ... who presides over the Venereal Pleasures of this Dome " , and its author likely studied Harris as he went about his business . Which of the two men first thought to produce Harris 's List is unknown , but probably for a one @-@ off payment Harris allowed his name to be attached to it . With his detailed knowledge of Covent Garden , and with help from various associates , Derrick was therefore able to write the first edition of Harris 's List in 1757 . As an aspiring author and social climber he preferred not to associate himself publicly with such questionable material , and his name therefore does not appear on any editions .
Printed and published by the pseudonymous H. Ranger , responsible for such works as Love Feasts ; or the different methods of courtship in every country , throughout the known world , the proceeds from the hugely successful first edition enabled Derrick to repay his debts , thereby freeing himself from a spunging house . His fortunes changed for the better when he became master of ceremonies at Bath and Tunbridge Wells in 1763 . His death on 28 March 1769 followed a protracted illness , but despite a significant income , he died penniless . He left no official will , but on his deathbed he bequeathed the 1769 edition of Harris 's List to Charlotte Hayes , his former friend and mistress , and a madam in her own right . Hayes died in 1813 .
As the self @-@ declared " Pimp General of All England " , the swaggering Harris amassed a considerable fortune , but his indiscretion proved to be his undoing . Prompted by reformers , in April 1758 the authorities began to hunt down and close " houses of ill fame " . Covent Garden was not spared , and the Shakespear 's Head Tavern was raided . Harris was caught , locked up in the local compter , and then imprisoned in Newgate . He was released in 1761 and had some interests in publishing from 1765 to 1766 , printing Edward Thompson 's The Courtesan , and later The Fruit @-@ Shop and Kitty 's Atlantis , but he seems to have given this up late in 1766 . He became the proprietor of the Rose Tavern , not far from the Shakespear 's Head , but by the 1780s had delegated its running to an employee . The Rose was demolished about 1790 , and for a few years Harris ran another tavern , the Bedford Head , with his son and daughter @-@ in @-@ law . He died sometime in 1792 . The Shakespear 's Head closed for business in 1804 , and four years later the empty premises were badly damaged in the same fire that consumed the Covent Garden Theatre . What remained was subsumed by the neighbouring Bedford Coffee House .
= = = Later years = = =
Johann Wilhelm von Archenholz claimed in 1791 that the lists were published by " a tavern @-@ keeper , in Drury lane " , and that " eight thousand copies are sold annually . " There is nothing to suggest that Hayes had any involvement with any edition other than that of 1769 , and the list 's authors following Derrick 's death have not been identified . From the 1770s Harris 's List changes focus , moving away from the women of Covent Garden , to their stories . Its prose becomes more genteel , lacking the euphemisms which had helped make it so popular . These changes are echoed by the front cover , whose frontispiece becomes more gentrified . Material from earlier editions is recycled , and little attention is paid to accuracy . The responsibility for some of these changes can be attributed to John and James Roach , and John Aitkin , who from the late 1780s were the lists ' publishers .
In 1795 the Proclamation Society , created several years earlier to help enforce King George III 's proclamation against " loose and licentious Prints , Books , and Publications , dispersing Poison to the minds of the Young and Unwary " , and " to Punish the Publishers and Vendors thereof " , brought Roach up on libel charges . In court he highlighted the list 's longevity , and claimed that " nobody had ever been prosecuted for publishing it ; and , therefore , he was ignorant it was a libel . " When Lord Chief Justice Kenyon mentioned that a John Roach had previously been convicted for selling Harris 's List , Roach " assured his Lordship , that he had never been indicted before for this offence . " He was nevertheless sentenced to one year in Newgate Prison , with sureties of £ 150 for three years , to ensure his good behaviour . Lord Justice Ashurst called the List " a most indecent and immoral publication " , and of Roach 's crime said " an offence of greater enormity could hardly be committed . " Aitkin , indicted as John Aitken , may have been fined £ 200 for selling the same edition , although Rubenhold contends that by then he had died . After these trials , the list was no longer published . Only nine editions are extant : those for 1761 , 1764 , 1773 , 1774 , 1779 , 1788 , 1789 , 1790 and 1793 .
= = Modern view = =
Harris 's List was published for a city rife with prostitution . London 's bawdy houses had , by the 1770s , disappeared from the poorer areas outside the city wall , and in the West End were found in four areas : St Margaret 's in Westminster ; St Anne 's in Soho and St James 's ; and most especially , with more than two thirds of London 's " Disorderly Houses " , around Covent Garden and the Strand . The area was noted for its " great numbers of female votaries to Venus of all ranks and conditions " , while another author distinguished Covent Garden as " the chief scene of action for promiscuous amours . " The Scottish statistician Patrick Colquhoun estimated in 1806 that of Greater London 's approximately 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 citizens , perhaps 50 @,@ 000 women , across all walks of life , were engaged in some form of prostitution .
Whether any of these women could confirm their addresses for publication in Harris 's List is something that author Sophie Carter doubts . She views the annual as " primarily a work of erotica " , calling it " nothing so much as a shopping list ... textually arrayed for the delectation of the male consumer " , continuing " they [ the women ] await his intervention to institute an exchange " , epitomising the traditional male role in pornography . Elizabeth Denlinger includes a similar sentiment in her essay , " The Garment and the Man " : " This varied display of women to satisfy the ' great itch ' ... is a fundamental aspect of the sphere to which Harris 's List offered British men a carte d 'entrée " . Rubenhold writes that the variability in the descriptions of prostitutes over the years the list was published defy " all attempts to categorise it as either exclusively up @-@ market or simply middle of the road . " She suggests that the annual 's purpose was to " conduct the desirous to the embrace of a prostitute " , and that its prose was designed for " solitary sexual enjoyment " ( H. Ranger also sold back @-@ issues of Harris 's List ) . Sold to a London public which was mostly patriarchal , its listings reflect the prejudices of the men who authored them . They were therefore not representative of women generally , and as she concludes , " it is likely that their stories would have differed quite significantly from those recounted by their customers for the benefit of the List 's publishers . "
Not every commentator agreed with Colquhoun 's estimate , which became " the most widely quoted sum " , but in the opinion of Cindy McCreery the fact that most people agreed there were far too many prostitutes in London is indicative of widespread concern about the trade . Attitudes towards prostitution hardened at the end of the 18th century , with many viewing prostitutes as indecent and immoral , and it was in this atmosphere that Harris 's List met its demise . Books such as the Wandering Whore and Edmund Curll 's Venus in the Cloyster ( 1728 ) are often mentioned alongside Harris 's as examples of erotic literature . Along with the anonymously written Fifteen Plagues of a Maidenhead ( 1707 ) , Garfield and Curll 's works were involved in cases that helped form the 18th @-@ century legal concept of " obscene libel " — which was a marked change from the previous emphasis on controlling sedition , blasphemy and heresy , traditionally the ecclesiastical courts ' province . No laws existed to forbid the publication of pornography ; therefore , when Curll was arrested and imprisoned in 1725 ( the first such prosecution in nearly 20 years ) , it was under threat of a libel charge . He was released a few months later , only to be locked up again for publishing other materials deemed offensive by the authorities . Curll 's experience with the censors was uncommon , though , and prosecutions based on obscene publications remained a rarity . Although their court action spelled the end for Harris 's List , despite the best efforts of the Proclamation Society ( later the Society for the Suppression of Vice ) , the publication of pornography continued apace ; more pornographic material was published during the Victorian era than at any time previously .
= Watson 's Hotel =
Watson 's Hotel , now known as the Esplanade Mansion , is India 's oldest surviving cast iron building . It is located in the Kala Ghoda area of Mumbai ( Bombay ) . Named after its original owner , John Watson , the building was fabricated in England and constructed on site between 1860 and 1863 .
The hotel was leased on 26 August 1867 for the terms of 999 years at yearly rent of Rupees 92 and 12 annas to Abdul Haq . It was closed in the 1960s and was later subdivided and partitioned into smaller cubicles that were let out on rent as homes and offices . Neglect of the building has resulted in decay and , despite its listing as a Grade II – A heritage structure , the building is now in a dilapidated state .
= = Design = =
Watson 's hotel was designed by the civil engineer Rowland Mason Ordish , who was also associated with the St Pancras Station in London . The building was fabricated in England from cast iron components and was assembled and constructed on site . The external cast @-@ iron frame closely resembles other high @-@ profile 19th century buildings such as London 's Crystal Palace . The main façade of the hotel is distinguished by building wide open balconies on each floor that connected the guest rooms , which were built around the atrium in a courtyard arrangement .
= = History = =
John Watson opened the hotel as an exclusive whites @-@ only hotel , and it one of the most renowned hotels in the city in those days . Then it was handed over to Hannah Maria Watson , by then the Secretary of State for India , wherein she entered into a lease deed with Sardar Abdul Haq , Diler ul Mulk , Diler ul Daula , for a term of nine hundred and ninety nine years on 26 August 1867 . Later on , another indenture was made on the date 22 @-@ 12 @-@ 1885 , between the trustees of Port Trust of Bombay and Sardar Diler ul Mulk in which land on the Wellington Reclamation Estate in island of Bombay admeasurment of 8129 sq.yrds. was leased by the Sardar Abdul Haq for a term of fifty years from 01 @-@ 01 @-@ 1880 . The five @-@ storied structure housed 130 guest rooms , as well as a lobby , restaurant and a bar at the ground level . The hotel also had a 30 by 9 metres ( 98 ft × 30 ft ) atrium , originally used as a ballroom , with a glass skylight . At its peak , Watson 's hotel employed English waitresses in its restaurant and ballroom , inspiring a common joke at the time : " If only Watson had imported the English weather as well . "
After Watson 's death , the hotel lost its popularity to the rival Taj Hotel . In the 1960s the hotel was closed . Sometime after this , it was subdivided and partitioned into small cubicles with independent access and let out on rent . Over the years , apathy toward the building by the residents has resulted the building decaying , and it is now in a dilapidated state . The atrium was subsequently used as a dumping ground and has several illegal constructions . As of 2005 , building had 53 families and 97 commercial establishments . Most of the commercial establishments are chambers of lawyers attached to the adjacent Bombay Civil & Session Courts and the nearby Bombay High Court .
= = Notable guests = =
Among the hotel 's notable guests was Mark Twain , who wrote about the city 's crows he saw outside his balcony in Following the Equator . It was also the first place in India to screen the Lumière Brothers ' Cinematographe invention in 1896 .
Muhammad Ali Jinnah used to play pool in the hotel , to make a little extra money for himself .
A popular myth surround the hotel was that the staff at Watson 's Hotel denied Indian industrialist Jamsetji Tata access to the hotel . In retaliation he built the Taj Hotel , a hotel that stands near the Gateway of India , in 1903 . However , author and historian Sharada Dwivedi debunks this legend . She points out a lack of evidence to prove that Tata was a man of vengeance .
= = Current state = =
The building 's poor state of affairs has been commonly remarked , and efforts by heritage activists to persuade its present owner to invest in restoration have been unsuccessful . One of the possible reasons proffered for apathy is the fact that the rent collected is low as it has been frozen by government legislation . The condition of the building was publicized by Italian architect Renzo Piano , and as a result of his efforts , the building was listed in June 2005 on the list of " 100 World Endangered Monuments " by the World Monuments Fund , a New York @-@ based NGO . Just a few days after its nomination , part of the building 's western façade , originally balconies developed into small offices , collapsed , killing one person and crushing several cars and motorcycles parked in the street below . The building is listed as a Grade II – A heritage structure . On 13 June 2010 , the Mumbai Heritage Conservation Committee ( MHCC ) gave its approval for the 130 @-@ year @-@ old structure to be restored . The restoration work will be carried out by the Maharashtra Housing and Area Development Authority ( MHADA ) .
= Zack Fair =
Zack Fair ( ザックス ・ フェア , Zakkusu Fea ) is a fictional character first introduced as a non @-@ player character in the 1997 role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy VII by Square ( now Square Enix ) , and subsequently expanded upon in the metaseries Compilation of Final Fantasy VII .
In the original game , Zack is a late member of the paramilitary organization SOLDIER , the military wing of the megacorporation Shinra . During the game , Zack is revealed to have been Aerith Gainsborough 's first boyfriend , as well as a friend of Cloud Strife , the game 's protagonist . Zack ultimately died in the weeks leading up to the opening of the game protecting Cloud from Shinra 's army after they had escaped from imprisonment and being the subjects of genetic experimentation . He is the second owner of the Buster Sword ( バスターソード , Basutā Sōdo ) , and wielded it before Cloud , giving it to him as he died . Zack also appears in the Compilation titles Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII , Last Order : Final Fantasy VII , Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children and , most significantly , Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII , a prequel in which he is the protagonist .
Zack Fair was originally not a part of Final Fantasy VII . However , scenario writer Kazushige Nojima wanted to bring a sense of mystery to the title , and created the character to help complicate Cloud 's backstory . He was designed by Tetsuya Nomura , and his name derived from " fair weather , " to contrast with Cloud Strife 's name . With Zack 's conceptual backstory in place for Final Fantasy VII , the staff decided to use Compilation of Final Fantasy VII to expand upon his character . Zack is voiced by Kenichi Suzumura in Japanese and Rick Gomez in English . Suzumura was chosen specifically by Nomura for his voice , and was given the role without an audition . Western critics have praised Zack 's character , commenting on his development since Final Fantasy VII .
= = Concept and creation = =
Zack did not exist in the original scenario of Final Fantasy VII , but was created only when scenario writer Kazushige Nojima decided to add some mystery to the plot , most notably in relation to Cloud Strife 's background . Nojima had always planned for Cloud Strife 's memories of his life to be proven false as the game went on , but he had not decided on how to implement this until he hit on the character of Zack . Nojima also used Zack to link Cloud and Aerith Gainsborough , as Aerith had seen something of Zack in Cloud . Zack was Aerith 's first boyfriend , thus creating an emotional connection between herself and Cloud , because he reminds her of him . Originally , the role of her first boyfriend was to have been fulfilled by the game 's antagonist Sephiroth . As the game continued in its development , Nojima worked out the mysteries regarding Zack and Cloud , which led to some of the scenes in the game needing revision . Director Yoshinori Kitase was surprised by the revelation of Cloud 's and Zack 's connection , as until the later stages of development , even he did not know about Zack . Character designer Tetsuya Nomura got the request to design Zack when Final Fantasy VII was reaching the end of development . Prior to the late addition of Zack , Nojima had asked the staff to add details to some scenes so as to give clues about him , despite the fact that he did not reveal to the staff Zack 's existence until later .
Zack appears as a young man with spiky black hair , standing 6 feet 3 inches ( 191 cm ) tall . He wears the SOLDIER 1st class uniform , consisting of a black , sleeveless turtleneck , black boots , and armor . In Crisis Core , Zack has two attires ; his Final Fantasy VII outfit and a different outfit worn during the start of the game , which he changes after fighting Angeal Hewley . Zack 's full name was first revealed in an article in Dengeki PlayStation . Nomura stated that Zack 's name was derived from ' fair weather ' and specifically chosen because it contrasted with Cloud Strife 's name .
For Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children , Zack made only a couple of brief appearances , and as such , was not difficult to animate ; the team had also acquired his design early in production , allowing modeling of his character to be taken care of . Nomura had wanted Zack to have a " nice , upbeat voice , " which influenced his decision to cast Kenichi Suzumura . Beforehand , Nomura had had dinner with Suzumura , where he had decided that " at that point [ Nomura ] wanted him to be in one of his projects if the opportunity ever presented itself . " Suzumura was offered the role without an audition . Nomura explained that , because Zack had been chosen to be the lead in Last Order : Final Fantasy VII , he needed " someone who could handle [ the ] role well . " The staff used Last Order as an opportunity to portray Zack " properly " as a " handsome , light @-@ hearted man [ who ] was in everyone 's memory . " In English , Zack is voiced by Rick Gomez .
In an interview with IGN whilst promoting Crisis Core , Yoshinori Kitase explained that when the original game was created , " Zack was a rather minor character , " although Nomura had created art design , and Nojima had created a " basic concept of [ Zack 's ] story . " Kitase further explained that " you could say that the idea [ for the storyline of Crisis Core ] has been cooking for 10 years . " Before Crisis Core began development , the staff had planned to create a PlayStation Portable port of Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII , but soon changed their minds to create a game that focused on Zack , whose fate was already predetermined ; fans knew how the game was going to end . Throughout the game , the staff decided to use a blue sky in cutscenes to represent Zack , while other features in such scenes are meant to symbolize his connections . A number of Zack 's actions from the game were also designed so as to augment the similarities that Aerith finds between him and Cloud in Final Fantasy VII . Zack and Cloud 's connection was also meant to be expanded upon near the game 's ending , with both of them planning to flee to Midgar . However , due to limitations in the console 's hardware , these scenes could not be implemented , and instead , they decided to focus on Zack 's role as a warrior .
= = Appearances = =
Zack had only a small role in the original Final Fantasy VII . He is first mentioned by name in Gongaga , his hometown , where his parents are oblivious as to what became of him after he left to join SOLDIER , and are worried for his safety after not hearing from him for years . It is at this point that Aerith explains Zack was her first love . Cloud later realizes that some of his memories and even aspects of his personality were actually Zack 's , and not his own . Flashbacks reveal that both Zack and Cloud battled Sephiroth after he burned the town of Nibelheim upon discovering he was the result of a scientific experiment . After Cloud defeated Sephiroth , both Zack and Cloud were taken to be used in experiments by Shinra . Eventually , Zack woke up and was able to escape with a semi @-@ conscious Cloud to the city Midgar , but on the edge of the city , he was gunned down by Shinra troops . While Zack 's and Cloud 's flashback escape is optional in the North American and European releases of Final Fantasy VII and the Japanese International version , it was originally planned to be shown once Cloud discovered the results of Shinra 's experiments .
Zack 's character and backstory is expanded upon throughout the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII . In the prequel game Before Crisis , Zack supports Shinra in their fight against the eco @-@ terrorist group AVALANCHE . During the game , two of his SOLDIER acquaintances are captured and experimented upon , and though Zack is able to bring them back to their senses , he is unable to save them . Zack also makes an appearance during the chapter covering the Nibelheim incident , and later as a boss character when he and Cloud are fugitives from Shinra and are being pursued by the Turks . The OVA Last Order : Final Fantasy VII follows Zack and Cloud 's journey to Midgar with flashbacks of the Nibelheim incident . Zack also has a small role in the film sequel Advent Children , where most of his appearances are flashbacks from Cloud 's point of view . He also appears at the end of the film , where he and the now deceased Aerith speak to Cloud . In the director 's cut version , Advent Children Complete , his role is expanded , and he makes an appearance during Cloud 's battle with Sephiroth . His death is also shown in the film , where he gives Cloud the Buster Sword and tells him to become his " living legacy " .
Zack is the protagonist of Crisis Core , a prequel to Final Fantasy VII , which deals primarily with Zack 's backstory . In the game , Zack is trained as a SOLDIER by his close friend , Angeal Hewley , and hopes to become a hero while working for Shinra . When Angeal , and another SOLDIER , Genesis Rhapsodos , betray Shinra , Zack and Sephiroth are dispatched to kill them , but they decide to avoid doing that if possible . He and Sephiroth learn that both Angeal and Genesis were the result of a Shinra experiment called " Project G " , where they were injected with Jenova cells prior to being born in an effort to create perfect SOLDIERs . However , both Angeal and Genesis are suffering from secondary effects which led them to antagonize Shinra in the hopes of finding a cure . In the course of the game , Zack befriends Cloud and begins dating Aerith . During a mission to find Angeal and Genesis , Angeal forces Zack to kill him , as he wants to stop hurting people because of his mutations . Before dying , Angeal thanks Zack for stopping him and gives him his Buster Sword . Later , while Zack and Sephiroth search for Genesis and the former Shinra scientist Dr. Hollander , they go to Nibelheim where Sephiroth learns that he too was the result of genetic experimentation involving Jenova . The game then depicts the Nibelheim incident , leading to Zack and Cloud being taken captive and subjected to experiments themselves . Four years pass , Zack and Cloud are able to escape , and Zack learns that Genesis has come to believe the only way he can be cured is by being injected with Sephiroth 's cells . As Sephiroth is thought dead , the only source of these cells is now Cloud , and Zack realises that Genesis plans to kill Cloud . Zack decides to stop Genesis , and after defeating him , he and Cloud head to Midgar , where he hopes to be reunited with Aerith . However , Zack and Cloud are intercepted by Shinra infantry , and Zack is killed . In his dying breath , Zack gives the Buster Sword to Cloud , telling him to be his living legacy . As Cloud stumbles off towards Midgar , Zack is pulled into the sky by Angeal , and wonders if he has become a hero .
Zack has served as the basis for several forms of merchandise , such as being pictured on the Final Fantasy VII 10th Anniversary Potion soft drink cans . Outside the Final Fantasy VII series , Zack is an unlockable character in the PlayStation version of the fighting game Ehrgeiz , where is playable in arcade , versus , and minigame events . He made his debut appearance in the Kingdom Hearts series in the prequel Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep for the PlayStation Portable , where he has a more youthful appearance than in his Final Fantasy incarnation . He is featured prominently in the Olympus Coliseum , commonly participating in tournaments in order to achieve his dream of becoming a hero . As the game is a prequel to the other Kingdom Hearts titles , the staff chose him as they wanted a character from a Final Fantasy prequel .
= = Reception = =
Critical response to Zack 's character has generally been positive . In IGN 's 2008 list of Final Fantasy VII top ten characters list , Zack made sixth place , with IGN 's Dave Smith noting that " his check @-@ out scene in Crisis Core is just about as epic as it gets in videogames . " In 2010 , Famitsu readers voted Zack as the 37th most popular video game character in Japan . GamesRadar 's Jim Sterling found Zack to be one of video game 's most sexually appealing male characters due to his personality and look . In 2013 , Complex ranked Zack as the 18th greatest Final Fantasy character of all time , as well as the sixth greatest soldier in video games .
Zack 's role in Crisis Core has received a mainly positive reaction . IGN 's Ryan Clements particularly praised Zack 's relationships with the other main characters . 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish agreed with Clements , arguing that Zack 's story contrasted with other RPG plots , calling it " the heart of the game . " Kevin VanOrd from GameSpot labelled Zack a " likable and complex hero , " arguing that he " transcends the usual spiky @-@ haired heroism and teenage angst with an uncommon maturity that develops as the game continues . " GameSpy 's Gerald Villoria described Zack as " King of the Nice Guys , " noting that even though he can be a " pretty hate @-@ worthy character if you 're the jaded type who mocks the typical Final Fantasy storyline , " players who dislike him could come to appreciate him . Zack was also called an " endearing main character " by Game Revolution who stated that despite what the character goes through during the game , he still retains his friendly attitude . Like other reviewers , RPGamer viewed him to have the " full , soulful carriage of a Final Fantasy hero " due to his personal conflicts , despite his " artfully teased hair and devil @-@ may @-@ care grin . " Although Eurogamer 's Simon Parkin found Zack 's physical appearance to be highly similar to Cloud 's , he added that " this fan service doesn 't put a foot wrong until he reaches into his [ Zack 's ] pocket , pulls out a mobile phone and speaks . " He also praised Zack 's English voice actor for doing a good job , noting " his character 's maturing and developing over the 15 @-@ hour storyline . " IGN AU 's Patrick Kolan agreed , calling Rick Gomez 's work as " pretty likeable . " GamesRadar 's AJ Glasser commented that the way Zack obtains the Buster Sword and the way he gives it to Cloud is the " ultimate payoff " of Crisis Core , stating that the fact gamers know how the game will end is a serious detraction . When Ayaka finished the song " Why " for Crisis Core , she mentioned that she wanted to deliver it alongside Zack 's fate " to the hearts of many people . " IGN UK 's Dave McCarthy noted how Zack 's role in the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII evolved as the series developed , to the point of him getting his own game .
On the other hand , PSXextreme 's Ben Dutka , felt that Zack was not worthy of his own game , believing that only players with " halfway decent memories " and a " hardcore completionist mentality " will be able to remember Zack 's appearances in the original Final Fantasy VII . IGN UK expressed a mixed opinion about the character , feeling his personality was sometimes annoying , although it served to contrast with the serious attitudes of the other main characters . Similarly , VideoGamer.com 's Wesley Yin @-@ Poole called Zack Cloud 's " identical twin in all but hair colour , " and complained about his personality being " annoying " during the first half of the game . Destructoid agreed , telling players not to expect to enjoy Zack if they do not like " cocky teenagers , " and even labelling him an " annoying cockhole . " Gameplanet criticized Rick Gomez ' acting , finding it more immature than they expected . PALGN called Zack an unfamiliar character in the series since his only appearances were in backstories .
= Mercury ( planet ) =
Mercury is the smallest and innermost planet in the Solar System . Its orbital period ( about 88 Earth days ) is less than any other planet in the Solar System . Seen from Earth , it appears to move around its orbit in about 116 days . It has no known natural satellites . It is named after the Roman deity Mercury , the messenger to the gods .
Partly because it has almost no atmosphere to retain heat , Mercury 's surface temperature varies diurnally more than any other planet in the Solar System , ranging from 100 K ( − 173 ° C ; − 280 ° F ) at night to 700 K ( 427 ° C ; 800 ° F ) during the day in some equatorial regions . The poles are constantly below 180 K ( − 93 ° C ; − 136 ° F ) . Mercury 's axis has the smallest tilt of any of the Solar System 's planets ( about 1 ⁄ 30 of a degree ) , and its orbital eccentricity is the largest of all known planets in the Solar System . At aphelion , Mercury is about 1 @.@ 5 times as far from the Sun as it is at perihelion . Mercury 's surface is heavily cratered and similar in appearance to the Moon , indicating that it has been geologically inactive for billions of years .
Mercury is tidally or gravitationally locked with the Sun in a 3 : 2 resonance , and rotates in a way that is unique in the Solar System . As seen relative to the fixed stars , it rotates on its axis exactly three times for every two revolutions it makes around the Sun . As seen from the Sun , in a frame of reference that rotates with the orbital motion , it appears to rotate only once every two Mercurian years . An observer on Mercury would therefore see only one day every two years .
Because Mercury orbits the Sun within Earth 's orbit ( as does Venus ) , it can appear in Earth 's sky in the morning or the evening , but not in the middle of the night . Also , like Venus and the Moon , it displays a complete range of phases as it moves around its orbit relative to Earth . Although Mercury can appear as a bright object when viewed from Earth , its proximity to the Sun makes it more difficult to see than Venus . Two spacecraft have visited Mercury : Mariner 10 flew by in the 1970s ; and MESSENGER , launched in 2004 , orbited Mercury over 4 @,@ 000 times in four years , before exhausting its fuel and crashing into the planet 's surface on April 30 , 2015 .
= = Physical characteristics = =
= = = Internal structure = = =
Mercury is one of four terrestrial planets in the Solar System , and is a rocky body like Earth . It is the smallest planet in the Solar System , with an equatorial radius of 2 @,@ 439 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 516 @.@ 0 mi ) . Mercury is also smaller — albeit more massive — than the largest natural satellites in the Solar System , Ganymede and Titan . Mercury consists of approximately 70 % metallic and 30 % silicate material . Mercury 's density is the second highest in the Solar System at 5 @.@ 427 g / cm3 , only slightly less than Earth 's density of 5 @.@ 515 g / cm3 . If the effect of gravitational compression were to be factored out , the materials of which Mercury is made would be denser , with an uncompressed density of 5 @.@ 3 g / cm3 versus Earth 's 4 @.@ 4 g / cm3 .
Mercury 's density can be used to infer details of its inner structure . Although Earth 's high density results appreciably from gravitational compression , particularly at the core , Mercury is much smaller and its inner regions are not as compressed . Therefore , for it to have such a high density , its core must be large and rich in iron .
Geologists estimate that Mercury 's core occupies about 42 % of its volume ; for Earth this proportion is 17 % . Research published in 2007 suggests that Mercury has a molten core . Surrounding the core is a 500 – 700 km mantle consisting of silicates . Based on data from the Mariner 10 mission and Earth @-@ based observation , Mercury 's crust is estimated to be 100 – 300 km thick . One distinctive feature of Mercury 's surface is the presence of numerous narrow ridges , extending up to several hundred kilometers in length . It is thought that these were formed as Mercury 's core and mantle cooled and contracted at a time when the crust had already solidified .
Mercury 's core has a higher iron content than that of any other major planet in the Solar System , and several theories have been proposed to explain this . The most widely accepted theory is that Mercury originally had a metal – silicate ratio similar to common chondrite meteorites , thought to be typical of the Solar System 's rocky matter , and a mass approximately 2 @.@ 25 times its current mass . Early in the Solar System 's history , Mercury may have been struck by a planetesimal of approximately 1 / 6 that mass and several thousand kilometers across . The impact would have stripped away much of the original crust and mantle , leaving the core behind as a relatively major component . A similar process , known as the giant impact hypothesis , has been proposed to explain the formation of the Moon .
Alternatively , Mercury may have formed from the solar nebula before the Sun 's energy output had stabilized . It would initially have had twice its present mass , but as the protosun contracted , temperatures near Mercury could have been between 2 @,@ 500 and 3 @,@ 500 K and possibly even as high as 10 @,@ 000 K. Much of Mercury 's surface rock could have been vaporized at such temperatures , forming an atmosphere of " rock vapor " that could have been carried away by the solar wind .
A third hypothesis proposes that the solar nebula caused drag on the particles from which Mercury was accreting , which meant that lighter particles were lost from the accreting material and not gathered by Mercury . Each hypothesis predicts a different surface composition , and two space missions , MESSENGER and BepiColombo , will make observations to test them . MESSENGER has found higher @-@ than @-@ expected potassium and sulfur levels on the surface , suggesting that the giant impact hypothesis and vaporization of the crust and mantle did not occur because potassium and sulfur would have been driven off by the extreme heat of these events . The findings would seem to favor the third hypothesis ; however , further analysis of the data is needed .
= = = Surface geology = = =
Mercury 's surface is similar in appearance to that of the Moon , showing extensive mare @-@ like plains and heavy cratering , indicating that it has been geologically inactive for billions of years . Because knowledge of Mercury 's geology has been based only on the 1975 Mariner 10 flyby and terrestrial observations , it is the least understood of the terrestrial planets . As data from MESSENGER orbiter are processed , this knowledge will increase . For example , an unusual crater with radiating troughs has been discovered that scientists called " the spider " . It was later named Apollodorus .
Albedo features are areas of markedly different reflectivity , as seen by telescopic observation . Mercury has dorsa ( also called " wrinkle @-@ ridges " ) , Moon @-@ like highlands , montes ( mountains ) , planitiae ( plains ) , rupes ( escarpments ) , and valles ( valleys ) .
Names for features on Mercury come from a variety of sources . Names coming from people are limited to the deceased . Craters are named for artists , musicians , painters , and authors who have made outstanding or fundamental contributions to their field . Ridges , or dorsa , are named for scientists who have contributed to the study of Mercury . Depressions or fossae are named for works of architecture . Montes are named for the word " hot " in a variety of languages . Plains or planitiae are named for Mercury in various languages . Escarpments or rupēs are named for ships of scientific expeditions . Valleys or valles are named for radio telescope facilities .
Mercury was heavily bombarded by comets and asteroids during and shortly following its formation 4 @.@ 6 billion years ago , as well as during a possibly separate subsequent episode called the Late Heavy Bombardment that ended 3 @.@ 8 billion years ago . During this period of intense crater formation , Mercury received impacts over its entire surface , facilitated by the lack of any atmosphere to slow impactors down . During this time Mercury was volcanically active ; basins such as the Caloris Basin were filled by magma , producing smooth plains similar to the maria found on the Moon .
Data from the October 2008 flyby of MESSENGER gave researchers a greater appreciation for the jumbled nature of Mercury 's surface . Mercury 's surface is more heterogeneous than either Mars 's or the Moon 's , both of which contain significant stretches of similar geology , such as maria and plateaus .
= = = = Impact basins and craters = = = =
Craters on Mercury range in diameter from small bowl @-@ shaped cavities to multi @-@ ringed impact basins hundreds of kilometers across . They appear in all states of degradation , from relatively fresh rayed craters to highly degraded crater remnants . Mercurian craters differ subtly from lunar craters in that the area blanketed by their ejecta is much smaller , a consequence of Mercury 's stronger surface gravity . According to IAU rules , each new crater must be named after an artist that was famous for more than fifty years , and dead for more than three years , before the date the crater is named .
The largest known crater is Caloris Basin , with a diameter of 1 @,@ 550 km . The impact that created the Caloris Basin was so powerful that it caused lava eruptions and left a concentric ring over 2 km tall surrounding the impact crater . At the antipode of the Caloris Basin is a large region of unusual , hilly terrain known as the " Weird Terrain " . One hypothesis for its origin is that shock waves generated during the Caloris impact traveled around Mercury , converging at the basin 's antipode ( 180 degrees away ) . The resulting high stresses fractured the surface . Alternatively , it has been suggested that this terrain formed as a result of the convergence of ejecta at this basin 's antipode .
Overall , about 15 impact basins have been identified on the imaged part of Mercury . A notable basin is the 400 km wide , multi @-@ ring Tolstoj Basin that has an ejecta blanket extending up to 500 km from its rim and a floor that has been filled by smooth plains materials . Beethoven Basin has a similar @-@ sized ejecta blanket and a 625 km diameter rim . Like the Moon , the surface of Mercury has likely incurred the effects of space weathering processes , including Solar wind and micrometeorite impacts .
= = = = Plains = = = =
There are two geologically distinct plains regions on Mercury . Gently rolling , hilly plains in the regions between craters are Mercury 's oldest visible surfaces , predating the heavily cratered terrain . These inter @-@ crater plains appear to have obliterated many earlier craters , and show a general paucity of smaller craters below about 30 km in diameter .
Smooth plains are widespread flat areas that fill depressions of various sizes and bear a strong resemblance to the lunar maria . Notably , they fill a wide ring surrounding the Caloris Basin . Unlike lunar maria , the smooth plains of Mercury have the same albedo as the older inter @-@ crater plains . Despite a lack of unequivocally volcanic characteristics , the localisation and rounded , lobate shape of these plains strongly support volcanic origins . All the smooth plains of Mercury formed significantly later than the Caloris basin , as evidenced by appreciably smaller crater densities than on the Caloris ejecta blanket . The floor of the Caloris Basin is filled by a geologically distinct flat plain , broken up by ridges and fractures in a roughly polygonal pattern . It is not clear whether they are volcanic lavas induced by the impact , or a large sheet of impact melt .
One unusual feature of Mercury 's surface is the numerous compression folds , or rupes , that crisscross the plains . As Mercury 's interior cooled , it may have contracted and its surface began to deform , creating these features . The folds can be seen on top of other features , such as craters and smoother plains , indicating that the folds are more recent . Mercury 's surface is flexed by significant tidal bulges raised by the Sun — the Sun 's tides on Mercury are about 17 times stronger than the Moon 's on Earth .
= = = = Volcanology = = = =
Images obtained by MESSENGER have revealed evidence for pyroclastic flows on Mercury from low @-@ profile shield volcanoes . MESSENGER data has helped identify 51 pyroclastic deposits on the surface , where 90 % of them are found within impact craters . A study of the degradation state of the impact craters that host pyroclastic deposits suggests that pyroclastic activity occurred on Mercury over a prolonged interval .
A ' rimless depression ' inside the southwest rim of the Caloris Basin consists of at least nine overlapping volcanic vents , each individually up to 8 km in diameter . It is thus a ' compound volcano ' . The vent floors are at a least 1 km below their brinks and they bear a closer resemblance to volcanic craters sculpted by explosive eruptions or modified by collapse into void spaces created by magma withdrawal back down into a conduit . The scientists could not quantify the age of the volcanic complex system , but reported that it could be of the order of a billion years .
= = = Surface conditions and exosphere = = =
The surface temperature of Mercury ranges from 100 K to 700 K at the most extreme places : 0 ° N , 0 ° W , or 180 ° W. It never rises above 180 K at the poles , due to the absence of an atmosphere and a steep temperature gradient between the equator and the poles . The subsolar point reaches about 700 K during perihelion ( 0 ° W or 180 ° W ) , but only 550 K at aphelion ( 90 ° or 270 ° W ) . On the dark side of the planet , temperatures average 110 K. The intensity of sunlight on Mercury 's surface ranges between 4 @.@ 59 and 10 @.@ 61 times the solar constant ( 1 @,@ 370 W · m − 2 ) .
Although the daylight temperature at the surface of Mercury is generally extremely high , observations strongly suggest that ice ( frozen water ) exists on Mercury . The floors of deep craters at the poles are never exposed to direct sunlight , and temperatures there remain below 102 K ; far lower than the global average . Water ice strongly reflects radar , and observations by the 70 @-@ meter Goldstone Solar System Radar and the VLA in the early 1990s revealed that there are patches of high radar reflection near the poles . Although ice was not the only possible cause of these reflective regions , astronomers think it was the most likely .
The icy regions are estimated to contain about 1014 – 1015 kg of ice , and may be covered by a layer of regolith that inhibits sublimation . By comparison , the Antarctic ice sheet on Earth has a mass of about 4 × 1018 kg , and Mars 's south polar cap contains about 1016 kg of water . The origin of the ice on Mercury is not yet known , but the two most likely sources are from outgassing of water from the planet 's interior or deposition by impacts of comets .
Mercury is too small and hot for its gravity to retain any significant atmosphere over long periods of time ; it does have a tenuous surface @-@ bounded exosphere containing hydrogen , helium , oxygen , sodium , calcium , potassium and others at a surface pressure of less than approximately 0 @.@ 005 picobar . This exosphere is not stable — atoms are continuously lost and replenished from a variety of sources . Hydrogen atoms and helium atoms probably come from the solar wind , diffusing into Mercury 's magnetosphere before later escaping back into space . Radioactive decay of elements within Mercury 's crust is another source of helium , as well as sodium and potassium . MESSENGER found high proportions of calcium , helium , hydroxide , magnesium , oxygen , potassium , silicon and sodium . Water vapor is present , released by a combination of processes such as : comets striking its surface , sputtering creating water out of hydrogen from the solar wind and oxygen from rock , and sublimation from reservoirs of water ice in the permanently shadowed polar craters . The detection of high amounts of water @-@ related ions like O + , OH − , and H2O + was a surprise . Because of the quantities of these ions that were detected in Mercury 's space environment , scientists surmise that these molecules were blasted from the surface or exosphere by the solar wind .
Sodium , potassium and calcium were discovered in the atmosphere during the 1980 – 1990s , and are thought to result primarily from the vaporization of surface rock struck by micrometeorite impacts including presently from Comet Encke . In 2008 , magnesium was discovered by MESSENGER . Studies indicate that , at times , sodium emissions are localized at points that correspond to the planet 's magnetic poles . This would indicate an interaction between the magnetosphere and the planet 's surface .
On November 29 , 2012 , NASA confirmed that images from MESSENGER had detected that craters at the north pole contained water ice . MESSENGER 's principal investigator Sean Solomon is quoted in the New York Times estimating the volume of the ice to be large enough to " encase Washington , D.C. , in a frozen block two and a half miles deep " .
= = = Magnetic field and magnetosphere = = =
Despite its small size and slow 59 @-@ day @-@ long rotation , Mercury has a significant , and apparently global , magnetic field . According to measurements taken by Mariner 10 , it is about 1 @.@ 1 % the strength of Earth 's . The magnetic @-@ field strength at Mercury 's equator is about 300 nT . Like that of Earth , Mercury 's magnetic field is dipolar . Unlike Earth , Mercury 's poles are nearly aligned with the planet 's spin axis . Measurements from both the Mariner 10 and MESSENGER space probes have indicated that the strength and shape of the magnetic field are stable .
It is likely that this magnetic field is generated by a dynamo effect , in a manner similar to the magnetic field of Earth . This dynamo effect would result from the circulation of the planet 's iron @-@ rich liquid core . Particularly strong tidal effects caused by the planet 's high orbital eccentricity would serve to keep the core in the liquid state necessary for this dynamo effect .
Mercury 's magnetic field is strong enough to deflect the solar wind around the planet , creating a magnetosphere . The planet 's magnetosphere , though small enough to fit within Earth , is strong enough to trap solar wind plasma . This contributes to the space weathering of the planet 's surface . Observations taken by the Mariner 10 spacecraft detected this low energy plasma in the magnetosphere of the planet 's nightside . Bursts of energetic particles in the planet 's magnetotail indicate a dynamic quality to the planet 's magnetosphere .
During its second flyby of the planet on October 6 , 2008 , MESSENGER discovered that Mercury 's magnetic field can be extremely " leaky " . The spacecraft encountered magnetic " tornadoes " – twisted bundles of magnetic fields connecting the planetary magnetic field to interplanetary space – that were up to 800 km wide or a third of the radius of the planet . These twisted magnetic flux tubes , technically known as flux transfer events , form open windows in the planet 's magnetic shield through which the solar wind may enter and directly impact Mercury 's surface .
The process of linking interplanetary and planetary magnetic fields , called magnetic reconnection , is common throughout the cosmos . It occurs in Earth 's magnetic field , where it generates magnetic tornadoes as well . The MESSENGER observations show the reconnection rate is ten times higher at Mercury . Mercury 's proximity to the Sun only accounts for about a third of the reconnection rate observed by MESSENGER .
= = Orbit , rotation , and longitude = =
Mercury has the most eccentric orbit of all the planets ; its eccentricity is 0 @.@ 21 with its distance from the Sun ranging from 46 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to 70 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ( 29 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to 43 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 mi ) . It takes 87 @.@ 969 Earth days to complete an orbit . The diagram on the right illustrates the effects of the eccentricity , showing Mercury 's orbit overlaid with a circular orbit having the same semi @-@ major axis . Mercury 's higher velocity when it is near perihelion is clear from the greater distance it covers in each 5 @-@ day interval . In the diagram the varying distance of Mercury to the Sun is represented by the size of the planet , which is inversely proportional to Mercury 's distance from the Sun . This varying distance to the Sun , combined with a 3 : 2 spin – orbit resonance of the planet 's rotation around its axis , result in complex variations of the surface temperature . This resonance makes a single solar day on Mercury last exactly two Mercury years , or about 176 Earth days .
Mercury 's orbit is inclined by 7 degrees to the plane of Earth 's orbit ( the ecliptic ) , as shown in the diagram on the right . As a result , transits of Mercury across the face of the Sun can only occur when the planet is crossing the plane of the ecliptic at the time it lies between Earth and the Sun . This occurs about every seven years on average .
Mercury 's axial tilt is almost zero , with the best measured value as low as 0 @.@ 027 degrees . This is significantly smaller than that of Jupiter , which has the second smallest axial tilt of all planets at 3 @.@ 1 degrees . This means that to an observer at Mercury 's poles , the center of the Sun never rises more than 2 @.@ 1 arcminutes above the horizon .
At certain points on Mercury 's surface , an observer would be able to see the Sun rise about halfway , then reverse and set before rising again , all within the same Mercurian day . This is because approximately four Earth days before perihelion , Mercury 's angular orbital velocity equals its angular rotational velocity so that the Sun 's apparent motion ceases ; closer to perihelion , Mercury 's angular orbital velocity then exceeds the angular rotational velocity . Thus , to a hypothetical observer on Mercury , the Sun appears to move in a retrograde direction . Four Earth days after perihelion , the Sun 's normal apparent motion resumes .
For the same reason , there are two points on Mercury 's equator , 180 degrees apart in longitude , at either of which , around perihelion in alternate Mercurian years ( once a Mercurian day ) , the Sun passes overhead , then reverses its apparent motion and passes overhead again , then reverses a second time and passes overhead a third time , taking a total of about 16 Earth @-@ days for this entire process . In the other alternate Mercurian years , the same thing happens at the other of these two points . The amplitude of the retrograde motion is small , so the overall effect is that , for two or three weeks , the Sun is almost stationary overhead , and is at its most brilliant because Mercury is at perihelion , its closest to the Sun . This prolonged exposure to the Sun at its brightest makes these two points the hottest places on Mercury . Conversely , there are two other points on the equator , 90 degrees of longitude apart from the first ones , where the Sun passes overhead only when the planet is at aphelion in alternate years , when the apparent motion of the Sun in Mercury 's sky is relatively rapid . These points , which are the ones on the equator where the apparent retrograde motion of the Sun happens when it is crossing the horizon as described in the preceding paragraph , receive much less solar heat than the first ones described above .
Mercury attains inferior conjunction ( nearest approach to Earth ) every 116 Earth days on average , but this interval can range from 105 days to 129 days due to the planet 's eccentric orbit . Mercury can come as near as 82 @.@ 2 gigametres ( 0 @.@ 549 astronomical units ; 51 @.@ 1 million miles ) to Earth , and that is slowly declining : The next approach to within 82 @.@ 1 Gm ( 51 @.@ 0 million miles ) is in 2679 , and to within 82 @.@ 0 Gm ( 51 @.@ 0 million miles ) in 4487 , but it will not be closer to Earth than 80 Gm ( 50 million miles ) until AD 28 @,@ 622 . Its period of retrograde motion as seen from Earth can vary from 8 to 15 days on either side of inferior conjunction . This large range arises from the planet 's high orbital eccentricity .
= = = Longitude convention = = =
The longitude convention for Mercury puts the zero of longitude at one of the two hottest points on the surface , as described above . However , when this area was first visited , by Mariner 10 , this zero meridian was in darkness , so it was impossible to select a feature on the surface to define the exact position of the meridian . Therefore , a small crater further west was chosen , called Hun Kal , which provides the exact reference point for measuring longitude . The center of Hun Kal defines the 20 ° West meridian . A 1970 International Astronomical Union resolution suggests that longitudes be measured positively in the westerly direction on Mercury . The two hottest places on the equator are therefore at longitudes 0 ° W and 180 ° W , and the coolest points on the equator are at longitudes 90 ° W and 270 ° W. However , the MESSENGER project uses an east @-@ positive convention .
= = = Spin – orbit resonance = = =
For many years it was thought that Mercury was synchronously tidally locked with the Sun , rotating once for each orbit and always keeping the same face directed towards the Sun , in the same way that the same side of the Moon always faces Earth . Radar observations in 1965 proved that the planet has a 3 : 2 spin – orbit resonance , rotating three times for every two revolutions around the Sun ; the eccentricity of Mercury 's orbit makes this resonance stable — at perihelion , when the solar tide is strongest , the Sun is nearly still in Mercury 's sky .
The original reason astronomers thought it was synchronously locked was that , whenever Mercury was best placed for observation , it was always nearly at the same point in its 3 : 2 resonance , hence showing the same face . This is because , coincidentally , Mercury 's rotation period is almost exactly half of its synodic period with respect to Earth . Due to Mercury 's 3 : 2 spin – orbit resonance , a solar day ( the length between two meridian transits of the Sun ) lasts about 176 Earth days . A sidereal day ( the period of rotation ) lasts about 58 @.@ 7 Earth days .
Simulations indicate that the orbital eccentricity of Mercury varies chaotically from nearly zero ( circular ) to more than 0 @.@ 45 over millions of years due to perturbations from the other planets . This was thought to explain Mercury 's 3 : 2 spin – orbit resonance ( rather than the more usual 1 : 1 ) , because this state is more likely to arise during a period of high eccentricity . However , accurate modeling based on a realistic model of tidal response has demonstrated that Mercury was captured into the 3 : 2 spin – orbit state at a very early stage of its history , within 20 ( more likely , 10 ) million years after its formation .
Numerical simulations show that a future secular orbital resonant perihelion interaction with Jupiter may cause the eccentricity of Mercury 's orbit to increase to the point where there is a 1 % chance that the planet may collide with Venus within the next five billion years .
= = = Advance of perihelion = = =
In 1859 , the French mathematician and astronomer Urbain Le Verrier reported that the slow precession of Mercury 's orbit around the Sun could not be completely explained by Newtonian mechanics and perturbations by the known planets . He suggested , among possible explanations , that another planet ( or perhaps instead a series of smaller ' corpuscules ' ) might exist in an orbit even closer to the Sun than that of Mercury , to account for this perturbation . ( Other explanations considered included a slight oblateness of the Sun . ) The success of the search for Neptune based on its perturbations of the orbit of Uranus led astronomers to place faith in this possible explanation , and the hypothetical planet was named Vulcan , but no such planet was ever found .
The perihelion precession of Mercury is 5 @,@ 600 arcseconds ( 1 @.@ 5556 ° ) per century relative to Earth , or 574 @.@ 10 ± 0 @.@ 65 arcseconds per century relative to the inertial ICRF . Newtonian mechanics , taking into account all the effects from the other planets , predicts a precession of 5 @,@ 557 arcseconds ( 1 @.@ 5436 ° ) per century . In the early 20th century , Albert Einstein 's general theory of relativity provided the explanation for the observed precession . The effect is small : just 42 @.@ 98 arcseconds per century for Mercury ; it therefore requires a little over twelve million orbits for a full excess turn . Similar , but much smaller , effects exist for other Solar System bodies : 8 @.@ 62 arcseconds per century for Venus , 3 @.@ 84 for Earth , 1 @.@ 35 for Mars , and 10 @.@ 05 for 1566 Icarus .
Albert Einstein 's formula for the perihelion shift is <formula> ,
where e is the orbital eccentricity , a the semi @-@ major axis , and T the orbital period .
= = Observation = =
Mercury 's apparent magnitude varies between − 2 @.@ 6 ( brighter than the brightest star Sirius ) and about + 5 @.@ 7 ( approximating the theoretical limit of naked @-@ eye visibility ) . The extremes occur when Mercury is close to the Sun in the sky . Observation of Mercury is complicated by its proximity to the Sun , as it is lost in the Sun 's glare for much of the time . Mercury can be observed for only a brief period during either morning or evening twilight .
Mercury can , like several other planets and the brightest stars , be seen during a total solar eclipse .
Like the Moon and Venus , Mercury exhibits phases as seen from Earth . It is " new " at inferior conjunction and " full " at superior conjunction . The planet is rendered invisible from Earth on both of these occasions because of its being obscured by the Sun 's disk .
Mercury is technically brightest as seen from Earth when it is at a full phase . Although Mercury is farthest from Earth when it is full , the greater illuminated area that is visible and the opposition brightness surge more than compensates for the distance . The opposite is true for Venus , which appears brightest when it is a crescent , because it is much closer to Earth than when gibbous .
Nonetheless , the brightest ( full phase ) appearance of Mercury is an essentially impossible time for practical observation , because of the extreme proximity of the Sun . Mercury is best observed at the first and last quarter , although they are phases of lesser brightness . The first and last quarter phases occur at greatest elongation east and west , respectively . At both of these times Mercury 's separation from the Sun ranges anywhere from 17 @.@ 9 ° at perihelion to 27 @.@ 8 ° at aphelion . At greatest elongation west , Mercury rises at its earliest before the Sun , and at greatest elongation east , it sets at its latest after the Sun .
At tropical and subtropical latitudes , Mercury is more easily seen than at higher latitudes . In low latitudes and at the right times of year , the ecliptic intersects the horizon at a steep angle . When Mercury is vertically above the Sun in the sky and is at maximum elongation from the Sun ( 28 degrees ) , and when the Sun is 18 degrees below the horizon , so the sky is just completely dark , Mercury is 10 degrees above the horizon . This is the greatest angle of elevation at which Mercury can be seen in a completely dark sky .
At temperate latitudes , Mercury is more often easily visible from Earth 's Southern Hemisphere than from its Northern Hemisphere . This is because Mercury 's maximum possible elongations west of the Sun always occur when it is early autumn in the Southern Hemisphere , whereas its maximum possible eastern elongations happen during late winter in the Southern Hemisphere . In both of these cases , the angle Mercury strikes with the ecliptic is maximized , allowing it to rise several hours before the Sun in the former instance and not set until several hours after sundown in the latter in countries located at southern temperate zone latitudes , such as Argentina and South Africa .
An alternate method for viewing Mercury involves observing the planet during daylight hours when conditions are clear , ideally when it is at its point of greatest elongation . This allows the planet to be found easily , even when using telescopes with 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) apertures . Care must be taken to ensure the instrument isn 't pointed directly towards the Sun because of the risk for eye damage . This method bypasses the limitation of twilight observing when the ecliptic is located at a low elevation ( e.g. on autumn evenings ) .
Ground @-@ based telescope observations of Mercury reveal only an illuminated partial disk with limited detail . The first of two spacecraft to visit the planet was Mariner 10 , which mapped about 45 % of its surface from 1974 to 1975 . The second is the MESSENGER spacecraft , which after three Mercury flybys between 2008 and 2009 , attained orbit around Mercury on March 17 , 2011 , to study and map the rest of the planet .
The Hubble Space Telescope cannot observe Mercury at all , due to safety procedures that prevent its pointing too close to the Sun .
Because the shift of 0 @.@ 15 revolutions in a year makes up a seven @-@ year cycle ( 0 @.@ 15 × 7 ≈ 1 @.@ 0 ) , in the seventh year Mercury follows almost exactly ( earlier by 7 days ) the sequence of phenomena it showed seven years before .
= = Observation history = =
= = = Ancient astronomers = = =
The earliest known recorded observations of Mercury are from the Mul.Apin tablets . These observations were most likely made by an Assyrian astronomer around the 14th century BC . The cuneiform name used to designate Mercury on the Mul.Apin tablets is transcribed as Udu.Idim.Gu \ u4.Ud ( " the jumping planet " ) . Babylonian records of Mercury date back to the 1st millennium BC . The Babylonians called the planet Nabu after the messenger to the gods in their mythology .
The ancient Greeks knew the planet as Στίλβων ( Stilbon ) , meaning " the gleaming " , Ἑρμάων ( Hermaon ) and Ἑρμής ( Hermes ) , a planetary | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
works included in Nyanyi Sunyi were written after those included in Buah Rindu , despite the latter being published last . Johns writes that the poems in the collections appear to be arranged in chronological order ; he points to the various degrees of maturity Amir showed as his writing developed .
Jassin writes that Amir maintained a Malay identity throughout his works , despite attending schools run by Europeans . Unlike the works of his contemporaries Alisjahbana or Sanusi Pane , his poems did not include symbols of a Europeanised modernity such as electricity , trains , telephones , and engines , allowing " the natural Malay world to show wholly " . Ultimately , when reading Amir 's poems " in our imagination we do not see a man in pants , a jacket , and tie , but a youth in traditional Malay garb " . Mihardja notes that Amir wrote his works at a time when all of their classmates , and many poets elsewhere , were " pouring their hearts or thoughts " in Dutch , or , if " able to free themselves from the shackles of Dutch " , in a local language .
Amir 's work often dealt with love ( both erotic and idealised ) , with religious influences showing in many of his poems . Mysticism is important in many of his works , and his poetry often reflects a deep inner conflict . In at least one of his short stories , he criticised the traditional view of nobility and " subverts the traditional representation of female characters " . There are several thematic differences between his two original poetry collections , discussed further below .
= = = Nyanyi Sunyi = = =
Nyanyi Sunyi , Amir 's first poetry collection , was published in the November 1937 issue of Poedjangga Baroe , then as a stand @-@ alone book by Poestaka Rakjat in 1938 . It consists of twenty @-@ four titled pieces and an untitled quatrain , including Hamzah 's best @-@ known poem , " Padamu Jua " . Jassin classifies eight of these works as lyrical prose , with the remaining thirteen as regular poems . Although it is his first published collection , based on the well @-@ developed nature of the poems within , general consensus is that the works in Buah Rindu were written earlier . The poet Laurens Koster Bohang considers the poems included in Nyanyi Sunyi as having been written between 1933 and 1937 , while Teeuw dates the poems to 1936 and 1937 .
Readings of Nyanyi Sunyi have tended to focus on religious undertones . According to Balfas , religion and God are omnipresent throughout the collection , beginning with its first poem " Padamu Jua " . In it , Jassin writes , Amir shows a feeling of dissatisfaction over his own lack of power and protests God 's absoluteness , but seems aware of his own smallness before God , acting as a puppet for God 's will . Teeuw summarises that Amir recognises that he would not exist if God did not . Jassin finds that the theme of religion is meant as an escape from the poet 's worldly sorrows . Johns , however , suggests that ultimately Amir finds little solace in God , as he " did not possess the transcendent faith which can make a great sacrifice , and resolutely accept the consequences " ; instead , he seems to regret his choice to go to Sumatra and then revolts against God .
= = = Buah Rindu = = =
Amir 's second poetry collection , Buah Rindu , was published in the June 1941 issue of Poedjangga Baroe , then as a stand @-@ alone book by Poestaka Rakjat later that year . It consists of twenty @-@ five titled pieces and an untitled quatrain ; one , " Buah Rindu " , consists of four parts , while another , " Bonda " , consists of two . At least eleven of the works had previously been published , either in Timboel or in Pandji Poestaka . This collection though published after Nyanyi Sunyi , is generally considered to have been written earlier . The poems in Buah Rindu date to the period between 1928 and 1935 , Amir 's first years in Java ; the collection gives the two years , as well the location of writing as Jakarta – Solo ( Surakarta ) – Jakarta .
Teeuw writes that this collection is united by a theme of longing , which Jassin expands on : longing for his mother , longing for his lovers ( both the one in Sumatra and the one in Java ) , and longing for his homeland . All are referred to as " kekasih " ( beloved ) in turn . These longings , Teeuw writes , are unlike the religious overtones of Nyanyi Sunyi , being more worldly and grounded in reality . Jassin notes another thematic distinction between the two : unlike Nyanyi Sunyi , with its clear depiction of one god , Buah Rindu explicitly puts forth several deities , including the Hindu gods Shiva and Parvati and abstract ones like the god and goddess of love .
= = Style = =
Amir 's diction was influenced by the need for rhythm and metre , as well as symbolism related to particular terms . This careful diction emphasised simple words as the basic unit and occasional uses of alliteration and assonance . Ultimately he is freer in his language use than traditional poets : Jennifer Lindsay and Ying Ying Tan highlight his " verbal inventiveness " , injecting a " lavishness of expression , a mellifluous of sound and meaning " into his poetry . Siregar writes that the result is " a beautiful wordplay " . Teeuw writes that Amir had a complete understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of Malay , mixing eastern and western influences , whilst Johns writes that his " genius as a poet lay in his remarkable ability to resurrect the burnt @-@ out embers of Malay poetry , and to infuse into the forms and rich vocabulary of traditional Malay an unexpected and vivid freshness and life . "
The choice of words depends heavily on old Malay terms which saw little contemporary use . Amir also borrows heavily from other Indonesian languages , particularly Javanese and Sundanese ; the influences are more predominant in Nyanyi Sunyi . As such , early printings of Nyanyi Sunyi and Buah Rindu were accompanied by footnotes explaining these words . Teeuw writes that the poems included numerous clichés common in pantuns which would not be understood by foreign readers . According to the translator John M. Echols , Amir was a writer of great sensitivity who was " not a prolific writer but his prose and poetry are on a very high level , though difficult reading even for Indonesians . " Echols credits Amir with a revival of the Malay language , breathing new life into Malay literature in the 1930s .
Structurally , Amir 's early works are quite different from his later ones . The works compiled in Buah Rindu generally followed the traditional pantun and syair style of quatrains with tail rhymes , including many with rhyming couplets ; some works , however , combined the two , or had additional lines or more words than traditionally acceptable , resulting in a different rhythm . Though these early works were not as detailed as Amir 's later works , Teeuw writes that they did reflect the poet 's mastery of the language and his drive to write poems . Works in this anthology repeated terms of sadness such as menangis ( cry ) , duka ( grief ) , rindu ( longing ) , and air mata ( tears ) , as well as words such as cinta ( love ) , asmara ( passion ) , and merantau ( wander ) .
By the time Amir wrote the works later compiled in Nyanyi Sunyi , his style had shifted . No longer did he confine himself to the traditional forms , but instead he explored different possibilities : eight of his works approached lyrical prose in form . Anwar described his predecessor 's use of language in the collection as clean and pure , with " compactly violent , sharp , and yet short " sentences which departed from the " destructive force " of flowery traditional Malay poetry .
= = Awards and recognition = =
Amir has received extensive recognition from the Indonesian government , beginning with recognition from the government of North Sumatra soon after his death . In 1969 he was granted both a Satya Lencana Kebudayaan ( Satya Lencana Award for Culture ) and Piagam Anugerah Seni ( Art Prize ) . In 1975 he was declared a National Hero of Indonesia . A park named after him , Taman Amir Hamzah , is found in Jakarta near the National Monument . A mosque in Taman Ismail Marzuki , opened to the public in 1977 , is also named after him . Several streets are named after Amir , including in Medan , Mataram , and Surabaya .
Teeuw considers Amir the only international @-@ class Indonesian poet from before the Indonesian National Revolution . Anwar wrote that the poet was the " summit of the Pudjangga Baru movement " , considering Nyanyi Sunyi to have been a " bright light he [ Amir ] shone on the new language " ; however , Anwar disliked Buah Rindu , considering it too classical . Balfas describes Amir 's works as " the best literary products to surpass their time " . Hamzah 's work , particularly " Padamu Jua " , is taught in Indonesian schools . His œuvre was also one of the inspirations for Afrizal Malna 's 1992 postmodern stage play Biografi Yanti setelah 12 Menit ( Biography of Yanti After 12 Minutes ) .
Jassin has called Amir the " King of the Pudjangga Baru @-@ era Poets " , a name he used as the title of his book on the poet . In closing his book , Jassin writes :
Amir was not a leader with a loud voice driving the people , either in his poems or his prose . He was a man of emotion , a man of awe , his soul easily shaken by the beauty of nature , sadness and joy alternating freely . All his poems were imbibed with the breath of love : for nature , for home , for flowers , for a beloved . He longed unendingly , in the most dark of days , for joy , for ' life with a definite purpose ' . Not one poem of struggle , not a single call for empowerment like those which echoed from the other Poedjangga Baroe poets . But his songs of nature were an intimate permeation of a person whose love for his country was never in doubt .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= Nodar Kumaritashvili =
Nodar Kumaritashvili ( Georgian : ნოდარ ქუმარიტაშვილი ; pronounced [ nɔdar kʰumaritʼaʃvili ] ; 25 November 1988 – 12 February 2010 ) was a Georgian luger who suffered a fatal crash during a training run for the 2010 Winter Olympics competition in Whistler , Canada , on the day of the opening ceremony . He became the fourth athlete to have died during Winter Olympics preparations , after British luger Kazimierz Kay @-@ Skrzypeski , Australian skier Ross Milne ( both Innsbruck 1964 ) , and Swiss speed skier Nicolas Bochatay ( Albertville 1992 ) , and the seventh athlete to die in either a Summer or Winter Olympic Games .
Kumaritashvili , who first began to luge when he was 13 , came from a family of seasoned lugers ; a relative of his was the founder of organised sledding in Georgia , and his father competed when he was younger . A cousin of Kumaritashvili on his father 's side was the head of the Georgian Luge Federation ; Kumaritashvili himself began competing in the 2008 – 09 Luge World Cup , where he finished 55th out of 62 racers . Outside of luge , Kumaritashvili had been a student at the Georgian Technical University , where he earned an economics degree in 2009 .
= = Life and career = =
Nodar Kumaritashvili was born on November 25 , 1988 , in Borjomi , Georgian SSR , present day Georgia , to David and Dodo Kumaritashvili . He had one sister , Mariam , who is four years younger . The region Kumaritashvili grew up has many ski hills , and he enjoyed several different winter sports . Kumaritashvili started luge when he was 13 years old . While he maintained a rigorous training and competition schedule , Kumaritashvili graduated from the Georgian Technical University , where he received a bachelor 's degree in economics in 2009 . A devout member of the Georgian Orthodox Church , he prayed at a local church before leaving for the Olympics . Though his family endured economic hardship , Kumaritashvili attended as many luge events as he could , often driving for days to reach World Cup events .
Kumaritashvili 's family has had a long association with luge . His father , David , won a USSR Youth Championship when Georgia was part of the Soviet Union . His aforementioned paternal cousin , Felix Kumaritashvili , is the head of the Georgian Luge Federation . Nodar was also related to Aleko Kumaritashvili , the founder of organized sledding sports in Georgia .
During his first season of competition , Kumaritashvili finished 55th out of 62 competitors in the 2008 – 09 Luge World Cup as he entered four races . Kumaritashvili finished 28th out of 32 competitors in the 2009 – 10 Luge World Cup event at Cesana Pariol in January , which was his fifth and last World Cup event . At the time of his death , he was ranked 44th out of 65 competitors in the 2009 – 10 World Cup season and was regarded as one of the best lugers to come from Georgia .
= = Accident and death = =
By December 31 , 2009 , the cut @-@ off date for luge qualifications for the Olympics , Kumaritashvili was ranked 38th overall . As he had also raced in the minimum of five World Cup races over the previous two years , he qualified for the luge men 's singles event at the 2010 Winter Olympics , which would be his Olympic debut . On February 12 , 2010 , Kumaritashvili was fatally injured in a crash during his final training run at the Whistler Sliding Centre when he lost control in the penultimate turn of the course and was thrown off his luge and over the sidewall of the track , striking an unprotected steel support pole at the end of the run . He was travelling at 143 @.@ 6 km / h ( 89 @.@ 2 mph ) at the moment of impact . At a test event in 2009 , a luger had clocked a record 153 @.@ 937 km / h ( 95 @.@ 652 mph ) on the same track , prompting Josef Fendt , president of the International Luge Federation ( FIL ) , to comment : " It makes me worry . "
Medics were at his side within seconds of the crash . Cardio @-@ pulmonary resuscitation began within one minute , and a plastic breathing tube was inserted into his mouth . He was airlifted to a Whistler hospital , where he died of his injuries . It was luge 's first fatality since December 10 , 1975 when an Italian luger was killed . Kumaritashvili 's final run had been his 25th on the Whistler track , and his 13th from the men 's start .
= = = Georgian response = = =
There was shock and mourning in Georgia after footage of his death was televised . In response to the accident , the Georgian team announced that it would consider skipping the opening ceremonies or withdraw from the games entirely . However , Nika Rurua , the Georgian minister for sports and culture , later announced the team would stay in Vancouver and " dedicate their efforts to their fallen comrade . " The other seven members of the Georgian Olympic team wore black armbands during the opening ceremony , tied a black ribbon to the Georgian flag , and left a space vacant in the procession as a mark of respect . They were greeted with a standing ovation from the assembled crowd , and immediately left BC Place Stadium after the procession .
A moment of silence was held during the opening ceremonies to honour his memory , when both the Canadian and Olympic flags were lowered to half @-@ staff . Upon learning of Kumaritashvili 's death , the Governor General of Canada ordered flags on federal government buildings throughout the province of British Columbia , including at all Olympic venues , flown at half @-@ staff until midnight , February 13 , 2010 . Fellow teammate and luger Levan Gureshidize who was to compete with Nodar withdrew after the crash telling teammates that he " couldn 't go on " and went home to attend the funeral .
In the early morning on February 17 , 2010 , Kumaritashvili 's body arrived in Tbilisi , Georgia , via Munich , Germany . It reached his hometown of Bakuriani later that day and he was buried on Saturday , February 20 , at the church he attended . Thousands of Georgians attended a funeral feast for him the day before and Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili attended his funeral service dressed in a Georgian Olympic uniform . The street where his childhood home is located was renamed in his honour .
= = = Other responses = = =
The FIL stated that Kumaritashvili 's death " was not caused by an unsafe track " . As a preventive measure , the walls at the exit of curve 16 were raised and the ice profile was adjusted . Padding was also added to exposed metal beams near the finish line . Olympic officials claimed the changes were " not for safety reasons but to accommodate the emotional state of the lugers " . In addition , the start of the men 's luge was moved to the women 's starting point to reduce speed , while the start of the women 's luge was also moved farther down the track .
Training runs on the track resumed on February 13 , after the changes to the track had been finished . Three lugers , including Kumaritashvili 's teammate Levan Gureshidze , did not participate in any training runs on February 13 . Gureshidze decided to fly back to Georgia to mourn the loss of his teammate , and the athletes who decided to participate all wore a black stripe on their helmets in honour of Kumaritashvili .
On March 10 , 2010 , the FIL announced that it had made a € 10 @,@ 000 donation to the Kumaritashvili family in Georgia at the request of the Georgian Luge Federation in an effort to rebuild the Kumaritashvili family house .
= = = International Luge Federation report = = =
On April 19 , 2010 , the FIL published its final report to the International Olympic Committee into Kumaritashvili 's death . The report found that the sled used by Kumaritashvili had met all FIL criteria and standards . It attributed the accident to " driving errors starting in curve 15 / 16 which as an accumulation ended in the impact that resulted in him leaving the track and subsequently hitting a post ... This is a tragic result that should not have occurred as a result of an initial driving error " . As the sled hit the wall at the curve 16 exit , it catapulted off the track , causing Kumaritashvili to lose control of it entirely . This was a type of accident not seen before , and therefore " [ w ] ith the unknown and unpredictable dynamics of this crash , the calculation and construction of the walls in that section of the track did not serve to prevent the tragedy that happened " . However , the report also determined that during the homologation process and later sessions of the Whistler Sliding Centre , the track was faster than originally calculated . While calculations called for a top speed around 136 km / h ( 85 mph ) , the highest speed recorded was 153 @.@ 98 km / h ( 95 @.@ 68 mph ) . The FIL felt that luge athletes were able to cope with this speed , but " this was not a direction the FIL would like to see the sport head " , and that President Fendt had written to the Sochi 2014 Organizing Committee that the FIL would homologize the proposed Sochi track only if speeds did not exceed 130 to 135 km / h ( 81 to 84 mph ) . The FIL also said it was " determined " to do what it could to prevent such accidents occurring . It would re @-@ examine changes to the sport , sled design and track technology . FIL Secretary General Svein Romstad summarized : " What happened to Nodar has been an unforeseeable fatal accident " .
= = = Coroner 's report = = =
The British Columbia coroner 's office investigated the incident . It was reported to be considering , among other pieces of evidence , written complaints about the safety of the Whistler track by Venezuelan luger Werner Hoeger who crashed on the track on November 13 , 2009 , and suffered severe concussion , and information suggesting that the track was constructed in its present location near the Whistler and Blackcomb mountains for commercial reasons despite the site being too narrow and steep . The track designer , Udo Gurgel , said : " The track had to be near Whistler , for use after the Olympics . You don 't want to ruin an investment so the track is on terrain that 's a little steep . " According to John Furlong , the chief executive of the 2010 Winter Olympics organizing committee , proposals to build the sliding centre on Grouse Mountain near Vancouver were rejected early in the bid phase due to reservations expressed by international bobsleigh , luge and skeleton federations .
In a report dated September 16 , 2010 , the coroner ruled Kumaritashvili 's death an accident brought on by a " convergence of several factors " , including the high speed of the track , its technical difficulty and the athlete 's relative unfamiliarity with the track . He wrote that during Kumaritashvili 's training runs , it was reasonable to assume that " Mr. Kumaritashvili was sliding faster than ever before in his life , and was attempting to go even faster , while simultaneously struggling to learn the intricacies of the track and the dynamics it created " . The coroner accepted that luging would always carry an element of risk and that best practices known at the time had been followed in the construction of the Whistler track . However , he called upon the International Luge Federation to require athletes to engage in more mandatory training sessions prior to the Olympic Games and other major competitions . Responding to the report , Kumaritashvili 's father said : " I don 't accept the statement about Nodar 's lack of experience . He wouldn 't have won the right to take part in the Olympics if he lacked experience . "
In 2013 , Mont Hubbard , a University of California , Davis mechanical and aerospace professor , issued a report claiming that Kumaritashvili 's crash was probably caused by a " fillet " , a joint between the lower edge of the curve and a vertical wall . Hubbard suggested that the right runner of Kumaritashvili 's sled rose up the fillet , launching him into the air . Terry Gudzowsky , the president of ISC / IBG Group , a consortium involved in the construction of the Whistler track , dismissed Hubbard 's theory as " flawed " , stating that the data to replicate the ice surface at the site of the accident in three dimensions do not exist . The luge track built for use at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi , Russia , was designed with two uphill sections to reduce speeds , and runs about 10 miles per hour ( 16 km / h ) slower than the Whistler track .
= Joe Borden =
Joseph Emley Borden , aka Joe Josephs , ( May 9 , 1854 – October 14 , 1929 ) , nicknamed " Josephus the Phenomenal " , was a starting pitcher in professional baseball for two seasons . Born in Jacobstown in North Hanover Township , New Jersey , he was playing for a Philadelphia amateur team when he was discovered by the Philadelphia White Stockings of the National Association ( NA ) in 1875 . The White Stockings needed a replacement for a recently released pitcher , and were awaiting the arrival of a replacement . During his short , seven @-@ game stint with the team , he posted a 2 – 4 win – loss record , both victories recorded as shutouts . On July 28 of that season , he threw the first no @-@ hitter in professional baseball history .
When the NA folded after the 1875 season , Borden signed a three @-@ year contract with the Boston Red Caps . On April 22 , 1876 , Borden and the Red Caps were victorious in the first National League ( NL ) game ever played . Later that season , on May 23 , he pitched a shutout , which some historians claim was the first no @-@ hitter in Major League Baseball . Known for having an eccentric personality , he played under different surnames , such as Josephs and Nedrob , so as to disguise his involvement in baseball ; his prominent family would have disapproved had they known . After he was released from the Red Caps as a player during the first season of his contract , he worked for a short period of time as their groundskeeper until he and the owner agreed to a buyout of the remainder of his contract . Little is known about his post @-@ baseball life , and it has been claimed that he died as early as 1889 , in the Johnstown Flood , but his official death date is recognized as occurring in 1929 when he was 75 years of age .
= = Career = =
Joseph Emley Borden was born on May 9 , 1854 in Jacobstown in North Hanover Township , New Jersey into a wealthy family . It is claimed that his family would have been embarrassed that their son was playing baseball for money , and would have disapproved . To hide his playing career , he assumed several various last names , such as Josephs and Nedrob , which is Borden spelled backwards .
= = = 1875 season = = =
The Philadelphia White Stockings , of the NA , had recently dismissed pitcher Cherokee Fisher in July 1875 due to his clashing with team captain , Mike McGeary , and were in need of a replacement . The White Stockings signed George Zettlein , but there was a delay in his arrival . The team then signed Borden , who was a local Philadelphia amateur player , as a replacement until Zettlein arrived . His first appearance in a game for the White Stockings was on July 24 , an 11 – 4 loss to the Dick McBride and the Philadelphia Athletics .
In his next start , on July 28 against the Chicago White Stockings , he pitched the first recorded no @-@ hitter in professional baseball history . Borden lost the next three games he started before defeating the St. Louis Brown Stockings , and future Hall of Fame pitcher Pud Galvin , 16 – 0 on August 9 . By this time , Zettlein had settled in as their regular pitcher , and Borden was no longer needed . During his time with the White Stockings , he pitched in seven games , all of which he started and completed . He finished the season with a 2 – 4 win – loss record , two shutouts , a 1 @.@ 50 earned run average in 66 innings pitched .
= = = 1876 season = = =
After the 1875 season concluded , the league , and subsequently the Philadelphia White Stockings , folded , allowing the NL to form , becoming the first " Major " league . Before the season , Borden signed a three @-@ year contract worth $ 2000 a season ( $ 44 @,@ 440 current dollar adjustment ) with the Boston Red Caps of the NL . The club had high expectations that he could adequately replace Albert Spalding who had recently departed for the Chicago White Stockings . Sportswriters were in agreement with the club and dubbed him " Josephus the Phenomenal " . Hall of Fame baseball writer Henry Chadwick described Borden 's pitching style as having speed , but with little strategy . In addition to his swiftly moving fastball , he also delivered a curveball that moved down and away from right @-@ handed batters ; both pitches he delivered from a low arm angle . His Red Caps played the Philadelphia Athletics in the first game in NL history on April 22 ; the only game of the day due to rain cancelling the rest of the league 's schedule . The Red Caps defeated the Athletics with two runs in the ninth inning , and a final score of 6 – 5 at Athletic Park , with Borden pitching the complete game for the victory .
On May 23 , Borden pitched a two @-@ hit 8 – 0 shutout victory against the Cincinnati Reds . Various historians claim that this performance was , instead , the first no @-@ hitter thrown in the NL , thus the first in major league history . According to Lee Allen , baseball historian and writer , the scorecard shows that Borden gave up two bases on balls , which were counted as hits in the final score . The official scorekeeper for the game was O. P. Caylor , a writer for The Cincinnati Enquirer , who believed , unlike his contemporaries , that bases on balls should be scored as hits . Bases on balls were only officially counted as hits for the 1887 season . The Boston Daily Globe reported on the game the following day , and noted that Reds had had two clean one @-@ base hits during the game . Furthermore , on June 6 , the New York Clipper did not report an occurrence of a no @-@ hitter in their summary of the game , though the box score did have differing stats in other categories than what the Daily Globe had reported . Consequently , the first official no @-@ hitter in Major League history was pitched by George Bradley , of the St. Louis Brown Stockings on July 15 , 1876 .
Two days after his near no @-@ hitter , on May 25 , Borden and the Red Caps faced the Reds again ; this time against Cherokee Fisher , resulting in a scoreless game through nine innings . The Red Caps scored four runs in tenth inning for a 4 – 0 victory . Unfortunately for Borden , his pitching effectiveness declined rapidly after this , and at one point he reportedly lost his temper during a game in response to his own ineffectiveness , admonishing his teammates , even the well @-@ liked and good @-@ natured future Hall of famer George Wright . Due to his erratic pitching and behavior , he was released from the team by August . In 29 games pitched during the 1876 season , he started 24 , completed 16 and recorded two shutouts . Additionally , he had an 11 – 12 win – loss record , a 2 @.@ 89 earned run average in 218 ⅓ innings pitched , and led the league in allowing 51 bases on balls .
= = Post @-@ baseball career = =
Though the Red Caps had released him as a player , he was still under contract , so they had him work in various other capacities , such as a ticket @-@ taker and groundskeeper . Eventually , team owner Nicholas Apollonio agreed to pay Borden approximately three @-@ quarters of the two remaining years of his contract , and released him from the team . Borden reportedly found work stitching baseballs in Philadelphia . Little is known of Borden 's life after baseball , and it has been alleged that he died in May 1889 during the Johnstown Flood , the same disaster that had stranded the entire Louisville Colonels team . Official records show that he died in Yeadon , Pennsylvania at the age of 75 , and is interred at Oaklands Cemetery in West Chester , Pennsylvania .
= SMS Hansa ( 1898 ) =
SMS Hansa was a protected cruiser of the Victoria Louise class , built for the German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) in the 1890s , along with her sister ships Victoria Louise , Hertha , Vineta , and Freya . Hansa was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1896 , launched in March 1898 , and commissioned into the Navy in April 1899 . The ship was armed with a battery of two 21 cm guns and eight 15 cm guns and had a top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) .
Hansa served abroad in the German East Asia Squadron for the first six years of her career . She contributed a landing party to the force that captured the Taku Forts during the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 . In August 1904 , she participated in the internment of the Russian battleship Tsesarevich after the Battle of the Yellow Sea during the Russo @-@ Japanese War . After returning to Germany in 1906 , she was modernized and used as a training ship in 1909 , following the completion of the refit . At the outbreak of World War I , Hansa was mobilized into the 5th Scouting Group , but served in front @-@ line duty only briefly . She was used as a barracks ship after 1915 , and ultimately sold for scrapping in 1920 .
= = Design = =
Hansa was ordered under the contract name " N " and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1896 . She was launched on 12 March 1898 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the German navy on 20 April 1899 . The ship was 110 @.@ 6 meters ( 363 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 17 @.@ 4 m ( 57 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 58 m ( 21 @.@ 6 ft ) forward . She displaced 6 @,@ 491 t ( 6 @,@ 388 long tons ; 7 @,@ 155 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of three vertical 4 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines powered by twelve coal @-@ fired Dürr boilers . Her engines provided a top speed of 19 kn ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) and a range of approximately 3 @,@ 412 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 319 km ; 3 @,@ 926 mi ) at 12 kn ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 31 officers and 446 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with two 21 cm SK L / 40 guns in single turrets , one forward and one aft . The guns were supplied with 58 rounds of ammunition each . They had a range of 16 @,@ 300 m ( 53 @,@ 500 ft ) . Hansa also carried eight 15 cm SK L / 40 guns . Four were mounted in turrets amidships and the other four were placed in casemates . These guns had a range of 13 @,@ 700 m ( 44 @,@ 900 ft ) . She also carried ten 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 35 guns . The gun armament was rounded out by machine guns . She was also equipped with three 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes , two launchers were mounted on the broadside and the third was in the bow , all below the waterline .
= = Service history = =
Following her commissioning in 1899 , Hansa was deployed to Germany 's overseas possessions . Hansa 's first commander on the China station was Hugo von Pohl , who went on to command the High Seas Fleet during World War I. As part of the East Asia Squadron during the Boxer Rebellion , the ship made a noteworthy contribution in the Battle of the Taku Forts . In June 1900 , Hansa , along with Hertha , Gefion , and Irene landed detachments of Seebataillone ( marines ) to seize the Taku Forts . The marines joined detachments sent from warships of several other countries . A total of around 450 German troops were contributed to the multi @-@ national force , which totaled around 2 @,@ 200 officers and men .
On 11 July 1903 , the ship steamed into the British naval base at Weihaiwei , along with the Chinese cruiser Hai Chi . Hansa left the port two days later . On 16 January 1904 , Hansa visited Mirs Bay outside of Hong Kong and departed after two days in the harbor . In February , the Russo @-@ Japanese War broke out ; Hansa was sent from Che Foo for Port Arthur , which was under attack by Japanese forces . Hansa evacuated the German civilians in the port . In early March , she was again in Hong Kong , and was joined there by the flagship of the East Asia Squadron , Fürst Bismarck on the 8th . In August , the badly damaged Russian battleship Tsesarevich and three destroyers sought refuge in the German naval base at Tsingtao following the Russian defeat in the Battle of the Yellow Sea . As Germany was neutral , the East Asia Squadron interned Tsesarevich and the destroyers . On 13 August , the Russian ships restocked their coal supplies from three British steamers , but Hansa and Fürst Bismarck cleared for action to prevent them from leaving the port . The two cruisers were joined by Hertha , Geier , and the gunboats Luchs and Tiger .
Hansa returned to Germany in 1906 . The following year , she went to dry dock at the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig for a refit , during which she was re @-@ boilered . Hertha originally had three stacks , and during the modernization they were trunked into two funnels . The refit was finished by 1909 , at which point Hansa became a cadet training ship . From 1911 to 1912 , Günther Lütjens served aboard Hansa as commander of the naval cadets that trained on the ship . Lütjens went on to command the task force composed of Bismarck and Prinz Eugen in World War II . In early January , Hansa cruised into the Atlantic and visited Bermuda .
Hansa had a short career during World War I. At the outbreak of hostilities , she was briefly mobilized into the 5th Scouting Group , which was tasked with training cadets in the Baltic Sea . By the end of 1914 , however , the ships were again removed from service . She was then put into service as a coastal defense ship . After 1915 , she was withdrawn from front @-@ line duty again and employed as a barracks ship for the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel . She was stricken from the naval register on 6 December 1919 and sold to ship @-@ breakers in Audorf @-@ Rendsburg . She was scrapped the following year .
= Bob Timberlake ( American football ) =
Robert W. " Bob " Timberlake ( born October 18 , 1943 ) is a former football player who played college football for the University of Michigan Wolverines from 1962 to 1964 and for the New York Giants of the National Football League ( NFL ) in 1965 .
Timberlake was the starting quarterback for Michigan who led the Wolverines to the 1964 Big Ten Conference championship and a 34 – 7 victory over Oregon State Beavers in the 1965 Rose Bowl . Timberlake was selected as a first @-@ team All @-@ American in 1964 , received the Chicago Tribune Silver Football trophy as the Most Valuable Player in the Big Ten , and finished fourth in the 1964 Heisman Trophy voting . Over his three years at Michigan , Timberlake rushed for 315 yards and passed for 1 @,@ 507 yards . He was responsible for 19 touchdowns , eleven rushing and eight passing . He also served as the team 's punter and placekicker with six field goals , 36 extra points , and a total of 121 points scored .
After a brief career in professional football , Timberlake became an ordained Presbyterian minister . Even during his football career , Timberlake was outspoken about his Christian faith . He has also been active in Habitat for Humanity . Since 2003 , he has been on the faculty of Marquette University where he teaches courses in community service and affordable housing .
= = College football = =
Timberlake was born in Middletown , Ohio , but he was raised in Franklin , Ohio and played football for the Franklin Wildcats . He was originally recruited as a halfback and played more than any other Michigan player at halfback in 1962 . However , he was later switched to the quarterback position and had his greatest success there .
= = = 1964 regular season = = =
In 1964 , Timberlake led the Wolverines football team to their first Big Ten Conference championship since 1950 , breaking the longest championship drought in school history . Playing quarterback , Timberlake 's total offense of 1 @,@ 381 yards ( 807 passing and 574 rushing ) was the second highest in Michigan history at that time . The 1964 Wolverines outscored their opponents 235 – 83 , finished the regular season 8 – 1 , and narrowly missed an undefeated season with a 21 – 20 loss to a Purdue Boilermakers team led by sophomore Bob Griese . By virtue of turnovers , Purdue led 21 – 14 with five minutes remaining . Timberlake ran an option play to the left side and went 54 yards for a touchdown . Rather than kick the extra point for the tie , Timberlake carried again on the option play to the right , but was tackled one foot short of the goal line , and two points short of an undefeated season . When Michigan and Ohio State met in Columbus , Ohio on November 21 , 1964 , both teams were in the Top 10 in the national rankings . Michigan had not beaten Ohio State since 1959 . Michigan won 10 – 0 , as Ohio native Timberlake was responsible for all ten points , including a 17 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Jim Detwiler and a fourth @-@ quarter , 27 @-@ yard field goal to clinch the game .
= = = 1965 Rose Bowl = = =
The Wolverines ( ranked No. 4 ) advanced to the Rose Bowl where they defeated Tommy Prothro 's Oregon State Beavers , 34 – 7 , on New Year 's Day . Prior to the Rose Bowl , much of the attention was focused on Michigan 's veteran quarterback . The Pasadena Star @-@ News wrote that Timberlake was " the key " to Michigan 's attack : " He does everything — run , pass , kick field goals , soup up the team … Timberlake has had that strength . The Wolverines listen to him and they believe in him . At 6 – 4 and weighing 215 pounds , Timberlake is a Lincoln to look up to . " Mel Anthony scored three touchdowns for Michigan , and Timberlake and the Wolverines gained 415 yards in the game . Timberlake was 7 @-@ for @-@ 10 passing for 77 yards , and added 57 yards rushing , including a 24 @-@ yard touchdown run in the fourth quarter .
= = = Post @-@ season honors = = =
At the end of the 1964 season , Timberlake was awarded the Chicago Tribune Silver Football as the Most Valuable Player in the Big Ten Conference . He placed fourth in the Heisman Trophy voting ( losing to Notre Dame 's John Huarte ) , and was also named to multiple All @-@ American teams . After attending an All @-@ American dinner at New York 's Waldorf Astoria Hotel , Timberlake reported , " There is a great deal of loneliness in being an All @-@ America . . . . I get sick of it . They all want to shake your hand , but they don 't really know you . All they do is stick out the glad hand . I don 't mind talking to anyone who is interested in ideas , but nothing makes me sicker than having my name dropped by people who don 't know anything about me except that I 'm an All @-@ America . " He joked that he might write an autobiography called , " The Loneliness of an All @-@ America . " He was also an A @-@ minus student majoring in sociology , was named a scholar @-@ athlete by National Football Association , and was placed on the Big Ten All @-@ Academic team two years in a row .
= = Religion in Timberlake 's life = =
Timberlake was outspoken during his time in the limelight about the importance of his Christian faith . Timberlake taught Sunday school in Ann Arbor while attending the University of Michigan and said he intended to become a Presbyterian minister . At a speech in Mansfield , Ohio , shortly after winning the Rose Bowl in January 1965 , Timberlake said , " I couldn 't have played football if it hadn 't been for Jesus Christ . " He continued , " God changed my life . He promises the abundant life , which he has given me , and eternal life , which if I die I 'm sure I will have . There 's peace associated with being a Christian . "
Timberlake also spoke openly of his personal conversion as he walked in a parking lot while on a night watchman 's job at a Chevrolet plant in Warren , Michigan . Timberlake defined a Christian as " one who has Christ as his personal savior , " and not just a person who was brought up in a Christian home or goes to church .
When he signed a professional football contract with the New York Giants , Timberlake stated that he intended to take ministerial training at Princeton Theological Seminary during the off @-@ season . He noted , " I don 't really want to play professional football , because there is no privacy and no time to be alone when you 're a famous athlete . " He emphasized that , if he were ever forced to choose between professional football or studying for the ministry , he would give up football : " I see no reason why I can 't do both , but if I have to give up pro ball , I 'll certainly do it . " Timberlake said the thing he would always remember about playing football was the 20 minutes before kickoff . He recalled that those 20 minutes were " horrible . " " You want to go home . You want to quit football . It is times like these when something happens to me . I can 't explain it . I put my face in my hands and ask God to come into my heart and give me courage . He gives me peace . "
When a boy asked Timberlake for his autograph at the Giants ' rookie camp in 1965 , Timberlake signed his name but also wrote citations to two Bible verses : John 3 : 16 and 1 Peter 1 : 5 – 9 . The boy asked , " What 's that ? " Timberlake explained they were Bible verses , and he told reporters he started doing it about six months earlier , hoping the kids would look up the verses . In 1965 , such public religious expressions were not common among athletes , and columnists made note of the fact that Timberlake " packs a Bible in his suitcase and keeps one in his locker . "
While playing for the Giants in October 1965 , he told an interviewer : " I 'm playing football to convey Christianity either indirectly or directly and to give me access to you people . The eye of American is upon the sports ' field , so I can reach more people playing football . I guess you can say my goal is to spread a Christian message . " At that time , he was attending Princeton Theological Seminary once a week and planned to attend full @-@ time after the football season . Asked if the violent nature of football was inconsistent with his Christian beliefs , Timberlake noted that " you don 't need to hurt anyone to get by " in football and that the game involved skill , timing and execution more than violence . He then joked , " There 's nothing really wrong with good , clean violence . "
= = Professional football = =
The New York Giants drafted Timberlake in the third round of the 1965 NFL Draft . He signed a two @-@ year contract with the Giants for an estimated $ 85 @,@ 000 ( $ 12 @,@ 500 per year base plus $ 60 @,@ 000 in bonuses and fringe benefits ) . Timberlake turned down offers from the Buffalo Bills in the American Football League and the Winnipeg Blue Bombers in the Canadian Football League because he had an opportunity to compete for a starting job with the Giants . Future Pro Football Hall of Famer Y.A. Tittle ’ s tenure with the Giants was over , and Timberlake was expected to compete in a new system that would emphasize rushing quarterbacks .
Timberlake did not get the quarterback spot with the Giants and was assigned as kickoff specialist ; he was also used as a kicker on long field goals for the 1965 NFL season . In a nationally televised game on October 3 , 1965 , at Pittsburgh , Timberlake hit a 43 @-@ yard field goal in a 23 – 13 win . Timberlake ’ s kick against the Pittsburgh Steelers was the last field goal by any Giants kicker that season .
Early in an October 24 game against the Cleveland Browns , the Giants ' main placekicker twisted an ankle . Timberlake took over as the team ’ s full @-@ time kicker until the season ’ s final week . Timberlake went 0 @-@ for @-@ 14 in field goal attempts for the rest of the season , and three of his shorter attempts were blocked . Though he went 1 @-@ for @-@ 15 in field goal attempts , Timberlake converted all but one of his extra points . After his one miss , he said : " I ’ m the guy who put the suspense back in the extra point . "
In the 1966 pre @-@ season , Timberlake was third on the Giants ' depth chart at quarterback . In the September 1966 issue of the Sporting News , Timberlake lamented : " I ’ m not doing anything . For four days the other week , I didn ’ t throw a single pass . Not a single pass . " After just one season , the Giants cut Timberlake from the team on August 29 , 1966 , at their camp in Fairfield , Connecticut .
In an article concluding that Timberlake may have been the worst placekicker in NFL history , the writer concluded : " Timberlake ’ s 1 @-@ for @-@ 15 performance makes him look like a laughingstock . He ’ s better remembered as one of Michigan ’ s great quarterbacks , a Rose Bowl hero who might have had what it took to be a fine pro quarterback or running back . It ’ s a shame he was asked to do what he couldn ’ t . " Sports blog Deadspin ranked Timberlake the 2nd @-@ worst player to ever play in the NFL , only behind quarterback Rusty Lisch .
= = = Impact on the AFL @-@ NFL merger = = =
Because of Timberlake 's poor performance as a kicker in 1965 , the Giants signed Buffalo Bills kicker Pete Gogolak in 1966 , who was also football 's first soccer @-@ style kicker . Previously , kickers kicked the ball straight on instead of at a soccer @-@ style angle , which improved accuracy and is the standard at all levels of football today . This ended a " gentleman 's agreement " between the NFL and the AFL in not signing each other 's players , and would start a rash of signings that would eventually led to the two leagues merging .
In an NFL Films documentary featuring Timberlake , Steve Sabol called Timberlake the " father of the Super Bowl " , because his poor performance indirectly led to the two leagues merging and the Super Bowl being formed .
= = Life after football = =
Timberlake went on to become an ordained Presbyterian minister and a hospital administrator at Children 's Hospital of Wisconsin , which is located in Milwaukee , Wisconsin . In 2003 , Timberlake joined the faculty of Marquette University where he teaches courses on community service and faith , and mentors the student Habitat for Humanity chapter . In 2007 , Timberlake said he saw the community service course as " an excellent opportunity to bring along the next generation " to address problems of neighborhood blight , poverty , family disorganization , failure in school , and incarceration for African @-@ American males . He described the problems facing the poor as " a colossal , colossal waste of human life . " Timberlake has been a volunteer for several years with Milwaukee 's Habitat for Humanity chapter , and one of the courses he teaches at Marquette is called " Decent and Affordable Housing , " in which students are instructed in construction methods ( and use of power tools ) , investigate the causes of hyper @-@ segregation , study substandard housing as a social injustice issue , and spend part of the semester at a Habitat for Humanity work site helping to build a house . The course is taught through the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department , which has hired Timberlake as an adjunct professor . Timberlake , who is not an engineer by trade , has overseen the construction of eleven garages through the project . Timberlake is a proponent of gay marriage .
= Horse @-@ fly =
Horse @-@ flies or horseflies ( for other names , see common names ) are true flies in the family Tabanidae in the insect order Diptera . They are often large and agile in flight , and the females bite animals , including humans , to obtain blood . They prefer to fly in sunlight , avoiding dark and shady areas , and are inactive at night . They are found all over the world except for some islands and the polar regions .
Adult horse @-@ flies feed on nectar and plant exudates ; the males have weak mouthparts and only the females bite animals to obtain enough protein from blood to produce eggs . The mouthparts of females are formed into a stout stabbing organ with two pairs of sharp cutting blades , and a spongelike part used to lap up the blood that flows from the wound . The larvae are predaceous and grow in semiaquatic habitats .
Female horse @-@ flies can transfer blood @-@ borne diseases from one animal to another through their feeding habit . In areas where diseases occur , they have been known to carry equine infectious anaemia virus , some trypanosomes , the filarial worm Loa loa , anthrax among cattle and sheep , and tularemia . As well as making life outdoors uncomfortable for humans , they can reduce growth rates in cattle and lower the milk output of cows if suitable shelters are not provided .
Horse @-@ flies have appeared in literature since Aeschylus in Ancient Greece mentioned them driving people to madness through their persistent pursuit .
= = Common names = =
Apart from the common name " horse @-@ flies " , broad categories of biting , bloodsucking Tabanidae are known by a large number of common names . The word " Tabanus " was first recorded by Pliny the Younger and has survived as the generic name . In general , country @-@ folk did not distinguish between the various biting insects that irritated their cattle and called them all " gad @-@ flies " , from the word " gad " meaning a spike . The most common name is " cleg [ g ] " , " gleg " or " clag " , which comes from Old Norse and may have originated from the Vikings . Other names such as " stouts " refer to the wide bodies of the insects and " dun @-@ flies " to their sombre colouring . Chrysops species are known as " deer @-@ flies " , perhaps because of their abundance on moorland where deer roam , and " buffalo @-@ flies " , " moose @-@ flies " and " elephant @-@ flies " emanate from other parts of the world where these animals are found . In North America they are known as " breeze @-@ flies " , and in Australia , some are known as " March flies " , a name used in other Anglophonic countries to refer to the non @-@ bloodsucking Bibionidae .
= = Description = =
Adult tabanids are large flies with prominent compound eyes , short antennae composed of three segments , and wide bodies . In females , the eyes are widely separated but in males , they are almost touching ; they are often patterned and brightly coloured in life but appear dull in preserved specimens . The terminal segment of the antennae is pointed and is annulated , appearing to be made up of several tapering rings . There are no hairs or arista arising from the antennae . Both head and thorax are clad in short hairs but there are no bristles on the body . The membranous forewings are clear , uniformly shaded grey or brown , or patterned in some species ; they have a basal lobe ( or calypter ) that covers the modified knob @-@ like hindwings or halteres . The tips of the legs have two lobes on the sides ( pulvilli ) and a central lobe or empodium in addition to two claws that enable them to grip surfaces . Species recognition is based on details of head structures ( antennae , frons , and maxillae ) , the wing venation and the body patterning ; minute variations of surface structure cause subtle alterations of the overlying hairs which alters the appearance of the body .
Tabanid species range from medium @-@ sized to very large , robust insects . Most have a body length between 5 and 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 and 1 @.@ 0 in ) , with the largest having a wingspan of 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) . Deer flies in the genus Chrysops are up to 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) long , have yellow to black bodies and striped abdomens and have membranous wings with dark patches . Horse @-@ flies ( genus Tabanus ) are larger , up to 25 mm ( 1 in ) in length and are mostly dark brown or black , with dark eyes , often with a metallic sheen . Yellow flies ( genus Diachlorus ) are similar in shape to deer flies but have yellowish bodies and the eyes are purplish @-@ black with a green sheen . Some species in the subfamily Pangoniinae have an exceptionally long proboscis ( tubular mouthpart ) .
The larvae are long and cylindrical with small heads and twelve body segments . They have rings of tubercles ( warty outgrowths ) known as pseudopods around the segments , and also bands of short setae ( bristles ) . The posterior tip of each larva has a breathing siphon and a bulbous area known as Graber 's organ . The outlines of the adult insect 's head and wings are visible through the pupa , which has seven movable abdominal segments , all except the front one of which bears a band of setae . The posterior end of the pupa bears a group of spine @-@ like tubercles .
Some species , such as deer flies and the Australian March flies , are known for being extremely noisy during flight , though clegs , for example , fly quietly and bite with little warning . Tabanids are agile fliers ; Hybomitra have been observed to perform aerial manoeuvres similar to those performed by fighter jets , such as the Immelmann turn .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Horse @-@ flies are found worldwide , except for the polar regions , but they are absent from some islands such as Greenland , Iceland , and Hawaii . The genera Tabanus , Chrysops , and Haematopota all occur in temperate , subtropical and tropical locations , but Haematopota are absent from Australia and South America . Horse @-@ flies mostly occur in warm areas with suitable moist locations for breeding , but also occupy a wide range of habitats from deserts to Alpine meadows . They are found from sea level to at least 3 @,@ 300 metres ( 10 @,@ 800 ft ) .
= = Evolution and taxonomy = =
The first record of a tabanid comes from the Late Jurassic of China , and specimens from the Cretaceous have been found in England , Spain , and possibly South Africa . In the New World , the first discoveries date from the Miocene of Florissant , Colorado . These insects are recognisable as tabanids both from their mouthparts and their wing venation . Although the bloodsucking habit is associated with a long proboscis , a fossil insect that has elongated mouthparts is not necessarily a bloodsucker , as it may instead have fed on nectar . The ancestral tabanids may have co @-@ evolved with the angiosperm plants on which they fed . With a necessity for high @-@ protein food for egg production , the diet of early Tabanomorphs was probably predatory , and from this the bloodsucking habit may have evolved . In the Santana Formation in Brazil , no mammals have been found , so the fossil tabanids found there likely fed on reptiles . Cold bloodsucking probably preceded warm bloodsucking , but some dinosaurs are postulated to have been warm @-@ blooded and may have been early hosts for the horse @-@ flies .
The Tabanidae are true flies and members of the insect order Diptera . With the families Athericidae , Pelecorhynchidae and Oreoleptidae , Tabanidae are classified in the superfamily Tabanoidea . Along with Rhagionoidea , this superfamily makes up the infraorder Tabanomorpha . Tabanoid families seem to be united by the presence of a venom canal in the mandible of the larvae . Worldwide , about 4 @,@ 455 species of Tabanidae have been described , over 1 @,@ 300 of them in the genus Tabanus .
Tabanid identification is based mostly on adult morphological characters of the head , wing venation , and sometimes the last abdominal segment . The genitalia are very simple and do not provide clear species differentiation as in many other insect groups . In the past , most taxonomic treatments considered the family to be composed of three subfamilies : Pangoniinae ( tribes Pangoniini , Philolichini , Scionini ) , Chrysopsinae ( tribes Bouvieromyiini , Chrysopsini , Rhinomyzini ) , and Tabaninae ( tribes Diachlorini , Haematopotini , Tabanini ) . Some treatments increased this to five subfamilies , adding the subfamily Adersiinae , with the single genus Adersia , and the subfamily Scepcidinae , with the two genera Braunsiomyia and Scepsis .
A 2015 study by Morita et al. using nucleotide data , aimed to clarify the phylogeny of Tabanidae and supports there being three subfamilies . The subfamilies Pangoniinae and Tabaninae were shown to be monophyletic . The tribes Philolichini , Chrysopsini , Rhinomyzini and Haematopotini were found to be monophyletic , with Scionini also being monophyletic apart from the difficult @-@ to @-@ place genus Goniops . Adersia was recovered within Pangoniini as were the genera previously placed in Scepcidinae , and Mycteromyia and Goniops were recovered within Chrysopsini .
Subfamily Chrysopsinae ( deer flies or banded horse @-@ flies )
Subfamily Pangoniinae ( long @-@ tongued horse @-@ flies )
Subfamily Tabaninae ( horse @-@ flies )
The Tabaninae lack ocelli ( simple eyes ) and have no spurs on the tips of their hind tibiae . In the Pangoniinae , ocelli are present and the antennal flagellum ( whip @-@ like structure ) usually has eight annuli ( or rings ) . In the Chrysopsinae , the antennal flagellum has a basal plate and the flagellum has four annuli . Females have a shining callus on the frons ( front of the head between the eyes ) . The Adersiinae have a divided tergite on the ninth abdominal segment , and the Scepsidinae have highly reduced mouthparts . Members of the family Pelecorhynchidae were initially included in the Tabanidae and moved into the Rhagionidae before being elevated into a separate family . The infraorder Tabanomorpha share the blood @-@ feeding habit as a common primitive character , although this is restricted to the female .
Two well @-@ known genera are the common horse @-@ flies , Tabanus , named by Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 , and the deer flies , Chrysops , named by the German entomologist Johann Wilhelm Meigen in 1802 . Meigen did pioneering research on flies and was the author of Die Fliegen ( Flies ) ; he gave the name Haematopota , blood @-@ drinker , to another common genus of horse @-@ flies .
= = Biology = =
= = = Diet and biting behavior = = =
Adult horse @-@ flies feed on nectar and plant exudates , and some are important pollinators of certain specialised flowers ; several South African and Asian species in the Pangoniinae have spectacularly long proboscises adapted for the extraction of nectar from flowers with long , narrow corolla tubes , such as Lapeirousia , and certain Pelargonium .
Both males and females engage in nectar feeding , but in addition to this , females of most species are anautogenous , meaning they require a blood meal before they are able to reproduce effectively . To obtain the blood , the females bite animals , including humans , while the males are harmless . It takes the female about six days to fully digest its blood meal and after that it needs to find another host . It seems that the flies are attracted to a potential victim by its movement , warmth , and surface texture , and by the carbon dioxide it breathes out . The flies mainly choose large mammals such as cattle , horses , camels , and deer , but few are species specific . They have also been observed feeding on smaller mammals , birds , lizards and turtles , and even on animals that have recently died . Because their bite is irritating to the victim , they are often brushed off , and may have to visit multiple hosts to obtain sufficient blood . This behaviour means that they may carry disease @-@ causing organisms from one host to another .
The mouthparts of females are of the usual Dipteran form and consist of a bundle of six chitinous stylets that , together with a fold of the flesh labium , form the proboscis . On either side of these are two maxillary palps . When the insect lands on an animal it grips the surface with its clawed feet , the labium is retracted , the head is thrust downwards and the stylets slice into the flesh . Some of these have sawing edges and muscles can move them from side @-@ to @-@ side to enlarge the wound . Saliva containing anticoagulant is injected into the wound to prevent clotting . The blood that flows from the wound is lapped up by another mouthpart which functions as a sponge . Horsefly bites can be painful for a day or more ; fly saliva may provoke allergic reactions such as hives and difficulty with breathing . Tabanid bites can make life outdoors unpleasant for humans , and can reduce milk output in cattle . They are attracted by reflections from water which are polarized , making them a particular nuisance near swimming pools . Since tabanids prefer to be in sunshine , they normally avoid shaded places such as barns , and are inactive at night .
Attack patterns vary with species : clegs fly silently and prefers to bite humans on the wrist or bare leg ; large species of Tabanus buzz loudly , fly low , and bite ankles , legs or backs of knees ; Chrysops fly somewhat higher , bite the back of the neck , and have a high buzzing note . It has been suggested that the striped hides of zebras have evolved to reduce their attractiveness to horse @-@ flies and tsetse flies than either plain dark or plain white hides . The closer together the stripes , the fewer flies are visually attracted ; the zebra 's legs have particularly fine striping , and this is the shaded part of the body that is most likely to be bitten in other , unstriped equids . This does not preclude the possible use of stripes for other purposes such as signaling or camouflage .
= = = Predators and parasites = = =
The eggs of horse @-@ flies are often attacked by tiny parasitic wasps , and the larvae are consumed by birds as well as being parasitised by tachinid flies , fungi and nematodes . Adult horse @-@ flies are eaten by generalized predators such as birds , and some specialist predators , such as the horse guard wasp ( a bembicinid wasp ) , also preferentially attack horse @-@ flies , catching them to provision their nests .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Mating often occurs in swarms , generally at landmarks such as hilltops . The season and time of day , and type of landmark , used for mating swarms is specific to particular species .
Eggs are laid on stones or vegetation near water , in clusters of up to one thousand , especially on emergent water plants . The eggs are white at first but darken with age . They hatch after about six days , the emerging larvae using a special hatching spike to open the egg case . The larvae fall into the water or onto the moist ground below . Chrysops species develop in particularly wet locations while Tabanus species prefer drier places . The larvae are legless grubs , tapering at both ends . They have small heads and eleven or twelve segments and moult six to thirteen times over the course of up to a year or more . In temperate species , the larvae have a quiescent period during winter ( diapause ) while tropical species breed several times a year . In the majority of species they are white , but in some , they are greenish or brownish , and they often have dark bands on each segment . A respiratory siphon at the hind end allows the larvae to obtain air when submerged in water . Larvae of nearly all species are carnivorous , often cannibalistic in captivity , and consume worms , insect larvae , and arthropods . The larvae may be parasitized by nematodes , flies of the families Bombyliidae and Tachinidae ; and Hymenoptera in the family Pteromalidae . When fully developed , the larvae move into drier soil near the surface of the ground to pupate .
The pupae are brown and glossy , rounded at the head end and tapering at the other end . Wing and limb buds can be seen | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
day Angela Street , designated as " town plot " . This plot was the only part of the island which had a grid @-@ like pattern of streets : five running southwest to northeast , including the path of Caroline Street , at least a dozen oriented from southeast to northwest , and Front Street , which borders the extreme northwestern coast of the island . Therefore , Caroline was cleared by 1829 at the latest , making it among the oldest streets in either the city or the island of Key West . When it received its name , however , is unclear .
Currently , Caroline never reaches water at either ends . The 1829 map , however , shows it accessing the Gulf of Mexico at both termini . Whereas the road now starts at Whitehead , it once continued past both Whitehead and Front to the shore . This is confirmed by a map of the island from the early 1900s , which depicts Caroline abutting a breakwater at its southwestern end . Eventually , the street was excluded from the lot of the Truman Annex , and disconnected from the water at its northeastern terminus by the construction of the former City Electric Power Plant on new land .
Since 1996 , the upper Caroline Street corridor and Key West Bight have been part of ongoing improvement efforts spearheaded by the City of Key West and funded by a special property tax system . At the beginning of the project , the area , once dominated by commercial fishing , had been falling into disarray as its practical future became uncertain . The dynamics of the project changed throughout its course ; in early 2011 , the city approved spending for specific updates to infrastructure along the corridor , including improved lighting and signs , a more extensive sidewalk system , and versatility with regard to bicycle and pedestrian traffic . As recently as February 2012 , additional requests for improvements were lodged with $ 720 @,@ 000 available for the project .
= = In Popular Culture = =
Caroline Street is mentioned in Jimmy Buffett 's song " Woman Goin ' Crazy on Caroline Street " from his 1976 album Havana Daydreamin ' .
= Łódź insurrection ( 1905 ) =
The Łódź insurrection , also known as the June Days , was an uprising by Polish workers in Łódź against the Russian Empire between 21 – 25 June 1905 . This event was one of the largest disturbances in the Russian @-@ controlled Congress Poland during the Russian Revolution of 1905 . Poland was a major center of revolutionary fighting in the Russian Empire in 1905 – 1907 , and the Łódź insurrection was a key incident in those events .
For months , workers in Łódź had been in a state of unrest , with several major strikes having taken place , which were forcibly suppressed by the Russian police and military . The insurrection began spontaneously , without backing from any organized group . Polish revolutionary groups were taken by surprise and did not play a major role in the subsequent events . Around 21 – 22 June , following clashes with the authorities in the previous days , angry workers began building barricades and assaulting police and military patrols . Additional troops were called by the authorities , who also declared martial law . On 23 June , no businesses operated in the city , as the police and military stormed dozens of workers ' barricades . Eventually , by 25 June , the uprising was crushed , with estimates of several hundred dead and wounded . The uprising was reported in the international press and widely discussed by socialist and communist activists worldwide . Unrest in Łódź would continue for many months , although without protests on such a large @-@ scale as before .
= = Background = =
At the beginning of the 20th century , worsening economic conditions contributed to mounting tensions in Russia and Poland : the Russo @-@ Japanese War had damaged the economy of the Kingdom of Poland , and by late 1904 , over 100 @,@ 000 Polish workers had lost their jobs . In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , Łódź had been a major Polish industrial center , heavily urbanized and industrialized , and its large working class made it an important stronghold of the Polish socialist movement . News of the 1905 Russian revolution , together with its revolutionary spirit , spread quickly into Russian @-@ controlled Poland from Saint Petersburg , where demonstrators had been massacred on 22 January . Poland was a major center of revolutionary fighting in the Russian Empire in 1905 – 1907 , and the Łódź insurrection was a key incident in those events . Workers in Łódź had already begun striking sometime before 22 January , and by 31 January the tsarist police were reporting demonstrators carrying placards with slogans such as " Down with the autocracy ! Down with the war ! " . This was capitalized on by factions in Russia and Poland that wanted more or less radical changes . Soon over 400 @,@ 000 workers became involved in strikes in Poland .
The wing of the Polish Socialist Party ( Polska Partia Socjalistyczna , PPS ) that was loyal to Józef Piłsudski believed that Poles should show their determination to regain independence through active , violent protests against the Russians . This view was not shared by Roman Dmowski 's National Democratic Party ( ND , Polish : endecja ) nor by the PPS 's own " Left " ( or " Young " ) wing . The National Democrats favored cooperation with the Russian authorities , while the PPS Left wanted to work together with Russian revolutionaries to topple the tsardom and saw the creation of a socialist utopia as more important than Polish independence .
The Russo @-@ Japanese War had caused rising dissent throughout the Russian Empire , including its Polish provinces . On 26 January 1905 about 6 @,@ 000 workers in Łódź took part in a large strike . Next day , a general strike was declared , and the day after that , 70 @,@ 000 workers were on strike . They demanded an 8 @-@ hour work day and support for the sick . Some worker demonstrations were joined by the students , who demanded an end to the policy of Russification . Another large strike occurred during the Labor Day on 1 May . It affected close to half of the city 's industry . On 3 May , the anniversary of the Polish May Constitution , another demonstration with patriotic undertones took place . On 30 May , Łódź 's industrialists asked the Russian governor @-@ general for help .
The murder of the worker Jerzy Grabczyński by Russian Cossack cavalry at the Grohmana is mentioned as one of the sparks of the insurrection . On 18 June 1905 , Russian police opened fire on one of the many workers ' demonstrations in Łódź , killing approximately ten workers , whose funerals , attended by over 50 @,@ 000 – 70 @,@ 000 people , escalated into major demonstrations on 20 and 21 June . The funeral on 21 June was met by Cossack cavalry again ; the crowd threw stones , and the Russian cavalry returned fire , killing 25 people and wounding hundreds . Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania ( SDKPiL ) called for a general strike on 23 June .
Piłsudski 's PPS , while not planning for a major uprising then and there , had a policy of supporting the protest and harassing Russian forces . The PPS , as well as other socialist organizations , such as Jewish Bund and SDKPiL , were as surprised by the scale of the spontaneous revolt as the Russian authorities ; PPS forces in Łódź consisted of 10 regular and armed PPS members and a few dozen semi @-@ enlisted workers . A larger group sent from Warsaw under Walery Sławek never made it in time to take control or affect the uprising ; it was , in the end , an anarchic and unorganized violent protest against the Russian government .
= = Uprising = =
Tensions mounted further , and in the evening of 21 or 22 June ( sources vary ) , angry workers began building barricades and assaulting police and military patrols , killing those who did not surrender . About a hundred barricades were constructed over the course of the next few days .
Around Wschodnia street , workers opened fire on a company of soldiers and cavalry , and on Południowa street , a unit of gendarmes was surrounded . Several fires begun in the town , as workers set liquor stores on fire , and the government forces assaulted the first barricades , initially without much success . The tsarist representatives called from reinforcements , which came from Częstochowa , Warsaw , and summer training camps . Several infantry regiments entered the city . Eventually , Russian forces sent to suppress the workers numbered six infantry regiments and several cavalry regiments . Despite that , the situation was spiralling into a full blown uprising . On 23 June , all industries , workshops , shops and offices were closed , as the workers and government forces clashed .
Some of the heaviest fighting took place near the intersection of Wschodnia and Południowa ( now Rewolucji 1905 r . ) streets ( where four barricades were located ) , near the Scheibler factory in the Źródliska park and on the Rokociny road ( al . Piłsudskiego ) . The Rokociny area was manned by a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong worker militia , which eventually was forced to retreat to the Źródliska park . The insurgents had no organized agenda , and commonly fought under red standards ; common demands were the improvement of workers ' living conditions and greater rights for the Polish population . On 23 June ( or as late as 26 June – sources vary ) the Tsar signed a decree of martial law in the city .
The PPS @-@ supported worker factions found themselves facing not only Russian police and regular troops , but endecja militia . Armed clashes broke out between gunmen loyal to Piłsudski 's PPS and those loyal to Dmowski . Over the course of the " June Days " , as the Łódź uprising became known in Poland , a miniature civil war raged between Piłsudski 's PPS and Dmowski 's endeks .
The insurgents were poorly armed , and eventually were overwhelmed by the tsarist regular military . Most of the barricades fell by 24 June ; the last of the barricades ( in the Źródliska park and Wschodnia street ) were captured by Russian troops by the end of 24 June or by midday on 25 June ( sources vary ) , but unrest — including occasional shots at police or military patrols — would continue for days afterwards .
= = Aftermath = =
The uprising was ultimately crushed by the Russian authorities . Official reports indicated 151 civilian deaths ( 55 Poles , 79 Jews and 17 Germans ) and 150 wounded ; unofficial reports spoke of over 200 fatalities and between 800 and as many as 2 @,@ 000 wounded .
The Łódź uprising was neither the first nor the last disturbance in what has been described in Polish historiography as the revolution in the Kingdom of Poland ( 1905 – 1907 ) — various protests and strikes occurred in major Polish cities under Russian control throughout the year — but it would be the most dramatic one . In September 1905 , two PPS activists would assassinate Juliusz Karol Kunitzer , owner of the Heinzel & Kunitzer factory , known for his poor treatment of workers . Strikes in Łódź continued until mid @-@ 1906 , when the large Russian military presence and mass layoffs of striking workers from the factories finally pacified the city . Even afterward , Łódź was not a peaceful city ; in the years 1910 – 1914 it was the site of a radical , anarchist and socialist group Rewolucyjni Mściciele labeled as " the most extreme , terrorist group in the history of Poland " .
The uprising was reported in the international press and recognized by socialist and communist activists worldwide .
= Stevie Dickinson =
Stephanie " Stevie " Dickinson is a fictional character from EastEnders : E20 , an Internet spin @-@ off of the BBC soap opera EastEnders , played by Amanda Fairbank @-@ Hynes . Stevie is a main character in series 2 , where she is joined by her new friends Asher Levi ( Heshima Thompson ) , Sol Levi ( Tosin Cole ) and Naz Mehmet ( Emaa Hussen ) . Stevie is described as posh , naive , kind , forward , creative and a daydreamer . She has a complicated relationship with her boyfriend Olly Manthrope @-@ Hall ( Joshua McGuire ) , and throughout the series , she falls for Masood Ahmed ( Nitin Ganatra ) , has an encounter with Pippa ( Roxanne McKee ) and gets revenge on Olly .
= = Storylines = =
After making love in their flat , Stevie 's boyfriend Olly Manthrope @-@ Hall ( Joshua McGuire ) ends his relationship with Stevie and moves out . He leaves her in the middle of Albert Square with some flyers he printed so she can find a new flatmate . Asher Levi ( Heshima Thompson ) sees the flyers and helps Stevie up . She invites him back to her flat , and asks him to move in . When Asher returns later , he has his brother Sol ( Tosin Cole ) and new friend Naz Mehmet ( Emaa Hussen ) with him , and Stevie says she does not mind them staying , so they all become friends . Olly warns Stevie not to attend a party later but Naz says they should go anyway , and on the way there , Stevie meets Masood Ahmed ( Nitin Ganatra ) , but assumes he is a suicide bomber . At the party , Asher poses as Stevie 's new boyfriend to make Olly jealous . She gets drunk and badmouths Olly to a girl called Pippa ( Roxanne McKee ) but Pippa introduces Olly as her own boyfriend , so Stevie insults her , resulting in Pippa pushing Stevie . The four friends leave and Stevie meets Masood again and he offers her his coat because she is cold . Feeling humiliated by photos that have been posted on the internet from the party , Stevie worries her only chance to win Olly back has been ruined . She tells Naz she had an erotic dream about Masood and develops a crush on him . She tries to get work with Masood by flirting but is left embarrassed . She returns after being given tips from Naz , and Masood tells her they are short staffed and to come back the next day . Stevie thinks her flirting was successful so goes over the top and flashes her bra , so Naz ushers her away .
On Stevie 's birthday , Naz arranges a dinner party for Stevie . Stevie 's mother calls , asking her to carry out an errand but not mentioning her birthday . Naz sees a birthday card from when Stevie was thirteen and Stevie says it is the last card she received from her family . Naz tells her to forget her family . When Sol falls out with both Naz and Asher , Stevie tries to help resolve the problems . She and Sol go to a club where Stevie bumps into Pippa and they are more friendly . The next day , they wake up in bed together and Stevie tries to hide Pippa from her housemates . Olly bursts in saying he will have to let the flat go as he needs his deposit , but Stevie asks for one more day . Pippa writes Stevie a cheque to cover it , says she is one of the sexiest girls she has ever met , and asks her to call her , before leaving . Stevie gives Olly the deposit but he reveals he has already given notice and Stevie will have to move out the next day . Stevie visits her brother Rupert 's grave before returning to the flat and making a list of safety violations . When her landlady Roxy Mitchell ( Rita Simons ) arrives , Stevie begs to stay , and says she will contact the council about the violations , so Roxy agrees . Stevie then invites Olly over , and he hopes to rekindle their relationship . However , she ties him naked to a chair , then humiliates him by making him walk home in a dress . She tells Masood they will have tea one day and kisses him before running off . The friends then all reunite and Stevie remarks that she loves a happy ending , saying they are now a happy family .
= = Creation , development and characterisation = =
Stevie is one of four main characters from series two of EastEnders : E20 , created by its team of thirteen writers . Amanda Fairbank @-@ Hynes was cast in the role , on which she stated , " It all happened so quickly but I 'm really excited to be working on EastEnders . It 's an amazing group of people and they are great to work with . " Fairbank @-@ Hynes attended five auditions for the part , and she found out she got the part two days before filming started . She stated that she was pleased when she found out as attending that many auditions — the most she had auditioned for any part — made her want the part more . The character was still being written and changed a lot during the audition process . The character and casting were announced on 28 July 2010 . The show 's producer , Deborah Sathe , said " I am [ ... ] proud of what the writers have achieved . [ They ] have created four new faces for [ Albert ] Square and their reaction to Walford life is really exciting . "
Stevie is the privately educated daughter of rich parents , who have abandoned her to go travelling . She is said to be clueless about real life , with her profile on the official E20 website describing her as generous , creative and unlucky in love , though she has a boyfriend . Although she is described as posh , Fairbank @-@ Hynes said Stevie is not just like a posh girl in East London , but would be out of place anywhere as she is in her own world . Fairbank @-@ Hynes opined that posh characters in Walford stand out and can bring comedy to the show . Stevie is very naive and , according to Fairbank @-@ Hynes , " away with the fairies " — the most naive person anyone could meet . However , writer Emer Kenny was worried that Stevie being " away with the fairies " would make her unrealistic , but said that Fairbank @-@ Hynes made the character recognisable . Because of Stevie 's naivety and her kind nature , people see this as an invitation to take advantage of her . Stevie does not understand why people are cruel to her because she sees the good in them and wants to look after them , be around people and mother them . Fairbank @-@ Hynes commented , " Stevie 's the type of person who thinks a stranger is a friend she hasn 't met yet " . However , Stevie is very forward , which can scare people away . She is also creative , empathetic and a complete daydreamer who lacks common sense but has bursts of assertiveness and intelligence , which can surprise people . Thompson said that Stevie has a good balance as she can be ditzy but also quite smart . Fairbank @-@ Hynes identified with the character 's mad outbursts , innocence and daydreaming , and also said Stevie is quirky , lovely and eccentric . Her daydreaming can lead people to believe she is a bimbo , but she is not .
Stevie 's relationship with Olly is complicated and he treats her badly , but she ignores his flaws and holds onto any nice thing he does , however small . When he ends their relationship , Stevie is heartbroken , alone and lost , and does not fit in . She invites Asher to stay and is surprised when he brings Sol and Naz as well , but because Stevie loves to make new friends , she reacts in a way most people would not in that situation . She builds relationships with them and they grow to love her eventually . Fairbank @-@ Hynes commented : " Sol , Naz and Asher inform her about the real world and help her harden up just enough to survive in Albert Square ! " Stevie starts to see her new friends as the family she always wanted , but it proves to be difficult as they all have family issues of their own . Stevie wants to look after her new friends , which confuses them . The actress described the four friends as an unlikely gang , and said her favourite scenes were when Stevie and Sol caused a blackout across Albert Square , as the two characters did not have much interaction before then . Thompson described Stevie as a " fish out of water " , and Hussen said Stevie starts off being unappreciated , but eventually her friends see that she is important to them .
Stevie falls for Masood quite early on and it plays out through the whole series . She believes she has met the man of her dreams , but her feelings are not reciprocated because of the way she is . Fairbank @-@ Hynes said the storyline is interesting and funny . Stevie also sees Pippa as " the cold @-@ hearted ' other woman ' " who has stolen her boyfriend , but later discovers that she is " actually human too and not some evil goddess whose sole intention is to steal boyfriends ! " McKee said that Pippa 's role in the series is the drive Stevie 's story forward and help her find her identity . In an interview with Last Broadcast the actress said that over the course of the series , Stevie becomes more streetwise and a better judge of character .
= = Other appearances = =
Stevie is one of four characters who has an official profile on social networking site Twitter , where it is revealed that the character is living in Albert Square before the series starts , staying with her boyfriend Olly . Further posts show that he went out on their anniversary and she hoped to make the relationship work but he hinted that he would end it . Stevie also appears in additional video content on the official E20 website . In the first video , she performs a rap about Olly on the tube after leaving the party in episode 2 . In another , Stevie and Naz have a picnic in the park , and Naz makes a video of Stevie , hoping to make Olly jealous , but Stevie ends up with cake on her face . The four friends play a drinking game in the café in another video , and another scene features Stevie and Naz talking about kissing .
= State Route 346 ( New York – Vermont ) =
New York State Route 346 ( NY 346 ) and Vermont Route 346 ( VT 346 ) are short , adjoining state highways in the northeastern United States . Together , they extend for a combined 7 @.@ 25 miles ( 11 @.@ 67 km ) through the towns of Petersburgh in Rensselaer County , New York , and Pownal in Bennington County , Vermont . The bi @-@ state highway begins at an intersection with NY 22 in the hamlet of North Petersburgh and heads generally southeastward across the New York – Vermont state line to a junction with U.S. Route 7 ( US 7 ) in the village of Pownal . Both NY 346 and VT 346 parallel the Hoosick River .
The Vermont portion of the highway was originally designated as Vermont Route 112 by 1926 . The New York continuation was assigned NY 346 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , and VT 112 was renumbered to VT 346 in the late 1930s to match the designation on the New York side . VT 346 , the longer of the two routes at 4 @.@ 628 miles ( 7 @.@ 448 km ) in length , is currently the highest @-@ numbered state highway in Vermont .
= = Route description = =
= = = NY 346 = = =
NY 346 begins at an intersection with NY 22 southeast of the Rensselaer County State Forest in North Petersburgh , a hamlet within the town of Petersburgh . The route heads eastward out of the hamlet , crossing over the Little Hoosick River just east of North Petersburgh before following the Hoosick River eastward along the base of a valley surrounding the river . About 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) east of the hamlet , NY 346 meets County Route 95 ( CR 95 ) , the only through road that NY 346 intersects between NY 22 and the Vermont state line . Past CR 95 , NY 346 turns southeastward , paralleling both the Hoosick River and CR 96 on the other side of the river to the Vermont state line , where the highway becomes VT 346 . Unlike NY 346 , which is posted with east – west cardinal directions , VT 346 is signed as north – south .
= = = VT 346 = = =
While NY 346 follows the southern bank of the Hoosick River , VT 346 largely runs along the northern bank . The switch in positioning is made just east of the state line , where VT 346 crosses over the waterway . The route continues eastward , intersecting Indian Massacre Road , the continuation of CR 96 , and crossing a Pan Am Railways @-@ owned railroad line on its way to a junction with Lime Kiln Road , a local highway leading to the village of Pownal Center . At this point , VT 346 turns southward into the village of North Pownal . The route heads generally north – south through the community , running alongside both the Hoosick River and the Pan Am Railways line .
South of North Pownal , VT 346 heads through a more rural area of the town of Pownal , passing by farmland and open fields as it follows the river and the railroad toward the village of Pownal . Roughly 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of the community , VT 346 also begins to follow US 7 ( the Ethan Allen Highway ) , which runs parallel to VT 346 farther up the side of the river valley . US 7 descends the valley into Pownal , where both US 7 and VT 346 follow north – south routings through the small village . The two routes meet at a junction southeast of the village center , at which point VT 346 comes to an end . The average annual daily traffic of VT 346 is highest in Pownal , where the route handles around 2 @,@ 800 cars per day as of 2012 , and lowest between Church Street and Dean Road , where it dips to about 1 @,@ 600 vehicles per day .
= = History = =
The portion of the North Petersburgh – Pownal highway within the state of Vermont was originally designated as VT 112 by 1926 . Its continuation into the state of New York was designated as NY 346 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . VT 112 was renumbered to VT 346 in the late 1930s to match the New York designation .
= = Major intersections = =
= James Inglis Hamilton =
General James Inglis Hamilton , ( before 1742 – 27 July 1803 ) was a Scottish soldier . He enlisted in the British Army in 1755 and commanded several regiments . He was the only colonel of the 113th Regiment of Foot . During the Seven Years ' War ( 1756 – 1763 ) , Hamilton fought in the Siege of Fort St Philip , the Raid on St Malo , and the Capture of Belle Île .
In the American War of Independence ( 1775 – 1783 ) , Hamilton fought in the Invasion of Canada and the Battle of Freeman 's Farm , commanding the middle column during the latter . He was in the Convention Army , imprisoned in Cambridge , Massachusetts after its surrender following the Battles of Saratoga . While a prisoner of war , he adopted James Hamilton , the son of a non @-@ commissioned officer in the British Army .
After his brother 's death , Hamilton took over Murdostoun , where he renovated the castle extensively . Under the 15th Regiment of Foot , Hamilton participated in Battle of Martinique as well as the Invasion of Guadeloupe in the French Revolutionary Wars . He died on 27 July 1803 at Murdostoun and is buried at Kirk O ’ Shotts graveyard . His adopted son took over Murdostoun before dying at the Battle of Waterloo .
= = Early life = =
Very little is known of Hamilton 's early life . He was the third son of Alexander ( died 1768 ) and Margaret Hamilton ( died 1742 ) . His two older brothers were Alexander ( died 1783 ) and Gavin Hamilton ( 1723 – 1798 ) , the latter a painter and archeologist in Rome . Inglis was added to the family name in 1719 as a condition of the will by which Alexander Inglis bequeathed Murdostoun to his nephew Alexander Hamilton , James 's father .
= = Seven Years ' War = =
Hamilton enlisted in the British Army on 28 February 1755 and was stationed at Portsmouth . He first saw action in June 1756 at the Siege of Fort St Philip , part of the Seven Years ' War . Assigned to the 34th Regiment of Foot , he was one of the 2 @,@ 800 British soldiers fighting under the command of William Blakeney against 15 @,@ 000 Frenchmen under the Duke de Richelieu and Roland @-@ Michel Barrin de La Galissonière . The French sailed to Fort St. Philip and forced the British to surrender . During the siege , Admiral John Byng sailed there with a relief group , hoping to save the island for the British , but was unsuccessful . The French killed or wounded 400 British in the French victory .
Hamilton fought in the Raid on St Malo in June 1758 . The British landed near St Malo , at first planning to attack the town . However , they decided to destroy shipping first and attack the town later . Finding that to occupy the town would require a full siege , for which they had insufficient troops , they occupied St Servan , where they burned over one hundred vessels including thirty privateers . British ships retreated after seeing a large French force , but sailed around the coast for a few weeks seeking another place to attack . Even though the Raid on St Malo was small and little damage was done , it is considered a British victory .
In 1761 , Hamilton took part in the Capture of Belle Île as one of the 5 @,@ 000 British troops led by Studholme Hodgson . The first attempt by the British was unsuccessful and lost approximately 500 troops . With reinforcements , a second attempt succeeded on 7 June 1761 .
On 17 October 1761 , while holding the rank of major , Hamilton became major commandant ( colonel ) of the 113th Regiment of Foot . It was formed from independent companies and served as a depot for sending drafts to Highland regiments serving overseas . The regiment disbanded in 1763 , and Hamilton retired on half pay . He became a lieutenant @-@ colonel on 25 May 1772 .
= = American War of Independence = =
In 1774 , Hamilton commanded the 21st Regiment of Foot in the American War of Independence ; General John Burgoyne said that he " was the whole time engaged and acquitted himself with great honor , activity , and good conduct . " Early in 1776 , while in the 21st Regiment , Hamilton accompanied General Guy Carleton in the British response to the Continental Army 's 1775 invasion of Quebec . On 15 September 1776 he was appointed temporary commander of the 1st Brigade when Brigadier General Nesbit fell ill . Upon Nesbit 's death , Hamilton was promoted to brigadier . He was assigned to the 2nd Brigade , which consisted of the 34th , 53rd , 62nd , and 20th Regiments of Foot . It was originally intended to include Hamilton 's 21st Regiment of Foot in the brigade , but it was replaced by the 53rd .
= = = Saratoga campaign = = =
Hamilton helped General Burgoyne organize troops for his campaign to divide the rebellious provinces . He was assigned to the 1st Brigade , comprising the 9th , 47th , and 53rd Regiments of Foot . Later , when Henry Watson Powell transported the 62nd Regiment to Fort Ticonderoga , the 1st and 2nd Brigades were amalgamated .
On 19 September 1777 , in Stillwater , New York , Hamilton commanded 1 @,@ 100 men of the centre column , consisting of the 9th , 20th , 21st , and 62nd Regiments of Foot , which attacked the heights at the Battle of Freeman 's Farm . His column was arrayed with the 21st on the right , the 20th on the left , the 62nd in the middle , and the 9th in reserve . To his left , Friedrich Adolf Riedesel commanded the 47th Regiment of Foot and some German troops . To Hamilton 's right , Simon Fraser commanded the 24th Regiment of Foot along with light infantry and grenadiers . Even though Hamilton was considered the commander , Burgoyne led the attack .
The centre column migrated toward the southwest to meet up with the right column . During the battle , Colonel Daniel Morgan of the United States led a charge , but Hamilton 's men turned it back and the British won the battle . Burgoyne had gained the field of battle , but suffered nearly 600 casualties , mostly in Hamilton 's centre column , where the 62nd was reduced to the size of a single company and three quarters of the artillery men were killed or wounded . American losses were nearly 300 killed and seriously wounded .
In the next battle , the Battle of Bemis Heights , Hamilton was not as engaged as he was at Freeman 's Farm : he was the guard of the camp near the heights . He was in the Convention Army that surrendered after the battle , among about 5 @,@ 900 troops that surrendered at Saratoga . The prisoners arrived at Cambridge , Massachusetts on 8 November 1777 . William Phillips commanded the Convention Army until he was exchanged for American General Benjamin Lincoln in 1780 ; then Hamilton became the commander . While a prisoner of war , Hamilton adopted a boy named Jamie Anderson ( 1777 – 1815 ) , the son of Sergeant Major William Anderson of the 21st Foot . Hamilton name was " signed to the parole given by the officers ... in December " . The Convention Army had to move to Charlottesville , Virginia and arrived around January 1779 . Hamilton was released on 3 September 1781 , subject to the condition that he could not travel to America until the war was over .
= = Later life = =
After his exchange , Hamilton returned to Britain , where he funded his adopted son 's education at Glasgow University . Because of his high rank , Hamilton was able to obtain a commission for his son , who became a cornet in 1792 . The boy changed his name to James Hamilton when he enlisted in the British Army .
Around 1790 , Hamilton made various renovations to Murdostoun : filling the turret staircase and the old dungeons , adding a parapet running round the roof @-@ line , and changing the original courtyard . On his brother Galvin 's death in 1798 , Hamilton took over Murdostoun . He came to be considered as one of the most influential freeholders in Lanarkshire .
Hamilton was the colonel of the 15th Regiment of Foot from 22 August 1792 to 1794 , during which he took part in the 1790s West Indies Campaign . The 15th Foot was awarded the battle honour Martinique 1794 ( 5 February – 25 March ) . During the battle , the 15th Foot was a part of the First Brigade , which consisted of the 39th and 43rd Regiment of Foot and was led by Sir C. Gordon .
The regiment also saw service at Guadeloupe ( 12 April ) the same year . He was colonel of his old regiment , the 21st Foot , from 1794 to 1803 . While with them he was promoted to lieutenant @-@ general on 26 January 1797 and to full general on 29 April 1802 . Hamilton died on his estate in Scotland on 27 July 1803 . On 18 August 1803 , his son , who was his only heir , took over Murdostoun . James was killed while commanding the Royal Scots Greys at the Battle of Waterloo .
= The Problem Solverz =
The Problem Solverz is an American animated television series that aired on Cartoon Network . Created by Ben Jones , it follows Alfe , Horace , and Roba , a group of detectives in their troubled town , Farboro . The aforementioned characters were designed while Jones attended college in the 1990s ; he later founded the art collective Paper Rad with Jessica and Jacob Ciocci . The characters were featured in Jones ' and the collective 's animations and comics before the creator pitched a pilot to Adult Swim featuring the trio . The network 's executives referred Jones to Cartoon Network , who commissioned a series featuring the same characters . The series was produced in Adobe Flash , with around fifteen animators employed at Cartoon Network Studios and the co @-@ production of Mirari Films .
The Problem Solverz was first aired on April 4 , 2011 . The first season consisted of eighteen episodes , concluding on September 29 , 2011 . A second and final season was released exclusively on Netflix in 2013 . The series has received mixed to negative reviews , with writers of entertainment @-@ related publications criticizing the visual style and writing , while art @-@ related publications gave praise to Jones ' creativity .
= = Plot = =
The series follows the eponymous detectives Alfe ( Ben Jones ) , Horace ( Kyle Kaplan ) , and Roba ( also Jones ) . The trio take up solving , and sometimes creating , the numerous problems that plague their town , Farboro . To their aid is Tux Dog ( John DiMaggio ) , an extremely wealthy dog who helps the Solverz in some of their cases but is just as often the source of their problems .
Alfe ( pronounced Alfé ) is a large , fluffy , man – dog – anteater found and raised by Horace when both was young . He loves devouring large quantities of food , especially pizza , and acts impulsively during missions . Roba , Horace 's twin brother and cyborg , is the smartest member of the group , but he suffers from insecurity and anxiety . Horace is the calm and collected leader of the team , usually applying common sense with his detective work and caring after Alfe .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception = = =
Growing up in Pittsburgh , creator Ben Jones had an appreciation for comics and animation . His father 's Macintosh computer served as a vehicle for Jones to create art and influenced his later visual style . Jones attended the Massachusetts College of Art and Design in the mid @-@ 1990s , where he became motivated to launch a project he could adapt to different media . This impetus manifested itself in the characters Alfe , Horace , and Roba . Tux Dog , another principal character , was designed while Jones was in primary school . After his graduation , Jones formed the art collective Paper Rad with Jessica and Jacob Ciocci in 2000 . The collective moved that year to Providence , Rhode Island , to participate in the Fort Thunder music venue . After the venue 's closure in 2001 , Jones released animations on the Web using Adobe Flash , with some featuring Alfe .
Paper Rad later produced animations with the premise of The Problem Solverz but with the three principal characters absent . The collective 's 2006 direct @-@ to @-@ DVD release Trash Talking features a segment called " Gone Cabin Carzy " in which Alfe , Horace , and Roba appear . In tandem with these experiments , Jones worked as a television animator on Yo Gabba Gabba ! and Wonder Showzen . The year of the DVD 's release , Jones talked to Nick Weidendfeld , then an executive producer at Adult Swim , about an idea for a series of his own . The result was Neon Knome , a pilot produced by PFFR and Williams Street , released on Adult Swim 's website as part of a development contest sponsored by Burger King . The network 's executives later referred Jones to Cartoon Network , believing his creativity would fit better there . Jones agreed to do business with Cartoon Network on the condition that Alfe be a character on The Problem Solverz .
= = = Production = = =
Eric Pringle , a veteran of 2D digital animation , was employed as animation director , providing Jones with much technical assistance . Pringle 's colleagues from Foster 's Home for Imaginary Friends , another Cartoon Network production , comprised a team of around fifteen full @-@ time animators at the network 's studio , all working on Apple computers . Greg Miller was hired as supervising director , Martin Cendreda as technical director , and John Pham with Jon Vermilyea as character designers . Miller is the creator of Whatever Happened to ... Robot Jones ? , another series on the network . Vermilyea worked also as a character designer on the network 's series Adventure Time , while Cendreda , Pham , and Jones all contributed to the anthology comic book Kramers Ergot . Michael Yank was employed as a writer for most episodes , with Mirari Films ' CEO Eric Kaplan supervising the creation of scripts .
The series was noted for its visual style employing highly saturated colors and varying shapes . Jones was inspired by the limited @-@ animated series Roger Ramjet and The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show , which he felt employed good character design , cohesiveness , jokes , and timing . He credited The Problem Solverz as the first seamless use of Flash for television animation , with conceptualization and the end result occurring in the same program . Writing was the longest aspect of production , taking up to several months for the crew to conceive the story and draft a script . Animation was comparatively quicker , with the team delivering work in only a few weeks given the digital approach ; Jones felt that the animators could to play to the strengths of the fully digital animation process .
= = Release = =
The Problem Solverz was first aired on April 4 , 2011 , on Cartoon Network . The premiere was seen by 1 @.@ 1 million viewers , receiving a Nielsen rating of 0 @.@ 8 , in that 0 @.@ 8 percent of families with a television set viewed the episode on that date . The most @-@ watched episode of the series ( " The Mayan Ice Cream Caper " ) was seen by 1 @.@ 6 million viewers . Viewership fell with the first episode to have been aired on a Thursday ( " Hamburger Cavez " ) , which was watched by 1 @.@ 1 million viewers . The first season concluded on September 29 , 2011 , after eighteen episodes . A second season consisting of eight episodes was released exclusively on Netflix in 2013 . Cartoon Network passed on a third season renewal .
= = Reception = =
The Problem Solverz has received mixed to negative reviews , with writers of entertainment @-@ related publications criticizing the visual style and writing . Rob Owen writing for the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette called the style reminiscent of Atari 5200 video games and wrote that viewers could " thank " or " blame " Jones for his creation . For the magazine Variety , Brian Lowry disregarded the series as uninteresting and challenging to watch , the visuals and sounds weird for weirdness ' sake . Emily Ashby of Common Sense Media defined the series as misguided , its stories as undeveloped , and its visual style as unappealing . The Weekly Alibi 's Devin D. O 'Leary acknowledged the style as Paper Rad 's own and found the writing more solid than that of Adult Swim 's programming for which it could be mistaken . The jokes were not instantly funny according to O 'Leary , but the visual style combined with the writing would provide amusement for Paper Rad 's existing fans .
Art @-@ related publications , on the other hand , gave praise to Jones ' creativity . Dan Nadel , a former publisher of Jones , lauded the series in The Comics Journal for the imagination displayed , " funny and humane and invaluable " at the same time . Paper writer Sammy Harkham called The Problem Solverz " radical " and unlike any another series on television . Geek Exchange writer Liz Ohanesian called the second season more " subdued " than the first , allowing viewers to concentrate on the principal character 's relationships . She compared the series to the band Anamanaguchi , in that its unique and polarizing style makes fans of the series hard to find .
= New York State Route 342 =
New York State Route 342 ( NY 342 ) is a short east – west state highway in Jefferson County , New York , in the United States . The western terminus of NY 342 is at an intersection with NY 12 near the hamlet of Scoville Corners in the town of Pamelia . The eastern terminus is at a junction with NY 3 in the town of Le Ray , west of the village of Black River . Along the way , NY 342 connects to Interstate 81 ( I @-@ 81 ) in Pamelia and intersects U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) outside of the Le Ray hamlet of Calcium .
What is now NY 342 was originally built during the 1950s as a federal @-@ aid highway known as the " Watertown Bypass " . It became a state highway in 1960 , at which time it was designated as New York State Route 181 . The designation was short @-@ lived as NY 181 was renumbered to NY 342 c . 1963 . The portion of NY 342 between US 11 and NY 3 was part of NY 26 from the late 1950s to the mid @-@ 1970s .
= = Route description = =
In the west , NY 342 begins at an intersection with NY 12 in Pamelia , a town to the north of the city of Watertown . It heads northeastward through open , mostly undeveloped fields for 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to an interchange with I @-@ 81 . East of I @-@ 81 , the development along NY 342 increases as the route enters Pamelia Center , a hamlet centered on NY 342 's intersection with NY 37 . NY 342 continues on , passing through the eastern portion of the community and serving a local country club before entering another rural area dominated by open fields .
Upon intersecting Nellis Road , NY 342 turns to follow a linear , southeasterly routing into the town of Le Ray . The rural surroundings remain until the hamlet of Calcium , where NY 342 meets US 11 north of the community 's center in a lightly populated residential area just southwest of the Fort Drum Military Reservation . The route continues on , running along the southwestern edge of Fort Drum to a junction with NY 283 . At this point , NY 342 curves to the south , bypassing the village of Black River to the west as it heads through another undeveloped area consisting of little more than open fields . The route ends roughly 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the south of NY 283 at an intersection with NY 3 southwest of the village .
= = History = =
The portion of modern NY 342 between NY 12 in Pamelia and US 11 in Le Ray was originally built in stages between 1951 and 1955 as a federal @-@ aid highway named the " Watertown Bypass " . The remainder of the route ( via Le Ray and South Main Streets in Black River ) was built around this time . NY 26 was realigned between 1956 and 1958 to use the portion of the bypass between US 11 and NY 3 . The change was part of a larger realignment of NY 26 between Carthage and Antwerp .
In 1960 , the New York State Department of Transportation assumed ownership and maintenance of the Watertown Bypass . The entirety of the new state highway , including the portion already part of NY 26 , was initially designated as NY 181 . It was renumbered to NY 342 c . 1963 , eliminating potential confusion between NY 181 and the nearby I @-@ 81 . NY 342 was also rerouted to bypass Black River to the west around this time . The overlap with NY 26 was eliminated in the mid @-@ 1970s when NY 26 was truncated to Carthage .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Jefferson County .
= Operation Brevity =
Operation Brevity was a limited offensive conducted in mid @-@ May 1941 , during the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War . Conceived by the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the British Middle East Command , General Archibald Wavell , Brevity was intended to be a rapid blow against weak Axis front @-@ line forces in the Sollum – Capuzzo – Bardia area of the border between Egypt and Libya . Although the operation got off to a promising start , throwing the Axis high command into confusion , most of its early gains were lost to local counter @-@ attacks , and with German reinforcements being rushed to the front the operation was called off after one day .
Egypt had been invaded by Libyan @-@ based Italian forces in September 1940 , but by February of the following year a British counter @-@ offensive had advanced well into Libya , destroying the Italian Tenth Army in the process . British attention then shifted to Greece , which was under the threat of Axis invasion . While Allied divisions were being diverted from North Africa , the Italians reinforced their positions and were supported by the arrival of the German Afrika Korps under General Erwin Rommel . Rapidly taking the offensive against his distracted and over @-@ stretched opponent , by April 1941 Rommel had driven the British and Commonwealth forces in Cyrenaica back across the Egyptian border . Although the battlefront now lay in the border area , the port city of Tobruk — 100 miles ( 160 km ) inside Libya — had resisted the Axis advance , and its substantial Australian and British garrison constituted a significant threat to Rommel 's lengthy supply chain . He therefore committed his main strength to besieging the city , leaving the front line only thinly held .
Wavell defined Operation Brevity 's main objectives as the acquisition of territory from which to launch a further planned offensive toward Tobruk , and the depletion of German and Italian forces in the region . With limited battle @-@ ready units to draw on in the wake of Rommel 's recent successes , on 15 May Brigadier William Gott attacked in three columns with a mixed infantry and armoured force . The strategically important Halfaya Pass was taken against stiff Italian opposition , and deeper inside Libya Fort Capuzzo was captured , but German counter @-@ attacks under Colonel Maximilian von Herff regained the fort during the afternoon causing heavy casualties amongst its defenders . Gott — concerned that his forces were in danger of being caught by German armour in open ground — conducted a staged withdrawal to the Halfaya Pass on 16 May , and Brevity was closed down . The importance of the Halfaya Pass as a safe supply route was highlighted to Rommel , and 11 days later it was recaptured during Operation Skorpion , a German counter @-@ attack .
= = Background = =
In early September 1940 , Italian 10th Army based in Libya conducted the Italian invasion of Egypt and three months later , the British and Commonwealth troops of the Western Desert Force began a counter @-@ offensive , codenamed Operation Compass . In two months , the British advanced 500 miles ( 800 km ) , occupying the Italian province of Cyrenaica and destroying the 10th Army but the operation was halted in February 1941 to give priority to the Battle of Greece . Renamed | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
XIII Corps and reorganised under HQ Cyrenaica Command , the troops of the former Western Desert Force adopted a defensive posture . Over the next few months , HQ Cyrenaica lost its commander , Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson , the 2nd New Zealand Division and the 6th Australian Division when they were redeployed to Greece . The 7th Armoured Division , with virtually no serviceable tanks left after Compass , was also withdrawn and sent to the Nile Delta for rest and refitting . Wilson was replaced by Lieutenant @-@ General Philip Neame and parts of the 2nd Armoured Division and 9th Australian Division were deployed to Cyrenaica but both formations were inexperienced , ill @-@ equipped and in the case of the 2nd Armoured , well under strength after detachments to Greece .
The Italians responded by despatching the 132nd Armoured Division Ariete and 102nd Motorised DivisionTrento to North Africa , and beginning in February 1941 and continuing until early May , Operation Sonnenblume saw the arrival of the German Afrika Korps in Tripoli to reinforce their Italian allies . Commanded by General Erwin Rommel and consisting of the 5th Light and 15 . Panzerdivisions , the Afrika Korps ' mission was to block Allied attempts to drive the Italians out of the region . However , Rommel seized on the weakness of his opponents and , without waiting for his forces to fully assemble , rapidly went on the offensive . During March and April , the 2nd Armoured Division was destroyed as the Axis forces advanced , which also forced the British and Commonwealth forces into retreat . Adding to the Allied discomfiture , Neame and the General Officer Commanding British Troops Egypt — Lieutenant @-@ General Richard O 'Connor — were captured and the British command structure had to be reorganised . HQ Cyrenaica was dissolved on 14 April and its command functions taken over by the reactivated HQ Western Desert Force under Lieutenant @-@ General Noel Beresford @-@ Peirse . The 9th Australian Infantry Division fell back to the fortress port of Tobruk , and the remaining British forces withdrew a further 100 miles ( 160 km ) east to Sollum on the Libyan – Egyptian border . With Tobruk under siege from the main German @-@ Italian force , a small battlegroup ( Kampfgruppe ) commanded by Colonel Maximilian von Herff continued to press eastward . Capturing Fort Capuzzo and Bardia in passing , it then advanced into Egypt and by the end of April had taken Sollum and the tactically important Halfaya Pass . Rommel garrisoned these positions , reinforcing the battlegroup and ordering it onto the defensive .
The Tobruk garrison — although isolated by land — continued to receive supplies from the Royal Navy and Rommel was unable to take the port . This failure was significant ; his front line positions at Sollum were at the end of an extended supply chain that stretched back to Tripoli and was threatened by the Tobruk garrison , and the substantial commitment required to invest Tobruk prevented him from building up his forces at Sollum , making further advances into Egypt impractical . By maintaining possession of Tobruk , the Allies had regained the initiative .
= = Prelude = =
General Archibald Wavell — the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the British Middle East Command — conceived Operation Brevity as a rapid blow in the Sollum area . Wavell intended to create advantageous conditions from which to launch Operation Battleaxe , the main offensive that he was planning for June . Operation Brevity 's primary objectives were to recapture the Halfaya Pass , to drive the enemy from the Sollum and Capuzzo areas , and to deplete Rommel 's forces . A secondary objective was to advance toward Tobruk , although only as far as supplies would allow , and without risking the force committed to the operation .
= = = Allied force = = =
Operation Brevity would be carried out by the 22nd Guards Brigade and elements of the 7th Armoured Division . Its armoured component consisted of 29 cruiser tanks of the 2nd Royal Tank Regiment ( 2RTR ) and 24 infantry tanks of the 4th Royal Tank Regiment ( 4RTR ) . The Royal Air Force ( RAF ) allocated all available fighters and a small force of bombers to the operation .
Brigadier William Gott — in command of all Allied front @-@ line forces since the retreat — was to lead the operation in the field , and his plan was to advance in three parallel columns . On the desert flank to the south , the 7th Armoured Brigade group was to move 30 miles ( 48 km ) from Bir el Khireigat to Sidi Azeiz destroying any opposition encountered en route . This group included three small mobile forces ( " Jock columns " ) of the 7th Support Group , the cruiser tanks of 2RTR , and the armoured cars of the 11th Hussars , whose task was to patrol the open desert on the left flank and monitor the Sidi Azeiz – Bardia road . In the centre , the 22nd Guards Brigade group was to clear the top of the Halfaya Pass , secure Bir Wair , Musaid , and Fort Capuzzo , and conduct a company @-@ sized probe toward Bardia . The group included the infantry battalions of the 1st Durham Light Infantry and 2nd Scots Guards , and the infantry tanks of 4RTR . In the north , the " coast group " was to advance along the coast road , capturing the lower Halfaya Pass , Sollum barracks , and the town of Sollum . The group included elements of the 2nd Battalion The Rifle Brigade , and the 8th Field Regiment Royal Artillery .
= = = Axis force = = =
The main Axis opposition was Kampfgruppe von Herff , positioned on the desert plateau . It included 30 – 50 tanks of the 2nd Battalion Panzer Regiment 5 , an Italian motorised infantry battalion of the Trento Division , and supporting arms . The front line area around Halfaya Pass was defended by two companies of Bersaglieri — well trained Italian motorised infantry — with artillery support .
On 9 May , the Germans intercepted a British weather report over the radio . The Afrika Korps war diary noted that " In the past , such reports had always been issued prior to the important enemy offensives to capture Sidi Barrani , Bardi , Tobruk , and the Gebel . " Rommel 's response was to strengthen the eastern side of his cordon around Tobruk as a precaution against sorties from the garrison , and to order Kampfgruppe von Herff to adopt a more aggressive posture . On 13 May , Axis aircraft bombed British tank concentrations , and von Herff expected an imminent British attack . However , the following day aircraft were unable to locate the British , and it was reported that the " enemy intentions to attack were not known " .
= = Battle = =
On 13 May , Wavell 's infantry battalions began to concentrate at their start lines , followed by the tank regiments during the early hours of 15 May . At 06 : 00 , the three columns began their advance , supported overhead by a standing patrol of Hawker Hurricane fighters .
= = = Centre column = = =
Reaching the top of the Halfaya Pass , the 22nd Guards Brigade group ran into heavy opposition from an Italian Bersaglieri infantry company , supported by anti @-@ tank guns , under the command of Colonel Ugo Montemurro . This unit fought tenaciously , doing much to repair the poor impression Rommel had of his Italian allies . Opening fire upon the attacking British tanks , the Bersaglieri found their 47mm anti @-@ tank guns to be unable to penetrate the armour of the Matilda infantry tanks . At 400 yards ( 370 m ) , the gunners shifted targets . Now aiming at the tracks and undercarriages , when the tanks raised up crossing low stone walls and rocks , seven tanks were disabled . For his conduct during this action , Rommel recommended that Montemurro be awarded the Iron Cross First Class . At the cost of these seven tanks , the position was taken by C Squadron 4RTR and G Company 2nd Scots Guards , and the brigade group pushed on towards the Bir Wair @-@ Musaid road . At around 08 : 00 , it received the surrender of a large German @-@ Italian camp , and by 10 : 15 Bir Wair and Musaid had been taken in the face of limited opposition .
A Squadron 4RTR and the 1st Durham Light Infantry ( 1DLI ) continued the advance toward Fort Capuzzo . Concealed in hull down positions behind a ridge near the fort were 20 – 30 German tanks , supported by anti tank guns . These engaged A Squadron , disabling five tanks , but were forced to withdraw as the squadron pressed its attack . On the final approach to Fort Capuzzo , contact was lost between 4RTR 's tanks and 1DLI 's leading C Company , and the attack on the fort began without armoured support . The fort was vigorously defended , and it was not until just before midday that C Company , reunited with A Squadron 4RTR and reinforced by A and B Companies 1DLI , eventually took the position . D Company 1DLI — which had been in reserve during the attack — then made a wide left hook to capture a small landing ground to the north of the fort .
In the afternoon , one company of the 2nd Scots Guards probed toward Bardia , the infantry coming under heavy machine gun fire from three positions as they neared Sollum barracks . A group of Universal Carriers — commanded by Sergeant F. Riley — charged the gun positions and quickly neutralised them , but one carrier was disabled when the group was subsequently engaged by anti @-@ tank guns . Riley executed a second charge , silencing these too and taking their crews prisoner . His carrier was hit three times ; for his actions Riley was awarded the Military Medal , the battalion 's first decoration of the war .
= = = Desert column = = =
On the desert flank , 2RTR advanced with the 7th Armoured Brigade group . During the morning , reports were received of up to 30 German armoured vehicles operating nearby , and A Squadron 2RTR moved to investigate . Most of the German force had pulled back , but three tanks were located and brought under fire . One Panzer IV was disabled and the other two driven off , for the loss of one British tank due to mechanical failure . A second force of 15 German tanks was engaged by two tanks of No 2 Troop , destroying a Panzer III and forcing the remainder to withdraw . By midday , the brigade group had reached a position west of Fort Capuzzo , and in the afternoon the nine remaining cruisers of A Squadron 2RTR began a reconnaissance patrol towards Sidi Azeiz .
= = = Coastal column = = =
The advance along the coastal road — which lacked tank support — was held up all morning by determined Italian resistance at the bottom of Halfaya Pass . This objective was finally achieved toward evening when S Company 2nd Rifle Brigade — supported by Australian anti @-@ tank gunners fighting as infantry — overran the Italian positions taking around 130 prisoners .
= = = Axis reactions = = =
Although the German and Italian commands in North Africa knew that a British offensive was imminent , Operation Brevity nevertheless caught them unprepared , and Rommel recorded in his diary that the initial attacks had caused him considerable losses . By midday on 15 May , Axis command was showing signs of confusion . It was erroneously believed that the offensive involved more than 100 tanks , and repeated requests were made to both the Luftwaffe and the Regia Aeronautica for a concerted effort to defeat it . Forces around Tobruk were redeployed east of the besieged city , to block any attempt at relief and to prevent the garrison from breaking out to meet the British advance . Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Hans Cramer was sent to reinforce Kampfgruppe von Herff with a tank battalion from Panzer Regiment 8 and a battery of 88 mm ( 3 @.@ 46 in ) FlaK guns , and additional reinforcements under General von Esebeck were despatched the following day .
The Germans concentrated their riposte against the central column . Von Herff — who had been prepared to fall back — instead launched a local counter @-@ attack toward Fort Capuzzo during the afternoon of 15 May with the 2nd Battalion Panzer Regiment 5 . At around 13 : 30 , D Company 1DLI at the landing ground was overrun , and with no anti @-@ tank support more capable than the Boys anti @-@ tank rifle , the remaining troops of 1DLI were forced to fall back toward Musaid . A fortuitous dust cloud aided their withdrawal , but by 14 : 45 Panzer Regiment 5 was reporting that it had recaptured Capuzzo , inflicting heavy casualties on the British and taking 70 prisoners .
On the desert flank , A Squadron 2RTR 's patrol toward Sidi Azeiz was being monitored by Panzer Regiment 5 , but the Germans misidentified the light cruiser tanks as heavily armoured Matilda infantry tanks , and reported that an attack was not possible . Colonel von Herff — believing the British had two divisions operating in the area — had grown uneasy . A Squadron 's patrol was interpreted as an attempt to concentrate south of Sidi Azeiz , in preparation for a thrust north the next day ; such a move threatened to sweep aside von Herff 's force and completely unhinge the German front in the Sollum – Bardia area . In response , von Herff broke contact with the British ; his plan was to join up with Cramer 's Panzer Regiment 8 to mount a concentrated counter @-@ attack the following morning .
= = = British withdrawal = = =
Realising that the 22nd Guards Brigade group would be vulnerable to German armoured counterattacks in the open ground around Bir Wair and Mussaid , Brigadier Gott withdrew it during the early hours of the morning of 16 May . By 10 : 00 , the infantry had taken up new positions back at Halfaya Pass , although the 7th Armoured Brigade group was ordered to remain west of Fort Capuzzo for the time being .
Cramer 's reinforcements arrived in the Sidi Azeiz area at 03 : 00 and reached Fort Capuzzo at 06 : 30 . At around 08 : 00 , he made contact with Kampfgruppe von Herff , but by mid @-@ morning both groups had run out of fuel . The German advance resumed at 16 : 00 before being stopped by around 17 tanks of 2RTR . The British reported one German tank set alight and another disabled and that an advance of up to fifty tanks had been halted , while the Germans believed that they had repulsed a strong British tank attack . As nightfall approached , von Herff broke off the action and went on to the defensive . He intended to repair his damaged machines , reorganise , and resume offensive operations on 18 May . 2RTR pulled back to Bir el Khireigat , initially followed by two German tanks , one of which withdrew after the other was destroyed . The regiment arrived at Bir el Khireigat , from where it had set out two days previously , at around 02 : 30 on 17 May .
= = Aftermath = =
Operation Brevity failed to achieve most of its objectives , succeeding only in retaking the Halfaya Pass . The British lost five tanks destroyed and a further 13 were damaged but the tank regiments suffered no losses in personnel . Total casualties amounted to at least 206 men . The 1st Durham Light Infantry suffered the most during the operation losing 196 men killed , wounded or captured . The 2nd Scots Guards lost one man killed and four wounded , the 3rd Coldstream Guards lost one man killed and the 11th Hussars suffered four men wounded . Losses among the 2nd Rifle Brigade are unknown . German casualties numbered three tanks ( a Panzer II and two Panzer IIIs , although several more suffered minor damage ) and 258 men killed , wounded or captured . Jack Greene and Alessandro Massignani place total Italian losses at 395 . Allied accounts record the capture of 347 of these men .
On 5 August , Colonel von Herff praised the Bersaglieri , who had defended Halfaya Pass " ... with lionlike courage until the last man against stronger enemy forces . The greatest part of them died faithful to the flag . " Lieutenant Giacinto Cova , a platoon commander in the 8th Bersaglieri Regiment , received a posthumous Gold Medal of Military Valour , Italy 's highest award for bravery . The medal citation reported that Cova had organised a counter @-@ attack and was killed attempting to throw a hand @-@ held bomb at a British tank . The British received plaudits from Winston Churchill , who sent a telegram to Wavell betraying his ignorance of events by stating : " Without using the Tiger cubs you have taken the offensive , advanced 30 miles ( 48 km ) , captured Halfaya and Sollum , taken 500 German prisoners and inflicted heavy losses in men and tanks . For this twenty I tanks and 1 @,@ 000 or 1 @,@ 500 casualties do not seem too heavy a cost . " Churchill ended the message by asking Wavell " What are your dates for bringing Tiger cubs into action ? " , in reference to the reinforcements that had arrived at Alexandria on 12 May as part of a convoy code @-@ named Operation Tiger . The 11th Hussar 's regimental history notes that " it was clear that no further offensive action would be possible before 7 [ th ] Arm [ oured Division ] was fully prepared " . The Tiger convoy brought 238 tanks and made it possible to refit the 7th Armoured Division , which had been out of action since February as a result of the losses it sustained during Operation Compass . Preparations could now be made for Operation Battleaxe and the relief of Tobruk . In the system of British and Commonwealth battle honours , units that served in the Halfaya Pass area between 15 and 27 May were awarded the honour Halfaya 1941 in 1957 .
Historian Thomas Jentz suggests that Brevity could have ended in victory for the British . While their tank forces were fighting ineffectively , the " gutsy " actions by 2RTR and their patrol toward Sidi Azeiz had convinced the Germans that the battle was lost by the evening of 15 May . Because of their failure to engage 2RTR late that day , several German commanders from Panzer Regiment 5 , including its commanding officer , were removed from their posts after the battle . Jentz notes that a feint by the 1st and 7th RTR out of Tobruk might have caused a realignment of the Axis forces , weakening their overall position and perhaps even forcing them to give up the Sollum area .
Operation Brevity highlighted to Rommel the importance of the Halfaya Pass ; whichever side held it would have a " comparatively safe route for his supplies " during offensives in the area . On 27 May , he launched Operation Skorpion , during which von Herff recaptured the pass and reversed the last British territorial gain from Brevity .
= Reciprocity ( Fringe ) =
" Reciprocity " is the eleventh episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 54th episode overall . In the episode , the Fringe division follows a chain of shapeshifter murders as the assembly of the doomsday device nears completion . Ryan McDonald and Charles Parnell guest starred .
Co @-@ executive producer Josh Singer wrote " Reciprocity " , his seventh such credit for the series . For his third Fringe directional credit , Jeannot Szwarc served as the director . The episode first aired in the United States on January 28 , 2011 to an estimated 4 @.@ 57 million viewers , making it the highest rated program of the night . Television critics generally viewed the episode positively , with a number praising the reveal of the shapeshifter killer 's identity .
= = Plot = =
The Fringe division visits a secured Massive Dynamic facility where the prime universe 's version of the doomsday device , believed to be an artifact of the " First People " , has been assembled . The company is trying to use the books about the First People , including those that William Bell had sought , that they have collected to understand the workings of the device . They are aware that before her departure , Fauxlivia ( Anna Torv ) — Olivia 's parallel universe doppelgänger — stole one component of the unit , possibly its power source as they cannot find any other way to engage the device . However , as Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) nears it , the device reacts , moving into a new configuration and sending out electromagnetic pulses , while Peter suddenly has a nosebleed . Peter returns with Olivia ( Torv ) and Walter ( John Noble ) to Massive Dynamic to undergo some tests to see if he was the cause for the device 's activation . Meanwhile , Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) asks Astrid ( Jasika Nicole ) to discreetly review the files pulled from Fauxlivia 's computer for any hidden messages , not wishing to have Olivia or Peter be forced to learn of what Fauxlivia wrote about them .
The next day , the corpse of a shapeshifter is found , shot in the head with its data disc — encoded information regarding its mission — missing . When the identity connects it to one of the employees at the facility where the Fringe mainframe is housed , Broyles suspects a mole seeking to wipe out Fauxlivia 's data , and orders a mainframe lockdown , while verifying the humanity of key people in the FBI and Massive Dynamic . Astrid identifies several other potential candidates , including a doctor from Massive Dynamic who had already left . By the time Fringe division reaches his home , they find the man , a shapeshifter , already dead .
Olivia returns to the lab and convinces Astrid to let her review Fauxlivia 's notes , believing that she should think like her doppelgänger , she will see something they missed . Eventually , she comes to identify a cipher based on her childhood name , Olive , that identifies Newton and the other slain shapeshifters , and one that has yet to be killed . Fringe begins to descend on his residence .
Meanwhile , Walter , having thought Peter had returned to Massive Dynamic for tests , learns he is not there . Walter enters his room , finding printed pages of Fauxlivia 's notes including the circled names of the shapeshifters , those that Olivia just identified . Walter arrives at the home of the final shapeshifter just as Peter finishes killing him . Peter tries to justify his actions as no longer wanting to be just reactive to the situation and to learn of the shapeshifters ' goal . Peter and Walter depart before the Fringe team arrives ; Walter postulates that the device , when it activated , may have " weaponized " Peter to take these steps and fears what else Peter may attempt to do .
= = Production = =
Co @-@ executive producer Josh Singer was responsible for writing " Reciprocity " , his seventh such credit for the series . The episode was directed by Jeannot Szwarc , his third directional credit for the series . The episode featured one @-@ time guest roles by actors Charles Parnell as Dr. James Falcon and Sean Campbell as Zach Alpert . Ryan McDonald reprised his role as Massive Dynamic scientist Brandon Fayette .
Alluding to the premise of " Reciprocity " , story editor Glen Whitman noted that " often in science fiction simply because you need a source of conflict , it ends up being that science or technology is the source of evil . And that happens a lot in Fringe . I think that ’ s unavoidable . But the flip side of that coin is that on Fringe , science just as often ends up being able to save the day . " The machine around which the episode is based was rendered using CGI .
Since the parallel universe was revealed in the season two finale , viewers have debated nicknames for the various doppelgangers featured . Olivia Dunham 's double from the parallel universe was one such matter of contention ; such nicknames included Bolivia , Fauxlivia , and Altlivia . " Reciprocity " was believed by some critics to have resolved this , as one character refers to her as Fauxlivia .
As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " Reciprocity " , with the intention of having " students learn about the classification of blood into blood types based upon the molecules on the surface of red blood cells . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Reciprocity " was the second episode to air on Friday in the United States . On its initial broadcast on January 28 , 2011 , " Reciprocity " maintained similar numbers of viewers from the previous episode , " The Firefly " , with a 1 @.@ 9 / 6 share and an estimated 4 @.@ 57 million viewers . There was some concern that Fringe would be aired against Supernatural , a CW show with a similar science fiction theme , but that network decided to move the episode to the following week , when it aired opposite the Fringe episode " Concentrate and Ask Again " . " Reciprocity " was broadcast against reruns and news programs from the other rival networks . It was the highest @-@ rated program of the night , as it tied with NBC 's Dateline , but its ratings were not enough to prevent the Fox network from placing fourth in total viewers . With time shifting devices taken into account , the episode had been watched by an estimated 6 @.@ 17 million a week from its initial broadcast .
= = = Reviews = = =
Reviews of the episode from television critics were generally positive . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly enjoyed the scenes set at Massive Dynamic , and thought the episode did a good job tricking the audience into thinking Peter was not responsible for the shapeshifter killings . After not loving the previous week 's episode , Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times thought " Reciprocity " had " all the aspects of Fringe I loved " . Hanson particularly loved the opening 's first few minutes , and like Tucker , he was pleasantly surprised about Peter and the murders . A.V. Club 's Noel Murray graded " Reciprocity " with a B , explaining that despite the awe @-@ inspiring opening ( which reminded him of the film Close Encounters Of The Third Kind ) and the final revelations , Murray found the episode " solid but largely unexceptional " . He thought the shapeshifter investigation " lacked a certain frisson " and found the Peter – Olivia relationship scenes to be " more of a drag " .
SFScope contributor Sarah Stegall believed the episode " got us quickly back on track after last week 's lackluster tale , " and called the killer revelation the greatest shock she has received on the series thus far . She continued that one of her favorite parts of the Peter @-@ as @-@ a @-@ killer arc is being able to watch the emotional setbacks he is facing as a result of Fauxlivia 's betrayal ; she called it " good characterization , and excellent acting " . However , Stegall questioned why Massive Dynamic would build a machine known to be the destroyer of mankind . IGN columnist Ramsey Isler praised the writing staff because " just when you think they might be stuck in old habits , they come up with new ideas and put a whole new perspective on old storylines and characters . " Isler continued that while " ' Reciprocity ' " isn 't the most groundbreaking episode in the series , it does try a number of new ideas , and it gives us one big new plot point that could change the tone of the rest of the season . "
= Scott & Bailey =
Scott & Bailey is a British drama series that debuted on ITV on 29 May 2011 and had its last showing of Season 5 on 27 April 2016 . The series stars Suranne Jones , Lesley Sharp , Amelia Bullmore ( series 1 @-@ 4 ) , Nicholas Gleaves ( series 1 @-@ 2 ) , Danny Miller ( series 3 @-@ 4 ) , and Pippa Haywood ( series 5 ) . Based on an original idea by Jones and Sally Lindsay , the show revolves around the personal and professional lives of its protagonists . The programme features Detectives Janet Scott ( played by Sharp ) and Rachel Bailey ( played by Jones ) . Both characters are members of the Syndicate Nine Major Incident Team ( MIT ) of the fictional Manchester Metropolitan Police .
= = Production = =
Scott & Bailey was commissioned after the concept was introduced to executive producer Nicola Shindler , who brought it to writer Sally Wainwright . The series is produced by Manchester @-@ based Red Production Company and is largely filmed in the Greater Manchester area .
= = = Concept = = =
Scott & Bailey is based on an original idea by Suranne Jones and Sally Lindsay , with Jones commenting that there needed to be more roles for women " that weren 't wife @-@ of , sidekick @-@ to , mother @-@ of , mistress @-@ to , etc . " Jones remarked , " We were just chatting away over a bottle of wine in a pub " when the idea came to fruition . Lindsay , a fan of television programmes such as Cagney & Lacey , was interested in the concept of a programme detailing the lives of two professional women . Jones later spoke of the programme , saying it is " the Cagney & Lacey of Manchester " , though she acknowledged that Scott & Bailey as a drama was more " gritty " and " real " .
Upon taking the idea to Nicola Shindler of Red Productions , Shindler contacted Sally Wainwright , who wrote a script for an episode and , according to Jones , they " loved it " . Despite the positive reaction , the project " kind of got a bit lost " until ITV discovered it and requested that Wainwright rewrite the script .
Subsequently , Wainwright paired up with Diane Taylor , a former Detective Inspector from Greater Manchester Police , to create the programme , and the production expanded from Jones and Lindsay 's original concept . From Taylor 's perspective , police procedurals were often filled with not only technical inaccuracies , but what she felt were inaccuracies of how officers behaved , saying : " that 's what really irritates me in other dramas – detectives crying over dead bodies and getting drunk senseless . You 'd last about two weeks " . She said , of her time as a police officer in comparison to portrayals on television , that " reality is much more interesting . I could pull a thousand cases out of my head people would say would never happen . People need drama because they would not believe the reality " .
= = = Production team = = =
Scott & Bailey is produced by Manchester @-@ based Red Production Company , which itself is majority owned by StudioCanal following an acquisition estimated at £ 30 million in December 2013 . Nicola Shindler , who founded the company in 1998 , is the programme 's executive producer alongside writer Sally Wainwright and Tom Sherry . When speaking of Shindler , Wainwright said : " Nicola is just a genius . She makes you raise your game . So if you 're good , she 'll make you better " .
The role of producer was undertaken by Yvonne Fracas for Series 1 , and from Series 2 – 3 , Tom Sherry . Sherry , who has worked for Red Productions for over 15 years , described his job as " the opportunity to meddle in all departments – it 's about being able to have a passable stab at everyone 's job and to be able to empathise with what they 're trying to achieve " . For the production of Series 4 , Sherry undertook the role of executive producer alongside Wainwright and Shindler , while the position of producer is staffed by Juliet Charlesworth . For the fifth series , filmed in 2015 , Suranne Jones became an executive producer alongside Schindler .
The involvement of Diane Taylor as a consultant producer is credited with maintaining Scott & Bailey 's " rigorous authenticity " . According to Jessamy Calkin of The Telegraph , " the attention to detail is more extreme on this series , say many of the crew , than others they have worked on " . During the filming of Unforgiven in 2008 ( written by Wainwright and also starring Suranne Jones ) , Wainwright was told to meet Taylor by Grant Montgomery , the show 's designer . After meeting , the production was given the green light by ITV and the script was largely re @-@ written , with Wainwright commenting : " I wasn 't writing a single line of dialogue that Diane hadn 't influenced " . Wainwright is responsible for writing the majority of episodes .
Amelia Bullmore , who plays Gill Murray , wrote three episodes ; Wainwright had wanted to get other writers involved in the process . For her first episode as writer , " Bullmore was given a brief – that everything must be from Scott and Bailey 's point of view – and she was given a murder " . Though she had been a professional writer for almost two decades , Scott and Bailey marked the first instance of Bullmore writing and starring in the same production . Due to Wainwright 's increased workload on her other drama series ' Last Tango in Halifax and Happy Valley , Bullmore was chosen to be the head writer for Scott and Bailey 's fourth series in 2014 . She was joined on the writing team by Lee Warburton , who wrote two episodes of the fourth series. and returned to write Scott & Bailey 's fifth series in 2015 .
The directing of Scott & Bailey is undertaken in a method whereby " each director directs a ' block ' of two or three episodes , dictated by the schedule – when each episode has finished shooting , the director goes into the edit and a new director takes over for the next block " , according to Calkin . The most prolific director of Scott & Bailey is Morag Fullerton , who directed seven episodes .
= = = Casting = = =
Jones , who had always envisaged herself playing Rachel Bailey when the idea of the project came in to mind , was given the role , though at the programme 's pre @-@ production stages the character had a different first name , Cathy . It was originally intended that Lindsay would star with Jones in Scott & Bailey , but she became pregnant with twins , so the role of Janet was given to Lesley Sharp instead ; Lindsay received the smaller role of Rachel 's sister , Alison . Lindsay approved of Sharp playing the role ; Jones also felt pleased at the prospect of working with Sharp , saying " I was really excited on the day of the read @-@ through " . Sharp 's husband Nicholas Gleaves was awarded the role of Scott 's lover , DS Andy Roper . Despite the actors ' relationship , Sharp stated that it was not a contributing factor in his casting , stating : " Nick 's an actor and I 'm an actress — we don 't have the same agent . There 's a script with a role in it that was right for him and it so happened that there was a role that was right for me and we both got cast , but it wasn 't a conversation that we had that it would be a good idea if we did a television series together because that 's not the way life works " .
Both Rachel and Janet are Detective Constables in the Major Incident Team of the Manchester Metropolitan Police Service , with the team headed by DCI Gill Murray ( Amelia Bullmore ) , who is loosely based on Diane Taylor . Producers were undecided on what age DCI Murray would be , but had originally pictured an actress older than Bullmore . After auditioning , Bullmore returned a month later , intent on playing Murray " tough " , however , when meeting casting director Beverley Keogh in the toilets beforehand , Bullmore recounted that Keogh said to her : " That 's not what we 've got you back for . We were interested in seeing a warmer side " .
Danny Miller joined the cast as series regular Rob Waddington in series 3 and Tracie Bennett also appeared in the third series as DC Bailey 's estranged mother , Sharon . In a continuing story arc for the third series , Nicola Walker was cast in the role of Helen Bartlett , a character driven to emotional instability by past events unearthed by the Manchester Metropolitan Police . In preparation for the role Walker visited a psychologist in order to build upon her characterisation .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography for the first series took place in a twelve @-@ week window from November 2010 onwards , it was reported by Female First . The series was filmed on location in and around Greater Manchester . Jones mentioned that " On the first day of filming [ she and Sharp ] were stuck in a car on the moors " . Oldham was another location chosen for filming , with local press reporting that Beal Lane in Shaw was used for filming . The Oldham Evening Chronicle supplied specially mocked @-@ up newspapers to be used as props in filming . Other locations such as Manchester Crown Court were used for filming . The Major Incident Team 's headquarters for the first three series were filmed in an old Barclays branch on Silver Street , Bury . The filming location used the team 's new station , the fictional Oldham Road police station , took place at former Greater Manchester Police Grey Mare Lane police station in Beswick . A local mortuary was also used for filming scenes . The programme was also granted permission to film in HM Prison Risley in Cheshire , where locations manager James Muirhead and a crew of 35 filmed for a day .
Sharp , when describing filming with her husband , Gleaves , who plays her on @-@ screen lover , said , " there aren 't too many people who can go to work and have an affair with their husband " . When discussing the filming of Scott & Bailey , Jones said " I can 't pretend it wasn 't a tough shoot , both emotionally and physically , because it was " , before adding that on the last day of filming she had to shoot a gruelling scene involving her chasing a suspect from a crime scene , while Sharp and Bullmore " were having massages and facials ready for the wrap party " .
When Scott & Bailey was recommissioned for a second series it was announced that production on the series would commence at the end of October 2011 , to be aired in 2012 . In November it was reported that while filming on Hamilton Road , Whitefield — the set of DC Scott 's home — that an emergency call was made after a member of the television crew , a lighting technician , became stranded atop a " cherry @-@ picker style platform " 12 metres ( 39 ft ) above the ground . Fearing the mechanism could fail and cause the crew member to fall to the ground , they sought assistance from firefighters , who safely brought the technician to the ground . In February 2012 , The Sun reported that series 2 was still being filmed , with Jones pictured on location in Manchester with a prosthetic wound on her forehead .
Filming for series 3 began in November 2012 , with an airing date scheduled for May 2013 . In November Jones and Sharp were photographed filming on location in Manchester for the series . As the fourth series had a different air date ( its television broadcast began in September , unlike May for the three previous series ) it became the first series not to be filmed in the winter months . A longer break in production between series 3 and 4 was the reason that the fourth series was instead filmed in summer .
= = Cast and characters = =
= = Episodes = =
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Debuting to strong viewing figures and with a fairly positive critical reception , Scott & Bailey ran from 29 May 2011 until 3 July over the course of six episodes . The second series premiered 12 March 2012 and consisted of eight episodes . A third series was announced 28 May 2012 , began filming November 2012 , and premiered on 3 April 2013 . In August 2013 , it was announced that a fourth series had been commissioned , with production set to begin in the spring of 2014 . With filming several months earlier in the year , series 4 began broadcasting on ITV on 10 September 2014 and finished on 29 October 2014 . On 31 July 2015 , ITV renewed Scott & Bailey for a three @-@ part fifth series . Scott & Bailey has received generally good reviews thus far . Tom Sutcliffe of The Independent remarked that although it was a " less @-@ than @-@ courageous decision " for ITV to commission a detective drama for Sunday nights , Scott & Bailey had " genuine signs of life in the thing " . Sam Wollaston of The Guardian , however , questioned the plausibility of the idea that the character of Rachel would not realise her partner of two years was already married , considering she was a detective , and described the series as " Lewis with skirts on " . However , Grace Dent , also of The Guardian , described it as " of great televisual comfort " . Alexandra Heminsley , another writer for The Guardian , described it as " a genuinely gripping crime series " and added : " what about a second series ? " Euan Ferguson of The Observer stated that it was " actually rather gripping " . Horatia Harrod , reviewing the third series for The Daily Telegraph , praised the programme 's script and its likeness to reality in portraying the professional conduct of modern policing , stating : " this is a beautifully engineered programme : it 's both pleasingly sudsy and deliciously grisly , but manages to transcend both the soap and detective genres [ ... ] Somehow Sally Wainwright , the show 's creator and writer , has made the traditionally dull quality of professional competence seem positively thrilling " .
John Preston of The Daily Telegraph gave a mixed review : though he commended the acting of Sharp and Jones , he stated that " it badly needs some shape and tension " . The Metro took a decidedly critical stance , with its reviews getting progressively worse with each new episode ; first describing it as " comforting but could have been so much better " , then later quipping that " Scott & Bailey will never be compelling TV " , and that the programme was " a mediocre crime drama amidst a saturated market of mediocre crime dramas " .
One of the more persistent criticisms of the show ( especially its first two series ) has been its indifferent or decidedly negative depiction of male characters . Tim Oglethorpe , reviewing the first series in the Daily Mail , wrote that " the men often appear to be feckless , devious or dangerous " and stated that DS Andy Roper ( Gleaves ) was " the only man to emerge with any credit " . Dianne Butler , who reviewed the programme upon its airing in Australia , made a similar point , questioning the relevance of the show 's male characters : " there are some men in this but they 're fairly incidental " . The Guardian 's John Crace expressed his belief that most of the programme 's male characters are deficient in some way , writing : " surely it must be possible to make a show with women lead characters without having to make every male a complete dork ? From Janet 's useless husband and Rachel 's idiot brother who can 't boil an egg without burning down the kitchen " .
The performances of Amelia Bullmore and Nicola Walker in the Series 3 finale were highly praised . Julia Raeside of The Guardian commented that both " give an incredible acting masterclass that will take your breath away . Truly gripping and the jewel in ITV 's increasingly impressive drama crown . Splendid stuff . " The series was nominated for the BAFTA TV award for Best Drama Series in both 2012 and 2013 .
= = = Television ratings = = =
Since Scott & Bailey 's debut it has fared well in the ratings . Days after its premiere , The Sun reported that overnight figures suggested 8 @.@ 2 million watched the episode , which was , according to the newspaper , the most successful drama launch of 2011 so far . It reported that the show had secured a 33 % audience share in its timeslot . The programme 's closest rival was a broadcast of the film Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest , which received 20 @.@ 9 % of the audience share . Scott and Bailey aired as the follow @-@ on programme from Britain 's Got Talent , which had received 9 @.@ 86 million viewers and a 40 @.@ 4 % audience share in its timeslot .
The Broadcasters ' Audience Research Board ( BARB ) later released consolidated information stating that the first episode had received 8 @.@ 31 million viewers on ITV , with a further 801 @,@ 000 tuning in on ITV HD , and 310 @,@ 000 on ITV1 + 1 , totalling the viewing figures to 9 @.@ 42 for the first episode . The episode was 2011 's fourth highest @-@ rating drama broadcast , as well as the highest @-@ rating broadcast for a new drama . By episode two it was reported that Scott & Bailey has dropped nearly 1 @.@ 8 million viewers from episode one , with overnight figures suggesting 6 @.@ 14 million ( 23 @.@ 6 % ) tuned in , though it was still the number one rated programme in its timeslot . The programme continued to outperform its competitors in its timeslot until its end , beating competition including BBC One dramas Case Histories and Stolen .
= = Home video releases = =
= = = Region 1 ( U.S. and Canada ) = = =
Scott & Bailey : Season 1 , 270 minutes ( 270 + 9bonus ) ; 17 June 2014
Scott & Bailey : Season 2 , 360 minutes ( 359 + 11bonus ) ; 16 September 2014
Scott & Bailey : Season Three , 382 ( 364 + 15bonus ) minutes ; 6 October 2015
Scott & Bailey : Season Four , 359 minutes ; 1 March 2016
= Dr. Holbrook 's Military School =
Dr. Holbrook 's Military School was a military academy and boarding school for boys . The school was located in the town of Ossining and overlooked the Hudson River . After the 1906 annexation of Scarborough by the village of Briarcliff Manor , Holbrook 's became part of the village within Ossining .
The school was founded in 1864 as Mr. Tracy 's School . In 1866 , after David A. Holbrook purchased the school , it became known as Dr. Holbrook 's Military School . The school ran until 1915 , after which it was used in World War I as a field hospital and headquarters to a New York Guard regiment . From 1919 until at least 1927 , the school served as the Teachers College Country Club .
= = History = =
Saint Denis Institute was said to have occupied the land prior to the school . It was founded in 1864 as Mr. Tracy 's School , a seminary for young women on a 10 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) estate . In 1866 , Reverend David A. Holbrook , PhD , purchased the school and turned it into a boy 's school and enlarged it to 25 acres ( 10 ha ) , and it had 60 students .
After Holbrook 's death in December 1898 , Dr. Holbrook 's sons Dudley and Henry became involved with running the school . They were joined in 1899 by their brother Dwight , and ran the school until its closure as Holbrook 's Preparatory School for Boys . When it closed in 1915 the school had 80 students .
Shortly after the school 's closure , in 1917 , events in World War I had led the New York Guard 's First Provisional Regiment ( 1 @,@ 500 men operating under Colonel John B. Rose ) to guard the Croton Aqueduct . Captain Charles W. Baldwin , Chaplain of the regiment and Rector of Saint Mary 's Episcopal Church in Scarborough and also in present @-@ day Briarcliff Manor , had arranged a deal with V. Everit Macy , then the owner of the school estate , for free use of the campus and buildings for until three months after the war 's end .
The regiment , originally headquartered at Pines Bridge Inn on Croton Lake , moved its headquarters to the Holbrook Military Academy , and the academic building at the school became Field Hospital No. 2 of the Atlantic Division of the American Red Cross . The ground floor of the west wing and the mess hall on the first floor was turned into a large , well @-@ heated office with glass @-@ partitioned private offices , and equipped with typewriters and mimeograph machines . The new regimental office had strong contrast with their Pines Bridge Inn office , it having been drafty , dirt @-@ floored and poorly @-@ lit . The site opened for their use on October 8 , 1918 , and the regiment fully demobilized on February 1 , 1919 . A reunion was held at the former school grounds for many of the troops from March 23 to 25 , 1919 .
In June 1919 , V. Everit Macy gave the property , buildings , and $ 7 @,@ 500 for remodeling to the Teachers College Country Club ; Macy was chairman of the college 's board of trustees at the time . The club was founded on October 4 , 1919 and initially used a building called Hill Cottage , which it outgrew shortly thereafter . The club opened there on September 1 , 1919 and existed there until at least 1927 . Presidents included Henry C. Pearson ( 1919 – 21 ) , Jesse C. Williams ( 1921 – 23 ) , Walter H. Eddy ( 1923 – 25 ) , and Edward S. Evanden ( 1925 ) . Walter W. Law gave the club 's members ( which numbered 200 in 1920 ) the right to use Briarcliff Manor 's 9 @-@ hole golf course , the present @-@ day Trump National Golf Club .
= = Curricula = =
In 1903 the school consisted of six forms , the first two making up the lower school and the remaining four making up the upper school ; in the upper school students chose from three curricula : classical , Latin @-@ scientific , or English @-@ scientific . Students received grades for deportment , application , spelling , declamation and composition , church attendance , and skill at military drill , as well as in classes where they learned arithmetic , algebra , French , Latin , German , and Greek . Sports included baseball , football , tennis , hockey , track , athletics , and golf . The school issued a merit roll every four weeks , where students were ranked on conduct , lessons and attendance .
= = Notable people = =
George Whipple , a physician and pathologist , was a teacher at the school for a year before he started work at Johns Hopkins University . Notable students include Donn Barber , an architect , Nelson Doubleday , a publisher , Edward Avery McIlhenny , a businessman , explorer , and conservationist , John Avery McIlhenny , a businessman , soldier , politician , and public servant , Harold Medina , a lawyer , teacher and judge , and John W. Norton , a muralist and easel artist .
= The Kingsroad =
" The Kingsroad " is the second episode of the HBO medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones , first aired on April 24 , 2011 . It was written by the show creators David Benioff and D. B. Weiss , and directed by Tim Van Patten .
Nearly all the action of the episode happens during travel : Eddard Stark and his daughters accompany the king 's entourage to King 's Landing to occupy the post of Hand of the King , Tyrion joins Jon in his travel to the Wall , and the newly wed Daenerys goes with her husband 's khalasar to the city of Vaes Dothrak . Meanwhile in Winterfell a grieving Catelyn Stark watches over her unconscious son Bran .
Viewing figures were unchanged from the premiere , despite the second episode airing on Easter Sunday . Critical reception to the episode was favorable . Filming locations included several notable Northern Ireland locations , and the filming itself was complicated by the difficulty of integrating canine actors into several crucial scenes .
= = Plot = =
= = = In the Dothraki Sea | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
were announced as the bottom three and then the act with the fewest votes was automatically eliminated . The remaining two acts then performed in the final showdown for the judges ' votes .
Judges ' votes to eliminate
Walsh : Wagner – based on the final showdown performances
Minogue : Wagner – backed Byrne whom she thought was the better singer
Cole : Wagner – gave no reason
Cowell was not required to vote as there was already a majority , but stated that he would have voted for Wagner as he wanted to return the show to being a talent competition
= = = = Week 9 : Semi @-@ final ( 4 / 5 December ) = = = =
Themes : Club classics ; " songs to get you to the final " ( no theme )
Musical guests : Alexandra Burke ( " The Silence " ) , Glee Cast ( " Don 't Stop Believin ' " ) and The Black Eyed Peas ( " The Time ( Dirty Bit ) " )
For the first time in The X Factor history , the judges chose which act they wanted to see progress to the final .
Judges ' votes to send through to the final
Walsh : Mary Byrne – backed his own act , Mary Byrne
Minogue : Cher Lloyd – said she felt the emotion in Lloyd 's performance
Cole : Cher Lloyd – backed her own act , Cher Lloyd
Cowell : Cher Lloyd – gave no reason
= = = = Week 10 : Final ( 11 / 12 December ) = = = =
11 December
Themes : No theme ; celebrity duets
Group performance : " Flashdance ... What a Feeling " ( all finalists )
Musical guests : Rihanna ( " What 's My Name ? " ) and Christina Aguilera ( " Express " )
12 December
Themes : No theme ; winner 's single
Group performances : " Never Forget " ( performed with Take That ) and " Bad Romance " ( auditionees )
Musical guest : Take That ( " Never Forget " with finalists ) and ( " The Flood " )
= = Charity single = =
The series 7 finalists recorded a cover of David Bowie 's 1977 song " Heroes " as a charity single in aid of Help for Heroes , a charity which supports injured servicemen and women . The song was recorded in the week beginning 18 October 2010 . The video for the single was filmed on 2 November at Three Mills Studios . All sixteen finalists performed the song on 20 November 's results show . It was the third year in a row that finalists have released a charity record . The single entered both the Irish Singles Chart on 25 November 2010 and the UK Singles Chart on 28 November 2010 at number 1 .
= = Winner 's single = =
It was reported on 2 December 2010 by the Daily Mirror that the final five contestants , Mary Byrne , Matt Cardle , Cher Lloyd , One Direction and Rebecca Ferguson , would each record a different song , rather than the same song as in previous series , for their potential debut single . The change was made after Cowell reportedly increased the budget as he wanted songs to suit each act . It was reported on 10 December that Cardle 's song would be " Many of Horror " , Lloyd 's would be " Impossible " , Ferguson 's would be " Distant Dreamer " and One Direction 's song would be " Forever Young " . Cardle and Ferguson performed their songs in the final as the last two remaining acts and upon Cardle 's winning the contest , his version of " Many of Horror " , renamed to " When We Collide " , was released . It entered both the UK and Ireland Singles Charts at number 1 .
= = Voting , revenue and sponsorship = =
Over the course of the live shows , 15 @,@ 488 @,@ 019 votes were cast . Votes made via landline telephones or from the Red Button service cost 35 pence each , with calls made from mobile telephones expected to be more expensive . The votes brought in revenue of more than £ 5 @.@ 4 million , though it was expected to be a lot higher because of the unknown cost of mobile phone votes . Proceeds were split between production company Syco , co @-@ producer FremantleMedia , broadcaster ITV and phone vote operator Harvest Media . Advertising slots during the final were sold for up to £ 250 @,@ 000 , which expected to bring in a further £ 25 million in advertising revenues , with the number of commercial breaks increased from five to six .
For the second year in a row , The X Factor was sponsored by TalkTalk , as part of a three @-@ year sponsorship deal thought to be worth £ 20 million , including sponsorship of the show , the 2011 live tour and rights to online clips . TalkTalk enlisted series 6 contestants Jedward to launch its interactive initiative on 17 August 2010 . Viewers were invited to record a video of themselves performing karaoke in front of a TalkTalk bright lights backdrop , and clips were screened as part of TalkTalk 's sponsorship break bumpers . In Ireland , where the series was broadcast on TV3 , The X Factor was sponsored by Dominos Pizza .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The first episode on 21 August attracted 11 @.@ 88 million viewers on ITV1 , the highest ever ratings for a series premiere of The X Factor . It was watched by 46 @.@ 5 % of television viewers during its original broadcast . The episode also received ratings of 568 @,@ 000 on ITV1 HD . The first live performance show on 9 October 2010 gained 12 @.@ 62 million viewers , attaining a 48 @.@ 5 % share of the audience during broadcast . The final result on 12 December was the highest rated episode with 16 @.@ 55 million viewers on ITV1 , a 51 @.@ 5 % audience share and 1 @.@ 16 million viewers on ITV1 HD . It peaked at 19 @.@ 4 million ( 18 @.@ 14 million on ITV1 and 1 @.@ 3 million on ITV1 HD ) and was the highest rated television episode of 2010 in the UK . Official ratings concluded that the series averaged 14 @.@ 13 million ( including HD ) , making it the most watched series to date . The series dominated the weekly rankings , taking up the top position for the first four weeks , then the top two positions until the final . The first part of the final was beaten into fourth rank by two episodes of Coronation Street .
= = = Controversy and criticism = = =
The seventh series of The X Factor sparked several heated controversies , with over 5 @,@ 000 complaints registered with Ofcom throughout the series . A spokesperson told the Daily Mirror newspaper that ITV bosses were worried about the number of complaints as claims that the show had become " seedy and oversexed " and accusations of fixing would tarnish the image of the show and ITV .
= = = = Contestants = = = =
On 25 August , it was announced that contestant Shirlena Johnson had been asked to leave the show because of concerns over her mental health , that she had apparently kept hidden from the producers . Johnson 's successful audition was broadcast on 21 August . Johnson 's mother claimed that producers knew of Johnson 's medical history as they requested her general practitioner 's details at bootcamp , but producers said the medical report arrived late . A spokesperson said , " The welfare of contestants is of paramount importance , and for this reason it has been agreed that Shirlena Johnson should not continue in the competition . "
The decision to form two groups , Belle Amie and One Direction , from soloists at the end of the bootcamp stage was branded unfair by some of the other groups , as neither had entered the competition as groups . The controversy deepened after Cowell put through both Belle Amie and One Direction and picked just one of the original applicants . Cowell defended the decision , saying that the existing groups were not good enough and other groups such as The Wanted and the Spice Girls were created similarly .
More controversy erupted after the News of the World reported that after failing to qualify in 2009 , Treyc Cohen signed a management deal with Artimis Music Management Ltd that landed her a recording contract in October that year with Birmingham @-@ based Ajoupa Records and she released a single entitled " A Time to Be Heard " . The rules of The X Factor strictly forbid record deals while a contestant is on the show . According to the newspaper , The X Factor was attempting to release Cohen from her management deal and remove the single from sale . Katie Waissel also had to be released from a contract in the United States after her audition .
= = = = Judges ' actions = = = =
Controversy was caused when Cole chose not to send popular contestant Gamu Nhengu through to the live shows . Nhengu was an early favourite to win and many viewers were angry that Waissel and Cher Lloyd were put through despite failing to complete their performances at judges ' houses . Around 1 @,@ 000 people complained to ITV and by 7 October 220 @,@ 000 had joined a Facebook page called " Gamu Should Have Got Through " . Cole reportedly became the target of death threats , and took extra security precautions in her home as well as at The X Factor . Bookmaker Paddy Power were forced to give odds on Nhengu winning the show after a large number of bets were placed , and made her the favourite to win , but all punters had their losing bets refunded when Nhengu was not chosen as Cole 's wildcard . There was speculation that Cole was pressured by producers to axe Nhengu over issues with her visa , but Cheryl denied those claims , saying it was entirely down to her " gut instinct " and that she believed Lloyd , Waissel and Rebecca Ferguson were the best singers in her category . Later in her 2012 autobiography Cheryl : My Story , Cheryl confessed that she had chosen Waissel for the live shows because she was more entertaining , claiming ... " [ Cowell ] had spent the past two years drumming into me that we needed acts who would be ' good TV . ' ... she had the character and drive it took to withstand the pressure of the show , and so I put her through , even though she messed up when she sang in front of Will.i.am. "
More than 1 @,@ 000 viewers complained to ITV and more than 2 @,@ 000 to Ofcom when , in week 5 of the live shows , Cole refused to vote off either act in the bottom two ( Cohen and Waissel ) and was not allowed to vote last and force a deadlock . A spokesperson for The X Factor explained : " A judge can abstain from placing a vote . [ Cole ] made it clear that she would not send anyone home and therefore abstained from voting . [ O 'Leary ] went back to her to clarify that it was going to go to a majority vote if she did that . [ Cole ] was unable to take the vote to deadlock as deadlock requires a valid active vote . " However , a Daily Mail poll of 6 @,@ 890 people showed that 4 @,@ 795 of them wanted Cole to be sacked for refusing to vote . O 'Leary revealed that during the previous commercial break , when the bottom two was known to the producers , they realized that Cole might abstain and decided in that if she did , they would go to a majority vote . After the series ended , voting statistics showed that Waissel received fewer votes than Cohen , meaning that if the result had gone to deadlock , Waissel would have been eliminated instead of Cohen .
= = = = Accusations of fixing = = = =
After O 'Leary 's revelation that producers had rehearsed what would happen if Cole abstained in week 5 , allegations were made that the result was rigged for Waissel to stay , given that her outlandish performances and growing unpopularity with the public resulted in better ratings and sensational press for the show . Cowell denied this claim , saying he would never want to defraud viewers and said the situation had " been blown out of proportion " . O 'Leary defended himself and the show on Twitter , saying " We never know which way the judges are going to vote . Ever . The only thing I know is who 's in the bottom two when I 'm given the card . I don 't know which judge to go to until I 'm called and the judges , including [ Cowell ] , don 't know the vote or who we 're coming to next . It 's that simple . " The following week , Heat magazine printed a report claiming that Cowell was aware of the public votes before the judges make their votes , and several other media reports contained rumours of the show being fixed . The X Factor 's bosses instructed their lawyers to file a formal complaint to the Press Complaints Commission against Heat , saying that the article was a lie , that very few people know the actual public voting results and conspiracy theories being printed in the media are " total and utter rubbish " . Heat printed an apology in their 1 January 2011 issue and accepted that Cowell was unaware of the votes cast until after the final .
There were accusations from viewers of fixing during the semi @-@ final when O 'Leary announced that only the public 's votes would decide which contestants would make it through to the final , but the next day this was changed and there was a final showdown . The show 's official website also stated that it would be decided by public vote , and Walsh confirmed it on a radio show earlier in the week . It was the first time in the show 's history that the judges were given a vote in a semi @-@ final . A spokesperson insisted the change was decided weeks in advance . Cowell ( incorrectly ) stated that " There has always been a sing @-@ off when there are five people left in the competition . This is a lot of nonsense about nothing . " However , eliminated contestant Mary Byrne said she believed the decision would be solely down to the public until the day of the semi @-@ final performances and even claimed that Cowell did not want her in the final . Following Byrne 's comments , Cowell wrote an open letter to the viewers in the Daily Mirror , saying :
" It 's always our sole intention to try and make the show as entertaining and hopefully exciting every week . Our main focus is to ensure that the contestants are given every opportunity to benefit from being on the show and show their talent . Throughout the series I have met with fans of the show on a regular basis and have listened and acted on their feedback . I believe they have enjoyed the changes in the show this year and I feel it 's been a better series as it hasn 't followed the same pattern as before . This year we decided to give four contestants a second chance and introduce them as wild card entrants on the first live show . And having 16 finalists rather than just 12 meant that we introduced both single and double eliminations . We decided for the first time some weeks ago to put four people into the final and this meant having five semi @-@ finalists . We also felt it would be fairer that there would be a sing @-@ off rather than automatic elimination as there were more contestants . I understand new decisions are seen as controversial by our viewers but it stops the show becoming boring . As the excitement heats up , debates begin but I do want to assure people that the show is definitely not fixed . The sing @-@ off on Sunday was something that was always going to happen regardless of who was in the bottom two . The contestants all prepared their save @-@ me songs on Monday last week . It was always going to be sad for whoever left . [ ... ] I have always listened to and respected our viewers and have always believed viewers ultimately make the right decision . I hope the viewers trust the show that this is a fair competition . "
Voting statistics revealed that Lloyd would have been eliminated had there been no judges ' vote .
= = = = Pitch @-@ correction use = = = =
Following the first episode , viewers complained on social networking websites after it appeared that pitch correction ( which has been seen as controversial in the music industry ) was used to improve the quality of some singers ' voices , and forty @-@ five viewers complained to Ofcom . Series producers claimed post @-@ production work was necessary on the show because of the number of microphones used during filming : " The judges make their decisions at the auditions stage based on what they hear on the day , live in the arena . The footage and sound is then edited and dubbed into a finished programme , to deliver the most entertaining experience possible for viewers . When it gets to the live shows , it will be all live . " It was reported on 26 August that Cowell had ordered a ban on pitch correction in future episodes , asking for them to be re @-@ edited . In October 2010 , Ofcom ruled that viewers had not been " materially misled " as pitch correction was only used during auditions and not when viewers were paying to vote for the contestants .
= = = = ' Raunchy ' final = = = =
In December 2010 , it emerged that Ofcom were investigating the show after claims that viewers were being encouraged to purchase songs recorded by guest performers Michael Bublé and Diana Vickers . Ofcom also received over 2 @,@ 868 complaints from viewers about " raunchy " dance routines from Rihanna and Christina Aguilera during the final . Although an ITV spokesperson denied the routines were inappropriate , Cowell was warned by ITV to " cut the sleaze " . In April 2011 , Ofcom ruled that there had been no breach of guidelines over the performances , and highlighted that " approximately 2 @,@ 000 " of the complaints were received after the routines were covered by the Daily Mail , and said the newspaper 's report featured a number of stills that were " significantly more graphic and close @-@ up " than material broadcast , and that were " taken from a different angle to the television cameras " .
= = = Praise and awards = = =
In its 7 December 2010 issue , Heat magazine said series 7 of The X Factor had been the best series to date , citing many of the controversies , plus events such as Lloyd singing on a spiral staircase , Wagner 's " ludicrous " performances and Walsh likening Richardson to " a little Lenny Henry " , as moments that helped make it " the most deliriously , thrilling , controversial and demented yet . [ ... ] This was the year the biggest and best show on TV somehow got bigger and better . " Before the final , Digital Spy 's reality television editor Alex Fletcher listed his five favourite moments from the series . His favourite moment was Nhengu 's elimination , on which he said " No other show can make people so passionate , angry and feel like they really know the programme 's stars . With only approximately 30 minutes of screentime , Gamu had managed to capture the hearts of millions . Whatever you think of Simon Cowell 's programmes , you have to give them credit for achieving that . "
The series won in the Most Popular Talent Show category at the 16th National Television Awards in 2011 , beating series 4 of Britain 's Got Talent , series 6 of Dancing on Ice and series 8 of Strictly Come Dancing . It was also nominated in the TV Reality Programme category at the 2011 TRIC awards , the Entertainment Programme category at the 2011 British Academy Television Awards , and the Best Talent Show category at the 2011 TV Choice Awards .
= Council of the European Union =
The Council of the European Union ( often still referred to as the Council of Ministers , or sometimes just called the Council ( Latin : Consilium ) ) is the third of the seven institutions of the European Union ( EU ) as listed in the Treaty on European Union . It is part of the essentially bicameral EU legislature ( the other legislative body being the European Parliament ) and represents the executive governments of the EU 's member states . It is based in the Justus Lipsius building in Brussels , Belgium .
= = Composition = =
The Council meets in 10 different configurations of 28 national ministers ( one per state ) . The precise membership of these configurations varies according to the topic under consideration ; for example , when discussing agricultural policy the Council is formed by the 28 national ministers whose portfolio includes this policy area ( with the related European Commissioners contributing but not voting ) .
The Presidency of the Council rotates every six months among the governments of EU member states , with the relevant ministers of the respective country holding the Presidency at any given time ensuring the smooth running of the meetings and setting the daily agenda . The continuity between presidencies is provided by an arrangement under which three successive presidencies , known as Presidency trios , share common political programmes . The Foreign Affairs Council ( national foreign ministers ) is however chaired by the Union 's High Representative .
Its decisions are made by qualified majority voting in most areas , unanimity in others . Usually where it operates unanimously , it only needs to consult the Parliament . However , in most areas the ordinary legislative procedure applies meaning both Council and Parliament share legislative and budgetary powers equally , meaning both have to agree for a proposal to pass . In a few limited areas the Council may initiate new EU law itself .
The General Secretariat of the Council of the European Union , also known as Council Secretariat , assists the Council of the European Union , the Presidency of the Council of the European Union , the European Council and the President of the European Council . The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary @-@ General of the Council of the European Union . The Secretariat is divided into seven directorates @-@ general , each administered by a director @-@ general .
= = History = =
The Council first appeared in the European Coal and Steel Community ( ECSC ) as the " Special Council of Ministers " , set up to counterbalance the High Authority ( the supranational executive , now the Commission ) . The original Council had limited powers : issues relating only to coal and steel were in the Authority 's domain , and the Council 's consent was only required on decisions outside coal and steel . As a whole , the Council only scrutinised the High Authority ( the executive ) . In 1957 , the Treaties of Rome established two new communities , and with them two new Councils : the Council of the European Atomic Energy Community ( EAEC ) and the Council of the European Economic Community ( EEC ) . However , due to objections over the supranational power of the Authority , their Councils had more powers ; the new executive bodies were known as " Commissions " .
In 1965 the Council was hit by the " empty chair crisis " . Due to disagreements between French President Charles de Gaulle and the Commission 's agriculture proposals , among other things , France boycotted all meetings of the Council . This halted the Council 's work until the impasse was resolved the following year by the Luxembourg compromise . Although initiated by a gamble of the President of the Commission , Walter Hallstein , who later on lost the Presidency , the crisis exposed flaws in the Council 's workings .
Under the Merger Treaty of 1967 , the ECSC 's Special Council of Ministers and the Council of the EAEC ( together with their other independent institutions ) were merged into the Council of the EEC , which would act as a single Council of the European Communities . In 1993 , the Council adopted the name ' Council of the European Union ' , following the establishment of the European Union by the Maastricht Treaty . That treaty strengthened the Council , with the addition of more intergovernmental elements in the three pillars system . However , at the same time the Parliament and Commission had been strengthened inside the Community pillar , curtailing the ability of the Council to act independently .
The Treaty of Lisbon abolished the pillar system and gave further powers to Parliament . It also merged the Council 's High Representative with the Commission 's foreign policy head , with this new figure chairing the foreign affairs Council rather than the rotating presidency . The European Council was declared a separate institution from the Council , also chaired by a permanent president , and the different Council configurations were mentioned in the treaties for the first time .
The development of the Council has been characterised by the rise in power of the Parliament , with which the Council has had to share its legislative powers . The Parliament has often provided opposition to the Council 's wishes . This has in some cases led to clashes between both bodies with the Council 's system of intergovernmentalism contradicting the developing parliamentary system and supranational principles .
= = Powers and functions = =
The primary purpose of the Council is to act as one of the two chambers of the EU 's legislative branch , the other chamber being the European Parliament . It also holds , jointly with the Parliament , the budgetary power of the Union and has greater control than the Parliament over the more intergovernmental areas of the EU , such as foreign policy and macroeconnomic co @-@ ordination . Finally , before the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon , it formally held the executive power of the EU which it conferred upon the European Commission .
= = = Legislative procedure = = =
The EU 's legislative authority is divided between the Council and the Parliament . As the relationships and powers of these institutions have developed , various legislative procedures have been created for adopting laws . In early times , the avis facultatif maxim was : " The Commission proposes , and the Council disposes " ; but now the vast majority of laws are now subject to the ordinary legislative procedure , which works on the principle that consent from both the Council and Parliament are required before a law may be adopted .
Under this procedure , the Commission presents a proposal to Parliament and the Council . Following its first reading the Parliament may propose amendments . If the Council accepts these amendments then the legislation is approved . If it does not then it adopts a " common position " and submits that new version to the Parliament . At its second reading , if the Parliament approves the text or does not act , the text is adopted , otherwise the Parliament may propose further amendments to the Council 's proposal . It may be rejected out right by an absolute majority of MEPs . If the Council still does not approve the Parliament 's position , then the text is taken to a " Conciliation Committee " composed of the Council members plus an equal number of MEPs . If a Committee manages to adopt a joint text , it then has to be approved in a third reading by both the Council and Parliament or the proposal is abandoned .
The few other areas that operate the special legislative procedures are justice & home affairs , budget and taxation and certain aspects of other policy areas : such as the fiscal aspects of environmental policy . In these areas , the Council or Parliament decide law alone . The procedure used also depends upon which type of institutional act is being used . The strongest act is a regulation , an act or law which is directly applicable in its entirety . Then there are directives which bind members to certain goals which they must achieve , but they do this through their own laws and hence have room to manoeuvre in deciding upon them . A decision is an instrument which is focused at a particular person or group and is directly applicable . Institutions may also issue recommendations and opinions which are merely non @-@ binding declarations .
The Council votes in one of three ways ; unanimity , simple majority , or qualified majority . In most cases , the Council votes on issues by qualified majority voting , meaning that there must be a minimum of 255 votes out of 345 ( 73 @.@ 9 % ) and a majority of member states ( sometimes a two – third majority ) . A majority representing 62 % of the EU 's population may also be taken into account . Unanimity is nearly always used where foreign policy is concerned , and in a number of cases under police and judicial co @-@ operation .
= = = Foreign affairs = = =
The legal instruments used by the Council for the Common Foreign and Security Policy are different from the legislative acts . Under the CFSP they consist of " common positions " , " joint actions " , and " common strategies " . Common positions relate to defining a European foreign policy towards a particular third @-@ country such as the promotion of human rights and democracy in Burma , a region such as the stabilisation efforts in the African Great Lakes , or a certain issue such as support for the International Criminal Court . A common position , once agreed , is binding on all EU states who must follow and defend the policy , which is regularly revised . A joint action refers to a co @-@ ordinated action of the states to deploy resources to achieve an objective , for example for mine clearing or to combat the spread of small arms . Common strategies defined an objective and commits the EUs resources to that task for four years .
= = = Budgetary authority = = =
Furthermore , the legislative branch officially holds the Union 's budgetary authority . The EU 's budget ( which is around 155 billion euro ) is subject to a form of the ordinary legislative procedure with a single reading giving Parliament power over the entire budget ( prior to 2009 , its influence was limited to certain areas ) on an equal footing to the Council . If there is a disagreement between them , it is taken to a conciliation committee as it is for legislative proposals . But if the joint conciliation text is not approved , the Parliament may adopt the budget definitively . In addition to the budget , the Council coordinates the economic policy of members .
= = Organisation = =
The Council 's rules of procedure contain the provisions necessary for its organisation and functioning .
= = = Presidency = = =
The Presidency of the Council is not a single post , but is held by a member state 's government . Every six months the presidency rotates between the states , in an order predefined by the Council 's members , allowing each state to preside over the body . From 2007 , every three member states co @-@ operate for their combined eighteen months on a common agenda , although only one formally holds the presidency for the normal six @-@ month period . For example , the President for the second half of 2007 , Portugal , was the second in a trio of states alongside Germany and Slovenia with whom Portugal had been co @-@ operating . The Council meets in various configurations ( as outlined below ) so its membership changes depending upon the issue . The person chairing the Council will always be the member from the state holding the Presidency . A delegate from the following Presidency also assists the presiding member and may take over work if requested . The exception however is the foreign affairs council , which has been chaired by the High Representative since the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty .
The role of the Presidency is administrative and political . On the administrative side it is responsible for procedures and organising the work of the Council during its term . This includes summoning the Council for meetings along with directing the work of COREPER and other committees and working groups . The political element is the role of successfully dealing with issues and mediating in the Council . In particular this includes setting the agenda of the council , hence giving the Presidency substantial influence in the work of the Council during its term . The Presidency also plays a major role in representing the Council within the EU and representing the EU internationally , for example at the United Nations .
= = = Configurations = = =
Legally speaking , the Council is a single entity , but it is in practice divided into several different council configurations ( or ‘ ( con ) formations ’ ) . Article 16 ( 6 ) of the Treaty on European Union provides :
The Council shall meet in different configurations , the list of which shall be adopted in accordance with Article 236 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union .
The General Affairs Council shall ensure consistency in the work of the different Council configurations . It shall prepare and ensure the follow @-@ up to meetings of the European Council , in liaison with the President of the European Council and the Commission .
The Foreign Affairs Council shall elaborate the Union 's external action on the basis of strategic guidelines laid down by the European Council and ensure that the Union 's action is consistent .
Each council configuration deals with a different functional area , for example agriculture and fisheries . In this formation , the council is composed of ministers from each state government who are responsible for this area : the agriculture and fisheries ministers . The chair of this council is held by the member from the state holding the presidency ( see section above ) . Similarly , the Economic and Financial Affairs Council is composed of national finance ministers , and they are still one per state and the chair is held by the member coming from the presiding country . The Councils meet irregularly throughout the year except for the three major configurations ( top three below ) which meet once a month . There are currently ten formations :
General Affairs ( GAC ) : General affairs co @-@ ordinates the work of the Council , prepares for European Council meetings and deals with issues crossing various council formations .
Foreign Affairs ( FAC ) : Chaired by the High Representative , rather than the Presidency , it manages the CFSP , CSDP , trade and development co @-@ operation . It sometimes meets in a defence configuration .
Economic and Financial Affairs ( Ecofin ) : Composed of economics and finance ministers of the member states . It includes budgetary and eurozone matters via an informal group composed only of eurozone member ministers .
Agriculture and Fisheries ( Agrifish ) : Composed of the agriculture and fisheries ministers of the member states . It considers matters concerning the Common Agricultural Policy , the Common Fisheries Policy , forestry , organic farming , food and feed safety , seeds , pesticides , and fisheries .
Justice and Home Affairs ( JHA ) : This configuration brings together Justice ministers and Interior Ministers of the Member States . Includes civil protection .
Employment , Social Policy , Health and Consumer Affairs ( EPSCO ) : Composed of employment , social protection , consumer protection , health and equal opportunities ministers .
Competitiveness ( COMPET ) : Created in June 2002 through the merging of three previous configurations ( Internal Market , Industry and Research ) . Depending on the items on the agenda , this formation is composed of ministers responsible for areas such as European affairs , industry , tourism and scientific research . With the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty , the EU acquired competence in space matters , and space policy has been attributed to the Competitiveness Council
Transport , Telecommunications and Energy ( TTE ) : Created in June 2002 , through the merging of three policies under one configuration , and with a composition varying according to the specific items on its agenda . This formation meets approximately once every two months .
Environment ( ENV ) : Composed of environment ministers , who meet about four times a year .
Education , Youth , Culture and Sport ( EYC ) : Composed of education , culture , youth , communications and sport ministers , who meet around three or four times a year . Includes audiovisual issues .
Complementing these , the Political and Security Committee ( PSC ) brings together ambassadors to monitor international situations and define policies within the CSDP , particularly in crises . The European Council is similar to a configuration of the Council , it operates in a similar way and but is composed of the national leaders ( heads of government or state ) and has its own President , currently Donald Tusk . The body 's purpose is to define the general " impetus " of the Union . The European Council deals with the major issues such as the appointment of the President of the European Commission who takes part in the body 's meetings .
Ecofin 's Eurozone component , the Euro group , is also a formal group with its own President . Its European Council counterpart is the Euro summit formalized in 2011 and the TSCG .
Following the entry into force of a framework agreement between the EU and ESA there is a Space Council configuration — a joint and concomitant meeting of the EU Council and of the ESA Council at ministerial level dealing with the implementation of the ESP adopted by both organisations .
= = = Administration = = =
The General Secretariat of the Council provides the continuous infrastructure of the Council , carrying out preparation for meetings , draft reports , translation , records , documents , agendas and assisting the presidency . The Secretary General of the Council is head of the Secretariat . The Secretariat is divided into seven directorates @-@ general , each administered by a director @-@ general .
The Committee of Permanent Representatives ( COREPER ) is a body composed of representatives from the states ( ambassadors , civil servants etc . ) who meet each week to prepare the work and tasks of the Council . It monitors and co @-@ ordinates work and deals with the Parliament on co @-@ decision legislation . It is divided into two groups of the representatives ( Coreper II ) and their deputies ( Coreper I ) . Agriculture is dealt with separately by the Special Committee on Agriculture ( SCA ) . The numerous working groups submit their reports to the Council through Coreper or SCA .
= = = Voting system = = =
The Treaty of Lisbon mandates a change in voting system from 1 November 2014 for most cases to double majority Qualified Majority Voting , replacing the voting weights system . Decisions made by the council have to be taken by 55 % of member states representing at least 65 % of the EU 's population .
Almost all members of the Council are members of a political party at national level , and most of these are members of a European @-@ level political party . However the Council is composed to represent the EU 's states rather than political parties and the nature of coalition governments in a number of states means that individual configurations would vary on which domestic party was assigned the portfolio . However the broad ideological alignment of each state does have a bearing on the nature of the law the Council produces and the extent to which the link between domestic parties puts pressure on the members in the European Parliament to vote a certain way .
The dominant Europarty is the one holding the member state ’ s seat in the European Council .
Additional Europarties are the ones which also sit in ( some configurations of ) the Council of the European Union .
= = Location = =
By a decision of the European Council at Edinburgh in December 1992 , the Council has its seat in Brussels but in April , June , and October , it holds its meetings in Luxembourg . Between 1952 and 1967 the ECSC Council held its Luxembourg meetings in the Cercle Municipal on Place d ’ Armes . Its secretariat moved on numerous occasions but between 1955 and 1967 it was housed in the Verlorenkost district of the city . In 1957 with the creation of two new Communities with their own Councils , discretion on location was given to the current President . In practice this was to be in the Château of Val @-@ Duchesse until the autumn of 1958 , at which point it moved to 2 Rue Ravensteinstraat in Brussels .
The 1965 agreement ( finalised by the Edinburgh agreement and annexed to the treaties ) on the location of the newly merged institutions , the Council was to be in Brussels but would meet in Luxembourg during April , June , and October . The ECSC secretariat moved from Luxembourg to the merged body Council secretariat in the Ravenstein building of Brussels . In 1971 the Council and its secretariat moved into the Charlemagne building , next to the Commission 's Berlaymont , but the Council rapidly ran out of space and administrative branch of the Secretariat moved to a building at 76 Rue Joseph II / Jozef II @-@ straat and during the 1980s the language divisions moved out into the Nerviens , Frère Orban , and Guimard buildings .
In 1995 the Council moved once more , into the Justus Lipsius building , across the road from Charlemagne . However , its staff was still increasing , so it continued to rent the Frère Orban building to house the Finnish and Swedish language divisions . Staff continued to increase and the Council rented , in addition to owning Justus Lipsius , the Kortenberg , Froissart , Espace Rolin , and Woluwe Heights buildings . Since acquiring the Lex building , the three aforementioned buildings are not used by the Council services any more as of 2008 . Résidence Palace has been acquired and is currently being renovated ; it will house the new press centre of the European Council , which uses the same facilities as the Council .
When the Council is meeting in Luxembourg , it meets in the Kirchberg Conference Centre and its offices are based at the European Centre on the plateau du Kirchberg . The Council has also met occasionally in Strasbourg , in various other cities , and also outside the Union : for example in 1974 when it met in Tokyo and Washington while trade and energy talks were taking place . Under the Council 's present rules of procedures the Council can , in extraordinary circumstances , hold one of its meetings outside Brussels and Luxembourg .
Within the Council 's debates , delegates may speak in any of the 24 official EU languages . Official documents are also translated into Catalan / Valencian , Basque , and Galician . Prior to the Lisbon Treaty , only minutes and voting records were made available when the Council is acting as a legislator ( published in the Official Journal of the European Union ) . Since then all meetings where the Council is legislating are open to public viewing .
= Kevin Nolan =
Kevin Anthony Jance Nolan ( born 24 June 1982 ) is an English professional footballer who last played as a midfielder for League Two club Leyton Orient . He has represented England at under @-@ 21 level .
After growing up in Toxteth , Liverpool , Nolan signed for Bolton Wanderers at the age of 16 . Part of the team that beat Preston North End in the 2001 Football League Championship play @-@ offs to gain promotion to the Premier League , he soon became a regular first @-@ team player for the club . He scored as Bolton beat Manchester United at Old Trafford in both of his first two seasons in the top tier of English football , as well as important goals that helped Bolton regularly finish in the top half of the Premier League table .
Nolan was also a first team regular as Bolton qualified for the UEFA Cup for the first time in the club 's history — where they reached the knockout stages . Following the departure of Jay @-@ Jay Okocha in 2006 , Nolan was appointed as the team captain , and he led the team again to UEFA Cup qualification and , again , eventual progression to the knockout round of the competition .
Following the arrival of Gary Megson as Bolton manager , the team 's and Nolan 's performances were criticised by a section of the club 's fans . This resulted in the midfielder completing a £ 4 million transfer to Newcastle United in the January 2009 transfer window . He formed part of the team who were relegated to the Football League Championship at the end of the season , but his performances the following season were widely praised , as he scored 18 goals — including the first hat @-@ trick of his career — to help the club gain promotion back to the Premier League as the division 's champions . Following promotion , Nolan was promoted to club captain .
In the summer of 2011 Nolan joined West Ham United on a five @-@ year contract , joining up again with Sam Allardyce , his former manager at Bolton and Newcastle . He was appointed captain soon after his arrival and led the team to an instant return to the Premier League . Nolan left West Ham United by mutual consent in August 2015 , and the following January he took over as player @-@ manager at Leyton Orient , losing his managerial role in April .
= = Early life = =
Born on 24 June 1982 in Liverpool , Merseyside , Nolan was brought up by a football @-@ playing family in Toxteth , and wanted to be a footballer from a young age . He attended Liverpool Blue Coat School and by the age of 14 , he was playing for the City of Liverpool 's schoolboys team . As a child , he supported Celtic and Liverpool , although conversely , his favourite players were Eric Cantona and Lee Sharpe of Manchester United .
= = Club career = =
= = = Bolton Wanderers = = =
Nolan was invited to a Bolton Wanderers youth team training session by a friend , and was soon signed up to the club 's books . At the age of 16 , he was handed a year @-@ to @-@ year contract , coinciding with the opening of Bolton 's academy . A year later , he signed professional terms and made his first team debut . He played the whole match , as Bolton Wanderers beat Preston North End in the First Division play @-@ off , winning promotion to the FA Premier League .
In the 2001 – 02 season , his first in the Premier League , Nolan scored eight league goals , including two at Leicester City on the opening day of the season . He also scored Bolton 's first goal as they beat Manchester United 2 – 1 at Old Trafford . The following season , he scored at Old Trafford again ; Nolan 's only goal of the season was the winner at Old Trafford in the game which saw Bolton record their second shock win at the ground in as many seasons , this time winning 1 – 0 . Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson was reported to have been seen scouting Nolan . Despite that win early in the season , the club were only saved from relegation from the Premier League on the final day of the season with a win against Middlesbrough .
In the 2003 – 04 season , Nolan 's goals against Aston Villa and Tottenham Hotspur helped Bolton finish eighth in the league . He also scored as the club beat Villa 5 – 2 in the semi @-@ finals of the League Cup , and was part of the team that was defeated 2 – 1 by Middlesbrough in the final . Despite this defeat , Nolan 's goals — a career @-@ best 12 in all competitions — helped Bolton to their highest Premier League finishing position in over forty years .
The following season , Nolan was part of the team who reached the FA Cup quarter @-@ final , before being defeated by Arsenal at the Reebok Stadium . Bolton also progressed in the league , with a 1 – 1 draw with Portsmouth in the final game of the season , and Nolan 's four league goals helping to secure UEFA Cup qualification for the first time in their history . The club reached the last 32 of the UEFA Cup the following season , with Nolan 's goal in the first round defeat of Lokomotiv Plovdiv helping the club reach the group stages . He scored the winner as the club overcame Zenit St. Petersburg 1 – 0 in the group stages , and a further nine in the league to help Bolton finish eighth , missing out on European qualification .
The 2006 – 07 season saw Nolan take over from the departed Jay @-@ Jay Okocha as club captain . His three league goals helped Bolton to again qualify for the UEFA Cup . Nolan 's long throw @-@ in set up a goal , which helped Bolton achieve a 2 – 2 draw away against German champions Bayern Munich , who dominated the match . Despite reaching the first knockout round , Bolton 's league form suffered as they were pulled into a relegation fight , eventually finishing the season one point above the relegation zone in 16th . Nolan scored in the 2 – 0 win over Sunderland in May that virtually secured the club 's Premier League status .
Having made 323 league appearances for the club , in January 2009 , Nolan began talks with representatives of Newcastle United over a move to the north @-@ east club , following perceived criticism of his performances by some of the club 's supporters .
= = = Newcastle United = = =
On 29 January 2009 , it was revealed that Newcastle had agreed a £ 4 million fee with Bolton Wanderers , which was confirmed the next day , with Nolan travelling to Tyneside to discuss terms and undergo a medical . Nolan completed his move on the same day , signing a four and a half @-@ year contract . On 22 February , Nolan received his first red card playing for Newcastle United in a home match against Everton for a two @-@ footed foul on Victor Anichebe . At the end of the season , Newcastle were relegated to the English Championship . Nolan was noted as one of the more vocal Newcastle players over the summer , demanding an end to the off the field distractions at the club , and suggesting the club should be looking to acquire players for an immediate return to the Premier League .
Nolan played a key role in Newcastle 's push for promotion the following season ; he scored his first league goal for Newcastle on 22 August against Crystal Palace , and the first hat @-@ trick of his career , as part of a 4 – 0 away win against Ipswich Town on 26 September . Nolan captained Newcastle for the first time in a 5 – 1 win against Cardiff City taking over for the absent Nicky Butt and Alan Smith . After an 11 @-@ game goal drought , Nolan picked up his 11th league goal of the season on 20 February against Preston North End in a 3 – 0 win . He followed this up with the final goal in Newcastle 's 6 – 1 home drubbing of Barnsley two games later . He was voted as the Championship Player of the Year at the Football League Awards on 16 March . On 5 April 2010 , Newcastle United secured automatic promotion to the Premier League , after fellow contenders Nottingham Forest failed to beat Cardiff City . Newcastle took to the field hours later , in front of 48 @,@ 750 fans , and Nolan scored the winner with a scissor @-@ kick in the 2 – 1 win over Sheffield United .
Nolan was named as the new Newcastle United club captain for the 2010 – 11 season , succeeding the retired Nicky Butt . Nolan scored his first goals of the season as he netted a brace in Newcastle 's 6 – 0 win against Aston Villa in their first home game . On 31 October 2010 , Nolan scored his first Premier League hat @-@ trick , achieving the feat in the Tyne – Wear derby against Sunderland in a 5 – 1 home win . Nolan scored the opener against Liverpool in new manager Alan Pardew 's first game in charge on 11 December 2010 , which Newcastle went on to win 3 – 1 . Nolan scored the opening goal in the second derby of the season against Sunderland on 16 January , which finished 1 – 1 . On 26 February 2011 , Nolan scored his 50th Premier League goal , against his former club , Bolton Wanderers at St James ' Park , which finished 1 – 1 .
= = = West Ham United = = =
West Ham confirmed the signing of Nolan on 16 June 2011 for an undisclosed fee on a five @-@ year contract , taking over the vacant number 4 shirt . Due to the departure of the previous West Ham captain , Matthew Upson , who moved to Stoke City , Nolan was immediately made captain . His league debut came on 7 August 2011 in a 1 – 0 home defeat to Cardiff City . Nolan scored his first goal for West Ham on 13 August 2011 in a 1 – 0 away win against Doncaster Rovers ; his first home goal coming on 26 November , when scored a 25 @-@ yard volley in a 3 – 1 win against Derby County . On 7 May 2012 en route to the play @-@ off final at Wembley , Nolan scored his thirteenth goal for the club against Cardiff City in a 3 – 0 win , sealing West Ham 's Wembley appearance . On 19 May 2012 he captained West Ham in the 2012 Championship play @-@ off Final against Blackpool . West Ham won the match 2 – 1 with goals from Carlton Cole and Ricardo Vaz Tê sending them back to the Premier League after a one season absence .
Nolan continued his good form into the 2012 – 13 season and scored his first goal of the season on the opening day , scoring the only goal of the game in a 1 – 0 win against Aston Villa . On 1 September , he scored inside one minute during a 3 – 0 win at home to Fulham . He scored his third goal of the season on 22 September , rescuing a point for West Ham by scoring in added time in a 1 – 1 draw at home to Sunderland . On 20 April 2013 Nolan scored his 100th career goal , netting the second goal in a 2 – 0 home victory against Wigan Athletic . Nolan wrapped up the 2012 – 13 season by scoring his second Premier League hat @-@ trick in a 4 – 2 win against Reading on 19 May 2013 . This hat @-@ trick meant that Nolan had scored 10 league goals in a season for the fourth season in succession .
Nolan started the 2013 – 14 campaign by scoring in the first game of the season again , in a 2 – 0 home win against Cardiff City . West Ham struggled in the first half of the season and Nolan 's influence on games was described as " low key " . In December 2013 he was sent @-@ off at Anfield in a defeat by Liverpool for a foul on Jordan Henderson . After serving a three match ban he was dismissed again , in only his second match back , for a foul on Fulham 's Fernando Amorebieta in a 2 – 1 defeat at Craven Cottage . He was fined two weeks wages , £ 100 @,@ 000 , by West Ham with manager Sam Allardyce considering removing the captaincy of the club from Nolan . Nolan finished as top scorer for West Ham in the 2013 – 14 season .
At the start of the 2014 – 15 season he played in the first game , a 1 – 0 home defeat to Tottenham Hotspur but before their second game he fractured his shoulder in training , an injury which was expected to keep him out of football for at least six weeks . Nolan played 29 games for West Ham in the 2014 – 15 season , 10 after coming on as a substitute . Having been top scorer in the previous two seasons , he scored a single goal , in a 2 – 1 away win against West Bromwich Albion in December 2014 . Nolan received criticism for some of his performances during the season , notably from some West Ham supporters and from Jack Sullivan , the son of West Ham 's co @-@ chairman , David Sullivan .
His last game for the club came on 22 August 2015 against Bournemouth . Starting the game , Nolan was substituted for Matt Jarvis at half @-@ time with his side already 2 – 0 behind in an eventual 4 – 3 home loss . Five days later , Nolan left West Ham United by mutual consent after four years at the club . He had played 157 games for West Ham in all competitions , scoring 31 goals .
= = = Leyton Orient = = =
On 21 January 2016 , Nolan was announced as the player @-@ manager of Leyton Orient , signing a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half year deal with the club . Two days later , he won his first match as manager in League Two , 2 – 0 at Wycombe Wanderers , with himself as an unused substitute . On 26 January , against Newport County at Brisbane Road , he made his debut in the 79th minute for Calaum Jahraldo @-@ Martin , and sent in the cross from which the O 's won a penalty kick which Jay Simpson converted for the only goal of the game . He made his first start for the club in the away game against Portsmouth on 6 February , where he played 70 minutes in a 1 @-@ 0 victory for Leyton Orient .
Nolan 's Orient team won three of the four league games in his first full month of management , only losing to league leaders , Northampton Town , and keeping three clean sheets . This led to him being nominated for February 's manager of the month award , which eventually went to Chris Wilder of Northampton . On 12 April 2016 , with the team two points off the play @-@ offs , Nolan was relieved of his duties as manager of Orient , the role transferring to Andy Hessenthaler . He left the club altogether on 6 July .
= = International career = =
Nolan has previously been called up to the England Under @-@ 18s and Under @-@ 21s and some commentators acknowledged that he could be a future candidate for the England squad . Reports have claimed that Nolan could be called up to the Republic of Ireland or Netherlands squads due to his ancestry .
On 12 November 2012 , Nolan was quoted saying he has been left hurt by being regularly over @-@ looked by England managers .
= = Personal life = =
Nolan became engaged in 2005 , and married his fiancée Hayley in the summer of 2008 . The couple had their first child , a daughter , in November 2006 . Their second child , a son , was born in January 2010 .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 9 April 2016 .
= = Managerial statistics = =
As of 12 April 2016 .
= = Honours = =
Bolton Wanderers
Football League First Division play @-@ offs : 2000 – 01
Newcastle United
Football League Championship : 2009 – 10
West Ham United
Football League Championship play @-@ offs : 2011 – 12
Individual
Premier League Player of the Month : February 2006
Football League Championship Player of the Year : 2009 – 10 .
Football League Championship Fans ' Player of the Month : October 2009
PFA Championship Team of the Year : 2009 – 10
Football League Championship Player of the Month : April 2010
Football League Championship Player of the Year 2011 – 12 nomination
Football League Reviewers Championship Team of the Year 2011 – 12
= Samuel Adams =
Samuel Adams ( September 27 [ O.S. September 16 ] 1722 – October 2 , 1803 ) was an American statesman , political philosopher , and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States . As a politician in colonial Massachusetts , Adams was a leader of the movement that became the American Revolution , and was one of the architects of the principles of American republicanism that shaped the political culture of the United States . He was a second cousin to President John Adams .
Born in Boston , Adams was brought up in a religious and politically active family . A graduate of Harvard College , he was an unsuccessful businessman and tax collector before concentrating on politics . As an influential official of the Massachusetts House of Representatives and the Boston Town Meeting in the 1760s , Adams was a part of a movement opposed to the British Parliament 's efforts to tax the British American colonies without their consent . His 1768 Massachusetts Circular Letter calling for colonial non @-@ cooperation prompted the occupation of Boston by British soldiers , eventually resulting in the Boston Massacre of 1770 . To help coordinate resistance to what he saw as the British government 's attempts to violate the British Constitution at the expense of the colonies , in 1772 Adams and his colleagues devised a committee of correspondence system , which linked like @-@ minded Patriots throughout the Thirteen Colonies . Continued resistance to British policy resulted in the 1773 Boston Tea Party and the coming of the American Revolution .
After Parliament passed the Coercive Acts in 1774 , Adams attended the Continental Congress in Philadelphia , which was convened to coordinate a colonial response . He helped guide Congress towards issuing the Continental Association in 1774 , the Declaration of Independence in 1776 , and helped draft the Articles of Confederation and the Massachusetts Constitution . Adams returned to Massachusetts after the American Revolution , where he served in the state senate and was eventually elected governor .
Samuel Adams later became a controversial figure in American history . Accounts written in the 19th century praised him as someone who had been steering his fellow colonists towards independence long before the outbreak of the Revolutionary War . This view gave way to negative assessments of Adams in the first half of the 20th century , in which he was portrayed as a master of propaganda who provoked mob violence to achieve his goals . Both of these interpretations have been challenged by some modern scholars , who argue that these traditional depictions of Adams are myths contradicted by the historical record .
= = Early life = =
Samuel Adams was born in Boston in the British colony of Massachusetts on September 16 , 1722 , an Old Style date that is sometimes converted to the New Style date of September 27 . Adams was one of twelve children born to Samuel Adams , Sr. , and Mary ( Fifield ) Adams ; in an age of high infant mortality , only three of these children would live past their third birthday . Adams 's parents were devout Puritans and members of the Old South Congregational Church . The family lived on Purchase Street in Boston . Adams was proud of his Puritan heritage , and emphasized Puritan values , especially virtue , in his political career .
Samuel Adams , Sr. ( 1689 – 1748 ) was a prosperous merchant and church deacon . Deacon Adams became a leading figure in Boston politics through an organization that became known as the Boston Caucus , which promoted candidates who supported popular causes . The Boston Caucus helped shape the agenda of the Boston Town Meeting . A New England town meeting is a form of local government with elected officials , and not just a gathering of citizens ; it was , according to historian William Fowler , " the most democratic institution in the British empire " . Deacon Adams rose through the political ranks , becoming a justice of the peace , a selectman , and a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives . He worked closely with Elisha Cooke , Jr . ( 1678 – 1737 ) , the leader of the " popular party " , a faction that resisted any encroachment by royal officials on the colonial rights embodied in the Massachusetts Charter of 1691 . In the coming years , members of the " popular party " would become known as Whigs or Patriots .
The younger Samuel Adams attended Boston Latin School and then entered Harvard College in 1736 . His parents hoped that his schooling would prepare him for the ministry , but Adams gradually shifted his interest to politics . After graduating in 1740 , Adams continued his studies , earning a master 's degree in 1743 . His thesis , in which he argued that it was " lawful to resist the Supreme Magistrate , if the Commonwealth cannot otherwise be preserved " , indicated that his political views , like his father 's , were oriented towards colonial rights .
Adams 's life was greatly affected by his father 's involvement in a banking controversy . In 1739 , with Massachusetts facing a serious currency shortage , Deacon Adams and the Boston Caucus created a " land bank " , which issued paper money to borrowers who mortgaged their land as security . The land bank was generally supported by the citizenry and the popular party , which dominated the House of Representatives , the lower branch of the General Court . Opposition to the land bank came from the more aristocratic " court party " , who were supporters of the royal governor and controlled the Governor 's Council , the upper chamber of the General Court . The court party used its influence to have the British Parliament dissolve the land bank in 1741 . Directors of the land bank , including Deacon Adams , became personally liable for the currency still in circulation , payable in silver and gold . Lawsuits over the bank persisted for years , even after Deacon Adams 's death , and the younger Samuel Adams would often have to defend the family estate from seizure by the government . For Adams , these lawsuits " served as a constant personal reminder that Britain 's power over the colonies could be exercised in arbitrary and destructive ways " .
= = Early career = =
After leaving Harvard in 1743 , Adams was unsure about his future . He considered becoming a lawyer , but instead decided to go into business . He worked at Thomas Cushing 's counting house , but the job only lasted a few months because Cushing felt that Adams was too preoccupied with politics to become a good merchant . Adams 's father then loaned him £ 1 @,@ 000 to go into business for himself , a substantial amount for that time . Adams 's lack of business instincts were confirmed : he loaned half of this money to a friend , which was never repaid , and frittered away the other half . Adams would always remain , in the words of historian Pauline Maier , " a man utterly uninterested in either making or possessing money " .
After Adams had lost his money , his father made him a partner in the family 's malthouse , which was next to the family home on Purchase Street . Several generations of Adamses were maltsters , who produced the malt necessary for brewing beer . Years later , a poet would poke fun at Adams by calling him " Sam the maltster " . Adams has often been described as a brewer , but the extant evidence suggests that Adams worked as a maltster and not a brewer .
In January 1748 , Adams and some friends , inflamed by British impressment , launched The Independent Advertiser , a weekly newspaper that printed many political essays written by Adams . Drawing heavily upon English political theorist John Locke 's Second Treatise of Government , Adams 's essays emphasized many of the themes that would characterize his subsequent career . He argued that the people must resist any encroachment on their constitutional rights . He cited the decline of the Roman Empire as an example of what could happen to New England if it were to abandon its Puritan values .
When Deacon Adams died in 1748 , Adams was given the responsibility of managing the family 's affairs . In October 1749 , he married Elizabeth Checkley , his pastor 's daughter . Elizabeth gave birth to six children over the next seven years , but only two — Samuel ( born 1751 ) and Hannah ( born 1756 ) — would live to adulthood . In July 1757 , Elizabeth died soon after giving birth to a stillborn son . Adams would remarry in 1764 , to Elizabeth Wells , but would have no other children .
Like his father , Adams embarked on a political career with the support of the Boston Caucus . He was elected to his first political office in 1747 , serving as one of the clerks of the Boston market . In 1756 the Boston Town Meeting elected him to the post of tax collector , which provided a small income . Adams often failed to collect taxes from his fellow citizens , which increased his popularity among those who did not pay , but left him liable for the shortage . By 1765 , Adams 's account was more than £ 8 @,@ 000 in arrears . Because the town meeting was on the verge of bankruptcy , Adams was compelled to file suit against delinquent taxpayers , but many taxes went uncollected . In 1768 , Adams 's political opponents would use the situation to their advantage , obtaining a court judgment of £ 1 @,@ 463 against him . Adams 's friends paid off some of the deficit , and the town meeting wrote off the remainder . By then , Adams had emerged as a leader of the popular party , and the embarrassing situation did not lessen his influence .
= = Struggle with Great Britain = =
Samuel Adams emerged as an important public figure in Boston soon after the British Empire 's victory in the Seven Years ' War ( 1756 – 1763 ) . Finding itself deep in debt and looking for new sources of revenue , the British Parliament sought , for the first time , to directly tax the colonies of British America . This tax dispute was part of a larger divergence between British and American interpretations of the British Constitution and the extent of Parliament 's authority in the colonies .
= = = Sugar Act = = =
The first step in the new program was the Sugar Act of 1764 . Adams saw the act as an infringement of longstanding colonial rights . Because colonists were not represented in Parliament , he argued , they could not be taxed by that body ; only the colonial assemblies , where the colonists were represented , could levy taxes upon | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the colonies . Adams expressed these views in May 1764 , when the Boston Town Meeting elected its representatives to the Massachusetts House . As was customary , the town meeting provided the representatives with a set of written instructions , which Adams was selected to write . Adams highlighted what he perceived to be the dangers of taxation without representation :
For if our Trade may be taxed , why not our Lands ? Why not the Produce of our Lands & everything we possess or make use of ? This we apprehend annihilates our Charter Right to govern & tax ourselves . It strikes at our British privileges , which as we have never forfeited them , we hold in common with our Fellow Subjects who are Natives of Britain . If Taxes are laid upon us in any shape without our having a legal Representation where they are laid , are we not reduced from the Character of free Subjects to the miserable State of tributary Slaves ?
" When the Boston Town Meeting approved the Adams instructions on May 24 , 1764 , " wrote historian John K. Alexander , " it became the first political body in America to go on record stating Parliament could not constitutionally tax the colonists . The directives also contained the first official recommendation that the colonies present a unified defense of their rights . " Adams 's instructions were published in newspapers and pamphlets . Adams soon became closely associated with James Otis , Jr . , a member of the Massachusetts House famous for his defense of colonial rights . Although Otis boldly challenged the constitutionality of certain acts of Parliament , he would not go as far as Adams , who was moving towards the conclusion that Parliament did not have sovereignty over the colonies .
= = = Stamp Act = = =
In 1765 , Parliament passed the Stamp Act , which required colonists to pay a new tax on most printed materials . News of the passage of the Stamp Act produced an uproar in the colonies . The colonial response echoed Adams 's 1764 instructions . In June 1765 , Otis called for a Stamp Act Congress to coordinate colonial resistance . The Virginia House of Burgesses passed a widely reprinted set of resolves against the Stamp Act that resembled Adams 's arguments against the Sugar Act . Not only did Adams argue that the Stamp Act was unconstitutional ; he also believed that it would hurt the economy of the British Empire . He supported calls for a boycott of British goods to put pressure on Parliament to repeal the tax .
In Boston , a group called the Loyal Nine , a precursor to the Sons of Liberty , organized protests of the Stamp Act . Adams was friendly with the Loyal Nine , but was not a member . On August 14 , stamp distributor Andrew Oliver was hanged in effigy from Boston 's Liberty Tree ; that night , his home was ransacked and his office demolished . On August 26 , lieutenant governor Thomas Hutchinson 's home was destroyed by an angry crowd .
Officials such as Governor Francis Bernard , believing that common people acted only under the direction of agitators , blamed the violence on Adams . This interpretation was revived by scholars in the early 20th century , who viewed Adams as a master of propaganda who manipulated mobs into doing his bidding . For example , in what became the standard biography of Adams , historian John C. Miller wrote in 1936 that Adams " controlled " Boston with his " trained mob " . Some modern scholars have argued that this interpretation is a myth , and that there 's no evidence that Adams had anything to do with the Stamp Act riots . After the fact , Adams did approve of the August 14 action because he saw no other legal options to resist what he viewed as an unconstitutional act by Parliament , but he condemned attacks on officials ' homes as " mobbish " . According to the modern scholarly interpretation of Adams , he supported legal methods of resisting parliamentary taxation — petitions , boycotts , and nonviolent demonstrations — but he opposed mob violence , which he saw as illegal , dangerous , and counterproductive .
In September 1765 , Adams was once again appointed by the Boston Town Meeting to write the instructions for Boston 's delegation to the Massachusetts House of Representatives . As it turned out , he wrote his own instructions : on September 27 , the town meeting selected him to replace the recently deceased Oxenbridge Thacher as one of Boston 's four representatives in the assembly . With James Otis attending the Stamp Act Congress in New York City , Adams was the primary author of a series of House resolutions against the Stamp Act , which were more radical than those passed by the Stamp Act Congress . Adams was one of the first colonial leaders to argue that mankind possessed certain natural rights that governments could not violate .
Although the Stamp Act was scheduled to go into effect on November 1 , 1765 , it was not enforced because protestors throughout the colonies had compelled stamp distributors to resign . Eventually , British merchants were able to convince Parliament to repeal the tax . By May 16 , 1766 , news of the repeal had reached Boston . There was celebration throughout the city , and Adams made a public statement of thanks to British merchants for helping their cause .
The Massachusetts popular party gained ground in the May 1766 elections . Adams was reelected to the House and selected as its clerk . In the coming years , Adams would use his position as clerk , in which he was responsible for official House papers , to promote his political message with great effect . Joining Adams in the House was John Hancock , a new representative from Boston . Hancock was a wealthy merchant — perhaps the richest man in Massachusetts — but a relative newcomer to politics . Initially a protégé of Adams , Hancock used his wealth to promote the Whig cause .
= = = Townshend Acts = = =
After the repeal of the Stamp Act , Parliament took a different approach to raising revenue , passing the Townshend Acts in 1767 , which established new duties on various goods imported into the colonies . These duties were relatively low , because the British ministry wanted to establish the precedent that Parliament had the right to impose tariffs on the colonies before raising them . Revenues from these duties were to be used to pay for governors and judges who would be independent of colonial control . To enforce compliance with the new laws , the Townshend Acts created a customs agency known as the American Board of Custom Commissioners , which was headquartered in Boston .
Resistance to the Townshend Acts grew slowly . When news of the acts reached Boston in October 1767 , the General Court was not in session . Adams therefore used the Boston Town Meeting to organize an economic boycott , and called for other towns to do the same . By February 1768 , towns in Massachusetts , Rhode Island , and Connecticut had joined the boycott . Opposition to the Townshend Acts was also encouraged by Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania , a series of popular essays by John Dickinson , which started appearing in December 1767 . Dickinson 's argument that the new taxes were unconstitutional had been made before by Adams , but never to such a wide audience .
In January 1768 , the Massachusetts House sent a petition to King George asking for his help . Adams and Otis requested that the House send the petition to the other colonies , along with what became known as the Massachusetts Circular Letter , which became " a significant milestone on the road to revolution " . The letter , written by Adams , called on the colonies to join with Massachusetts in resisting the Townshend Acts . The House initially voted against sending the letter and petition to the other colonies , but after some politicking by Adams and Otis , it was approved on February 11 .
Hoping to prevent a repeat of the Stamp Act Congress , Lord Hillsborough , the British colonial secretary , instructed the colonial governors in America to dissolve the assemblies if they responded to the Massachusetts Circular Letter . He also directed Massachusetts Governor Francis Bernard to have the Massachusetts House rescind the letter . On June 30 , the House refused to rescind the letter by a vote of 92 to 17 , with Adams citing their right to petition as justification . Far from complying with the governor 's order , Adams instead presented a new petition to the king asking that Governor Bernard be removed from office . Bernard responded by dissolving the legislature .
When the commissioners of the Customs Board found that they were unable to enforce trade regulations in Boston , they requested military assistance . Help came in the form of the HMS Romney , a fifty @-@ gun warship , which arrived in Boston Harbor in May 1768 . Tensions escalated after the captain of the Romney began to impress local sailors . The situation exploded on June 10 , when customs officials seized the Liberty , a sloop owned by John Hancock — a leading critic of the Customs Board — for alleged customs violations . When sailors and marines from the Romney came ashore to tow away the Liberty , a riot broke out . Things calmed down in the following days , but fearful customs officials packed up their families and fled to the Romney and eventually to Castle William , an island fort in the harbor , for protection .
In response to the Liberty incident and the struggle over the Circular Letter , Governor Bernard wrote to London , informing his superiors that troops were needed in Boston to restore order . Lord Hillsborough ordered four regiments of the British Army to Boston .
= = = Boston under occupation = = =
Learning that British troops were on the way , the Boston Town Meeting met on September 12 , 1768 , and requested that Governor Bernard convene the General Court . Bernard refused , and so the town meeting called on the other Massachusetts towns to send representatives to meet at Faneuil Hall beginning on September 22 . About 100 towns sent delegates to the convention , which was effectively an unofficial session of the Massachusetts House . Using language more moderate than what Adams desired , the convention issued a letter that insisted that Boston was not a lawless town , and that the impending military occupation violated Bostonians ' natural , constitutional , and charter rights . By the time the convention adjourned , British troop transports had arrived in Boston Harbor . Two regiments disembarked in October 1768 , followed by two more in November .
According to some accounts , the occupation of Boston was a turning point for Adams , after which he gave up hope of reconciliation and secretly began to work towards American independence . However , in 1928 historian Carl Becker wrote that " there is no clear evidence in his contemporary writings that such was the case . " Nevertheless , the notion that Adams desired independence before most of his contemporaries , and steadily worked towards this goal for years , became part of the standard view of Adams . Historian Pauline Maier challenged that idea in 1980 , arguing instead that Adams , like most of his peers , did not embrace independence until after the American Revolutionary War had begun in 1775 . According to Maier , Adams was at this time a reformer rather than a revolutionary ; he sought to have the British ministry change its policies , and warned Britain that independence would be the inevitable result of a failure to do so .
Adams wrote numerous letters and essays in opposition to the occupation , which he considered a violation of the 1689 Bill of Rights . The occupation was publicized throughout the colonies in the Journal of Occurrences , an unsigned series of newspaper articles that may have been written by Adams in collaboration with others . In an innovative approach for an era without professional newspaper reporters , the Journal presented what it claimed to be a factual daily account of events in Boston during the military occupation . Drawing upon the traditional Anglo @-@ American distrust of standing armies garrisoned among civilians , the Journal depicted a Boston besieged by unruly British soldiers , who assaulted men and raped women with regularity and impunity . The Journal ceased publication on August 1 , 1769 , which was a day of celebration in Boston : Governor Bernard had left Massachusetts , never to return .
Adams continued to work on getting the troops withdrawn , and keeping the boycott going until the Townshend duties were repealed . Two regiments were removed from Boston in 1769 , but the other two remained . Tensions between soldiers and civilians eventually resulted in the killing of five civilians in the so @-@ called Boston Massacre of March 1770 . According to the " propagandist interpretation " of Adams popularized by historian John Miller , Adams deliberately provoked the incident to promote his secret agenda of American independence . According to Pauline Maier , however , " There is no evidence that he prompted the Boston Massacre riot " .
After the Boston Massacre , Adams and other town leaders met with Bernard 's successor , Governor Thomas Hutchinson , and Colonel William Dalrymple , the army commander , to demand the withdrawal of the troops . The situation remained explosive , and so Dalrymple agreed to remove both regiments to Castle William . Adams wanted the soldiers to have a fair trial , because this would show that Boston was not controlled by a lawless mob , but was instead the victim of an unjust occupation . He convinced his cousins John Adams and Josiah Quincy to defend the soldiers , knowing that those Whigs would not slander Boston to gain an acquittal . However , Adams wrote essays condemning the outcome of the trials ; he thought the soldiers should have been convicted of murder .
= = = " Quiet period " = = =
After the Boston Massacre , politics in Massachusetts entered what is sometimes known as the " quiet period " . In April 1770 , Parliament repealed the Townshend duties , except for the tax on tea . Adams urged colonists to keep up the boycott of British goods , arguing that paying even one small tax allowed Parliament to establish the precedent of taxing the colonies , but the boycott faltered . As economic conditions improved , support for Adams 's causes waned . In 1770 first New York City then Philadelphia abandoned the non @-@ importation boycott of British goods . Faced with the risk of being economically ruined , Boston merchants agreed to generally end the non @-@ importation and effectively defeated Samuel Adams ' cause in Massachusetts . John Adams withdrew from politics , while John Hancock and James Otis appeared to become more moderate . Adams was reelected to the Massachusetts House in April 1772 , but he received far fewer votes than ever before .
A struggle over the power of the purse brought Adams back into the political limelight . Traditionally , the Massachusetts House of Representatives paid the salaries of the governor , lieutenant governor , and superior court judges . From the Whig perspective , this arrangement , by keeping royally appointed officials accountable to democratically elected representatives , was an important check on executive power . In 1772 , Massachusetts learned that the those officials would henceforth be paid by the British government rather than by the province . To protest this development , in November 1772 Adams and his colleagues devised a system of committees of correspondence ; the towns of Massachusetts would consult with each other concerning political matters via messages sent through a network of committees that recorded British activities and protested imperial policies . Committees of correspondence soon formed in other colonies as well .
Governor Hutchinson , concerned that the committees of correspondence were growing into an independence movement , convened the General Court in January 1773 . Addressing the legislature , Hutchinson argued that to deny the supremacy of Parliament , which some committees had done , came dangerously close to rebellion . " I know of no line that can be drawn " , he said , " between the supreme authority of Parliament and the total independence of the colonies . " Adams and the House responded that the Massachusetts Charter did not establish Parliament 's supremacy over the province , and so Parliament could not claim that authority now . Hutchinson soon realized that he had made a major blunder by initiating a public debate about independence and the extent of Parliament 's authority in the colonies . The Boston Committee of Correspondence published its statement of colonial rights , along with Hutchinson 's exchange with the Massachusetts House , in the widely distributed " Boston Pamphlet " .
The quiet period in Massachusetts was over . Adams was easily reelected to the Massachusetts House in May 1773 , and was also elected as moderator of the Boston Town Meeting . In June 1773 , Adams introduced in the Massachusetts House a set of private letters written by Hutchinson several years earlier . In one letter , Hutchinson appeared to recommend to London that there should be " an abridgement of what are called English liberties " in Massachusetts . Although Hutchinson denied that this is what he meant , his career in Massachusetts was effectively over . The House sent a petition to the king asking for his recall .
= = = Tea Party = = =
Adams took a leading role in the events that led up to the famous Boston Tea Party of December 16 , 1773 , although the precise nature of his involvement has been disputed .
In May 1773 , the British Parliament passed the Tea Act , a tax law to help the struggling East India Company , one of Great Britain 's most important commercial institutions . Because of the heavy taxes imposed on tea imported into Great Britain , Britons could buy smuggled Dutch tea more cheaply than the East India Company 's tea , and so the company amassed a huge surplus of tea that it could not sell . The British government 's solution to the problem was to sell the surplus in the colonies . The Tea Act permitted the East India Company , for the first time , to export tea directly to the colonies , bypassing most of the merchants who had previously acted as middlemen . This measure was a threat to the American colonial economy because it granted the Tea Company a significant cost advantage over local tea merchants and even local tea smugglers , driving them out of business . The act also reduced the taxes on tea paid by the company in Britain , but kept the controversial Townshend duty on tea imported in the colonies . A few merchants in New York , Philadelphia , Boston , and Charlestown were selected to receive the company 's tea for resale . In late 1773 , seven ships carrying East India Company tea were sent to the colonies , including four bound for Boston .
News of the Tea Act set off a firestorm of protest in the colonies . This was not a dispute about high taxes : the price of legally imported tea was actually reduced by the Tea Act . Protesters were instead concerned with a variety of other issues . The familiar " no taxation without representation " argument , along with the question of the extent of Parliament 's authority in the colonies , remained prominent . Some colonists worried that by buying the cheaper tea , they would be conceding that Parliament had the right to tax them . The " power of the purse " conflict was still at issue : The tea tax revenues were to be used to pay the salaries of certain royal officials , making them independent of the people . Colonial smugglers played a significant role in the protests , since the Tea Act made legally imported tea cheaper , which threatened to put smugglers of Dutch tea out of business . Legitimate tea importers who had not been named as consignees by the East India Company were also threatened with financial ruin by the Tea Act , and other merchants worried about the precedent of a government @-@ created monopoly .
Adams and the correspondence committees promoted opposition to the Tea Act . In every colony except Massachusetts , protesters were able to force the tea consignees to resign or to return the tea to England . In Boston , however , Governor Hutchinson was determined to hold his ground . He convinced the tea consignees , two of whom were his sons , not to back down . The Boston Caucus and then the Town Meeting attempted to compel the consignees to resign , but they refused . With the tea ships about to arrive , Adams and the Boston Committee of Correspondence contacted nearby committees to rally support .
When the tea ship Dartmouth arrived in the Boston Harbor in late November , Adams wrote a circular letter calling for a mass meeting to be held at Faneuil Hall on November 29 . Thousands of people arrived , so many that the meeting was moved to the larger Old South Meeting House . British law required the Dartmouth to unload and pay the duties within twenty days or customs officials could confiscate the cargo . The mass meeting passed a resolution , introduced by Adams , urging the captain of the Dartmouth to send the ship back without paying the import duty . Meanwhile , the meeting assigned twenty @-@ five men to watch the ship and prevent the tea from being unloaded .
Governor Hutchinson refused to grant permission for the Dartmouth to leave without paying the duty . Two more tea ships , the Eleanor and the Beaver , arrived in Boston Harbor . The fourth ship , the William was stranded near Cape Cod and never arrived to Boston . On December 16 — the last day of the Dartmouth 's deadline — about 7 @,@ 000 people had gathered around the Old South Meeting House . After receiving a report that Governor Hutchinson had again refused to let the ships leave , Adams announced that " This meeting can do nothing further to save the country . " According to a popular story , Adams 's statement was a prearranged signal for the " tea party " to begin . However , this claim did not appear in print until nearly a century after the event , in a biography of Adams written by his great @-@ grandson , who apparently misinterpreted the evidence . According to eyewitness accounts , people did not leave the meeting until ten or fifteen minutes after Adams 's alleged " signal " , and Adams in fact tried to stop people from leaving because the meeting was not yet over .
While Adams tried to reassert control of the meeting , people poured out of the Old South Meeting House and headed to Boston Harbor . That evening , a group of 30 to 130 men , some of them thinly disguised as Mohawk Indians , boarded the three vessels and , over the course of three hours , dumped all 342 chests of tea into the water . Adams never revealed if he went to the wharf to witness the destruction of the tea . Whether or not he helped plan the event is unknown , but Adams immediately worked to publicize and defend it . He argued that the Tea Party was not the act of a lawless mob , but was instead a principled protest and the only remaining option the people had to defend their constitutional rights .
= = Revolution = =
Great Britain responded to the Boston Tea Party in 1774 with the Coercive Acts . The first of these acts , the Boston Port Act , closed Boston 's commerce until the East India Company had been repaid for the destroyed tea . The Massachusetts Government Act rewrote the Massachusetts Charter , making many officials royally appointed rather than elected , and severely restricting the activities of town meetings . The Administration of Justice Act allowed colonists charged with crimes to be transported to another colony or to Great Britain for trial . A new royal governor was appointed to enforce the acts : General Thomas Gage , who was also commander of British military forces in North America .
Adams worked to coordinate resistance to the Coercive Acts . In May 1774 , with Adams serving as moderator , the Boston Town Meeting organized an economic boycott of British goods . In June , Adams headed a committee in the Massachusetts House which proposed that an inter @-@ colonial congress meet in Philadelphia in September . With the doors locked to prevent Gage from dissolving the legislature , Adams was one of five delegates chosen to attend the First Continental Congress . Because Adams was never fashionably dressed and had little money , friends bought him new clothes and paid his expenses for the journey to Philadelphia , his first trip outside of Massachusetts .
= = = First Continental Congress = = =
In Philadelphia , Adams promoted colonial unity while using his political skills to lobby other delegates . On September 16 , messenger Paul Revere brought Congress the Suffolk Resolves , one of many resolutions passed in Massachusetts that promised strident resistance to the Coercive Acts . Congress endorsed the Suffolk Resolves , issued a Declaration of Rights that denied Parliament 's right to legislate for the colonies , and organized a colonial boycott known as the Continental Association .
Adams returned to Massachusetts in November 1774 , where he served in the Massachusetts Provincial Congress , an extralegal legislative body independent of British control . The Provincial Congress created the first minutemen companies , consisting of militiamen who were to be ready for action on a moment 's notice . Adams also served as moderator of the Boston Town Meeting , which convened despite the Massachusetts Government Act , and was appointed to the Committee of Inspection to enforce the Continental Association . He was also selected to attend the Second Continental Congress , scheduled to meet in Philadelphia in May 1775 .
Before his journey to the second Congress , Adams and John Hancock , who had been added to the delegation , attended the Provincial Congress in Concord , Massachusetts . Deciding that it was not safe to return to Boston before leaving for Philadelphia , the two men stayed at Hancock 's childhood home in Lexington . On April 14 , 1775 , General Gage received a letter from Lord Dartmouth advising him " to arrest the principal actors and abettors in the Provincial Congress whose proceedings appear in every light to be acts of treason and rebellion " . On the night of April 18 , Gage sent out a detachment of soldiers on the fateful mission that would spark the American Revolutionary War . The purpose of the British expedition was to seize and destroy military supplies that the colonists had stored in Concord . According to many historical accounts , Gage also instructed his men to arrest Hancock and Adams , but the written orders issued by Gage made no mention of arresting the Patriot leaders .
Although Gage had evidently decided against seizing Adams and Hancock , Patriots initially believed otherwise , perhaps influenced by London newspapers that reached Boston with the news that the patriot leader would be hanged if he were caught . From Boston , Joseph Warren dispatched Paul Revere to warn the two that British troops were on the move and might attempt to arrest them . As Hancock and Adams made their escape , the first shots of the war began at Lexington and Concord . Soon after the battle , Gage issued a proclamation granting a general pardon to all who would " lay down their arms , and return to the duties of peaceable subjects " — with the exceptions of Hancock and Samuel Adams . Singling out Hancock and Adams in this manner only added to their renown among Patriots , and , according to Patriot historian Mercy Otis Warren , perhaps exaggerated the importance of the two men .
= = = Second Continental Congress = = =
Because the Continental Congress worked under a secrecy rule , Adams 's precise role in congressional deliberations is not fully documented . He appears to have had a major influence , working behind the scenes as a sort of " parliamentary whip " and Thomas Jefferson credits the lesser @-@ remembered Adams with steering the Congress toward independence , saying " If there was any Palinurus to the Revolution , Samuel Adams was the man . " He served on numerous committees , often dealing with military matters .
Adams was a cautious advocate for a declaration of independence , urging eager correspondents back in Massachusetts to wait for more moderate colonists to come around to supporting separation from Great Britain . He was pleased when , in 1775 , the colonies began to replace their old governments with independent republican governments . In early 1776 , writing as " Candidus " , he praised Thomas Paine 's popular pamphlet Common Sense and supported the call for American independence . On June 7 , Adams 's political ally Richard Henry Lee introduced a three @-@ part resolution calling for Congress to declare independence , create a colonial confederation , and seek foreign aid . After a delay to rally support , Congress approved the language of the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4 , 1776 , which Adams signed .
After the Declaration of Independence , Congress continued to manage the war effort . Adams served on military committees , including an appointment to the Board of War in 1777 . He advocated paying bonuses to Continental Army soldiers to encourage them to reenlist for the duration of the war . He called for harsh state legislation to punish Loyalists — Americans who continued to support the British crown — who Adams believed were as dangerous to American liberty as British soldiers . In Massachusetts , more than 300 Loyalists were banished and their property confiscated . After the war , Adams opposed allowing Loyalists to return to Massachusetts , fearing that they would work to undermine republican government .
Adams was the Massachusetts delegate appointed to the committee to draft the Articles of Confederation , the plan for the colonial confederation . With its emphasis on state sovereignty , the Articles reflected Congress 's wariness of a strong central government , a concern shared by Adams . Like others at the time , Adams considered himself a citizen of the United States while continuing to refer to Massachusetts as his " country " . After much debate , the Articles were sent to the states for ratification in November 1777 . From Philadelphia , Adams urged Massachusetts to ratify , which it did . Adams signed the Articles of Confederation with the other Massachusetts delegates in 1778 , but they were not ratified by all the states until 1781 .
Adams returned to Boston in 1779 to attend a state constitutional convention . The Massachusetts General Court had proposed a new constitution the previous year , but voters rejected it , and so a convention was held to try again . Adams was appointed to a three @-@ man drafting committee with his cousin John Adams and James Bowdoin . They drafted the Massachusetts Constitution , which was amended by the convention and approved by voters in 1780 . The new constitution established a republican form of government , with annual elections and a separation of powers . It reflected Adams 's belief that " a state is never free except when each citizen is bound by no law whatever that he has not approved of , either directly , or through his representatives " . By modern standards , the new constitution was not " democratic " ; Adams , like most of his peers , believed that only free males who owned property should be allowed to vote , and that the senate and the governor served to balance any excesses that might result from majority rule .
In 1781 , Adams retired from the Continental Congress . His health was one reason : he was approaching his sixtieth birthday , and suffered from tremors that made writing difficult . But he also wanted to return to Massachusetts to influence politics in the Commonwealth . He returned to Boston in 1781 , and was never to leave Massachusetts again .
= = Return to Massachusetts = =
Adams remained active in politics upon his return to Massachusetts . He frequently served as moderator of the Boston Town Meeting , and was elected to the state senate , where he often served as that body 's president .
Adams focused his political agenda on promoting virtue , which he considered essential in a republican government . If republican leaders lacked virtue , he believed , liberty was endangered . His major opponent in this campaign was his former protégé , John Hancock . The two men had had a falling out in the Continental Congress . Adams disapproved of what he viewed as Hancock 's vanity and extravagance , which Adams believed were inappropriate in a republican leader . When Hancock left Congress in 1777 , Adams and the other Massachusetts delegates voted against thanking Hancock for his service as president of Congress . The struggle continued in Massachusetts . Adams thought that Hancock , by acting like an aristocrat and courting popularity , was not acting the part of a virtuous republican leader . Adams favored James Bowdoin for governor , and was distressed when Hancock won annual landslide victories .
Adams 's promotion of public virtue took several forms . He played a major role in getting Boston to provide a free public education for children , even for girls , which was controversial . Adams was one of the charter members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1780 . After the Revolutionary War , Adams joined others , including Thomas Jefferson , in denouncing the Society of the Cincinnati , an organization of former army officers . Adams worried that the Society was " a stride towards an hereditary military nobility " , and thus a threat to republicanism . Adams also believed that public theaters undermined civic virtue , and he joined an ultimately unsuccessful effort to keep theaters banned in Boston . Decades after Adams 's death , orator Edward Everett would call him " the last of the Puritans " .
Postwar economic troubles in western Massachusetts led to an uprising known as Shays 's Rebellion , which began in 1786 . Small farmers , angered by high taxes and debts , armed themselves and shut down debtor courts in two counties . Governor James Bowdoin sent four thousand militiamen to put down the uprising , an action supported by Adams . Although his old political ally James Warren thought that Adams had forsaken his principles , Adams saw no contradiction . He approved of rebellion against an unrepresentative government , as had happened during the American Revolution , but he opposed taking up arms against a republican government , where problems should be remedied through elections . He thought the leaders of Shays 's Rebellion should be hanged , reportedly saying that " the man who dares to rebel against the laws of a republic ought to suffer death " .
Shays 's Rebellion contributed to the belief that the Articles of Confederation needed to be revised . In 1787 , delegates to the Philadelphia Convention , instead of revising the Articles , created a new United States Constitution with a much stronger national government . When the Constitution was sent to the states for ratification , Adams expressed his displeasure . " I confess , " he wrote to Richard Henry Lee in 1787 , " as I enter the Building I stumble at the Threshold . I meet with a National Government , instead of a Federal Union of States . " Adams was one of those derisively labeled " Anti @-@ Federalists " by proponents of the new Constitution , who called themselves " Federalists " . Adams was elected to the Massachusetts ratifying convention , which met in January 1788 . Despite his reservations , Adams rarely spoke at the convention , and listened carefully to the arguments rather than raising objections . Adams and John Hancock , who had reconciled , finally agreed to give their support for the Constitution , with the proviso that some amendments be added later . Even with the support of Hancock and Adams , the Massachusetts convention narrowly ratified the Constitution by a vote of 187 to 168 .
While Adams was attending the ratifying convention , his only son , Samuel Adams , Jr . , died at just thirty @-@ seven years of age . The younger Adams had served as surgeon in the Revolutionary War , but had fallen ill and never fully recovered . The death was a stunning blow to the elder Adams . The younger Adams left his father the certificates he had earned as a soldier , giving Adams and his wife unexpected financial security in their final years . Investments in land would make them relatively wealthy by the mid @-@ 1790s , but this did not alter their frugal lifestyle .
Concerned about the new Constitution , Adams made an attempt to reenter national politics . He allowed his name to be put forth as a candidate for the United States House of Representatives in the December 1788 election , but lost to Fisher Ames , apparently because Ames was a stronger supporter of the Constitution , a more popular position . Despite his defeat , Adams continued to work for amendments to the Constitution , a movement that ultimately resulted in the addition of a Bill of Rights in 1791 . With these amendments , and the possibility of more , Adams subsequently became a firm supporter of the Constitution .
In 1789 , Adams was elected Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts , and served in that office until Governor Hancock 's death in 1793 , when he became acting governor . The next year Adams was elected as governor in his own right , the first of four annual terms . He was generally regarded as the leader of his state 's Jeffersonian Republicans , who were opposed to the Federalist Party . Unlike some other Republicans , Adams supported the suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794 for the same reasons that he had opposed Shays 's Rebellion . Like his fellow Republicans , he spoke out against the Jay Treaty in 1796 , a position that drew criticism in a state that was increasingly Federalist . In that year 's U. S. presidential election , Republicans in Virginia cast 15 electoral votes for Adams in an effort to make him Jefferson 's vice @-@ president , but Federalist John Adams won the election , with Jefferson becoming vice @-@ president . The Adams cousins remained friends , but Samuel was pleased when Jefferson defeated John Adams in the 1800 presidential election .
Taking a cue from President Washington , who declined to run for reelection in 1796 , Adams retired from politics at the end of his term as governor in 1797 . Adams suffered from what is now believed to have been essential tremor , a movement disorder that , in the final decade of his life , rendered him unable to write . He died at the age of 81 on October 2 , 1803 , and was interred at the Granary Burying Ground in Boston . Boston 's Republican newspaper , the Independent Chronicle , eulogized him as the " Father of the American Revolution " .
= = Legacy = =
Samuel Adams is a controversial figure in American history . Disagreement about his significance and reputation began before his death and continues to the present .
Adams 's contemporaries , both friends and foes , regarded him as one of the foremost leaders of the American Revolution . Thomas Jefferson , for example , characterized Adams as " truly the Man of the Revolution . " Leaders in other colonies were compared to him : Cornelius Harnett was called the " Samuel Adams of North Carolina " , Charles Thomson the " Samuel Adams of Philadelphia " , and Christopher Gadsden the " Sam Adams of the South " . When John Adams traveled to France during the Revolution , he had to explain that he was not Samuel , " the famous Adams " .
Although supporters of the Revolution praised Adams , Loyalists viewed him as a sinister figure . Peter Oliver , the exiled chief justice of Massachusetts , characterized Adams as devious Machiavellian with a " cloven Foot " . Thomas Hutchinson , Adams 's political foe , took his revenge in his History of Massachusetts Bay , in which he denounced Adams as a dishonest character assassin , emphasizing Adams 's failures as a businessman and tax collector . This hostile " Tory interpretation " of Adams was revived in the 20th century by historian Clifford K. Shipton in the Sibley 's Harvard Graduates reference series . Shipton wrote positive portraits of Hutchinson and Oliver and scathing sketches of Adams and Hancock ; his entry on Adams was characterized by historian Pauline Maier as " forty @-@ five pages of contempt " .
Whig historians challenged the " Tory interpretation " of Adams . William Gordon and Mercy Otis Warren , two historians who knew Adams , wrote of him as a man selflessly dedicated to the American Revolution . But in the early 19th century , Adams was often viewed as an old @-@ fashioned Puritan , and was consequently neglected by historians . Interest in Adams was revived in the mid @-@ 19th century . Historian George Bancroft portrayed Adams favorably in his monumental History of the United States from the Discovery of the American Continent ( 1852 ) . The first full biography of Adams appeared in 1865 , a three @-@ volume work written by William Wells , Adams 's great @-@ grandson . Although the Wells biography is still valuable for its wealth of information , Whig portrayals of Adams were uncritically pro @-@ American and had elements of hagiography , a view that influenced some later biographies written for general audiences .
In the late 19th century , many American historians , uncomfortable with contemporary revolutions , found it problematic to write approvingly about Adams . Relations between the United States and the United Kingdom had improved , and Adams 's role in dividing Americans from Britons was increasingly viewed with regret . In 1885 , James Hosmer wrote a biography that praised Adams , but also found some of his actions , such as the 1773 publication of Hutchinson 's private letters , to be troubling . Subsequent biographers became increasingly hostile towards Adams and the common people he represented . In 1923 , Ralph V. Harlow used a " Freudian " approach to characterize Adams as a " neurotic crank " driven by an " inferiority complex " . Harlow argued that because the masses were easily misled , Adams " manufactured public opinion " to produce the Revolution , a view that became the thesis of John C. Miller 's 1936 biography , Sam Adams : Pioneer in Propaganda . Consistently calling his subject " Sam " , despite the fact that Adams was almost always known as " Samuel " in his lifetime , Miller portrayed Adams more as an incendiary revolutionary than an adroit political operative , attributing all acts of Boston 's " body of the people " to this one man .
Miller 's influential book became , in the words of historian Charles Akers , the " scholarly enshrinement " of " the myth of Sam Adams as the Boston dictator who almost single @-@ handedly led his colony into rebellion " . According to Akers , Miller and others historians used " Sam did it " to explain crowd actions and other developments without citing any evidence that Adams directed those events . In 1974 , Akers called on historians to critically reexamine the sources rather than simply repeating the myth . By then , scholars were increasingly rejecting the notion that Adams and others used " propaganda " to incite " ignorant mobs " , and were instead portraying a revolutionary Massachusetts too complex to have been controlled by one man . Historian Pauline Maier argued that Adams , far from being a radical mob leader , took a moderate position based on the English revolutionary tradition that imposed strict constraints on resistance to authority . That belief justified force only against threats to the constitutional rights so grave that the " body of the people " recognized the danger , and only after all peaceful means of redress had failed . Within that revolutionary tradition , resistance was essentially conservative . In 2004 , Ray Raphael 's Founding Myths continued Maier 's line by deconstructing several of the " Sam " Adams myths that are still repeated in many textbooks and popular histories .
= = In popular culture = =
In the 2015 miniseries Sons of Liberty , Adams , the main protagonist , is portrayed by Ben Barnes .
Samuel Adams 's name has been appropriated by commercial and non @-@ profit ventures since his death . Drawing upon the tradition that Adams had been a brewer , the Boston Beer Company created Samuel Adams Boston Lager in 1985 , which became a popular award @-@ winning brand . Adams 's name is also used by a pair of non @-@ profit organizations , the Sam Adams Alliance and the Sam Adams Foundation . These groups take their names from Adams in homage of his ability to organize citizens at the local level in order to achieve a national goal .
= Tea Leaves ( Mad Men ) =
" Tea Leaves " is the third episode of the fifth season of the American television drama series Mad Men and overall the 55th episode of the series . It was written by series creator and executive producer Matthew Weiner and writer Erin Levy , and directed by series leading man Jon Hamm . It originally aired on the AMC channel in the United States on April 1 , 2012 .
The episode takes place on and around Independence Day 1966 and re @-@ introduces the Betty Francis character into the narrative . Betty finds herself in a state of depression and experiences a health scare following an unsettling weight gain . Meanwhile , Don and Harry collide with Baby Boomers while trying to meet with The Rolling Stones for a client . The rivalry between old guard Roger and an ascending Pete continues as Peggy hires a new copywriter with a questionable personality but high talent .
Ratings for the episode fell from the season premiere , but were still stronger than the fourth season average . " Tea Leaves " received 2 @.@ 9 million overall viewers and a 1 @.@ 0 in the coveted 18 @-@ 49 demographic . The episode received enthusiastic response from television critics . The main theme of the episode was seen by many television writers as the growing generation gap , and the increasing irrelevance of the main characters in culture and business as a result .
= = Plot = =
Betty has gained weight over the past few months , causing her self @-@ worth to drop and her sex life with Henry to flatline . This prompts an intervention of sorts from Henry 's mother , Pauline , who suggests diet pills . When Betty goes to the doctor 's office in an attempt to obtain diet pills , the doctor refuses . After a routine examination , he finds a possibly cancerous lump in Betty 's throat . Betty returns home in a hysteric fever . She calls Don , who reassures her . Betty begins to confront the legacy of her life and the effect her death would have on her loved ones . Several days later , the doctor calls back to tell her the tumor is benign . Henry holds a despondent Betty in his arms . She ponders her life as simply a sad , fat housewife .
The Heinz executive speaks with Don about his daughters ' obsession with The Rolling Stones , and floats an idea about getting The Rolling Stones to do a commercial for Heinz . Don agrees , though he is unimpressed with the idea . Harry and Don make a Saturday night trip to a Rolling Stones concert to meet with Stones manager Allen Klein . They end up making conversation backstage with two pot @-@ smoking female fans . When Harry leaves with one of the girls to talk with Klein , Don waxes poetic with one over her love for the band . She makes an insulting comment about the older generation . Don responds that the older generation is simply worried for youth . Harry fails miserably at his attempt to meet with The Rolling Stones , but Don is indifferent .
Pete is in talks with Mohawk Airlines for their return to the agency . The arrangement calls for Roger to handle the day @-@ to @-@ day business . Roger puts Peggy in charge of hiring a new male copywriter for Mohawk . Stan advises her to hire a mediocre employee to make her competition lighter . Peggy , however , chooses to interview a talented young Jewish man named Michael Ginsberg whose work impresses her . When Peggy interviews Michael , he is over @-@ the @-@ top in his disposition . However , Roger forces her to bring Michael to Don . During his interview with Don , Michael is more upstanding and professional , which puzzles Peggy . Michael is hired . He returns home to find his domineering father reading the paper . Michael 's personality changes yet again , this time more shy and reserved . When he learns of his son 's success , Michael 's father blesses his son with a Jewish prayer .
Pete makes a puffed @-@ up speech to the SCDP employees regarding his success in landing the Mohawk account . Roger walks out of the speech in anger , loathing his apparent descent in value to the agency .
= = Production = =
" Tea Leaves " was written by Matthew Weiner and Erin Levy and directed by series star Jon Hamm . This is the first episode of the series that Jon Hamm had directed , with Hamm saying that he owes thanks to John Slattery for paving the way . As preparation for directing the Rolling Stones concert , Hamm looked over archival photographs of the original concert . " They were kids . The Rolling Stones . It was them and The Beatles . These huge pop explosions . People were really excited about it and it was a really big deal . And , in a larger sense , gave us a sense of where advertising is going . " Reflecting on his directing job , Hamm noted that he tried not to put much distracting style into the show , explaining that " My job was not to go in there and muck it up and say , " I 'm gonna put my stamp on this . " My job was to go in there and keep the train on the tracks , basically . We have a very firmly established tone and look to our show that people respond to , and that I love . " Although the third episode of the season , it was actually the first episode produced for season , prior to the two @-@ part season premiere , " A Little Kiss " .
Weiner said that the episode is " about the children . It 's about who is going to take care of the children . Youth is a big part of our lives in general . Now and then . But when you think of the sixties and the youth culture and the way it sort of takes over . What you 're looking at is Don 's fear of the children being cut loose . At the same time , the children come back and eat you . " Weiner commented that the Michael Ginsberg character was " of the next wave " as a youthful employee who is " unfamiliar with social rules " , with Weiner also declaring that " there is no reason that the concerns of older people are different than younger people " .
Of the storyline with Betty , Weiner said , " I don 't think there 's any mystery as to how that could happen . She is happy with Henry but on some level it 's not enough . " Jon Hamm and Matthew Weiner both commented that the episode showcases the strong connection between Betty and Don that still exists despite the divorce .
= = = George Romney controversy = = =
" Tea Leaves " features a scene in which the Henry Francis character , a Republican political aide , insults George Romney , who was a political figure during the time the episode was set in . The Francis character characterized George Romney as a " clown " during the episode . Tagg Romney , eldest son of 2012 Presidential hopeful Mitt Romney , tweeted disgust for the mention , calling Mad Men the " lib media " , and accused the series of mocking his grandfather . The Hollywood Reporter noted that the dig at Romney was based in historical fact , with the Francis character working for John Lindsay , who had actual disdain for Romney . The Reporter also noted that , " Mad Men 's formula for success comes from its careful duality : it revels in pinpoint accurate details from its 1960s setting , while playing with themes that are timeless . Sometimes that means a fortuitous opportunity to use news and names that have reappeared in the cycle of American history . "
= = = January Jones ' pregnancy = = =
January Jones became pregnant in between the fourth and fifth season of the series . Instead of writing in a pregnancy for the Betty Francis character , the writers opted to write in a weight gain . January Jones wore a fat suit during the filming of this episode , the same technique used by Elizabeth Moss during the first season when her character encountered a similar weight gain ( though in that instance , the character was actually pregnant ) . Make @-@ up tricks and clever camera angles were also used to create the dramatic impression of Betty 's weight gain . A body double was used for the scene in which Betty rises from the bathtub .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The ratings for " Tea Leaves " were down slightly from the premiere 's record @-@ making number . It pulled in 2 @.@ 9 million viewers , which was still stronger than all of the fourth season episodes except for the fourth season premiere , " Public Relations " . " Tea Leaves " also received a 1 @.@ 0 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic . It built on its lead @-@ in , the second season premiere of The Killing .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critics were complimentary towards the episode , praising the acting talent of January Jones and the ensemble cast as well as Jon Hamm 's debut in the director 's chair . Some , however , were not as impressed by the fat suit techniques used on January Jones to both hide her pregnancy and convey the character 's weight gain . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B + . He felt that some of the scenes were too on @-@ the @-@ nose and that some of the symbolism was a little overt . VanDerWerff specifically cited the scenes where Don talks with the young girl at the concert as on @-@ the @-@ nose , comparing Don in this scene to Joe Friday . He did , however , praise the subplot involving Betty 's weight gain as well as the final scene . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix said that all of the stories were linked by the threat of replacement and liked the interaction between Roger and Peggy , which he felt was a rare occurrence . He said that it was too soon to judge the Ginsberg character and that the Betty storyline was the weakest of the main plots . Writer Myles McNutt found January Jones " highly compelling " and the storyline offering a " decidedly human turn for the character , with her lunch with Joyce offering insight that we are robbed of without Betty having any friends to confide in normally . "
Maureen Ryan of The Huffington Post praised Jon Hamm 's direction and his " adherence to the Mad Men style " of " subtlety and economy " . She said that it was not " one of the more profound episodes the show has ever done " , but that it was full of " Mad Men @-@ esque meditations on mortality and feeling left behind by changing times . " Bonnie Stiernberg , writing for Paste Magazine , said that based on this episode and the premiere , season five will be about how " characters must learn to adapt to their changing surroundings or find themselves becoming irrelevant , relics of a bygone era " . She praised the creative solution to January Jones ' pregnancy and the new African @-@ American secretary , who she saw as an extension of Don , who was " also hired by the agency as a way to save face " . Tim Goodman , writing for The Hollywood Reporter , focused on the " key part " Roger Sterling plays in the season , saying that " since change is the ongoing issue of Mad Men , what has Roger been but unchanged for too long now " . He also called the introduction of the Ginsberg character a " breath of fresh air . "
= Norton Priory =
Norton Priory is a historic site in Norton , Runcorn , Cheshire , England , comprising the remains of an abbey complex dating from the 12th to 16th centuries , and an 18th @-@ century country house ; it is now a museum . The remains are a scheduled ancient monument and are recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building . They are considered to be the most important monastic remains in Cheshire .
The priory was established as an Augustinian foundation in the 12th century , and was raised to the status of an abbey in 1391 . The abbey was closed in 1536 , as part of the dissolution of the monasteries . Nine years later the surviving structures , together with the manor of Norton , were purchased by Sir Richard Brooke , who built a Tudor house on the site , incorporating part of the abbey . This was replaced in the 18th century by a Georgian house . The Brooke family left the house in 1921 , and it was partially demolished in 1928 . In 1966 the site was given in trust for the use of the general public .
Excavation of the site began in 1971 , and became the largest to be carried out by modern methods on any European monastic site . It revealed the foundations and lower parts of the walls of the monastery buildings and the abbey church . Important finds included : a Norman doorway ; a finely carved arcade ; a floor of mosaic tiles , the largest floor area of this type to be found in any modern excavation ; the remains of the kiln where the tiles were fired ; a bell casting pit used for casting the bell ; and a large medieval statue of Saint Christopher .
The site was opened to the public in the 1970s . It includes a museum , the excavated ruins , and the surrounding garden and woodland . In 1984 the separate walled garden was redesigned and opened to the public . Norton Priory is now a visitor attraction , and the museum trust organises a programme of events , exhibitions , educational courses , and outreach projects .
= = History = =
= = = Priory = = =
In 1115 a community of Augustinian canons was founded in the burh of Runcorn by William fitz Nigel , the second Baron of Halton and Constable of Chester , on the south bank of the River Mersey where it narrows to form the Runcorn Gap . This was the only practical site where the Mersey could be crossed between Warrington and Birkenhead , and the archaeologists Fraser Brown and Christine Howard @-@ Davis consider it likely that the canons cared for travellers and pilgrims crossing the river . They also speculate that William may have sought to profit from the tolls paid by these travellers . The priory was the second religious house to be founded in the Earldom of Chester ; the first was the Benedictine St Werburgh 's Abbey at Chester , founded in 1093 by Hugh Lupus , the first Earl of Chester . The priory at Runcorn had a double dedication , to Saint Bertelin and to Saint Mary . The authors of the Victoria County History suggest that the dedication to St Bertelin was taken from a Saxon church already existing on the site . In 1134 William fitz William , the third Baron of Halton , moved the priory to a site in Norton , a village 3 miles ( 5 km ) to the east of Runcorn . The reasons for the move are uncertain . It may have been that fitz William wanted greater control of the strategic crossing of the Mersey at Runcorn Gap , or it may have been because the canons wanted a more secluded site . Nothing remains of the site of the original priory in Runcorn .
The site for the new priory was in damp , scrubby woodland . There is no evidence that it was agricultural land , or that it contained any earlier buildings . The first priority was to clear and drain the land . There were freshwater springs near the site , and these would have provided fresh running water for latrines and domestic purposes . They would also have been used to create watercourses and moated enclosures , some of which might have been used for orchards and herb gardens . Sandstone for building the priory was available at an outcrop nearby , sand for mortar could be obtained from the shores of the River Mersey , and boulder clay on the site provided material for floor and roof tiles . Excavation has revealed remnants of oak , some of it from trees hundreds of years old . It is likely that this came from various sources ; some from nearby , and some donated from the forests at Delamere and Macclesfield . The church and monastic buildings were constructed in Romanesque style .
The priory was endowed by William fitz Nigel with properties in Cheshire , Lancashire , Nottinghamshire , Lincolnshire and Oxfordshire , including the churches of St Mary , Great Budworth and St Michael , Chester . By 1195 the priory owned eight churches , five houses , the tithe of at least eight mills , the rights of common in four townships , and one @-@ tenth of the profits from the Runcorn ferry . The prior supplied the chaplain to the hereditary Constables of Chester and to the Barons of Halton .
During the 12th century , the main benefactors of the priory were the Barons of Halton , but after 1200 their gifts reduced , mainly because they transferred their interests to the Cistercian abbey at Stanlow , which had been founded in 1178 by John fitz Richard , the sixth baron . Archaeologist J. Patrick Greene states that it is unlikely that any of the Barons of Halton were buried in Norton Priory . The only members of the family known to be buried there are Richard , brother of Roger de Lacy , the seventh baron , and a female named Alice . The identity of Alice has not been confirmed , but Greene considers that she was the niece of William , Earl Warenne , the 5th Earl of Surrey and therefore a relative of the Delacy family , who were at that time the Barons of Halton . The earl made a grant to the priory of 30 shillings a year in order to " maintain a pittance for her soul " . As the role played by the Barons of Halton declined , so the importance of members of the Dutton family increased . The Duttons had been benefactors since the priory 's foundation , and from the 13th century they became the principal benefactors . There were two main branches of the family , one in Dutton and the other in Sutton Weaver . The Dutton family had their own burial chapel in the priory , and burial in the chapel is specified in three wills made by members of the family . The Aston family of Aston were also important benefactors .
The priory buildings , including the church , were extended during the late 12th and early 13th centuries . It has been estimated that the original community would have consisted of 12 canons and the prior ; this increased to around 26 members in the later part of the 12th century , making it one of the largest houses in the Augustinian order . By the end of the century the church had been lengthened , a new and larger chapter house had been built ( I * on the plan ) , and a large chapel had been added to the east end of the church ( N ) . In about 1200 the west front of the church was enlarged ( M ) , a bell tower was built and guest quarters were constructed . It is possible that the chapel at the east end was built to accommodate the holy cross of Norton , a relic which was reputed to have miraculous healing powers . A fire in 1236 destroyed the timber @-@ built kitchen ( Q ) and damaged the west range of the monastic buildings and the roof of the church . The kitchen was rebuilt and the other damage was rapidly repaired .
= = = Abbey = = =
During the first half of the 14th century , the priory suffered from financial mismanagement and disputes with the Dutton family , exacerbated by a severe flood in 1331 that reduced the income from the priory 's lands . The direct effects of the Black Death are not known , but during the 1350s financial problems continued . These were party mitigated with the selling of the advowson of the church at Ratcliffe @-@ on @-@ Soar . Matters further improved from 1366 with the appointment of Richard Wyche as prior . He was active in the governance of the wider Augustinian order and in political affairs , and in 1391 was involved in raising the priory 's status to that of a mitred abbey . A mitred abbey was one in which the abbot was given permission to use pontifical insignia , including the mitre , ring and pontifical staff , and to give the solemn benediction provided a bishop was not present . It was rare for an Augustinian house to be elevated to this status . Out of about 200 Augustinian houses in England and Wales , 28 were abbeys and only seven of these became mitred . The only other mitred abbey in Cheshire was that of St Werburgh in Chester . In 1379 and in 1381 there were 15 canons at Norton and in 1401 there were 16 , making it the largest Augustinian community in the northwest of England . By this time the barony of Halton had passed by a series of marriages to the duchy of Lancaster . John of Gaunt , the 1st Duke of Lancaster and 14th Baron of Halton , agreed to be the patron of the newly formed abbey . At this date the church was 287 feet ( 87 m ) long ; it was the second longest Augustinian church in northwest England , exceeded only by the 328 feet ( 100 m ) long church at Carlisle . Towards the end of the 14th century , the abbey acquired a " giant " statue of Saint Christopher . Three wills from members of the Dutton family from this period survive ; they are dated 1392 , 1442 and 1527 , and in each will money was bequeathed to the foundation .
The abbey 's fortunes went into decline after the death of Richard Wyche in 1400 . Wyche was succeeded by his prior , John Shrewsbury , who " does not seem to have done more than keep the house in order " . Frequent floods had reduced its income , and in 1429 the church and other abbey buildings were described as being " ruinous " . Problems continued through the rest of the 15th century , resulting in the sale of more advowsons . By 1496 the number of canons had been reduced to nine , and to seven in 1524 . In 1522 there were reports of disputes between the abbot and the prior . The abbot was accused of " wasting the house 's resources , nepotism , relations with women " and other matters , while the prior admitted to " fornication and lapses in the observation of the Rule " . The prior threatened the abbot with a knife , but then left the abbey . The physical state of the buildings continued to deteriorate .
The records of the priory and abbey have not survived , but the excavations and the study of other documents have produced evidence of how the monastic lands were managed . The principal source of income came from farming . This income was required not only for the building and upkeep of the property , but also for feeding the canons , their guests , and visiting pilgrims . The priory also had an obligation from its foundation to house travellers fording the Mersey . It has been estimated that nearly half of the demesne lands were used for arable farming . The grain grown on priory lands was ground by a local windmill and by a watermill outside the priory lands . Excavations revealed part of a stone handmill in the area used in the monastic kitchen . In addition to orchards and herb gardens in the moated enclosures , it is likely that beehives were maintained for the production of honey . There is evidence from bone fragments that cattle , sheep , pigs , geese and chickens were reared and consumed , but few bone fragments from deer , rabbits or hares have been discovered . Horseflesh was not eaten . Although few fish bones have been discovered , it is known from documentary evidence that the canons owned a number of local fisheries . The fuel used consisted of wood and charcoal , and turf from marshes over which the priory had rights of turbary ( to cut turf ) .
The events in 1536 surrounding the fate of the abbey at the dissolution of the monasteries are complicated , and included a dispute between Sir Piers Dutton , who was in a powerful position as the Sheriff of Cheshire , and Sir William Brereton , the deputy @-@ chamberlain of Chester . Dutton 's estate was next to that of the abbey , and Dutton plotted to gain some of its land from the Crown after the dissolution ; while Brereton supported the abbot against Dutton and held the lucrative position of steward of the abbey . A campaign of vilification was directed at the canons , asserting that they were guilty of " debauched conduct " . Then , in 1535 , Dutton falsely accused the abbot and Brereton of issuing counterfeit coins . This charge was dismissed mainly because one of Dutton 's witnesses was considered to be " unconvincing " . Playing into Duttons ' hands was the gross undervaluation of the abbey 's assets as reported to the royal commissioners of the Valor Ecclesiasticus of 1535 ; as a result of which the net annual income of the abbey was recorded , falsely , as falling below the £ 200 threshold that would subsequently be chosen for the first round of dissolutions in 1536 , although whether this subterfuge was due to the machinations of Dutton or the abbot ( or both ) remains unclear . Brereton and the abbot appear to have attempted to have the dissolution cancelled subject to the payment of a fine , as was the case in large numbers of other houses in similar circumstances ; but in the abbot 's absence dissolution commissioners arrived unananounced at the abbey in early October 1536 . There was considerable opposition , the commissioners being menaced by around 300 local people ; for whom the abbot , rushing back , threw an impromptu feast complete with roasted ox . According to Dutton 's account , after barricading themselves in a tower the commissioners managed to send a letter to Dutton , who arrived with a force of men in the middle of the night . Most of the rioters fled , but Dutton arrested the abbot and four of the canons , who were sent to Halton Castle and then to prison in Chester . Dutton sent a report of the events to Henry VIII ; who demanded that if the abbot and canons had behaved as Dutton reported , they should be immediately executed as traitors . However , because the kings instructions had been conveyed by the Lord Chancellor in the form of letters to both Dutton and Brereton , the two faction leaders would be required to act together to effect them ; with the consequence that Brereton was temporarily able to stall any such action by refusing to meet with Dutton . Events elsewhere in the country further delayed the execution and , following an intercession to Thomas Cromwell ( whose own informal contacts had cast doubt on the reliability of Dutton 's reports ) , the abbot and canons were discharged and awarded pensions . The abbey was made uninhabitable , the lead from the roof , the bell metal , and other valuable materials were confiscated for the king , and the building lay empty for nine years . The estate came into the ownership of the Crown , and it was managed by Brereton . From the evidence of damage to the tiled floor of the church , Brown and Howard @-@ Davis conclude it is likely that the church was demolished at an early stage , but otherwise the archaeological evidence for this period is sparse and largely negative .
= = = Country house = = =
In 1545 the abbey and the manor of Norton were sold to Sir Richard Brooke for a little over £ 1 @,@ 512 ( equivalent to £ 660 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . Brooke built a house in Tudor style , which became known as Norton Hall , using as its core the former abbot 's lodgings and the west range of the monastic buildings . It is not certain which other monastic buildings remained when the abbey was bought by the Brookes ; excavations suggest that the cloisters were still present . A 17th @-@ century sketch plan by one of the Randle Holme family shows that the gatehouse remained at that time , although almost all the church had been demolished . An engraving by the Buck brothers dated 1727 shows that little changed by the next century .
During the Civil War the house was attacked by a force of Royalists . The Brookes were the first family in north Cheshire to declare allegiance to the Parliamentary side . Halton Castle was a short distance away , and was held by Earl Rivers for the Royalists . In February 1643 a large force from the castle armed with cannon attacked the house , which was defended by only 80 men . Henry Brooke successfully defended the house , with only one man wounded , while the Royalists lost 16 men including their cannonier ( gunner ) . They burnt two barns and plundered Brooke 's tenants , but " returned home with shame and the hatred of the country " .
At some time between 1727 and 1757 the Tudor house was demolished and replaced by a new house in Georgian style . The house had an L @-@ plan , the main wing facing west standing on the footprint of the Tudor house , with a south wing at right @-@ angles to it . The ground floor of the west wing retained the former vaulted undercroft of the west range of the medieval abbey , and contained the kitchens and areas for the storage of wines and beers . The first floor was the piano nobile , containing the main reception rooms . The west front was symmetrical , in three storeys , with a double flight of stairs leading up to the main entrance . Clearance of the other surviving remnants of the monastic buildings had started but the moated enclosures were still in existence at that time . A drawing dated 1770 shows that by then all these buildings and the moats had been cleared away , and the former fishponds were being used for pleasure boating . Between 1757 and the early 1770s modifications were made to the house , the main one being the addition of a north wing . According to the authors of the Buildings of England series , the architect responsible for this was James Wyatt . Also between 1757 and 1770 , the Brooke family built a walled garden at a distance from the house to provide fruit , vegetables and flowers . The family also developed the woodland around the house , creating pathways , a stream @-@ glade and a rock garden . Brick @-@ built wine bins were added to the undercroft , developing it into a wine cellar , and barrel vaulting was added to the former entrance hall to the abbey ( which was known as the outer parlour ) , obscuring its arcade .
During the mid @-@ 18th century , Sir Richard Brooke was involved in a campaign to prevent the Bridgewater Canal from being built through his estate . The Bridgewater Canal Extension Act had been passed in 1762 , and it made allowances for limited disturbance to the Norton estate . However Sir Richard did not see the necessity for the canal and opposed its passing though his estate . In 1773 the canal was opened from Manchester to Runcorn , except for 1 mile ( 2 km ) across the estate , which meant that goods had to be unloaded and carted around it . Eventually Sir Richard capitulated , and the canal was completed throughout its length by March 1776 .
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album of Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel ; titled Angels Advocate was slated for a March 30 , 2010 release , but was eventually cancelled .
= = = 2010 – 14 : Merry Christmas II You , American Idol , and Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse = = =
Following the cancellation of Angels Advocate , it was announced that Carey would return to the studio to start work on her thirteenth studio album . It was later revealed that it would be her second Christmas album , and follow @-@ up to Merry Christmas . Longtime collaborators for the project included Jermaine Dupri , Johntá Austin , Bryan @-@ Michael Cox , and Randy Jackson , as well as new collaborators such as Marc Shaiman . The release date for the album , titled Merry Christmas II You , was November 2 , 2010 ; the track list included six new songs as well as a remix of " All I Want for Christmas Is You " . Merry Christmas II You debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 with sales of 56 @,@ 000 copies , becoming Carey 's 16th top ten album in the United States . The album debuted at number one on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart , making it only the second Christmas album to top this chart .
In May 2010 , Carey dropped out of her planned appearance in For Colored Girls , the film adaptation of the play For Colored Girls Who Have Considered Suicide When the Rainbow Is Enuf , citing medical reasons . In February 2011 , Carey announced that she had officially began writing new material for her upcoming fourteenth studio album . Carey recorded a duet with Tony Bennett for his Duets II album , titled " When Do The Bells Ring For Me " . In October 2011 , Carey announced that she re @-@ recorded " All I Want for Christmas Is You " with Justin Bieber as a duet for his Christmas album , Under the Mistletoe . In November 2011 , Carey was included in the remix to the mixtape single " Warning " by Uncle Murda ; the remix also features 50 Cent and Young Jeezy . That same month , Carey released a duet with John Legend titled " When Christmas Comes " , originally part of Merry Christmas II You .
On March 1 , 2012 , Carey performed at New York City 's Gotham Hall ; her first time performing since pregnancy . She also performed a three song set at a special fundraiser for US President Barack Obama held in New York 's Plaza Hotel . A new song titled " Bring It On Home " , which Carey wrote specifically for the event to show her support behind Obama 's re @-@ election campaign , was also performed . In August 2012 , she released a stand alone single , " Triumphant ( Get ' Em ) " , featuring American rappers Rick Ross and Meek Mill and co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Carey , Jermaine Dupri , and Bryan @-@ Michael Cox . Carey joined the judging panel of American Idol season twelve as Jennifer Lopez 's replacement , joining Randy Jackson , Nicki Minaj and Keith Urban . In November 2013 , she explained about hating to work at American Idol adding , " It was like going to work every day in hell with Satan " , referring to her on @-@ set squabbles with Minaj . Carey appeared in Lee Daniels ' 2013 film The Butler , about a White House butler who served eight American Presidents over the course of three decades . Carey made guest voice @-@ star as a redneck character on the adult animated series American Dad ! on November 24 , 2013 .
In February 2013 Carey recorded and released a song called " Almost Home " , for the soundtrack of the Walt Disney Studios film Oz the Great and Powerful . The video was directed by photographer David LaChapelle . News started coming around about the singer 's fourteenth studio album . Some of the people that Carey worked with on the album included : DJ Clue ? , Randy Jackson , Q @-@ Tip , R. Kelly , David Morales , Loris Holland , Stevie J , James Fauntleroy II , Ray Angry , Afanasieff , Dupri , Bryan @-@ Michael Cox , James " Big Jim " Wright , Hit @-@ Boy , The @-@ Dream , Da Brat , and Rodney Jerkins . Carey told Billboard : " It 's about making sure I have tons of good music , because at the end of the day that 's the most important thing ... There are a lot more raw ballads than people might expect ... there are also uptempo and signature @-@ type songs that represent [ my ] different facets as an artist " .
The lead single , " Beautiful " featuring singer Miguel , was released on May 6 , 2013 , and peaked at number 15 on the Hot 100 . Carey taped a performance of " Beautiful " along with a medley of her greatest hits on May 15 , 2013 ; the taping aired on the American Idol finale the following day . On October 14 , 2013 , Carey announced that the album 's former title track has been chosen as the second single ; it premiered via Facebook on November 11 , 2013 . During a Q & A session following the song 's release , Carey gave an update about the album , stating : " Now I 've been inspired to add two more songs , so we 're almost there . I can 't even express this properly but I feel like this is gonna be my favorite album " . Following another song release , " You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " , it was announced that The Art of Letting Go would no longer be the title of the album . After the final name was announced , Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse was released on May 27 , 2014 .
In October 2014 , Carey announced All I Want For Christmas Is You , A Night of Joy & Festivity , an annual residency show at the Beacon Theatre in New York City . The first leg included six shows , running from December 15 – 22 , 2014 . Carey announced the second leg in October , 2015 . The second leg ran for 8 shows , from December 8 – 18 , 2015 . Carey has yet to announce a third leg as of July , 2016 .
= = = 2015 – present : Residency show , A Christmas Melody and Mariah 's World = = =
On January 15 , 2015 , Carey announced her Number Ones residency at The Colosseum at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas . On January 30 , it was announced that Carey has left Universal Music Group 's Def Jam Recordings to re @-@ unite with L.A. Reid and Sony Music via Epic Records .
To coincide with the residency , Carey released # 1 to Infinity , a greatest hits compilation which contains all of her eighteen Billboard Hot 100 number one singles , along with a new recording , " Infinity " , which was released as a single on April 27 . In 2015 Carey had her directorial debut for the Hallmark Channel Christmas movie A Christmas Melody , in which she also performed as one of the main characters . Filming for the project took place during October 2015 . In December 2015 , Carey announced The Sweet Sweet Fantasy Tour which will span a total of 27 @-@ dates beginning in March 2016 marking the first time the singer has done a significant tour of mainland Europe in 13 years . Four stops will include shows in South Africa .
On March 15 , 2016 , Carey announced that she is filming Mariah 's World , a docu @-@ series for the E ! network documenting her Sweet Sweet Fantasy European tour and her wedding planning process . Carey told The New York Times , " I thought it would be a good opportunity to kind of , like , show my personality and who I am , even though I feel like my real fans have an idea of who I am ... A lot of people have misperceptions about this and that . ” The series is set to premiere in 2016 .
= = Philanthropy and other activities = =
Carey is a philanthropist who has been involved with several charitable organizations . She became associated with the Fresh Air Fund in the early 1990s , and is the co @-@ founder of a camp located in Fishkill , New York , that enables inner @-@ city youth to embrace the arts and introduces them to career opportunities . The camp was called Camp Mariah " for her generous support and dedication to Fresh Air children " , and she received a Congressional Horizon Award for her youth @-@ related charity work . Carey also donated royalties from her hits " Hero " and " One Sweet Day " to charities . She is well @-@ known nationally for her work with the Make @-@ A @-@ Wish Foundation in granting the wishes of children with life @-@ threatening illnesses , and in November 2006 she was awarded the Foundation 's Wish Idol for her " extraordinary generosity and her many wish granting achievements " . Carey has volunteered for the New York City Police Athletic League and contributed to the obstetrics department of New York Presbyterian Hospital Cornell Medical Center . A percentage of the sales of MTV Unplugged was donated to various other charities . In 2008 , Carey was named Hunger Ambassador of the World Hunger Relief Movement . In February 2010 , the song , " 100 % " , which was originally written and recorded for the film , Precious , was used as one of the theme songs for the 2010 Winter Olympics , with all money proceeds going to Team USA .
One of Carey 's most high @-@ profile benefit concert appearances was on VH1 's 1998 Divas Live special , during which she performed alongside other female singers in support of the Save the Music Foundation . The concert was a ratings success , and Carey participated in the Divas 2000 special . In 2007 , the Save the Music Foundation honored Carey at their tenth gala event for her support towards the foundation since its inception . She appeared at the America : A Tribute to Heroes nationally televised fundraiser in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks , and in December 2001 , she performed before peacekeeping troops in Kosovo . Carey hosted the CBS television special At Home for the Holidays , which documented real @-@ life stories of adopted children and foster families . In 2005 , Carey performed for Live 8 in London and at the Hurricane Katrina relief telethon " Shelter from the Storm " . In August 2008 , Carey and other singers recorded the charity single , " Just Stand Up " produced by Babyface and L. A. Reid , to support " Stand Up to Cancer " . In 2008 , Carey performed in a New Year 's Eve concert for the family of Libyan dictator Muammar Gaddafi , something she later claimed to " feel horrible and embarrassed to have participated in " . In March 2011 , Carey 's representative Cindi Berger stated that royalties for the song " Save The Day " , which was written for her fourteenth studio album , will be donated to charities that create awareness to human rights issues to make amends for the Gadaffi error . Berger also said that " Mariah has and continues to donate her time , money and countless hours of personal service to many organizations both here and abroad " .
Declining offers to appear in commercials in the United States during her early career , Carey was not involved in brand marketing initiatives until 2006 , when she participated in endorsements for Intel Centrino personal computers and launched a jewelry and accessories line for teenagers , Glamorized , in American Claire 's and Icing stores . During this period , as part of a partnership with Pepsi and Motorola , Carey recorded and promoted a series of exclusive ringtones , including " Time of Your Life " . She signed a licensing deal with the cosmetics company Elizabeth Arden , and in 2007 , she released her own fragrance , " M " . The Elizabeth Arden deal has netted her $ 150 million . In 2007 , Forbes named her as the fifth richest woman in entertainment , with an estimated net worth of US $ 270 million . In November 2011 , it was reported that Carey 's net worth was valued at more than $ 500 million . On November 29 , 2010 , she debuted a collection on HSN , which included jewelry , shoes and fragrances . In November 2011 , Carey was announced as the new global ambassador for Jenny Craig , following her weight loss with the program after giving birth to fraternal twins in April . Carey claims she lost 70 pounds ( 32 kg ) on the program . In 2013 , human rights activists criticized Carey for performing in a concert for Angola 's " father @-@ daughter kleptocracy " and accused her of accepting " dictator cash " .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Influences = = =
Carey has said that from childhood she has been influenced by Billie Holiday , Sarah Vaughan , and R & B and soul musicians such as Gladys Knight and Aretha Franklin . Her music contains strong influences of gospel music , and she credits The Clark Sisters , Shirley Caesar and Edwin Hawkins as the most influential in her early years . When Carey incorporated hip @-@ hop into her sound , speculation arose that she was making an attempt to take advantage of the genre 's popularity , but she told Newsweek , " People just don 't understand . I grew up with this music " . She has expressed appreciation for rappers such as The Sugarhill Gang , Eric B. & Rakim , the Wu @-@ Tang Clan , The Notorious B.I.G. and Mobb Deep , with whom she collaborated on the single " The Roof ( Back in Time ) " ( 1998 ) . Carey was heavily influenced by Minnie Riperton , and began experimenting with the whistle register due to her original practice of the range .
During Carey 's career , her vocal and musical style , along with her level of success , has been compared to Whitney Houston , who she has also cited as an influence , and Celine Dion . Carey and her peers , according to Garry Mulholland , are " the princesses of wails [ ... ] virtuoso vocalists who blend chart @-@ oriented pop with mature MOR torch song " . Author and writer Lucy O 'Brien attributed the comeback of Barbra Streisand 's " old @-@ fashioned showgirl " to Carey and Dion , and described them and Houston as " groomed , airbrushed and overblown to perfection " . Carey 's musical transition and use of more revealing clothing during the late 1990s were , in part , initiated to distance herself from this image , and she subsequently said that most of her early work was " schmaltzy MOR " . Some have noted that unlike Houston and Dion , Carey co @-@ writes and produces her own songs .
= = = Musical style = = =
Love is the subject of the majority of Carey 's lyrics , although she has written about themes such as racism , social alienation , death , world hunger , and spirituality . She has said that much of her work is partly autobiographical , but Time magazine wrote : " If only Mariah Carey 's music had the drama of her life . Her songs are often sugary and artificial — NutraSweet soul . But her life has passion and conflict , " applying it to the first stages of her career . He commented that as her albums progressed , so too her songwriting and music blossomed into more mature and meaningful material . Jim Faber of the New York Daily News , made similar comments , " For Carey , vocalizing is all about the performance , not the emotions that inspired it . Singing , to her , represents a physical challenge , not an emotional unburdening . " While reviewing Music Box , Stephen Holden from Rolling Stone commented that Carey sang with " sustained passion " , while Arion Berger of Entertainment Weekly wrote that during some vocal moments , Carey becomes " too overwhelmed to put her passion into words . " In 2001 , The Village Voice wrote in regards to what they considered Carey 's " centerless ballads " , writing , " Carey 's Strawberry Shortcake soul still provides the template with which teen @-@ pop cuties draw curlicues around those centerless [ Diane ] Warren ballads [ ..... ] it 's largely because of [ Blige ] that the new R & B demands a greater range of emotional expression , smarter poetry , more from @-@ the @-@ gut testifying , and less [ sic ] unnecessary notes than the squeaky @-@ clean and just plain squeaky Mariah era . Nowadays it 's the Christina Aguileras and Jessica Simpsons who awkwardly oversing , while the women with roof @-@ raising lung power keep it in check when tune or lyric demands . "
Carey 's output makes use of electronic instruments such as drum machines , keyboards and synthesizers . Many of her songs contain piano @-@ driven melodies , as she was given piano lessons when she was six years old . Carey said that she cannot read sheet music and prefers to collaborate with a pianist when composing her material , but feels that it is easier to experiment with faster and less conventional melodies and chord progressions using this technique . While Carey learned to play the piano at a young age , and incorporates several ranges of production and instrumentation into her music , she has maintained that her voice has always been her most important asset : " My voice is my instrument ; it always has been . " Carey began commissioning remixes of her material early in her career and helped to spearhead the practice of recording entirely new vocals for remixes . Disc jockey David Morales has collaborated with Carey on several occasions , starting with " Dreamlover " ( 1993 ) , which popularized the tradition of remixing R & B songs into house records , and which Slant magazine named one of the greatest dance songs of all time . From " Fantasy " ( 1995 ) onward , Carey enlisted both hip @-@ hop and house producers to re @-@ structure her album compositions . Entertainment Weekly included two remixes of " Fantasy " on a list of Carey 's greatest recordings compiled in 2005 : a National Dance Music Award @-@ winning remix produced by Morales , and a Sean Combs production featuring rapper Ol ' Dirty Bastard . The latter has been credited with popularizing the R & B / hip @-@ hop collaboration trend that has continued into the 2000s , through artists such as Ashanti and Beyoncé . Combs said that Carey " knows the importance of mixes , so you feel like you 're with an artist who appreciates your work — an artist who wants to come up with something with you " .
= = = Voice and timbre = = =
Carey possesses a five @-@ octave vocal range , and has the ability to reach notes beyond the 7th octave . Referred to as the " songbird supreme " by the Guinness World Records , she was ranked first in a 2003 MTV and Blender magazine countdown of the 22 Greatest Voices in Music , as voted by fans and readers in an online poll . Carey said of the poll , " What it really means is voice of the MTV generation . Of course , it 's an enormous compliment , but I don 't feel that way about myself . " She also placed second in Cove magazine 's list of " The 100 Outstanding Pop Vocalists " .
Regarding her voice type , Carey said that she is an alto , though several critics have described her as a soprano . However , within contemporary forms of music , singers are classified by the style of music they sing . There is currently no authoritative voice classification system within non @-@ classical music . Attempts have been made to adopt classical voice type terms to other forms of singing , but they are controversial , because the development of classical voice categorizations were made with the understanding that the singer would amplify his or her voice with their natural resonators , without a microphone .
Jon Pareles of The New York Times described Carey 's lower register as a " rich , husky alto " that extends to " dog @-@ whistle high notes " . Additionally , towards the late 1990s , Carey began incorporating breathy vocals into her material . Tim Levell from the BBC News described her vocals as " sultry close @-@ to @-@ the @-@ mic breathiness " , while USA Today 's Elysa Gardner wrote " it 's impossible to deny the impact her vocal style , a florid blend of breathy riffing and resonant belting , has had on today 's young pop and R & B stars . "
Sasha Frere @-@ Jones of The New Yorker adds her timbre possesses various colors , saying , " Carey 's sound changes with nearly every line , mutating from a steely tone to a vibrating growl and then to a humid , breathy coo . Her wide vocal range allows Carey to take melodies from alto bottom notes to coloratura soprano upper register . " Carey also possesses a " whisper register " . In an interview with the singer , Ron Givens of Entertainment Weekly described it this way , " first , a rippling , soulful ooh comes rolling effortlessly from her throat : alto . Then , after a quick breath , she goes for the stratosphere , with a sound that nearly changes the barometric pressure in the room . In one brief swoop , she seems to squeal and roar at the same time . "
Her sense of pitch is admired and Jon Pareles adds " she can linger over sensual turns , growl with playful confidence , syncopate like a scat singer ... with startlingly exact pitch . "
= = Legacy = =
Carey 's vocal style and singing ability have significantly impacted popular and contemporary music . As music critic G. Brown from The Denver Post wrote , " For better or worse , Mariah Carey 's five @-@ octave range and melismatic style have influenced a generation of pop singers . " According to Rolling Stone , " Her mastery of melisma , the fluttering strings of notes that decorate songs like " Vision of Love " , inspired the entire American Idol vocal school , for better or worse , and virtually every other female R & B singer since the Nineties . " Jody Rosen of Slate wrote of Carey 's influence in modern music , calling her the most influential vocal stylist of the last two decades , the person who made rococo melismatic singing . Rosen further exemplified Carey 's influence by drawing parallel with American Idol , which to her , " often played out as a clash of melisma @-@ mad Mariah wannabes . And , today , nearly 20 years after Carey 's debut , major labels continue to bet the farm on young stars such as the winner of Britain 's X Factor show , Leona Lewis , with her Generation Next gloss on Mariah 's big voice and big hair . " Sean Daly of St. Petersburg Times wrote , " Depending on how you feel about public humiliation , the best / worst parts of American Idol are the audition shows , which normally break down into three distinct parts : ( 1 ) The Talented Kids . ( 2 ) The Weird Kids . ( 3 ) The Mariahs . " Daly further commented , " The Mariahs are the hardest ones to watch , mainly because most of them think they 're reeeaaally good . The poor , disillusioned hopefuls plant themselves in front of judges Simon Cowell , Paula Abdul and Randy Jackson – then proceed to stretch , break and mutilate every note of a song , often Mariah 's Hero , a tune that has ruined more throats than smoker 's cough . " New York Magazine 's editor Roger Deckker said that in regarding Carey as an influential artist in music , he commented that " Whitney Houston may have introduced melisma ( the vocally acrobatic style of lending a word an extra syllable or twenty ) to the charts , but it was Mariah — with her jaw @-@ dropping range — who made it into America 's default sound . " Deckker also added that " Every time you turn on American Idol , you are watching her children " . Despite her vocal prowess , Carey 's vocal technique particularly with the use of melisma and belting , has been subject to public scrutiny mainly because of young singers such as from talent shows have been overly imitating her singing technique in which critics commented " Mariah Carey is , without a doubt , the worst thing to happen to amateur singing since the karaoke machine " . As Professor Katherine L. Meizel noted in her book , The Mediation of Identity Politics in American Idol , " Carey 's influence not just stops in the emulation of melisma or her singing amongst the wannabe 's , it 's also her persona , her diva , her stardom which inspires them .... a pre @-@ fame conic look . "
Among the hip hop , pop , and R & B artists who have cited Carey as an influence are Aneeka , Ariana Grande , Britney Spears , Beyoncé , Katy Perry , Lady Gaga , Bridgit Mendler , Christina Aguilera , Jessica Simpson , Rihanna , Grimes , Kelly Clarkson , Nelly Furtado , Bonnie McKee , Leona Lewis , Brandy Norwood , Pink , Mary J. Blige , Melanie Fiona , Missy Elliott , Sam Smith , Hikaru Utada , Regine Velasquez , Sarah Geronimo , Charice Jordin Sparks , Justin Bieber , and Jessica Sanchez . According to Stevie Wonder , " When people talk about the great influential singers , they talk about Aretha , Whitney and Mariah . That 's a testament to her talent . Her range is that amazing . " Beyoncé credits Carey 's singing and her song " Vision of Love " as influencing her to begin practicing vocal " runs " as a child , as well as helping her pursue a career as a musician . Rihanna has stated that Carey is one of her major influences and idol . Christina Aguilera said in the early stages of her career that Carey was a big influence in her singing career and one of her idols . According to Pier Dominguez , author of Christina Aguilera : A star is made , Aguilera has stated how she loved listening to Whitney Houston , but it was Carey who had the biggest influence on her vocal styling . Carey 's carefully choreographed image of a grown woman struck a chord with Aguilera . Her influence on Aguilera also grew from the fact that both are of mixed heritage . Philip Brasor , editor of The Japan Times , expressed how Carey 's vocal and melismatic style even influenced Asian singers . He wrote that Japanese singer Hikaru Utada " sang what she heard , from the diaphragm and with her own take on the kind of melisma that became de rigueur in American pop after the ascendance of Mariah Carey . " In an article titled " Out With Mariah 's Melisma , In With Kesha 's Kick " , writer David Browne of The New York Times discusses how the once ubiquitous melisma pop style suddenly lost in favor of the now ubiquitous autotune in which the former was heavily popularized by the likes of Mariah Carey and Whitney Houston . Browne had commented " But beginning two decades ago , melisma overtook pop in a way it hadn 't before . Mariah Carey 's debut hit from 1990 , " Vision of Love , " followed two years later by Whitney Houston 's version of " I Will Always Love You , " set the bar insanely high for notes stretched louder , longer and knottier than most pop fans had ever heard . " Browne further added " A subsequent generation of singers , including Ms. Aguilera , Jennifer Hudson and Beyoncé , built their careers around melisma . ( Men like Brian McKnight and Tyrese also indulged in it , but women tended to dominate the form . ) "
Carey is also credited for introducing R & B and hip hop into mainstream pop culture , and for popularizing rap as a featuring act through her post @-@ 1995 songs . Sasha Frere @-@ Jones , editor of The New Yorker commented , " It became standard for R & B / hip @-@ hop stars like Missy Elliott and Beyoncé , to combine melodies with rapped verses . And young white pop stars — including Britney Spears , Jessica Simpson , Christina Aguilera , and ' N Sync — have spent much of the past ten years making pop music that is unmistakably R & B. " Moreover Jones concludes that " [ Carey 's ] idea of pairing a female songbird with the leading male MCs of hip @-@ hop changed R & B and , eventually , all of pop . Although now anyone is free to use this idea , the success of The Emancipation of Mimi suggests that it still belongs to Carey . " Judnick Mayard , writer of The Fader , wrote that in regarding of R & B and hip hop collaboration , " The champion of this movement is Mariah Carey . " Mayard also expressed that " To this day ODB and Mariah may still be the best and most random hip hop collaboration of all time " , citing that due to the record " Fantasy " , " R & B and Hip Hop were the best of step siblings . " Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times wrote , " In the mid @-@ 1990s Ms. Carey pioneered a subgenre that some people call the thug @-@ love duet . Nowadays clean @-@ cut pop stars are expected to collaborate with roughneck rappers , but when Ms. Carey teamed up with Ol ' Dirty Bastard , of the Wu @-@ Tang Clan , for the 1995 hit " Fantasy ( Remix ) " , it was a surprise , and a smash . " Aside from her pop culture and musical influence , Carey is credited for releasing a classic Christmas song called " All I Want for Christmas Is You " . In a retrospective look at Carey 's career , Sasha Frere @-@ Jones of The New Yorker said , the " charming " song was one of Carey 's biggest accomplishments , calling it " one of the few worthy modern additions to the holiday canon " . Rolling Stone ranked " All I Want for Christmas Is You " fourth on its Greatest Rock and Roll Christmas Songs list , calling it a " holiday standard . " In a review of her Greatest Hits album , Devon Powers of PopMatters writes that " She has influenced countless female vocalists after her . At 32 , she is already a living legend — even if she never sings another note . " While reviewing a concert of Carey in Sydney , Elise Vout of MTV Australia wrote that " it 's not amazing choreography or high production value you 're going to see , it 's the larger than life personality , unique voice , and legend that is Mariah Carey . "
= = Personal life = =
Carey began dating Mottola while recording Music Box , and married him on June 5 , 1993 . After the release of Daydream and the success that followed , Carey began focusing on her personal life , which was a constant struggle at the time . Carey 's relationship with Mottola began to deteriorate , due to their growing creative differences in terms of her albums , as well as his controlling nature . On May 30 , 1997 , the couple announced their separation , with their divorced finalized by the time Mottola remarried on October 11 , 1997 . Carey was in a three year relationship with singer Luis Miguel from 1998 to 2001 .
Carey met actor and comedian Nick Cannon while they shot her music video for her song " Bye Bye " on an island off the coast of Antigua . On April 30 , 2008 , Carey married Cannon in The Bahamas . At 35 weeks into her pregnancy , she gave birth to their fraternal twins , Moroccan and Monroe , on April 30 , 2011 via Cesarean section .
In August 2014 , Cannon confirmed he and Carey had separated a few months earlier . He filed for divorce on December 12 , 2014 .
On January 21 , 2016 , Carey and Australian billionaire James Packer announced that they were engaged .
Carey is a Christian . She stated in 2006 : " I do believe that I have been born again in a lot of ways . I think what I 've changed are my priorities and my relationships with God . I feel the difference when I don 't have my private moments to pray . ... I 'm a fighter , but I learned that I 'm not in charge . Whatever God wants to happen is what 's going to happen . I feel like I 've had endless second , third , fourth , fifth and sixth chances . It 's by the grace of God I 'm still here . "
= = Honors and awards = =
Throughout Carey 's career , she has collected many honors and awards , including the World Music Awards ' Best Selling Female Artist of the Millennium , the Grammy 's Best New Artist in 1991 , and Billboard 's Special Achievement Award for the Artist of the Decade during the 1990s . In a career spanning over 20 years , Carey has sold over 200 million records worldwide , making her one of the biggest @-@ selling artists in music history . Carey is ranked as the best @-@ selling female artist of the Nielsen SoundScan era , with over 52 million copies sold . Carey was ranked first in MTV and Blender magazine 's 2003 countdown of the 22 Greatest Voices in Music , and was placed second in Cove magazine 's list of " The 100 Outstanding Pop Vocalists " . Aside from her voice , she has become known for her songwriting . Yahoo Music editor Jason Ankeny wrote , " She earned frequent comparison to rivals Whitney Houston and Celine Dion , but did them both one better by composing all of her own material . " According to Billboard magazine , she was the most successful artist of the 1990s in the United States . At the 2000 World Music Awards , Carey was given a Legend Award for being the " best @-@ selling female pop artist of the millennium " , as well as the " Best @-@ selling artist of the 90s " in the United States , after releasing a series of albums of multiplatinum status in Asia and Europe , such as Music Box and Number 1 's . She is also a recipient of the Chopard Diamond award in 2003 , recognizing sales of over 100 million albums worldwide . Additionally , the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) lists Carey as the third @-@ best @-@ selling female artist , with shipments of over 63 million units in the US . In Japan , Carey has the top four highest @-@ selling albums of all time by a non @-@ Asian artist .
Carey has spent 79 weeks at the number @-@ one position on Billboard Hot 100 , the greatest number for any artist in US chart history . On that same chart , she has accumulated 18 number @-@ one singles , the most for any solo artist ( and second after The Beatles ) . Carey has also had three songs debut at the top of the Hot 100 chart . In 1994 , Carey released her holiday album Merry Christmas has sold over 15 million copies worldwide , and is the best @-@ selling Christmas album of all time . It also produced the successful single " All I Want for Christmas Is You " , which became the only holiday song and ringtone to reach multi @-@ platinum status in the US . In Japan , Number 1 's has sold over 3 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 copies and is the best @-@ selling album of all time in Japan by a non @-@ Asian artist . Her hit single " One Sweet Day " , which featured Boyz II Men , spent sixteen consecutive weeks at the top of Billboard 's Hot 100 chart in 1996 , setting the record for the most weeks atop the Hot 100 chart in history . After Carey 's success in Asia with Merry Christmas , Billboard estimated Carey as the all @-@ time best @-@ selling international artist in Japan . In 2008 , Billboard listed " We Belong Together " ninth on The Billboard Hot 100 All @-@ Time Top Songs and second on Top Billboard Hot 100 R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs . The song was also declared the most popular song of the 2000s decade by Billboard . In 2009 , Carey 's cover of Foreigner 's song " I Want to Know What Love Is " became the longest @-@ running number @-@ one song in Brazilian singles chart history , spending 27 consecutive weeks at number @-@ one . Additionally , Carey has had three songs debut at number @-@ one on the Billboard Hot 100 : " Fantasy " , " One Sweet Day " and " Honey " , making her the artist with the most number @-@ one debuts in the chart 's 52 @-@ year history . Also , she is the first female artist to debut at number 1 in the U.S. with " Fantasy " . In 2010 , Carey 's 13th album and second Christmas album , Merry Christmas II You , debuted at No.1 on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart , making it only the second Christmas album to top that chart . On November 19 , 2010 , Billboard magazine named Carey in their " Top 50 R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Artists of the Past 25 Years " chart at number four . In 2012 , Carey was ranked second on VH1 's list of the " 100 Greatest Women in Music " . Billboard magazine ranks her at number five on the Billboard Hot 100 All @-@ Time Top Artists , making Carey the second most successful female artist in the history of the Billboard Hot 100 chart . In August 2015 , Carey was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame .
= = Discography = =
Mariah Carey ( 1990 )
Emotions ( 1991 )
Music Box ( 1993 )
Merry Christmas ( 1994 )
Daydream ( 1995 )
Butterfly ( 1997 )
Rainbow ( 1999 )
Glitter ( 2001 )
Charmbracelet ( 2002 )
The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 )
E = MC ² ( 2008 )
Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel ( 2009 )
Merry Christmas II You ( 2010 )
Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse ( 2014 )
= = Filmography = =
The Bachelor ( 1999 )
Glitter ( 2001 )
WiseGirls ( 2002 )
Death of a Dynasty ( 2003 )
State Property 2 ( 2005 )
Tennessee ( 2008 )
You Don 't Mess with the Zohan ( 2008 )
Precious ( 2009 )
The Butler ( 2013 )
A Christmas Melody ( 2015 )
Popstar : Never Stop Never Stopping ( 2016 )
The Lego Batman Movie ( 2017 )
= = Concerts = =
Headlining tours
Music Box Tour ( 1993 )
Daydream World Tour ( 1996 )
Butterfly World Tour ( 1998 )
Rainbow World Tour ( 2000 )
Charmbracelet World Tour ( 2003 – 04 )
The Adventures of Mimi ( 2006 )
Angels Advocate Tour ( 2009 – 10 )
The Elusive Chanteuse Show ( 2014 )
The Sweet Sweet Fantasy Tour ( 2016 )
Residency shows
All I Want For Christmas Is You , A Night of Joy & Festivity ( 2014 – 15 )
Mariah Carey # 1 's ( 2015 – 16 )
= Yogatattva Upanishad =
The Yogatattva Upanishad ( Sanskrit : योगतत ् त ् व उपनिषत ् , IAST : Yogatattva Upaniṣhad ) , also called as Yogatattvopanishad ( योगतत ् त ् वोपनिषत ् ) , is one of the minor Upanishads of Hinduism . A Sanskrit text , it is one of eleven Yoga Upanishads attached to the Atharvaveda , and one of twenty Yoga Upanishads in the four Vedas . It is listed at number 41 in the serial order of the Muktika enumerated by Rama to Hanuman in the modern era anthology of 108 Upanishads . It is , as an Upanishad , a part of the corpus of Vedanta literature collection that present the philosophical concepts of Hinduism .
Two major versions of its manuscripts are known . One has fifteen verses but attached to Atharvaveda , while another very different and augmented manuscript exists in the Telugu language which has one hundred and forty two verses and is attached to the Krishna Yajurveda . The text is notable for describing Yoga in the Vaishnavism tradition .
The Yogatattva Upanishad shares ideas with the Yogasutra , Hatha Yoga , and Kundalini Yoga . It includes a discussion of four styles of yoga : Mantra , Laya , Hatha yoga and Raja . As an expounder of Vedanta philosophy , the Upanishad is devoted to the elaboration of the meaning of Atman ( Soul , Self ) through the process of yoga , starting with the syllable Om . According to Yogatattva Upanishad , " jnana ( knowledge ) without yoga cannot secure moksha ( emancipation , salvation ) , nor can yoga without knowledge secure moksha " , and that " those who seek emancipation should pursue both yoga and knowledge " .
= = Etymology = =
Yoga ( from the Sanskrit root yuj ) means " to add " , " to join " , " to unite " , or " to attach " in its most common literal sense . According to Dasgupta – a scholar of Sanskrit and philosophy , the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots , yujir yoga ( to yoke ) or yuj samādhau ( to concentrate ) .
Yogatattva is compound word of " Yoga " and ' tattva ' , the latter meaning " Truth " , or " Reality , That @-@ ness " . Paul Deussen – a German Indologist and professor of Philosophy translates the term Yogatattva as " the essence of Yoga " .
The term Upanishad means it is knowledge or " hidden doctrine " text that belongs to the corpus of Vedanta literature collection presenting the philosophical concepts of Hinduism and considered the highest purpose of its scripture , the Vedas .
= = Chronology and anthologies = =
The text , states Mircea Eliade , was possibly composed in the same period as the didactic parts of the Mahabharata , the chief Sannyasa Upanishads and along with other early Yoga Upanishads : Brahmabindu ( probably composed about the same time as Maitri Upanishad ) , Ksurika , Tejobindu , Brahmavidya , Nadabindu , Yogashikha , Dhyanabindu , and Amritabindu .
The Yogatattva , adds Eliade , was composed earlier than the ten or eleven later yogic Upanishads such as the Yoga @-@ kundali , Varaha and Pashupatabrahma . Alternate chronological estimates include those by Michael Whiteman – a professor of Mathematics and a writer on Yoga in Hinduism and Buddhism , ) who states it is possibly dated to about 150 CE . David White – a professor of Comparative Religion , in contrast , suggests that the text derives its " ideas and images from the heritage of classical Vedanta " , and it is likely a medieval era text composed between 11th- to 13th @-@ century CE .
Gavin Flood dates the Yogatattva text , along with other Yoga Upanishads , to be probably from the 100 BCE to 300 CE period .
In the collection of Upanishads under the title " Oupanekhat " , put together by Sultan Mohammed Dara Shikhoh in 1656 , consisting of a Persian translation of 50 Upanishads and who prefaced it as the best book on religion , the Yogatattva is listed at number 21 . Dara Shikoh 's collection was in the same order as found in Upanishad anthologies popular in north India . In the 52 Upanishads version of Colebrooke this Upanishad is listed at 23 . In the Bibliothica Indica edition of Narayana – an Indian scholar who lived sometime after the 14th @-@ century Vedanta scholar Sankarananda , the Upanishad is also listed at 23 in his list of 52 .
= = Structure = =
The Telugu version of the Yogatattva Upanishad has 142 verses , while the shortest surviving manuscript in Sanskrit is just 15 verses . Both versions open by hailing Hindu god Vishnu as the supreme Purusha or supreme spirit , the great Yogin , the Supreme Being , the great Tapasvin ( meditator ) , and a lamp in the path of the truth . This links the text to the Vaishnava tradition of Hinduism .
The meaning and message in verses 3 to 15 of the Sanskrit version mirror those of the last 13 verses of the Telugu version of the text .
= = Contents = =
The Yogatattva Upanishad is among the oldest known texts on yoga that provide detailed description of Yoga techniques and its benefits .
For the first time , an Upanishad gives numerous and precise details concerning the extraordinary powers gained by practice and meditation . The four chief asanas ( siddha , padma , simha and bhadra ) are mentioned , as are the obstacles encountered by beginners – sloth , talkativeness , etc . A description of pranayama follows , together with the definition of the matra ( unit of measurement for the phases of respiration ) , and important details of mystical physiology ( the purification of the nadis is shown by external signs : lightness of body , brilliance of complexion , increase in digestive power , etc .
= = = Self realization and virtues of a yoga student = = =
On Hindu god Brahma ’ s request Vishnu explains that all souls are caught up in the cycle of worldly pleasures and sorrow created by Maya ( changing reality ) . and Kaivalya can help overcome this cycle of birth , old age and disease . Knowledge of the shastras are futile in this regard , states Vishnu , and the description of the " indescribable state of liberation " eludes them and even the devas .
It is only the knowledge of ultimate reality and supreme self , the Brahman , which can lead to the path of liberation and self @-@ realization , states Yogatattva Upanishad . This realization of the supreme self is possible to the yoga student who is free from " passion , anger , fear , delusion , greed , pride , lust , birth , death , miserliness , swoon , giddiness , hunger , thirst , ambition , shame , fright , heart @-@ burning , grief and gladness " .
= = = Yoga and knowledge = = =
In the early verses of the Yogatattva Upanishad , the simultaneous importance of yoga and jnana ( knowledge ) are asserted , and declared to be mutually complimentary and necessary .
The text defines " knowledge " , translates Aiyar – a Sanskrit scholar , as " through which one cognizes in himself the real nature of kaivalya ( moksha ) as the supreme seat , the stainless , the partless , and of the nature of Sacchidananda " ( truth @-@ consciousness @-@ bliss ) . This knowledge is of the Brahman and its non @-@ differentiated nature with that of the Atman , of Jiva and Paramatman . Yoga and knowledge ( jnana ) both go together to realise Brahman and attain salvation , according to the Upanishad .
= = = Yogas = = =
In the Upanishad , Vishnu states to Brahma that Yoga is one , in practice of various kinds , the chief are of four types – Mantra Yoga is the practice through chants , Laya Yoga through deep concentration , Hatha Yoga through exertion , and Raja Yoga through meditation .
There are four states which are common to all these yogas , states the text , and these four stages of attainment are : Arambha ( beginning , the stage of practicing ethics such as non @-@ violence and proper diet , followed by asana ) , Ghata ( second integration stage to learn breath regulation and relationship between body and mind ) , Parichaya ( the third intimacy stage to hold , regulate air flow , followed by meditation for relationship between mind and Atman ) , and Nishpatti ( fourth stage to consummate Samadhi and realize Atman ) . The emphasis and most verses in the text are dedicated to Hatha Yoga , although the text mentions Raja yoga is the culmination of Yoga .
The Mantra yoga is stated by the Yogatattva as a discipline of auditory recitation of mantras but stated to be an inferior form of yoga . It is the practice of mantra recitation or intonations of the sounds of alphabet , for 12 years . This gradually brings knowledge and special powers of inner attenuation , asserts the text . This mantra @-@ based method of yoga , asserts Yogatattva , is suited for those with dull wit and incapable of practicing the other three types of yoga .
Laya yoga is presented as the discipline of dissolution where the focus is on thinking of the " Lord without parts " all the times while going through daily life activities . The Laya Yoga , the second in the order of importance , is oriented towards assimilation by the chitta or mind , wherein the person always thinks of formless Ishvara ( God ) .
The Hatha Yoga , to which Yogatattva Upanishad dedicates most of its verses , is discussed with eight interdependent practices : ten yamas ( self @-@ restraints ) , ten niyamas ( self @-@ observances ) , asana ( postures ) , pranayama ( control of breath ) , pratyahara ( conquering the senses ) , dharana ( concentration ) , dhyana , and samadhi that is the state of meditative consciousness .
The text discusses meditation and thereafter through verse 128 , twenty stages of Hatha Yoga practice such as of Maha @-@ mudra , Maha @-@ Bandha , Khechari mudra , Mula Bandha , Uddiyana bandha , Jalandhara Bandha , Vajroli , Amaroli and Sahajoli . Thereafter , the Upanishad asserts Raja yoga to be the means for Yogin to detach himself from the world , translates Ayyangar – a Sanskrit scholar . The tool for meditation , states the text , is Pranava or Om mantra , which it describes in verses 134 – 140 , followed by a statement of the nature of liberation and the ultimate truth .
= = = = Asanas = = = =
The Upanishad mentions many asanas , but states four postures of the yoga for the beginner commencing on pranayama ( breathing exercises ) – Siddhasana , Padmasana , Simhasana and Bhadrasana . The detailed procedure and the setting for these are described in the text .
Sitting in Padmasana ( lotus ) posture , the text states that the pranayama or breathing must be gradual , both inhalation , holding and exhalation should be slow , steady and deep . The text introduces a series of time measures ( matras , musical beats ) to aid self monitoring and to measure progress , wherein the beat is created by the yoga student with fingers self circumambulating and using one 's own knee for the beat pulse . A sequential gradual inhalation over sixteen Matras ( digits ) , holding the air deep within for sixty @-@ four Matras and gradually exhaling the air over thirty @-@ two Matras is suggested as the goal of the breathing exercise .
The Upanishad suggests breathing exercises in a variety of ways , such as breathing with one nostril and exhaling with another , asserting that a regular practice multiple times a day cleans up the Nadis ( blood vessels ) , improves digestive powers , stamina , leanness and causes the skin to glow . The text recommends restraining oneself from salt , mustard , acidic foods , spicy astringent pungent foods . The text also states that the yoga student should avoid fasting , early morning baths , sexual intercourse , and sitting near fire . Milk and ghee ( clarified butter ) , cooked wheat , green gram and rice are foods the text approves of , in verses 46 – 49 . The Upanishad also recommends massage , particularly areas of body that tremor or profusely perspire during the practice of yoga .
The next stage of Yoga practice , states the text , is termed Ghata ( Sanskrit : घट ) with the goal of bringing union of Prana ( breath ) , Apana ( hydration and aeration of body ) , Manas ( mind ) and Buddhi ( intellect ) , as well as between Jivatma ( life soul force ) and Paramatman ( supreme soul ) . This practice is a step , asserts the text , for Pratyahara ( withdrawal from distraction by sensory organs ) and Dharana ( concentration ) . The aim of Dharana , states Yogatattva , is to conceive everyone and everything one perceives with any of his senses as same as his own self and soul ( Atman ) . In verses 72 to 81 , the text describes a range of mystical powers that develop within those who have mastered Ghata stage of yoga . The Upanishad adds that " perfection requires practice , the yogin must never revel in what he achieves , never be vain , never be distracted by trying to comply with demonstration requests , remain oblivious to others , yet be always intent on achieving the goals | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
an appearance on DJ Tim Westwood 's radio show on August 18 . Later that day , West performed at V Festival in Chelmsford , England before an audience of over 50 @,@ 000 people and again played new material from Graduation as well as a tribute cover of Amy Winehouse 's hit single " Rehab . " He then held a secret concert with Barbadian singer Rihanna for an audience of over five hundred fans and invited guests at Westminster Central Hall in London , England on August 20 . The guests were greeted by staff members wearing graduation robes and mortarboard caps in reference to the title of West 's third studio album Graduation . At the end of the concert , a shower of silver confetti and ticker tape reading Touch the Sky fell from the ceiling onto the audience while the actual " Touch the Sky , " which was the fourth single from Late Registration , was played on the speakers .
After he returned to the United States , West joined 50 Cent onstage for a surprise performance before an audience of over 20 @,@ 000 people at a show held on August 22 in Madison Square Garden during Ciara and T.I. ' s Screamfest ' 07 tour . West performed for a benefit concert raising funds for and promoting higher education sponsored by his charity foundation on August 24 at Chicago 's House of Blues . At the concert , he provided live renditions of songs from Graduation and gave the audience a sneak peek of the early production stages of his fall Glow in the Dark Tour . On August 28 , West hosted a studio album listening session for Graduation at New World Stages in New York City . There Kanye West explained his influences and aspirations for the album and played songs over video clips taken from a variety of futuristic sci @-@ fi films , including Tron , Akira , 2046 , and 2001 : A Space Odyssey . Two days later , on the morning of August 30 , the clean version of the album leaked onto the Internet . In a survey conducted by Billboard , results displayed that an estimated 44 % of readers predicted that Graduation would sell more units over 50 Cent and Kenny Chesney . Projections for first week scans based on early store sales reports indicated towards the 575 @,@ 000 – 700 @,@ 000 range for Graduation , while Curtis was projected in the 500 @,@ 000 – 600 @,@ 000 range .
= = Commercial performance = =
On the first day of its release , Graduation sold over 437 @,@ 000 copies . The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart , grossing a total of over 957 @,@ 000 copies in its first week in the United States alone . Graduation became West 's second consecutive studio album to top the Billboard 200 and also debuted at number @-@ one on the album charts in the United Kingdom and Canada . It was within the very same week that " Stronger " topped the Billboard Hot 100 , selling over 205 @,@ 000 digital downloads and giving West his third number @-@ one single . Upon its release , Graduation achieved the highest first week sales week for any album in 2007 , topping Linkin Park 's Minutes to Midnight , which sold 625 @,@ 000 copies . The album was also West 's highest first sales week to date , surpassing the 860 @,@ 000 opening week of his previous album Late Registration . It registered the best first @-@ week sales totals of any record released within the last two years , with the last being West 's own Late Registration .
Additionally , Graduation became ranked as the 15th highest sales week for an album since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking data in 1991 , as well as the highest sales week at the time of its release for an album since 50 Cent 's The Massacre ( 2005 ) . It also set the record for the largest week of an album digitally downloaded , registering over 133 @,@ 000 paid downloads , beating Maroon 5 's previous set record of 102 @,@ 000 for It Won 't Be Soon Before Long . Graduation 's first week sales of 957 @,@ 000 and Curtis 's first week sales of 691 @,@ 000 marked only the second time ever since the inception of Nielsen SoundScan that two albums debuted within the same week with totals surpassing 623 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . The first occurrence of such an event was in September 1991 , when Guns N ' Roses conjunctively released Use Your Illusion I , which sold 685 @,@ 000 copies , and Use Your Illusion II , which sold 770 @,@ 000 copies . The first week sales totals of Graduation and Curtis have outsold the first week sales totals of Guns N ' Roses ' two albums . 50 Cent showed graciousness in regards to his defeat . In a statement released to the Associated Press , he said , " I am very excited to have participated in one of the biggest album release weeks in the last two years . Collectively , we have sold hundreds of thousands of units in our debut week . This marks a great moment for hip @-@ hop music , one that will go down in history . " After years of slumping sales , the album competition between the two releases and the resulting record breaking performances both albums demonstrated was considered to be a " fantastic day for hip @-@ hop " .
In its second week on the Billboard 200 , Graduation slid to number two with the release of Reba McEntire 's Reba : Duets , selling 226 @,@ 000 copies while maintaining its dominance over Curtis , which sold 143 @,@ 000 . The next week , with the releases of over 40 new albums , Graduation dropped three spaces to number five and registered 133 @,@ 300 , reaching a cumulative total of 1 @.@ 3 million copies by October 3 . Selling 92 @,@ 400 copies , the album descended two spots the following week to reach number seven . During its fourth week on the chart , Graduation experienced a slight rebound and rose from number seven to six on October 17 , selling 71 @,@ 000 copies . The following week , the album began to descend once more , selling an estimated 54 @,@ 000 copies and dropping three places to reach the ninth position on October 24 . By year 's end , Graduation was the third most @-@ downloaded and best @-@ selling album of 2007 on iTunes Store . Graduation became West 's third consecutive studio album to sell over two million copies in the United States , and it was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on October 18 , 2007 . As of June 14 , 2013 , Nielsen Soundscan reported that Graduation has since grossed over 2 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = Critical reception = =
Graduation received widely positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 79 , based on 32 reviews . Pitchfork Media critic Mark Pytlik complimented the accessibility of West 's sonic experimentations , finding it impressive and innovative how he assembled seemingly disparate elements on the songs . Greg Tate , writing in The Village Voice , dubbed him " the most genuinely confessional MC in hip @-@ hop today " and said , " bouts of narcissism aside , Graduation contains killer pieces of production " . Stylus Magazine 's Jayson Greene said it " serves as a document of West 's maturation " and , " musically , at least , it 's the most accomplished thing he 's ever done . " In Rolling Stone , Nathan Brackett wrote of West 's evolving and increasingly experimental , genre @-@ bending production and said although he lacks Jay @-@ Z 's " formal mastery " , West has " grown as a writer ... given the lousy year hip @-@ hop has had , the music needs his spazzed @-@ out , neurotic creativity more than ever " . Josh Tyrangiel from Time wrote , " West plunders the best [ samples ] and meticulously layers every track with enough surprises that there are thrills and discoveries a dozen listens in . "
In a less enthusiastic review for MSN Music , Robert Christgau deemed Graduation a " minor success " in which " every single track offers up its momentary pleasures — choruses that make you say yeah on songs you 've already found wanting , confessional details and emotional aperçus on an album that still reduces to quality product when they 're over " . However , he felt West spent too much of the album rationalizing his obsession with his fame in sketchy fashion and occasionally awkward rhymes , " little stuff like his failure to convert ' this ' - ' crib ' - ' shit ' - ' live ' - ' serious ' into a rhyme " on " Champion " or " ' at bay at a distance ' into an idiom " on " Big Brother " . Dorian Lynskey from The Guardian said West often " undercuts rap cliches with wit and ambivalence " , but observed some disappointing lyrics such as on " Can 't Tell Me Nothing " , which he said revealed his limited perspective . Slant Magazine critic Eric Henderson found West 's lyrics " only transparently expressive " and said the songs ' hooks " grab your ear on the first listen ( notably bypassing your brain ) " . Dave Heaton from PopMatters felt the album is ordinary and lacks the epochal feel of Late Registration , with songs that " aren 't as richly dressed , and he doesn 't seem to be trying as hard " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Rolling Stone placed the album at number five on its list of their Top 50 Albums of 2007 " . Graduation was listed at number nine on the Billboard Critics ' Poll . Time listed Graduation as the tenth best album of the year . A year @-@ end poll conducted by Entertainment Weekly cited Graduation as the best album of 2007 . It was also hailed as the best album of the year by USA Today , which wrote , " The Louis Vuitton Don may major in rap , but he liberally borrows from other music schools to create a much broader soundscape . " The studio album was listed as the fourth and eighteenth best record of the year by Spin magazine and Pitchfork Media respectively . PopMatters also listed Graduation as the fourth best album of the year . Graduation was listed at number thirty @-@ five by The Observer on its best fifty albums of the year . The Daily Telegraph ranked it number fifteen on its list of " Pop CDs of the Year " , writing , " Kanye West finally grew up on this album , delivering more inventive , precision @-@ tooled hip @-@ hop but wearing a much more furrowed brow as he explored his existential anxieties . Dark and addictive . " Pitchfork Media placed Graduation at number 87 on their list of top 200 albums of the 2000s . Graduation was cited as the second best album of the entire decade by Complex magazine .
At the 50th Grammy Awards , West led the field with a total of eight nominations , including Album of the Year , Best Rap / Sung Collaboration for " Good Life " , and Best Rap Song for " Can 't Tell Me Nothing " . West received the Grammy awards for Best Rap Solo Performance for " Stronger " , Best Rap Song for " Good Life " , and finally Graduation received the award for Best Rap Album . At the 34th annual American Music Awards , West received both the awards for Favorite Rap / Hip @-@ Hop Artist as well as Favorite Rap / Hip @-@ Hop Album for Graduation . However , West offered the former to Lil Wayne , who he felt was more deserving of the award due to his musical efforts in 2008 . Praising the artistic expression prevalent throughout Graduation , the success of the third studio album 's singles , and lastly the vivid imagination of its accompanying international Glow in the Dark Tour , MTV crowned West as the year 's # 1 Hottest MC in the Game on May 16 , 2008 .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Irish rock band U2 has asserted that touring with West on their Vertigo Tour had a significant effect on their own music as well in regards to the band 's twelfth studio album No Line on the Horizon . Bono elaborated that Kanye West 's rapping inspired him to utilize more percussive consonants for his songwriting and vocal performance . West 's third studio album Graduation , particularly with its two hit singles " Stronger " and " Flashing Lights " , has been attributed to not only encouraging other hip @-@ hop artists to incorporate house and electronica elements into their music , but also for playing a part in the revival of disco and electro @-@ infused music in the late 2000s . In addition , tracks such as " Everything I Am " have been cited as " the best example of the soulful and introspective atmosphere that came to dominate the rap world , from Drake to The Weeknd " . West has also received praise for his ability to appeal to diverse music audiences such as indie @-@ rock listeners and rave enthusiasts without alienating his hip @-@ hop audiences .
The outcome of the highly publicized sales competition between 50 Cent 's Curtis and West 's Graduation has since been accredited to the decline of the gangsta rap that once dominated mainstream hip @-@ hop . The Michigan Daily columnist Adam Theisen asserts that West 's win once and for all " prove [ d ] that rap music didn 't have to conform to gangsta @-@ rap conventions to be commercially successful . " Ben Detrick of XXL cites West defeat over 50 Cent in sales as being responsible for altering the direction of hip @-@ hop and paving the way for new rappers who didn 't follow the hardcore @-@ gangster mold , writing , " If there was ever a watershed moment to indicate hip @-@ hop 's changing direction , it may have come when 50 Cent competed with Kanye in 2007 to see whose album would claim superior sales . 50 lost handily , and it was made clear that excellent songcrafting trumped a lack of street @-@ life experience . Kanye led a wave of new artists — Kid Cudi , Wale , Lupe Fiasco , Kidz in the Hall , Drake — who lacked the interest or ability to create narratives about any past gunplay or drug @-@ dealing . "
The competition between 50 Cent and West , when the two released their studio albums on the same day , was penultimate in a series of articles that lists fifty key events in the history of R & B and hip @-@ hop music , written by Rosie Swash of The Guardian . Swash wrote that it " highlighted the diverging facets of hip @-@ hop in the last decade ; the former was gangsta rap for the noughties , while West was the thinking man 's alternative . " Similarly , according to DJBooth , while Graduation is far from being West 's best studio album , it nevertheless is a great piece of work while the outcome of its competition with 50 Cent stands as a historical moment in hip @-@ hop culture : " Graduation isn ’ t Kanye 's best , it 's very few people 's favorite , but it ’ s an incredible body of art . He ’ s literally transitioning into stardom right before our very eyes and attempting to embody that moment in time . Kanye 's victory over 50 is the bookmark for when rap changed , it was no longer ran by the gangsters , the doors opened for Drake , Kid Cudi and J. Cole . Graduation is a monument , a hip @-@ hop treasure , a Kanye classic . "
= = Track listing = =
Notes :
^ [ a ] signifies a co @-@ producer .
^ [ b ] signifies an additional producer .
Sample credits :
" Good Morning " contains samples from " Someone Saved My Life Tonight " by Elton John .
" Champion " contains elements of " Kid Charlemagne " by Steely Dan .
" Stronger " contains a sample of " Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger " performed by Daft Punk .
" I Wonder " contains a sample from " My Song " by Labi Siffre .
" Good Life " contains a sample of " P.Y.T. ( Pretty Young Thing ) " performed by Michael Jackson .
" Barry Bonds " contains a sample of " Long Red " performed by Mountain .
" Drunk and Hot Girls " contains elements of " Sing Swan Song " performed by Can .
" Everything I Am " contains elements of " If We Can 't Be Lovers " performed by Prince Phillip Mitchell and " Bring the Noise " performed by Public Enemy .
" The Glory " contains elements of " Save the Country " performed by Laura Nyro , contains a sample of " Long Red " performed by Mountain .
" Good Night " contains samples of " Nuff Man a Dead " by Super Cat , " Wake The Town " by U @-@ Roy .
" Bittersweet Poetry " interpolates " Bittersweet " performed by Chairmen of the Board .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Addition =
Addition ( often signified by the plus symbol " + " ) is one of the four basic operations of arithmetic , with the others being subtraction , multiplication and division . The addition of two whole numbers is the total amount of those quantities combined . For example , in the picture on the right , there is a combination of three apples and two apples together , making a total of five apples . This observation is equivalent to the mathematical expression " 3 + 2 = 5 " i.e. , " 3 add 2 is equal to 5 " .
Besides counting fruits , addition can also represent combining other physical objects . Using systematic generalizations , addition can also be defined on more abstract quantities , such as integers , rational numbers , real numbers and complex numbers and other abstract objects such as vectors and matrices .
In arithmetic , rules for addition involving fractions and negative numbers have been devised amongst others . In algebra , addition is studied more abstractly .
Addition has several important properties . It is commutative , meaning that order does not matter , and it is associative , meaning that when one adds more than two numbers , the order in which addition is performed does not matter ( see Summation ) . Repeated addition of 1 is the same as counting ; addition of 0 does not change a number . Addition also obeys predictable rules concerning related operations such as subtraction and multiplication .
Performing addition is one of the simplest numerical tasks . Addition of very small numbers is accessible to toddlers ; the most basic task , 1 + 1 , can be performed by infants as young as five months and even some non @-@ human animals . In primary education , students are taught to add numbers in the decimal system , starting with single digits and progressively tackling more difficult problems . Mechanical aids range from the ancient abacus to the modern computer , where research on the most efficient implementations of addition continues to this day .
= = Notation and terminology = =
Addition is written using the plus sign " + " between the terms ; that is , in infix notation . The result is expressed with an equals sign . For example ,
<formula> ( " one plus one equals two " )
<formula> ( " two plus two equals four " )
<formula> ( " three plus three equals six " )
<formula> ( see " associativity " below )
<formula> ( see " multiplication " below )
There are also situations where addition is " understood " even though no symbol appears :
A column of numbers , with the last number in the column underlined , usually indicates that the numbers in the column are to be added , with the sum written below the underlined number .
A whole number followed immediately by a fraction indicates the sum of the two , called a mixed number . For example ,
3 ½
= 3 + ½ =
3 @.@ 5 .
This notation can cause confusion since in most other contexts juxtaposition denotes multiplication instead .
The sum of a series of related numbers can be expressed through capital sigma notation , which compactly denotes iteration . For example ,
<formula>
The numbers or the objects to be added in general addition are collectively referred to as the terms , the addends or the summands ; this terminology carries over to the summation of multiple terms . This is to be distinguished from factors , which are multiplied . Some authors call the first addend the augend . In fact , during the Renaissance , many authors did not consider the first addend an " addend " at all . Today , due to the commutative property of addition , " augend " is rarely used , and both terms are generally called addends .
All of the above terminology derives from Latin . " Addition " and " add " are English words derived from the Latin verb addere , which is in turn a compound of ad " to " and dare " to give " , from the Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European root * deh ₃ - " to give " ; thus to add is to give to . Using the gerundive suffix -nd results in " addend " , " thing to be added " . Likewise from augere " to increase " , one gets " augend " , " thing to be increased " .
" Sum " and " summand " derive from the Latin noun summa " the highest , the top " and associated verb summare . This is appropriate not only because the sum of two positive numbers is greater than either , but because it was common for the ancient Greeks and Romans to add upward , contrary to the modern practice of adding downward , so that a sum was literally higher than the addends . Addere and summare date back at least to Boethius , if not to earlier Roman writers such as Vitruvius and Frontinus ; Boethius also used several other terms for the addition operation . The later Middle English terms " adden " and " adding " were popularized by Chaucer .
The plus sign " + " ( Unicode : U + 002B ; ASCII : & # 43 ; ) is an abbreviation of the Latin word et , meaning " and " . It appears in mathematical works dating back to at least 1489 .
= = Interpretations = =
Addition is used to model countless physical processes . Even for the simple case of adding natural numbers , there are many possible interpretations and even more visual representations .
= = = Combining sets = = =
Possibly the most fundamental interpretation of addition lies in combining sets :
When two or more disjoint collections are combined into a single collection , the number of objects in the single collection is the sum of the number of objects in the original collections .
This interpretation is easy to visualize , with little danger of ambiguity . It is also useful in higher mathematics ; for the rigorous definition it inspires , see Natural numbers below . However , it is not obvious how one should extend this version of addition to include fractional numbers or negative numbers .
One possible fix is to consider collections of objects that can be easily divided , such as pies or , still better , segmented rods . Rather than just combining collections of segments , rods can be joined end @-@ to @-@ end , which illustrates another conception of addition : adding not the rods but the lengths of the rods .
= = = Extending a length = = =
A second interpretation of addition comes from extending an initial length by a given length :
When an original length is extended by a given amount , the final length is the sum of the original length and the length of the extension .
The sum a + b can be interpreted as a binary operation that combines a and b , in an algebraic sense , or it can be interpreted as the addition of b more units to a . Under the latter interpretation , the parts of a sum a + b play asymmetric roles , and the operation a + b is viewed as applying the unary operation + b to a . Instead of calling both a and b addends , it is more appropriate to call a the augend in this case , since a plays a passive role . The unary view is also useful when discussing subtraction , because each unary addition operation has an inverse unary subtraction operation , and vice versa .
= = Properties = =
= = = Commutativity = = =
Addition is commutative : one can change the order of the terms in a sum , and the result is the same . Symbolically , if a and b are any two numbers , then
a + b = b + a .
The fact that addition is commutative is known as the " commutative law of addition " . This phrase suggests that there are other commutative laws : for example , there is a commutative law of multiplication . However , many binary operations are not commutative , such as subtraction and division , so it is misleading to speak of an unqualified " commutative law " .
= = = Associativity = = =
Addition is associative : when adding three or more numbers , the order of operations does not matter .
As an example , should the expression a + b + c be defined to mean ( a + b ) + c or a + ( b + c ) ? That addition is associative tells us that the choice of definition is irrelevant . For any three numbers a , b , and c , it is true that ( a + b ) + c
= a + ( b + c ) . For example , ( 1 + 2 ) + 3 =
3 + 3
= 6 =
1 + 5 = 1 + ( 2 + 3 ) .
When addition is used together with other operations , the order of operations becomes important . In the standard order of operations , addition is a lower priority than exponentiation , nth roots , multiplication and division , but is given equal priority to subtraction .
= = = Identity element = = =
When adding zero to any number , the quantity does not change ; zero is the identity element for addition , also known as the additive identity . In symbols , for any a ,
a + 0
= 0 + a =
a .
This law was first identified in Brahmagupta 's Brahmasphutasiddhanta in 628 AD , although he wrote it as three separate laws , depending on whether a is negative , positive , or zero itself , and he used words rather than algebraic symbols . Later Indian mathematicians refined the concept ; around the year 830 , Mahavira wrote , " zero becomes the same as what is added to it " , corresponding to the unary statement 0 + a
= a . In the 12th century , Bhaskara wrote , " In the addition of cipher , or subtraction of it , the quantity , positive or negative , remains the same " , corresponding to the unary statement a + 0 =
a .
= = = Successor = = =
In the context of integers , addition of one also plays a special role : for any integer a , the integer ( a + 1 ) is the least integer greater than a , also known as the successor of a . For instance , 3 is the successor of 2 and 7 is the successor of 6 . Because of this succession , the value of a + b can also be seen as the <formula> successor of a , making addition iterated succession . For examples , 6 + 2 is 8 , because 8 is the successor of 7 , which is the successor of 6 , making 8 the 2nd successor of 6 .
= = = Units = = =
To numerically add physical quantities with units , they must be expressed with common units . For example , adding 50 millilitres to 150 millilitres gives 200 millilitres . However , if a measure of 5 feet is extended by 2 inches , the sum is 62 inches , since 60 inches is synonymous with 5 feet . On the other hand , it is usually meaningless to try to add 3 meters and 4 square meters , since those units are incomparable ; this sort of consideration is fundamental in dimensional analysis .
= = Performing addition = =
= = = Innate ability = = =
Studies on mathematical development starting around the 1980s have exploited the phenomenon of habituation : infants look longer at situations that are unexpected . A seminal experiment by Karen Wynn in 1992 involving Mickey Mouse dolls manipulated behind a screen demonstrated that five @-@ month @-@ old infants expect 1 + 1 to be 2 , and they are comparatively surprised when a physical situation seems to imply that 1 + 1 is either 1 or 3 . This finding has since been affirmed by a variety of laboratories using different methodologies . Another 1992 experiment with older toddlers , between 18 and 35 months , exploited their development of motor control by allowing them to retrieve ping @-@ pong balls from a box ; the youngest responded well for small numbers , while older subjects were able to compute sums up to 5 .
Even some nonhuman animals show a limited ability to add , particularly primates . In a 1995 experiment imitating Wynn 's 1992 result ( but using eggplants instead of dolls ) , rhesus macaque and cottontop tamarin monkeys performed similarly to human infants . More dramatically , after being taught the meanings of the Arabic numerals 0 through 4 , one chimpanzee was able to compute the sum of two numerals without further training . More recently , Asian elephants have demonstrated an ability to perform basic arithmetic .
= = = Learning addition as children = = =
Typically , children first master counting . When given a problem that requires that two items and three items be combined , young children model the situation with physical objects , often fingers or a drawing , and then count the total . As they gain experience , they learn or discover the strategy of " counting @-@ on " : asked to find two plus three , children count three past two , saying " three , four , five " ( usually ticking off fingers ) , and arriving at five . This strategy seems almost universal ; children can easily pick it up from peers or teachers . Most discover it independently . With additional experience , children learn to add more quickly by exploiting the commutativity of addition by counting up from the larger number , in this case starting with three and counting " four , five . " Eventually children begin to recall certain addition facts ( " number bonds " ) , either through experience or rote memorization . Once some facts are committed to memory , children begin to derive unknown facts from known ones . For example , a child asked to add six and seven may know that 6 + 6 = 12 and then reason that 6 + 7 is one more , or 13 . Such derived facts can be found very quickly and most elementary school students eventually rely on a mixture of memorized and derived facts to add fluently .
Different nations introduce whole numbers and arithmetic at different ages , with many countries teaching addition in pre @-@ school . However , throughout the world , addition is taught by the end of the first year of elementary school .
= = = = Addition table = = = =
Children are often presented with the addition table of pairs of numbers from 1 to 10 to memorize . Knowing this , one can perform any addition .
= = = Decimal system = = =
The prerequisite to addition in the decimal system is the fluent recall or derivation of the 100 single @-@ digit " addition facts " . One could memorize all the facts by rote , but pattern @-@ based strategies are more enlightening and , for most people , more efficient :
Commutative property : Mentioned above , using the pattern a + b
= b + a reduces the number of " addition facts " from 100 to 55 .
One or two more : Adding 1 or 2 is a basic task , and it can be accomplished through counting on or , ultimately , intuition .
Zero : Since zero is the additive identity , adding zero is trivial . Nonetheless , in the teaching of arithmetic , some students are introduced to addition as a process that always increases the addends ; word problems may help rationalize the " exception " of zero .
Doubles : Adding a number to itself is related to counting by two and to multiplication . Doubles facts form a backbone for many related facts , and students find them relatively easy to grasp .
Near @-@ doubles : Sums such as 6 + 7 =
13 can be quickly derived from the doubles fact 6 + 6
= 12 by adding one more , or from 7 + 7 =
14 but subtracting one .
Five and ten : Sums of the form 5 + x and 10 + x are usually memorized early and can be used for deriving other facts . For example , 6 + 7
= 13 can be derived from 5 + 7 =
12 by adding one more .
Making ten : An advanced strategy uses 10 as an intermediate for sums involving 8 or 9 ; for example , 8 + 6
= 8 + 2 + 4 =
10 + 4 = 14 .
As students grow older , they commit more facts to memory , and learn to derive other facts rapidly and fluently . Many students never commit all the facts to memory , but can still find any basic fact quickly .
= = = = Carry = = = =
The standard algorithm for adding multidigit numbers is to align the addends vertically and add the columns , starting from the ones column on the right . If a column exceeds ten , the extra digit is " carried " into the next column . For example , in the addition 27 + 59
¹
27
+ 59
— — — —
86
7 + 9 = 16 , and the digit 1 is the carry . An alternate strategy starts adding from the most significant digit on the left ; this route makes carrying a little clumsier , but it is faster at getting a rough estimate of the sum . There are many alternative methods .
= = = = Addition of decimal fractions = = = =
Decimal fractions can be added by a simple modification of the above process . One aligns two decimal fractions above each other , with the decimal point in the same location . If necessary , one can add trailing zeros to a shorter decimal to make it the same length as the longer decimal . Finally , one performs the same addition process as above , except the decimal point is placed in the answer , exactly where it was placed in the summands .
As an example , 45 @.@ 1 + 4 @.@ 34 can be solved as follows :
4 5 . 1 0
+ 0 4 . 3 4
— — — — — — — — — — — —
4 9 . 4 4
= = = = Scientific notation = = = =
In scientific notation , numbers are written in the form <formula> , where <formula> is the significand and <formula> is the exponential part . Addition requires two numbers in scientific notation to be represented using the same exponential part , so that the significand can be simply added or subtracted .
For example :
<formula>
= = = Addition in other bases = = =
Addition in other bases is very similar to decimal addition . As an example , one can consider addition in binary . Adding two single @-@ digit binary numbers is relatively simple , using a form of carrying :
0 + 0 → 0
0 + 1 → 1
1 + 0 → 1
1 + 1 → 0 , carry 1 ( since 1 + 1
= 2 =
0 + ( 1 × 21 ) )
Adding two " 1 " digits produces a digit " 0 " , while 1 must be added to the next column . This is similar to what happens in decimal when certain single @-@ digit numbers are added together ; if the result equals or exceeds the value of the radix ( 10 ) , the digit to the left is incremented :
5 + 5 → 0 , carry 1 ( since 5 + 5
= 10 =
0 + ( 1 × 101 ) )
7 + 9 → 6 , carry 1 ( since 7 + 9
= 16 =
6 + ( 1 × 101 ) )
This is known as carrying . When the result of an addition exceeds the value of a digit , the procedure is to " carry " the excess amount divided by the radix ( that is , 10 / 10 ) to the left , adding it to the next positional value . This is correct since the next position has a weight that is higher by a factor equal to the radix . Carrying works the same way in binary :
1 1 1 1 1 ( carried digits )
0 1 1 0 1
+ 1 0 1 1 1
— — — — — — — — — — — — —
1 0 0 1 0 0
= 36
In this example , two numerals are being added together : 011012 ( 1310 ) and 101112 ( 2310 ) . The top row shows the carry bits used . Starting in the rightmost column , 1 + 1 =
102 . The 1 is carried to the left , and the 0 is written at the bottom of the rightmost column . The second column from the right is added : 1 + 0 + 1
= 102 again ; the 1 is carried , and 0 is written at the bottom . The third column : 1 + 1 + 1 =
112 . This time , a 1 is carried , and a 1 is written in the bottom row . Proceeding like this gives the final answer 1001002 ( 36 decimal ) .
= = = Computers = = =
Analog computers work directly with physical quantities , so their addition mechanisms depend on the form of the addends . A mechanical adder might represent two addends as the positions of sliding blocks , in which case they can be added with an averaging lever . If the addends are the rotation speeds of two shafts , they can be added with a differential . A hydraulic adder can add the pressures in two chambers by exploiting Newton 's second law to balance forces on an assembly of pistons . The most common situation for a general @-@ purpose analog computer is to add two voltages ( referenced to ground ) ; this can be accomplished roughly with a resistor network , but a better design exploits an operational amplifier .
Addition is also fundamental to the operation of digital computers , where the efficiency of addition , in particular the carry mechanism , is an important limitation to overall performance .
The abacus , also called a counting frame , is a calculating tool that was in use centuries before the adoption of the written modern numeral system and is still widely used by merchants , traders and clerks in Asia , Africa , and elsewhere ; it dates back to at least 2700 – 2300 BC , when it was used in Sumer .
Blaise Pascal invented the mechanical calculator in 1642 ; it was the first operational adding machine . It made use of a gravity @-@ assisted carry mechanism . It was the only operational mechanical calculator in the 17th century and the earliest automatic , digital computers . Pascal 's calculator was limited by its carry mechanism , which forced its wheels to only turn one way so it could add . To subtract , the operator had to use the Pascal 's calculator 's complement , which required as many steps as an addition . Giovanni Poleni followed Pascal , building the second functional mechanical calculator in 1709 , a calculating clock made of wood that , once setup , could multiply two numbers automatically .
Adders execute integer addition in electronic digital computers , usually using binary arithmetic . The simplest architecture is the ripple carry adder , which follows the standard multi @-@ digit algorithm . One slight improvement is the carry skip design , again following human intuition ; one does not perform all the carries in computing 999 + 1 , but one bypasses the group of 9s and skips to the answer .
In practice , comutational addition may achieved via XOR and AND bitwise logical operations in conjunction with bitshift operations as shown in the pseudocode below . Both XOR and AND gates are straightforward to realize in digital logic allowing the realization of full adder circuits which in turn may be combined into more complex logical operations . In modern digital computers , integer addition is typically the fastest arithmetic instruction , yet it has the largest impact on performance , since it underlies all floating @-@ point operations as well as such basic tasks as address generation during memory access and fetching instructions during branching . To increase speed , modern designs calculate digits in parallel ; these schemes go by such names as carry select , carry lookahead , and the Ling pseudocarry . Many implementations are , in fact , hybrids of these last three designs . Unlike addition on paper , addition on a computer often changes the addends . On the ancient abacus and adding board , both addends are destroyed , leaving only the sum . The influence of the abacus on mathematical thinking was strong enough that early Latin texts often claimed that in the process of adding " a number to a number " , both numbers vanish . In modern times , the ADD instruction of a microprocessor replaces the augend with the sum but preserves the addend . In a high @-@ level programming language , evaluating a + b does not change either a or b ; if the goal is to replace a with the sum this must be explicitly requested , typically with the statement a = a + b . Some languages such as C or C + + allow this to be abbreviated as a + = b .
On a computer , if the result of an addition is too large to store , an arithmetic overflow occurs , resulting in an incorrect answer . Unanticipated arithmetic overflow is a fairly common cause of program errors . Such overflow bugs may be hard to discover and diagnose because they may manifest themselves only for very large input data sets , which are less likely to be used in validation tests . One especially notable such error was the Y2K bug , where overflow errors due to using a 2 @-@ digit format for years caused significant computer problems in 2000 .
= = Addition of numbers = =
To prove the usual properties of addition , one must first define addition for the context in question . Addition is first defined on the natural numbers . In set theory , addition is then extended to progressively larger sets that include the natural numbers : the integers , the rational numbers , and the real numbers . ( In mathematics education , positive fractions are added before negative numbers are even considered ; this is also the historical route . )
= = = Natural numbers = = =
There are two popular ways to define the sum of two natural numbers a and b . If one defines natural numbers to be the cardinalities of finite sets , ( the cardinality of a set is the number of elements in the set ) , then it is appropriate to define their sum as follows :
Let N ( S ) be the cardinality of a set S. Take two disjoint sets A and B , with N ( A )
= a and N ( B ) =
b . Then a + b is defined as <formula> .
Here , A U B is the union of A and B. An alternate version of this definition allows A and B to possibly overlap and then takes their disjoint union , a mechanism that allows common elements to be separated out and therefore counted twice .
The other popular definition is recursive :
Let n + be the successor of n , that is the number following n in the natural numbers , so 0 + = 1 , 1 + = 2 . Define a + 0
= a . Define the general sum recursively by a + ( b + ) =
( a + b ) + . Hence 1 + 1
= 1 + 0 + =
( 1 + 0 ) +
= 1 + =
2 .
Again , there are minor variations upon this definition in the literature . Taken literally , the above definition is an application of the Recursion Theorem on the partially ordered set N2 . On the other hand , some sources prefer to use a restricted Recursion Theorem that applies only to the set of natural numbers . One then considers a to be temporarily " fixed " , applies recursion on b to define a function " a + " , and pastes these unary operations for all a together to form the full binary operation .
This recursive formulation of addition was developed by Dedekind as early as 1854 , and he would expand upon it in the following decades . He proved the associative and commutative properties , among others , through mathematical induction .
= = = Integers = = =
The simplest conception of an integer is that it consists of an absolute value ( which is a natural number ) and a sign ( generally either positive or negative ) . The integer zero is a special third case , being neither positive nor negative . The corresponding definition of addition must proceed by cases :
For an integer n , let | n | be its absolute value . Let a and b be integers . If either a or b is zero , treat it as an identity . If a and b are both positive , define a + b
= | a | + | b | . If a and b are both negative , define a + b =
− ( | a | + | b | ) . If a and b have different signs , define a + b to be the difference between | a | and | b | , with the sign of the term whose absolute value is larger . As an example , -6 + 4
= -2 ; because -6 and 4 have different signs , their absolute values are subtracted , and since the negative term is larger , the answer is negative .
Although this definition can be useful for concrete problems , it is far too complicated to produce elegant general proofs ; there are too many cases to consider .
A much more convenient conception of the integers is the Grothendieck group construction . The essential observation is that every integer can be expressed ( not uniquely ) as the difference of two natural numbers , so we may as well define an integer as the difference of two natural numbers . Addition is then defined to be compatible with subtraction :
Given two integers a − b and c − d , where a , b , c , and d are natural numbers , define ( a − b ) + ( c − d ) =
( a + c ) − ( b + d ) .
= = = Rational numbers ( fractions ) = = =
Addition of rational numbers can be computed using the least common denominator , but a conceptually simpler definition involves only integer addition and multiplication :
Define <formula>
As an example , the sum <formula> .
Addition of fractions is much simpler when the denominators are the same ; in this case , one can simply add the numerators while leaving the denominator the same : <formula> , so <formula> .
The commutativity and associativity of rational addition is an easy consequence of the laws of integer arithmetic . For a more rigorous and general discussion , see field of fractions .
= = = Real numbers = = =
A common construction of the set of real numbers is the Dedekind completion of the set of rational numbers . A real number is defined to be a Dedekind cut of rationals : a non @-@ empty set of rationals that is closed downward and has no greatest element . The sum of real numbers a and b is defined element by element :
Define <formula>
This definition was first published , in a slightly modified form , by Richard Dedekind in 1872 . The commutativity and associativity of real addition are immediate ; defining the real number 0 to be the set of negative rationals , it is easily seen to be the additive identity . Probably the trickiest part of this construction pertaining to addition is the definition of additive inverses .
Unfortunately , dealing with multiplication of Dedekind cuts is a time @-@ consuming case @-@ by @-@ case process similar to the addition of signed integers . Another approach is the metric completion of the rational numbers . A real number is essentially defined to be the a limit of a Cauchy sequence of rationals , lim an . Addition is defined term by term :
Define <formula>
This definition was first published by Georg Cantor , also in 1872 , although his formalism was slightly different . One must prove that this operation is well @-@ defined , dealing with co @-@ Cauchy sequences . Once that task is done , all the properties of real addition follow immediately from the properties of rational numbers . Furthermore , the other arithmetic operations , including multiplication , have straightforward , analogous definitions .
= = = Complex numbers = = =
Complex numbers are added by adding the real and imaginary parts of the summands . That is to say :
<formula>
Using the visualization of complex numbers in the complex plane , the addition has the following geometric interpretation : the sum of two complex numbers A and B , interpreted as points of the complex plane , is the point X obtained by building a parallelogram three of whose vertices are O , A and B. Equivalently , X is the point such that the triangles with vertices O , A , B , and X , B , A , are congruent .
= = Generalizations = =
There are many binary operations that can be viewed as generalizations of the addition operation on the real numbers . The field of abstract algebra is centrally concerned with such generalized operations , and they also appear in set theory and category theory .
= = = Addition in abstract algebra = = =
= = = = Vector addition = = = =
In linear algebra , a vector space is an algebraic structure that allows for adding any two vectors and for scaling vectors . A familiar vector space is the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers ; the ordered pair ( a , b ) is interpreted as a vector from the origin in the Euclidean plane to the point ( a , b ) in the plane . The sum of two vectors is obtained by adding their individual coordinates :
( a , b ) + ( c , d ) = ( a + c , b + d ) .
This addition operation is central to classical mechanics , in which vectors are interpreted as forces .
= = = = Matrix addition = = = =
Matrix addition is defined for two matrices of the same dimensions . The sum of two m × n ( pronounced " m by n " ) matrices A and B , denoted by A + B , is again an m × n matrix computed by adding corresponding elements :
<formula>
For example :
<formula>
= = = = Modular arithmetic = = = =
In modular arithmetic , the set of integers modulo 12 has twelve elements ; it inherits an addition operation from the integers that is central to musical set theory . The set of integers modulo 2 has just two elements ; the addition operation it inherits is known in Boolean logic as the " exclusive or " function . In geometry , the sum of two angle measures is often taken to | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the background is 4 @.@ 696 arcseconds per year , and it is moving away from the Sun at a velocity of 19 km / s . When translated into the galactic coordinate system , this motion corresponds to a space velocity of ( U , V , W ) = ( − 26 , − 44 , − 18 ) km / s . The space velocity of Wolf 359 implies that it belongs to the population of old @-@ disk stars . It follows an orbit through the Milky Way that will bring it as close as 20 @.@ 5 kly ( 6 @.@ 3 kpc ) and as distant as 28 kly ( 8 @.@ 6 kpc ) from the Galactic Center . The galactic orbit has an eccentricity of 0 @.@ 156 , and the star can travel as far as 444 light @-@ years ( 136 pc ) away from the galactic plane . The closest stellar neighbor to Wolf 359 is the red dwarf Ross 128 at 3 @.@ 79 ly ( 1 @.@ 16 pc ) away . Approximately 13 @,@ 850 years ago , Wolf 359 was at its minimal distance of about 7 @.@ 35 ly ( 2 @.@ 25 pc ) from the Sun .
= Pilot ( Awake ) =
" Pilot " is the pilot episode of the American television police procedural fantasy drama Awake , which originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) on March 1 , 2012 . Written by series creator Kyle Killen , " Pilot " earned a Nielsen rating of 2 @.@ 0 , being watched by 6 @.@ 247 million viewers upon its initial broadcast . Directed by David Slade , it became the highest @-@ rated non @-@ sports program in its respective time slot on NBC in over a year . The episode has generally received positive reviews , with many critics commenting on the episode 's unique script , and the cast members , particularly Jason Isaacs ' performance as Michael Britten , who they felt effectively embodied the characteristics of the lead role . It was one of eight honorees at the Critics ' Choice Television Awards .
The pilot introduced the main character , Michael Britten , a detective who works for the Los Angeles Police Department . He is involved in a fatal accident with his family . Michael is conflicted with two parallel realities ; in one reality , in which he wears a red wristband , his wife Hannah Britten ( Laura Allen ) survived the accident , and in another reality , in which he wears a green wristband , his son Rex Britten ( Dylan Minnette ) survived . Michael does not know which reality is real , and sees two separate therapists : Dr. John Lee ( BD Wong ) in the " red reality " , and Dr. Judith Evans ( Cherry Jones ) in the " green reality " . Michael deals with a kidnapping in the " green reality " , and a murder in the " red reality " .
The concept of Awake was devised by Killen , who previously created the American television drama Lone Star for the Fox network . NBC encouraged Killen to conceive a concept for a future television series after Lone Star 's cancellation . Although it was inspired by the processes of dreaming , its script was cited as potentially being too complex for mainstream American television .
= = Plot = =
Detective Michael Britten ( Jason Isaacs ) is at therapy sessions with Dr. John Lee ( BD Wong ) and Dr. Judith Evans ( Cherry Jones ) . Having fully recovered from his injuries , Michael recalls the night that he and his family were involved in a serious car accident . He reveals that every time he goes to sleep , he is conflicted between two realities ; In one reality , his wife Hannah Britten ( Laura Allen ) survived the accident , but his son Rex Britten ( Dylan Minnette ) is pronounced dead at the scene , while in the second reality , Hannah died in the accident instead of Rex .
Michael is trying to juggle his lives in the two realities , and wears a red wristband on his wrist in the reality where Hannah is alive and a green one in the reality where Rex is alive . In the Rex , or green , reality , Michael has noticed that Rex has focused a lot on tennis lately , as it was his mother 's sport . Rex 's tennis coach Tara ( Michaela McManus ) has been talking with Rex lately about his feelings . In the Hannah , or red , reality , Hannah is trying to write the late Rex out of their lives , wanting to move and try for another child .
Michael has a different partner in each reality . In the " green reality " , his partner is Isaiah " Bird " Freeman ( Steve Harris ) , while Efrem Vega ( Wilmer Valderrama ) is a uniformed officer . In the " red reality " , Efrem is his newly promoted partner , while Isaiah has been transferred to a different precinct . Michael starts to realize that things can transfer from reality to reality , as the clue " 611 Waverly , " pertaining to a case , is shown to Michael in one reality before it helps him save a girl from being murdered by a quick change serial killer in the other .
Both Dr. Lee and Dr. Evans attempt to diagnose what is going on with Michael . They both see it as a coping mechanism , and both insist that the other reality is a dream . To try to prove this to Michael , Dr. Evans has Michael read a part of the United States Constitution , as if that reality was a dream , Michael could not have done so , unless he had memorized the Constitution . Michael learned that he had alcohol in his system the night of the car accident , with Dr. Lee hypothesizing that Michael has this dream because he feels guilty for killing his son .
At the end of the episode , Michael comes to the conclusion that he wants to live with both of his family members . As he goes to sleep in the red reality , Hannah ( who Michael has told about the " green reality " ) tells Michael to enjoy Rex , and to tell him she loves him for her . Then , Michael goes to sleep , transferring to the " green reality " .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Kyle Killen , the series ' creator , devised the concept of the series , which was originally titled REM until the episode was green @-@ lit by the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) , in May 2011 . It was described as a procedural mixture that is based on the life of a detective experiencing a parallel universe after a car accident with his family . NBC picked up the pilot episode of Awake in February 2011 . Killen previously created the American television drama Lone Star ( 2010 ) for the Fox network , which was canceled shortly after airing two episodes due to low ratings . Killen stated that the cancellation of Lone Star was a good platform to explore new ideas for a potential television show . He felt that Awake had a similar concept to Lone Star , and he wanted to continue the idea of living in " two spaces " . In an interview with The Hollywood Reporter , he further elaborated on the conception of the series :
My wife is an ER doctor and she once had a patient whose chief complaint was that they were covered in worms . And she went in to to [ sic ] see him [ and ] it was a 23 @-@ year @-@ old guy who seemed completely sane , who remembered his name , what year it was but was totally convinced he was covered in worms and couldn 't understand why other people weren 't reacting to that . It stuck with me how reliant you are on this little piece of material between your ears and what it tells you is real is what you think is real . I had the idea and been interested in someone who couldn 't tell the difference between their dreams and reality . And I think I had a lot of stuff I was still playing with when Lone Star went down .
Killen sought inspiration from the dreaming process , adding : " The concept of the way your dreams feel real , the way you seem to experience them as something that you don 't blink at until something crazy happens that sort of bursts that balloon . I think I became interested in the question of what if nothing ever popped that balloon ? What if you couldn 't tell the difference between when you were awake and when you were asleep ? And then I started looking for a way to marry those two ideas up , and a few months later we had Awake . "
Jennifer Salke , the president of the entertainment division of NBC , encouraged Killen to conceive a concept for a future television series after the cancellation of Lone Star . Within a few weeks , Killen sent a rough draft of the script to his agent Marc Korman . Korman was so impressed by the script that , though it was after midnight , he went into the room where his sick wife was sleeping , and got into bed with her . Korman phoned Salke , and stated that the script was " remarkable " , and praised Killen claiming that " for a guy who has never written a procedural show in his life " , he is " making two cases work " . Initially , Salke and Korman looked to sell acquisition rights to the Fox Broadcasting Company . Although it successfully made its way into the lower executive branches of the company , the script was declined by entertainment president Kevin Reilly , who felt apprehensive upon reading it . Gary Newman , chairman of 20th Century Fox Television , opted not to develop a deal with cable television networks . Newman believed that it should be a network show , and did not accept that the difference between cable and network dramas was their degree of intelligence .
Gordon was chosen as the showrunner for the series by Killen . Gordon commended the pilot script at first glance . Gordon originally read the script on a flight to New York . " I read the pilot , and once I got past my envy , I was struck by the voice , " he stated . " So few writers have real voices . Kyle is disarmingly self @-@ effacing ; and at the same time , he 's disarmingly confident . It 's that duality thing : On the one hand , he 's open ; on the other , he 's closed . " Gordon later compared the television series to The Good Wife . He said that The Good Wife has so many procedural aspects that you have to decide which format to use each week . He compared it to Awake , saying , then , " What makes an Awake episode ? " " Pilot " was written by Killen , and directed by David Slade .
= = = Casting = = =
In February 2011 , Jason Isaacs obtained the role of Michael Britten , the central character of the series . Gordon summated the premise of the character : " He 's a guy who goes to sleep , wakes up , he 's with his wife , goes to sleep , wakes up , and he 's with his son . And so — and he 's a cop who sees clues and details that crossover from one world to the next , and he uses that insight to solve crimes . " Killen thought that the premise behind the series would be relatable to audiences , making it easier to expand his fanbase . " I think there were aspects of Lone Star that were more difficult to get a wider , broader audience interested in , " he articulated . " [ The main character ] was somebody that you couldn 't decide if you liked or hated , and I think that Britten 's dilemma is something that we 're not only sympathetic for , but somehow we want him to win . " The following month , producers approached Laura Allen to play Hannah Britten . Michaela McManus initially received the role of Hannah , but later received the role of Tara instead , whom Allen originally auditioned to play .
In March 2011 , Dylan Minnette was cast as Rex Britten , the son of Michael Britten , alongside five other cast members . Minnette commended the series ' script , and noted the auditioning sequence was fast . He stated , " The process of getting the job actually went by really fast because the first audition Kyle Killen [ ... ] was in the room , Jason [ Isaacs ] was in the room , the cast director was in the room and the director was in the room . David Slade . And they were all there , for the first audition and I was like ' Wow ! Okay . ' " Minnette received the role two weeks after his audition . Other cast members include Wilmer Valderrama and Steve Harris , who each play Britten 's partner in one reality , while Cherry Jones and BD Wong each serve as his therapist in one reality . Wong chose the role in lieu of his position on the police procedural television drama Law & Order : Special Victims Unit .
= = = Writing = = =
Killen avouched that writing the episode 's script was one of the more difficult processes of creating the series . He and his writing team would often get confused with exchanging and executing ideas for the script ; as a result , they created outlines and distinguished them in green and red ink . Slade edited the language to better separate the ideas . " So the things that are initially confusing to us when we are just trying to break story , I think by the time they reach an audience , so much attention has been paid to how to make it clear where you are that all of the little tricks that we needed sort of go away . And hopefully when you see it on the screen , you are pretty instantly oriented as to which world you are in . "
The complexity of the script of the pilot episode and the show 's concept was cited as a potential issue for the series . Salke evaluated that viewers will enjoy the " clever mythology that overlap and affect each other in very interesting ways " , despite the series ' Sliding Doors @-@ like script . Upon reading the script , Isaacs felt that it was " incredibly hard " and complicated to comprehend . " Do you always know what reality you 're in ? [ ... ] That 's become a [ gift ] . It was hard but I quite like hard work . " Isaacs later suggested that it might be too brooding for mainstream American television , and that it could potentially be the " U @-@ bend of scripts " . He stated that every pilot comes from people who have " amazing prestige " , and that there are lots of " talented people , but the head of the network chooses only one . " Despite such concerns , Gordon asserted that the concept of Awake was a concept that you could understand if you sat down and paid attention to it properly .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Pilot " originally aired on NBC on March 1 , 2012 . It debuted as a midseason replacement for The Firm , which moved to Saturdays shortly before Awake 's premiere . The episode 's initial broadcast was viewed by approximately 6 @.@ 247 million viewers . " Pilot " earned a Nielsen rating of 2 @.@ 0 , with a 5 share , meaning that roughly 2 @.@ 0 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 5 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode .
The episode debuted on the Global network in Canada simultaneously with the NBC broadcast . It garnered 1 @.@ 2 million viewers , making it the twenty @-@ eighth most watching program of the week , according to BBM Canada . In the United Kingdom , the episode was first broadcast on Sky Atlantic on May 4 , 2012 , and obtained 334 @,@ 000 million viewers , making it the third most @-@ viewed program for the channel behind Game of Thrones and Blue Bloods . In June 2011 , Awake 's pilot was one of eight honorees in the " Most Exciting New Series " category at the Critics ' Choice Television Awards , voted by journalists who had seen the pilots .
The pilot episode has generally received positive reviews from television critics , who praised its storylines . Rachel Ray of The Telegraph called the premiere episode " impressive " , while Tierney Bricker of E ! Online commented that he " instantly fell in love with the storyline of one man living in two realities in order to stay with the people he loves . " NPR 's Linda Holmes asserted that " Pilot " laid the foundation for several emotional storylines , ultimately evaluating it as amongst the strongest showings in recent memory ; " This is a richly interesting narrative , and it 's worth watching closely , and if you do that , it 's entirely digestible . It 's also beautifully acted and written , packed with genuinely vexing questions about grief and dreaming , and — of all things — thoughtful . " Holmes added that it was very engaging in contrast to similar television shows . James Poniewozik of Time noted that while its concept seemed melodramatic , the episode " focuses unflinchingly on the subject of loss , yet manages to be not a downer or painful to watch , but moving , absorbing and even hopeful . " Poniewozik affirmed that the telecast effectively solved the issues that were raised about the series . He wrote , " Awake handles the confusion problem well : yes , it takes more concentration than a Law & Order , but it 's no Inception in its twistiness . Michael himself needs to hold on to markers to anchor his sense of reality — for instance , he wears a red and a green wristband in the existences in which his wife and his son are alive , respectively — and those help us follow along too . " Reuters ' Tim Molloy avouched that the episode was the " best new show of the season " : " Despite the most complicated narrative since ABC 's Lost kept skipping through time , Awake makes a fast , emotional connection that gives viewers an almost immediate stake in the lives of its compelling characters . "
RedEye journalist Curt Wagner stated that the series was " well acted and smartly written " . BuddyTV writer Laurel Brown called the pilot a " great episode " . In his " A " grade review , Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club said that the episode was a " great piece of televised art " , describing the script as " witty , warm , and soulful " . He wrote , " David Slade 's direction conveys the emotional world of the show so well that you could watch it on mute and grasp most of what 's going on , " " At the end of the episode , you 'll leave feeling like you 've seen something unique and wonderful , something worth watching every week in an increasingly crowded television landscape . " " Pilot " was highly anticipated by Los Angeles Times journalist Robert Lloyd , who observed that " it promised to be one of the year 's best and most interesting new series . " In a pre @-@ broadcast review , Matt Fowler from IGN gave the pilot a " 10 out of 10 " classifying it as a " masterpiece " . Some commentators were less enthusiastic than the general consensus . Writing for The Washington Post , Hank Stuever felt that despite having high ambitions , the pilot episode was slow and drowsy .
Critics lauded the cast 's acting , specifically Isaacs ' performance . VanDerWerff concluded that the cast 's performances were " delicate and almost perfect " , while Wagner felt that Isaacs was well @-@ suited to the lead role and could easily captivate the audience ; " his touching , solid work grounds everything . He shows viewers what lengths one man in pain might go to hold onto those he loves . And it 's heartbreaking . " Denise Duguay of the Montreal Gazette thought that Isaacs evoked a " reservedness " and ambiguity that attracted viewers to his character . Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter echoed analogous sentiment , writing , " He perfectly conveys a man struggling with two horrible options . " Poniewozik iterated : " Isaacs is utterly compelling : mature , soulful and wearied . Literally , he never gets a rest , and must deal in one reality with a son acting out from rage , in other other with a spouse who is moving on at a different pace , and in different ways , from him . " Although Stuever opined that Isaacs failed to engage the audience , he praised the performances of Wong and Jones ; " Jones and Wong [ ... ] are excellent and even vaguely sinister as the dueling shrinks . "
Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly was keen to Isaacs ' acting in the series . " It helps enormously to have Isaacs playing the lead . This actor knows how to convey a gravity that contrasts well with the series ' airy concept , but he avoids becoming heavy and morose . " Fowler stated that Isaacs ' performance " delivers a graceful and subdued performance as a man who , on a daily basis , must taste both heaven and hell . A man full of guilt , but also gratitude . " Fowler noted than Allen and Minnette 's performances in the series " deserve some praise for having to play characters who are also dealing with loss , but without the benefit of being able to see their lost loved one like Britten can . "
= French battleship Justice =
Justice was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the Liberté class built by the French Navy . She had three sister ships : Liberté , Vérité , and Démocratie . Justice was laid down in April 1903 , launched in October 1904 , and completed in February 1908 , over a year after the revolutionary British battleship HMS Dreadnought made ships like Justice obsolete . She was armed with a main battery of four 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns , compared to the ten guns of the same caliber mounted on Dreadnought .
After her commissioning , Justice was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet . In September 1909 , she traveled to the United States for the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration . At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , she was assigned to the 2nd Division of the 2nd Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet . She covered troop convoys from North Africa to France in the first days of the war , and spent the rest based at Corfu and Mudros without seeing any action . After the war ended , she participated in the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War , though a mutiny in the French fleet in April 1919 led to the fleet 's withdrawal . Justice was sold for scrapping in 1922 .
= = Design = =
Justice was laid down at the La Seyne shipyard in Toulon in April 1903 , launched on 27 October 1904 , and completed in February 1908 , over a year after the revolutionary British battleship HMS Dreadnought , which rendered the pre @-@ dreadnoughts like Justice outdated before they were completed . The ship was 133 @.@ 81 meters ( 439 ft 0 in ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 24 @.@ 26 m ( 79 ft 7 in ) and a full @-@ load draft of 8 @.@ 41 m ( 27 ft 7 in ) . She displaced up to 14 @,@ 860 metric tons ( 14 @,@ 630 long tons ; 16 @,@ 380 short tons ) at full load . Justice had a crew of between 739 and 769 officers and enlisted men . The ship was powered by three vertical triple expansion engines with twenty @-@ four Niclausse boilers . They were rated at 18 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 13 @,@ 800 kW ) and provided a top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . Coal storage amounted to 1 @,@ 800 t ( 1 @,@ 800 long tons ; 2 @,@ 000 short tons ) .
Justice 's main battery consisted of four Canon de 305 mm Modèle 1893 / 96 guns mounted in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The secondary battery consisted of ten Canon de 194 mm Modèle 1902 guns ; six were mounted in single turrets , and four in casemates in the hull . She also carried thirteen 9 @-@ pounder guns and ten 3 @-@ pounders . The ship was also armed with two 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes submerged in the hull . The ship 's main belt was 280 mm ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) thick and the main battery was protected by up to 350 mm ( 13 @.@ 8 in ) of armor . The conning tower had 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
In September 1909 , Justice , Liberté , and Vérité visited the United States for the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration . The three battleships , commanded by Admiral Jules le Pord , were the first foreign contingent to arrive . The ships departed from Brest and arrived New York seven days later , having run at an average of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) ; the performance of the ships ' propulsion systems was regarded as satisfactory by contemporary naval experts , including the United States Naval Institute . In early 1911 , the French Navy conducted experiments with wireless telegraphy , and used Vérité and Justice for the tests . The wireless transmitters could pick up messages as far as 72 miles ( 116 km ) away . On 11 October 1911 , an accidental fire aboard Justice threatened to destroy the ship in a way similar to the explosion that destroyed her sister ship Liberté the month before . The fire was believed to have been started by a short circuit in the electrical system near the forward magazines . The fire nearly reached the ammunition in the magazines when the ship 's commander ordered the magazines to be flooded , averting a catastrophic explosion . This occurred just days after the battleship Suffren had to flood her magazines to put out another accidental fire . Later that year , the ship was featured in the film A Day on the French battleship " Justice " .
At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Justice was assigned to the 1st Division of the 2nd Squadron in the Mediterranean , along with Démocratie . The French fleet was initially used to cover the movement of French troops — the XIX Corps — from Algeria to metropolitan France . As a result , the fleet was far out of position to catch the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben . For the majority of the war , the French used their main fleet to keep the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet bottled up in the Adriatic Sea . In 1914 she participated in the Battle of Antivari , where the battle line caught the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruiser SMS Zenta by surprise and sank her . The French battleships then bombarded Austrian fortifications at Cattaro in an attempt to draw out the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet , which refused to take the bait .
The French operations in the area were hampered by a lack of a suitable base close to the mouth of the Adriatic ; the British had given the French free access to Malta , but it was hundreds of miles away . The Austrians also possessed several submarines , one of which torpedoed the dreadnought Jean Bart in December 1914 . The threat from underwater weapons greatly limited French naval activities in the Adriatic . As the war progressed , the French eventually settled on the Greek island of Corfu as their primary naval base in the area . Later in the war , Justice was sent to Mudros along with her sister ships .
In 1919 , after the end of the war , Justice participated in the French naval intervention in the Russian Civil War in the Black Sea , and was based in Sevastopol . On 19 April , a mutiny gripped the French fleet , starting on the battleship France , the squadron flagship . At one point during the mutiny , the crew of Justice briefly flew the red flag , though they remained relatively calm . The situation worsened after a group of Greek soldiers fired into a crowd of demonstrators ashore ; one French sailor was killed and another five were injured . Justice 's crew was enraged , and began discussing opening fire on the Greek battleship Kilkis , moored nearby . Justice 's captain ordered his ship 's guns disabled by removing their breech blocks to prevent an attack . The situation was eventually defused by returning the French squadron back to France , one of the mutineers ' primary demands . Ultimately , Justice was stricken from the naval register in 1922 and sold for scrap .
= X @-@ Men ( film ) =
X @-@ Men is a 2000 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics superhero team of the same name , distributed by 20th Century Fox . It is the first installment in the X @-@ Men film series , followed by X2 in 2003 and X @-@ Men : The Last Stand in 2006 respectively . The film , directed by Bryan Singer and written by David Hayter , features an ensemble cast that includes Patrick Stewart , Hugh Jackman , Ian McKellen , Halle Berry , Famke Janssen , James Marsden , Bruce Davison , Rebecca Romijn @-@ Stamos , Ray Park , and Anna Paquin . It depicts a world in which a small proportion of people are mutants , whose possession of superhuman powers makes them distrusted by normal humans . The film focuses on the mutants Wolverine and Rogue as they are brought into a conflict between two groups that have radically different approaches to bringing about the acceptance of mutant @-@ kind : Professor Xavier 's X @-@ Men , and the Brotherhood of Mutants , led by Magneto .
Development for X @-@ Men began as far back as 1984 with Orion Pictures . At one point James Cameron and Kathryn Bigelow were in discussions . The film rights went to 20th Century Fox in 1994 and various scripts and film treatments were commissioned from Andrew Kevin Walker , John Logan , Joss Whedon and Michael Chabon . Singer signed to direct in 1996 , with further rewrites by Ed Solomon , Singer , Tom DeSanto , Christopher McQuarrie and Hayter in which Beast and Nightcrawler were deleted over budget concerns from Fox . X @-@ Men marks the Hollywood debut of actor Hugh Jackman , who was a last @-@ second choice for Wolverine , cast three weeks into filming . Filming took place from September 22 , 1999 to March 3 , 2000 , primarily in Toronto . X @-@ Men was released to positive reviews and was a financial success , starting the X @-@ Men film franchise and spawning a reemergence of superhero films .
= = Plot = =
In 1944 German @-@ occupied Poland , the child Erik Lehnsherr is separated from his parents upon entering a concentration camp . While trying to reach them , he causes a set of metal gates to bend towards him , as though attracted by a magnetic force , before being knocked out by guards . Decades later , U.S. Senator Robert Kelly attempts to pass a " Mutant Registration Act " in Congress , which would force mutants to publicly reveal their identities and abilities . Present are Lehnsherr , now known as Magneto , and the telepathic Professor Charles Xavier , who privately discuss their differing views on the relationship between humans and mutants .
In Meridian , Mississippi , 17 @-@ year @-@ old Marie D 'Ancanto accidentally puts her boyfriend into a coma upon kissing him , which is caused by her superhuman ability to absorb the life force and mutant abilities of anyone she touches . In fear , Marie , now going by the name Rogue , runs away to Laughlin City , Alberta . While at a bar , she meets Logan , also known as Wolverine , who possesses superhuman healing abilities , heightened senses , and metal claws that protrude from his knuckles . While on the road together , they are attacked by Victor Creed / Sabretooth , another mutant and an associate of Magneto . Cyclops and Storm arrive and save Wolverine and Rogue and bring them to the X @-@ Mansion in Westchester County , New York . They are introduced to Xavier , who leads a group of mutants called the X @-@ Men , who are trying to educate young mutants on their powers , and stop Magneto from escalating the war with humanity .
Senator Kelly is abducted by Magneto 's allies Toad and the shapeshifter Mystique and brought to their lair , where Magneto uses Kelly as a test subject for a machine that artificially induces mutation . Kelly uses his new mutant abilities to escape imprisonment . After Rogue uses her powers on Wolverine , she is convinced by Mystique ( disguised as classmate Bobby Drake ) that Xavier is angry with her and she should leave the school . Xavier uses his mutant @-@ locating machine Cerebro to find Rogue at a train station . Mystique later infiltrates Cerebro and sabotages the machine .
At the train station , Wolverine convinces Rogue to stay with Xavier , but a fight ensues when Magneto , Toad and Sabretooth arrive and kidnap Rogue . Kelly arrives at Xavier 's school , but dies shortly after due to the instability of his artificial mutation , which causes his cells to break down into a puddle of water . The X @-@ Men learn that Magneto was severely weakened while testing the machine on Kelly , and realize that he intends to use Rogue 's power @-@ transferring ability so that she can power the machine in his place , which will kill her . Xavier attempts to use Cerebro to locate Rogue , but Mystique 's sabotage causes him to fall into a coma . Fellow telekinetic / telepath Jean Grey fixes Cerebro and uses it , learning that Magneto plans to place his mutation @-@ inducing machine on Liberty Island and use it to mutate the world leaders meeting for a summit on nearby Ellis Island .
The X @-@ Men scale the Statue of Liberty . Storm electrocutes Toad , and Wolverine stabs Mystique . Magneto transfers his powers to Rogue , and forces her to use them to start the machine . Cyclops dispatches Sabretooth with the help of Jean , who levitates his battle visor . Storm uses her weather @-@ controlling powers and Jean uses her telekinesis to lift Wolverine up to Magneto 's machine . Wolverine saves Rogue when Cyclops blasts Magneto out of the way , and destroys the machine . Wolverine touches the dying Rogue 's face , and his healing abilities are transferred to her , causing her to recover .
Professor Xavier recovers from his coma . The group learns that Mystique is still alive , and impersonating Senator Kelly . Xavier tells Wolverine that near where he was found in Canada is an abandoned military base at Alkali Lake that might contain information about his past . Xavier visits Magneto in a prison cell constructed entirely of plastic , and the two play chess . Magneto warns him that he will continue his fight , to which Xavier promises that he and the X @-@ Men will always be there to stop him .
= = Cast = =
Patrick Stewart as Charles Xavier / Professor X
The mutant founder of the X @-@ Men and the Xavier School for Gifted Youngsters , who hopes for peaceful coexistence between mutantkind and mankind and is regarded as an authority on genetic mutation . Although restricted to a wheelchair , his mutant powers include vast telepathy , which is amplified by the Cerebro supercomputer that he invented with Magneto 's help .
Hugh Jackman as Logan / Wolverine
A Canadian mutant who makes a living in cage fights and has lived for fifteen years without memory of who he is , apart from his tags marked " Wolverine " and an adamantium @-@ encased skeleton ( as well as adamantium claws ) . His mutant powers include enhanced , animal @-@ like senses ( enabling him to sense other people ) and the ability to heal rapidly from numerous injuries , including the surgery that bonded the metal to his skeleton , which makes his age impossible to determine .
Ian McKellen as Erik Lehnsherr / Magneto
A mutant Holocaust survivor who was once friends with Xavier ( with whom he helped to build Cerebro ) , until his belief that humans and mutants could never co @-@ exist led to their separation . His mutant powers include powerful magnetic fields , metal manipulation , and a sophisticated knowledge in matters of genetic manipulation , which he uses to plan a mutation of the world leaders to allow mutant prosperity .
Brett Morris as young Erik Lehnsherr
Halle Berry as Ororo Munroe / Storm
A white @-@ haired mutant who teaches at Xavier 's school . Although calm and caring , Storm has become bitter with other people 's hatred for mutants , and while comforting a dying Senator Kelly , reveals that she sometimes hates humans because she is afraid of them . Her mutant power allows her to control the weather with her mind .
Famke Janssen as Dr. Jean Grey :
The mutant doctor of the X @-@ Mansion who is Cyclops 's fiancée . Her powers include telekinesis and telepathy .
James Marsden as Scott Summers / Cyclops
A mutant who is Xavier 's second @-@ in @-@ command and the X @-@ Men 's field leader , as well as an instructor at the Institute . He is engaged to Jean Grey . His powers include a strong red beam of force shooting from his eyes , which is only held in check by sunglasses or a specialized ruby @-@ quartz visor , which also enables him to control the strength of the beam to fire when in combat .
Bruce Davison as Senator Robert Kelly
An anti @-@ mutant politician who wishes to ban mutant children from schools using a Mutant Registration Act . He is kidnapped by Magneto in a test of his mutation machine , which causes his body to turn into a liquid @-@ like substance . He dies before Jean could save him .
Rebecca Romijn @-@ Stamos as Raven Darkhölme / Mystique
Magneto 's mutant loyal second @-@ in @-@ command , who seems completely facile with respect to modern technology . Her powers include altering her shape , voice and mimicking any human being , which is almost secondary to her role as " the perfect soldier " .
Ray Park as Mortimer Toynbee / Toad
A very agile mutant and henchman of Magneto . His powers include a prehensile tongue , a slimy substance that he spits onto others , and enhanced agility .
Tyler Mane as Victor Creed / Sabretooth
A brutal and sadistic Canadian mutant mercenary and henchman of Magneto . His powers include a ferocious , feline @-@ like nature , enhanced animal @-@ like senses , fangs and healing abilities similar to Wolverine 's , and claws extending past each finger .
Anna Paquin as Marie / Rogue
A mutant seventeen @-@ year @-@ old girl forced to leave her home in Mississippi when she puts her boyfriend into a coma by kissing him . Her powers include absorbing anyone 's memories , life force , and in the case of mutants - powers through physical touch .
Additionally , Shawn Ashmore appeared in a minor role as Bobby Drake / Iceman , a mutant student at Xavier 's School for Gifted Youngsters who takes a liking to Rogue . His powers include generating ice . David Hayter , Stan Lee , and Tom DeSanto make cameo appearances . George Buza , the voice of Beast in X @-@ Men : The Animated Series , appeared as the truck driver who drops Rogue off at the bar at which Wolverine fights . Other cameo appearances include Sumela Kay as Kitty Pryde , Katrina Florece as Jubilee and Donald MacKinnon as a young Colossus sketching a picture in one scene . Gambit was considered for one of the students at the X @-@ Mansion . Singer remembered , " We thought about Gambit as the young boy on the basketball field , but the feeling was that if he has the basketball and then releases it and it exploded , [ then ] people would be like ' What 's wrong with those basketballs ? ' "
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Marvel Comics writers and chief editors Gerry Conway and Roy Thomas wrote an X @-@ Men screenplay in 1984 when Orion Pictures held an option on the film rights , but development stalled when Orion began facing financial troubles . Throughout 1989 and 1990 , Stan Lee and Chris Claremont were in discussions with Carolco Pictures for an X @-@ Men film adaptation , with James Cameron as producer and Kathryn Bigelow directing . A story treatment was written by Bigelow , with Bob Hoskins being considered for Wolverine and Angela Bassett being considered for the role of Storm . The deal fell apart when Stan Lee piqued Cameron 's interest on a Spider @-@ Man film , Carolco going bankrupt , and the film rights reverting to Marvel . In December 1992 , Marvel discussed selling the property to Columbia Pictures to no avail . Meanwhile , Avi Arad produced the animated X @-@ Men TV series for Fox Kids . 20th Century Fox was impressed by the success of the TV show , and producer Lauren Shuler Donner purchased the film rights for them in 1994 , bringing Andrew Kevin Walker to write the script .
Walker 's draft involved Professor Xavier recruiting Wolverine into the X @-@ Men , which consists of Cyclops , Jean Grey , Iceman , Beast , and Angel . The Brotherhood of Mutants , which consisted of Magneto , Sabretooth , Toad , Juggernaut and the Blob , try to conquer New York City , while Henry Peter Gyrich and Bolivar Trask attack the X @-@ Men with three 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) tall Sentinels . The script focused on the rivalry between Wolverine and Cyclops , as well as the latter 's self @-@ doubt as a field leader . Part of the backstory invented for Magneto made him the cause of the Chernobyl disaster . The script also featured the X @-@ Copter and the Danger Room . Walker turned in his second draft in June 1994 . Laeta Kalogridis , John Logan , James Schamus , and Joss Whedon were brought on for subsequent rewrites . One of these scripts kept the idea of Magneto turning Manhattan into a " mutant homeland " , while another hinged on a romance between Wolverine and Storm . Whedon 's draft featured the Danger Room , and concluded with Jean Grey dressed as the Phoenix . According to Entertainment Weekly , this screenplay was rejected because of its " quick @-@ witted pop culture @-@ referencing tone " , and the finished film contained only two dialogue exchanges that Whedon had contributed . Michael Chabon pitched a six @-@ page film treatment to Fox in 1996 . It focused heavily on character development between Wolverine and Jubilee and included Professor X , Cyclops , Jean Grey , Nightcrawler , Beast , Iceman , and Storm . Under Chabon 's plan , the villains would not have been introduced until the second film .
Fox considered Brett Ratner as director , and offered the position to Robert Rodriguez , but he turned it down . Following the release of The Usual Suspects , Bryan Singer was looking to do a science fiction film and Fox offered him Alien Resurrection , but producer Tom DeSanto felt he would be more appropriate for X @-@ Men . The themes of prejudice in the comic resonated with Singer . By December 1996 , Singer was in the director 's position , while Ed Solomon was hired to write the script in April 1997 , and Singer went to film Apt Pupil . Fox then announced a Christmas 1998 release date . In late 1997 , the budget was projected at $ 60 million . In late 1998 , Singer and DeSanto sent a treatment to Fox , which they believed was " perfect " because it took " seriously " the themes and the comparisons between Xavier and Magneto and Martin Luther King and Malcolm X , unlike the other scripts . They made Rogue an important character because Singer recognized that her mutation , which renders her unable to touch anyone , was the most symbolic of alienation . Singer merged attributes of Kitty Pryde and Jubilee into the film 's depiction of Rogue . Magneto 's plot to mutate the world leaders into accepting his people is reminiscent of how Constantine I 's conversion to Christianity ended the persecution of early Christians in the Roman Empire ; the analogy was emphasized in a deleted scene in which Storm teaches history . Senator Kelly 's claim that he has a list of mutants living in the United States recalls Joseph McCarthy 's similar claim regarding communists .
Fox , who had projected the budget at $ 75 million , rejected the treatment which they estimated would have cost $ 5 million more . Beast , Nightcrawler , Pyro , and the Danger Room had to be deleted before the studio greenlighted X @-@ Men . Fox head Thomas Rothman argued that this would enhance the story , and Singer concurred that removing the Danger Room allowed him to focus on other scenes he preferred . Elements of Beast , particularly his medical expertise , were transferred to Jean Grey . Singer and DeSanto brought Christopher McQuarrie from The Usual Suspects , and together did another rewrite . David Hayter simultaneously rewrote the screenplay , receiving solo screenplay credit from the Writers Guild of America , while Singer and DeSanto were given story credit . The WGA offered McQuarrie a credit , but he voluntarily took his name off when the final version was more in line with Hayter 's script than his .
= = = Casting = = =
Russell Crowe was Singer 's first choice to play Wolverine , but he turned it down , instead recommending his friend , actor Hugh Jackman for the part . Jackman was an unknown actor at the time , while a number of more established actors offered their services for the role , with Singer casting Dougray Scott . Part of Scott 's contract included a sequel , but Scott backed out due to scheduling conflicts with Mission : Impossible II in early October 1999 . Jackman was then cast three weeks into filming , based on a successful audition .
Patrick Stewart was first approached by Singer to play Xavier on the set of 1997 's Conspiracy Theory , which was directed by X @-@ Men executive producer Richard Donner . James Caviezel was originally cast as Cyclops , but backed out due to scheduling conflicts with Frequency . James Marsden was unfamiliar with his character , but soon became accustomed after reading various comic books . Marsden modeled his performance similar to a Boy Scout . Eric Mabius expressed interest for the role of Cyclops . Angela Bassett was approached to portray Storm in late 1997 , as was Janet Jackson . Anna Paquin dropped out of the lead role in Tart in favor of X @-@ Men . Terence Stamp was considered for Magneto before Singer cast Ian McKellen , who acted in his previous film , Apt Pupil . McKellen responded to the gay allegory of the film , " the allegory of the mutants as outsiders , disenfranchised and alone and coming to all of that at puberty when their difference manifests , " Singer explained . " Ian is an activist and he really responded to the potential of that allegory . "
= = = Filming = = =
The original start date was mid @-@ 1999 , with the release date set for Christmas 2000 , but Fox moved X @-@ Men to June . Steven Spielberg had been scheduled to film Minority Report for release in June 2000 , but he had chosen to film A.I. Artificial Intelligence , and Fox needed a film to fill the void . This meant that Singer had to finish X @-@ Men six months ahead of schedule , although filming had been pushed back . The release date was then moved to July 14 .
Filming took place from September 22 , 1999 to March 3 , 2000 in Toronto and in Hamilton , Ontario . Locations included Central Commerce Collegiate , Distillery District and Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum . Casa Loma , Roy Thomson Hall and Metro Hall were used for X @-@ Mansion interiors , while Parkwood Estate ( located in Oshawa , east of Toronto ) was chosen for exteriors . Spencer Smith Park ( in Burlington , Ontario ) doubled for Liberty Island . Post @-@ production was hectic , with Shuler Donner saying that " we had to lock picture and score and edit , sometimes at the same time . "
= = = Design and effects = = =
The filmmakers decided not to replicate the X @-@ Men costumes as seen in the comic book . Stan Lee and Chris Claremont supported this decision . Claremont joked , " you can do that on a drawing , but when you put it on people it 's disturbing ! " Producer / co @-@ writer Tom DeSanto had been supportive of using the blue and yellow color scheme of the comics , but came to conclude that they would not work onscreen . To acknowledge the fan complaints , Singer added Cyclops ' line " What would you prefer , yellow spandex ? " – when Wolverine complains about wearing their uniforms – during filming . Singer noted that durable black leather made more sense for the X @-@ Men to wear as protective clothing , and Shuler Donner added that the costumes helped them " blend into the night " .
Oakley , Inc. provided the red @-@ lensed glasses worn by Cyclops , a customized version of the company 's own X @-@ Metal Juliet . Wolverine 's claws required a full silicone cast of Hugh Jackman 's arm , and over 700 pairs for Jackman and his stunt doubles . It took nine hours to apply Rebecca Romijn 's prosthetic makeup . She could not drink wine , use skin creams , or fly the day before filming , because it could have caused her body chemistry to change slightly , causing the 110 prosthetics applied to her skin to fall off . Between takes , the makeup department kept Romijn isolated in a windowless room to ensure secrecy . Romijn reflected , " I had almost no contact with the rest of the cast ; it was like I was making a different movie from everyone else . It was hell . "
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Byzantines took the towns of Sozopetra and Arsamosata , ravaged and plundered the countryside , extracted ransom from several cities in exchange for not attacking them , and defeated a number of smaller Arab forces . While Theophilos returned home to celebrate a triumph and be acclaimed in the Hippodrome of Constantinople as the " incomparable champion " , the refugees from Sozopetra began arriving at Mu 'tasim 's capital , Samarra . The caliphal court was outraged by the brutality and brazenness of the raids : not only had the Byzantines acted in open collusion with the Khurramite rebels , but during the sack of Sozopetra — which some sources claim as Mu 'tasim 's own birthplace — all male prisoners were executed and the rest sold into slavery , and some captive women were raped by Theophilos 's Khurramites . Theophilos 's campaign was unable , however , to save Babak and his followers , who in late 837 were forced from their mountain strongholds by the general Afshin . Babak fled to Armenia , but was betrayed to the Abbasids and died of torture .
With the Khurramite threat over , the caliph began marshalling his forces for a reprisal campaign against Byzantium . A huge Arab army gathered at Tarsus ; according to the most reliable account , that of Michael the Syrian , it numbered some 80 @,@ 000 men with 30 @,@ 000 servants and camp followers and 70 @,@ 000 pack animals . Other writers give far larger numbers , ranging from 200 @,@ 000 to 500 @,@ 000 according to al @-@ Mas 'udi . Unlike earlier campaigns , which did not go far beyond attacking the forts of the frontier zone , this expedition was intended to penetrate deep into Asia Minor and exact vengeance . The great city of Amorium in particular was the intended prize . The Arab chronicles record that Mu 'tasim asked his advisors to name the " most inaccessible and strongest " Byzantine fortress , and they named Amorium , " where no Muslim has gone since the appearance of Islam . It is the eye and foundation of Christendom ; among the Byzantines , it is more famous than Constantinople " . According to Byzantine sources , the caliph had the city 's name written on the shields and banners of his soldiers . The capital of the powerful Anatolic Theme , the city was strategically located at the western edge of the Anatolian plateau and controlled the main southern route followed by the Arab invasions . At the time , Amorium was one of the largest cities in the Byzantine Empire , ranking in importance immediately after Constantinople . It was also the birthplace of Theophilos 's father , Michael II the Amorian ( r . 820 – 829 ) , and perhaps of Theophilos himself . Due to its strategic importance , the city had been a frequent target of Arab attacks in the 7th and 8th centuries , and Mu 'tasim 's predecessor Ma 'mun was said to be planning to attack the city when he died in 833 .
= = Opening stages of the campaign : Anzen and Ancyra = =
The caliph divided his force in two : a detachment of 10 @,@ 000 Turks under Afshin was sent northeast to join forces with the emir of Malatya Umar al @-@ Aqta and Armenian troops ( the Artsruni and Bagratuni rulers of Vaspurakan and Taron respectively both participated in person in the campaign ) and invade the Armeniac Theme from the Pass of Hadath , while the main army under the caliph himself would invade Cappadocia through the Cilician Gates . The advance guard of the latter was led by Ashinas , with Itakh commanding the right , Ja 'far ibn Dinar al @-@ Khayyat the left and ' Ujayf ibn ' Anbasa the centre . The two forces would link up at Ancyra , before marching jointly on Amorium . On the Byzantine side , Theophilos was soon made aware of the caliph 's intentions , and set out from Constantinople in early June . His army included men from the Anatolian and possibly also the European themes , the elite tagmata regiments , as well as the Khurramites . The Byzantines expected the Arab army to advance north to Ancyra after passing through the Cilician Gates and then to turn south toward Amorium , but it was also possible that the Arabs would march directly over the Cappadocian plain to Amorium . Although his generals advised evacuation of the city , with the intention of rendering the Arabs ' campaign objective void and keeping the Byzantine army undivided , Theophilos decided to reinforce the city 's garrison , with Aetios the strategos of the Anatolics , and men from the tagmata of the Excubitors and the Vigla .
With the rest of his army , Theophilos then marched to interpose himself between the Cilician Gates and Ancyra , camping on the north bank of the river Halys , close to one of the major river crossings . Ashinas crossed the Cilician Gates on 19 June , and the caliph himself with his main army set out on the march two days later . The Arab advance was slow and cautious . Anxious to avoid an ambush and learn the emperor 's whereabouts , Mu 'tasim forbade Ashinas to advance too deeply into Cappadocia . Ashinas sent out many scouting detachments to take captives , and from them finally learned of Theophilos 's presence at the Halys , where he awaited the Arab approach to give battle . At the same time , around mid @-@ July , Theophilos learned of the arrival of Afshin 's army , comprising some 30 @,@ 000 men , at the plain of Dazimon . Leaving a part of his army under a relative to watch the crossings of the Halys , Theophilos immediately departed with most of his army , some 40 @,@ 000 men according to Michael the Syrian , to confront the smaller Arab force . Mu 'tasim learned of Theophilos 's departure from captives and tried to warn Afshin , but the emperor was faster and met Afshin 's army in the Battle of Anzen on the plain of Dazimon on 22 July . Despite initial success , the Byzantine army broke and scattered , while Theophilos with his guard were encircled and barely managed to break through and escape .
Theophilos quickly began regrouping his forces and sent the general Theodore Krateros to Ancyra . Krateros found the city completely deserted , and was ordered to reinforce the garrison of Amorium instead . Theophilos himself was soon forced to return to Constantinople , where rumours of his death at Anzen had led to plots to declare a new emperor . At the same time , the Khurramites , gathered around Sinope , revolted and declared their reluctant commander Theophobos emperor . Luckily for the Empire , Theophobos maintained a passive stance and made no move to confront Theophilos or join Mu 'tasim . The caliph 's vanguard under Ashinas reached Ancyra on 26 July . The inhabitants , who had sought refuge in some mines nearby , were discovered and taken captive after a brief struggle by an Arab detachment under Malik ibn Kaydar al @-@ Safadi . The Byzantines , some of whom were soldiers who had fled from Anzen , informed the Arabs of Afshin 's victory , after which Malik allowed all of them to go free . The other Arab forces arrived at Ancyra over the next days , and after plundering the deserted city , the united Arab army turned south towards Amorium .
= = Siege and fall of Amorium = =
The Arab army marched in three separate corps , with Ashinas once again in front , the caliph in the middle , and Afshin bringing up the rear . Looting the countryside as they advanced , they arrived before Amorium seven days after their departure from Ancyra , and began their siege of the city on 1 August . Theophilos , anxious to prevent the city 's fall , left Constantinople for Dorylaion , and from there sent an embassy to Mu 'tasim . His envoys , who arrived shortly before or during the first days of the siege , offered assurances that the atrocities at Sozopetra had been against the emperor 's orders , and further promised to help rebuild the city , to return all Muslim prisoners , and to pay a tribute . The caliph , however , not only refused to parley with the envoys , but detained them in his camp , so that they could observe the siege .
The city 's fortifications were strong , with a wide moat and a thick wall protected by 44 towers , according to the contemporary geographer Ibn Khordadbeh . The caliph assigned each of his generals to a stretch of the walls . Both besiegers and besieged had many siege engines , and for three days both sides exchanged missile fire while Arab sappers tried to undermine the walls . According to Arab accounts , an Arab prisoner who had converted to Christianity defected back to the caliph , and informed him about a place in the wall which had been badly damaged by heavy rainfall and only hastily and superficially repaired due to the city commander 's negligence . As a result , the Arabs concentrated their efforts on this section . The defenders tried to protect the wall by hanging wooden beams to absorb the shock of the siege engines , but they splintered , and after two days a breach was made . Immediately Aetios realized that the defence was compromised , and decided to try and break through the besieging army during the night and link up with Theophilos . He sent two messengers to the emperor , but both were captured by the Arabs and brought before the caliph . Both agreed to convert to Islam , and Mu 'tasim , after giving them a rich reward , paraded them around the city walls in full view of Aetios and his troops . To prevent any sortie , the Arabs stepped up their vigilance , maintaining constant cavalry patrols even during the night .
The Arabs now launched repeated attacks on the breach , but the defenders held firm . At first , according to al @-@ Tabari , catapults manned by four men each were placed on wheeled platforms , and mobile towers with ten men each were constructed and advanced to the edge of the moat , which they began to fill with sheep skins ( from the animals they had brought along as food ) filled with earth . However , the work was uneven due to the soldiers ' fear of the Byzantine catapults , and Mu 'tasim had to order earth to be thrown over the skins to pave the surface up to the wall itself . A tower was pushed over the filled moat , but became stuck midway and it and the other siege engines had to be abandoned and burned . Another attack on the next day , led by Ashinas , failed due to the narrowness of the breach , and Mu 'tasim eventually ordered more catapults brought forward to widen it . The next day Afshin with his troops attacked the breach , and Itakh on the day after . The Byzantine defenders were gradually worn down by the constant assaults , and after about two weeks of siege ( the date is variously interpreted as 12 , 13 or 15 August by modern writers ) Aetios sent an embassy under the city 's bishop , offering to surrender Amorium in exchange for safe passage of the inhabitants and garrison , but Mu 'tasim refused . The Byzantine commander Boiditzes , however , who was in charge of the breach section , decided to conduct direct negotiations with the caliph on his own , probably intending to betray his own post . He went to the Abbasid camp , leaving orders for his men in the breach to stand down until his return . While Boiditzes parleyed with the caliph , the Arabs came closer to the breach , and at a signal charged and broke into the city . Taken by surprise , the Byzantines ' resistance was sporadic : some soldiers barricaded themselves in a monastery and were burned to death , while Aetios with his officers sought refuge in a tower before being forced to surrender .
The city was thoroughly sacked and plundered ; according to the Arab accounts , the sale of the spoils went on for five days . The Byzantine chronicler Theophanes Continuatus mentions 70 @,@ 000 dead , while the Arab al @-@ Mas 'udi records 30 @,@ 000 . The surviving population were divided as slaves among the army leaders , except for the city 's military and civic leaders , who were reserved for the caliph 's disposal . After allowing Theophilos 's envoys to return to him with the news of Amorium 's fall , Mu 'tasim burned the city to the ground , with only the city walls surviving relatively intact . Among the spoils taken were the massive iron doors of the city , which al @-@ Mu 'tasim initially transported to Samarra , where they were installed at the entrance of his palace . From there they were taken , probably towards the end of the century , and installed at al @-@ Raqqah , where they remained until 964 , when the Hamdanid ruler Sayf al @-@ Dawla had them removed and incorporated in the Bab al @-@ Qinnasrin gate in his capital Aleppo .
= = Aftermath = =
Immediately after the sack , rumours reached the caliph that Theophilos was advancing to attack him . Mu 'tasim set out with his army a day 's march along the road in the direction of Dorylaion , but encountered no sign of a Byzantine attack . According to al @-@ Tabari , Mu 'tasim now pondered extending his campaign to attack Constantinople , when news reached him of a conspiracy headed by his nephew , al @-@ Abbas ibn al @-@ Ma 'mun . Mu 'tasim was forced to cut short his campaign and return quickly to his realm , leaving intact the fortresses around Amorium as well as Theophilos and his army in Dorylaion . Taking the direct route from Amorium to the Cilician Gates , both the caliph 's army and its prisoners suffered in the march through the arid countryside of central Anatolia . Some captives were so exhausted that they could not move and were executed , whereupon others found the opportunity to escape . In retaliation , Mu 'tasim , after separating the most prominent among them , executed the rest , some 6 @,@ 000 in number .
Theophilos now sent a second embassy to the caliph , headed by the tourmarches of Charsianon , Basil , bearing gifts and an apologetic letter , and offering to ransom the high @-@ ranking prisoners for 20 @,@ 000 Byzantine pounds ( about 6 @,@ 500 kg ) of gold and to release all Arabs held captive by the Byzantines . In reply , Mu 'tasim refused the ransom , saying that the expedition alone had cost him over 100 @,@ 000 pounds , and demanded the surrender of Theophobos and the Domestic of the Schools , Manuel the Armenian , who had some years ago deserted from Arab service . The Byzantine ambassador refused to comply to this and indeed could not , as Theophobos was in revolt and Manuel had died , according to some accounts , from wounds received at Anzen . Instead , Basil handed over a second , much more threatening letter by Theophilos . Mu 'tasim , angered by this , returned the emperor 's gifts .
In the aftermath of the sack of Amorium , Theophilos sought the aid of other powers against the Abbasid threat : embassies were sent to both the western emperor Louis the Pious ( r . 813 – 840 ) and to the court of Abd ar @-@ Rahman II ( r . 822 – 852 ) , Emir of Córdoba . The Byzantine envoys were received with honours , but no help materialized . The Abbasids , however , did not follow up on their success . Warfare continued between the two empires with raids and counter @-@ raids for several years , but after a few Byzantine successes a truce and possibly also a prisoner exchange — which excluded the high @-@ ranking captives from Amorium — was agreed in 841 . At the time of his death in 842 , Mu 'tasim was preparing yet another large @-@ scale invasion , but the great fleet he had prepared to assault Constantinople perished in a storm off Cape Chelidonia a few months later . Following Mu 'tasim 's death , the Caliphate entered a prolonged period of unrest , and the Battle of Mauropotamos in 844 was the last major Arab – Byzantine engagement until the 850s .
Among the captured Byzantine magnates of Amorium , the strategos Aetios was executed soon after his capture , perhaps , as the historian Warren Treadgold suggests , in retaliation to Theophilos 's second letter to the caliph . After years of captivity and no hope of ransom , the rest were urged to convert to Islam . When they refused , they were executed at Samarra on 6 March 845 , and are celebrated in the Eastern Orthodox Church as the 42 Martyrs of Amorium . Several tales also sprung up around Boiditzes and his betrayal . According to the legend of the 42 Martyrs , he converted to Islam , but was nevertheless executed by the caliph alongside the other captives ; unlike the others , however , whose bodies " miraculously " floated in the water of the river Tigris , his sank to the bottom .
= = Impact = =
The sack of Amorium was one of the most devastating events in the long history of Arab raids into Anatolia . Theophilos reportedly fell ill soon after the city 's fall , and although he recovered , his health remained in poor state until his death , three years later . Later Byzantine historians attribute his death before the age of thirty to his sorrow over the impact of the city 's loss , although this is most likely a legend . The fall of Amorium inspired several legends and stories among the Byzantines , and can be traced in surviving literary works such as the Song of Armouris or the ballad Kastro tis Orias ( " Castle of the Fair Maiden " ) . Arabs on the other hand celebrated the capture of Amorium , which became the subject of Abu Tammam 's famous Ode on the Conquest of Amorium . In addition , caliphal propaganda made use of the campaign to legitimize al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's rule and justify his subsequent murder of his nephew and the rightful heir to al @-@ Ma 'mun , al @-@ Abbas .
In reality , the campaign 's military impact on Byzantium was limited : outside the garrison and population of Amorium itself , the Byzantine field army at Anzen seems to have suffered few casualties , and the revolt of the Khurramite corps was suppressed without bloodshed the next year and its soldiers reintegrated into the Byzantine army . Ancyra was quickly rebuilt and reoccupied , as was Amorium itself , although it never recovered its former glory and the seat of the Anatolic theme was for a time transferred to Polybotus . According to the assessment of Warren Treadgold , the imperial army 's defeats at Anzen and Amorium were to a large degree the result of circumstance rather than actual incapability or inadequacy . In addition , the Byzantine campaign had suffered from Theophilos 's overconfidence , both in his willingness to divide his forces in the face of greater Arab numbers and in his over @-@ reliance on the Khurramites . Nevertheless , the defeat prompted Theophilos to undertake a major reorganization of his army , which included the establishment of new frontier commands and the dispersing of the Khurramite troops among the native troops of the themes .
The most long @-@ term and long @-@ lasting result of the fall of Amorium , however , was in the religious rather than in the military sphere . Iconoclasm was supposed to bring divine favour and assure military victory , but neither the army 's weaknesses nor the reported treachery of Boiditzes could detract from the fact that this was " a humiliating disaster to match the worst defeats of any iconophile emperor " ( Whittow ) , comparable in recent memory only to the crushing defeat suffered by Nikephoros I ( r . 802 – 811 ) at Pliska . As Warren Treadgold writes , " the outcome did not exactly prove that Iconoclasm was wrong ... but it did rob the iconoclasts for all time of their most persuasive argument to the undecided , that Iconoclasm won battles " . A little over a year after Theophilos 's death , on 11 March 843 , a synod restored the veneration of icons , and iconoclasm was declared heretical .
= Fifth Test , 1948 Ashes series =
The Fifth Test of the 1948 Ashes series , held at The Oval in London , was the final Test in that cricket series between Australia and England . The match took place on 14 – 18 August , with a rest day on 15 August . Australia won the match by an innings and 149 runs to complete a 4 – 0 series win . It was the last Test in the career of Australian captain Donald Bradman , generally regarded as the best batsman in the history of the sport . Going into the match , if Australia batted only once , Bradman needed only four runs from his final innings to have a Test batting average of exactly 100 , but he failed to score , bowled second ball for a duck by leg spinner Eric Hollies .
With the series already lost , the England selectors continued to make many changes , on this occasion , four . In all , they had used 21 players for the series and were severely criticised for failing to maintain continuity . England captain Norman Yardley won the toss , and elected to bat on a pitch affected by rain . After a delayed start due to inclement weather , the Australian pace attack , led by Ray Lindwall , dismissed England within the first day for just 52 . Lindwall was the main destroyer , taking six wickets for 20 runs ( 6 / 20 ) . The English batsmen found it difficult to cope with his prodigious swing and pace ; four of his wickets were either bowled or leg before wicket . Len Hutton was the only batsman to resist , making 30 before being the final man dismissed . In reply , Australia 's opening pair of Arthur Morris and Sid Barnes passed England 's score on the same afternoon with no loss of wickets . The opening stand ended at 117 when Barnes fell for 61 and Bradman came to the crease to a standing ovation and three cheers from his opponents . He fell second ball , but Australia reached 153 / 2 at stumps on the first day .
On the second day , Australian batsmen fell regularly once Lindsay Hassett was dismissed at 226 / 3 , most of them being troubled by Hollies , who had been selected after taking 8 / 107 against Australia for Warwickshire . Morris was an exception and he made 196 , more than half his team 's total , before being run out as Australia were dismissed for 389 . Hollies took 5 / 131 . England reached 54 / 1 at stumps and by lunch on the third day were 121 / 2 , Hutton and Denis Compton batting steadily . However , they suffered a late collapse to be 178 / 7 when bad light and rain stopped the day 's play . Hutton top @-@ scored for the second time in the match for England , making 64 . The next morning , Bill Johnston took the last three wickets as England were bowled out for 188 , ending the match . Johnston ended with 4 / 40 and Lindwall 3 / 50 .
The match was followed by speeches from both captains , after which the crowd sang " For He 's a Jolly Good Fellow " in Bradman 's honour . Having been undefeated in their matches up to this point , the Australians maintained their streak in the remaining fixtures , gaining them the sobriquet of The Invincibles .
= = Background = =
After the first four Tests , Australia led the series 3 – 0 , having won all but the Third Test , which was rain @-@ affected . They had taken an unlikely win in the Fourth Test at Headingley , scoring 404 / 3 in their second innings , the highest ever score in a successful Test runchase .
Australia had been unbeaten throughout the tour . Between the Fourth and Fifth Test , they played five tour matches . They defeated Derbyshire by an innings , before having a washout against Glamorgan . The Australians then defeated Warwickshire by nine wickets , before drawing with Lancashire , who hung on with three wickets in hand on the final day . Australia 's final lead @-@ in outing was a two @-@ day non @-@ first @-@ class match against Durham , which was drawn after rain washed out the second day .
With the series already lost , England made four changes to their team . John Dewes replaced Cyril Washbrook — who broke his thumb in a match for Lancashire against the Australians — at the top of the order . Dewes had gained attention after scoring 51 for Middlesex in the tour match against the Australians . In the three weeks between then and the Test , he had scored 105 and 89 against Lancashire and Sussex respectively . However , he had averaged less than 40 for the season and made three consecutive scores below 20 leading into the Tests . The journalist and former Australian Test cricketer Bill O 'Reilly condemned the decision , claiming that aside from defending the ball , Dewes was too reliant on slogging towards the leg side with a horizontal bat . O 'Reilly claimed Dewes was not ready for Test cricket and that asking him to face the rampant Australians could have psychologically scarred him . He said the selection " was tantamount to asking a young first @-@ year medical student to carry out an intricate operation with a butcher 's knife . "
Allan Watkins replaced Ken Cranston as the middle order batsman and pace bowler . Both Dewes and Watkins were making their Test debut , and the latter became the second Welshman to play in an Ashes Test . Watkins had scored 19 and taken 1 / 47 for Glamorgan in their match against Australia two weeks earlier , but had only scored 168 runs at 18 @.@ 66 and taken 11 wickets in his last six matches . Cranston had made a duck and 10 , and taken 1 / 79 on his debut in the previous Test . While acknowledging Cranston 's poor performances and concluding that he had not been of international quality , O 'Reilly said Watkins ' performance in Glamorgan 's match against the Australians " had not inspired anyone with his ability " to counter the tourists ' bowling .
England played two spinners ; left arm orthodox spinner Jack Young replaced fellow finger spinner Jim Laker , while the leg spin of Eric Hollies replaced the pace bowling of Dick Pollard . Hollies was brought into the team because he had caused the Australian batsmen difficulty in the tour match against Warwickshire . He took 8 / 107 in the first innings , the best innings figures against the Australians for the summer . His performance included bowling Bradman with a topspinner that went between bat and pad . It was part of a month @-@ long run in which he took 52 wickets in seven matches , including two ten @-@ wicket match hauls . Young had taken 12 and 14 wickets in consecutive matches against Northamptonshire and Surrey since his omission following the Third Test , while Pollard and Laker had managed totals of only 2 / 159 and 3 / 206 respectively in the Headingley Test .
Having made only 5 and 18 in the previous Test , Jack Crapp was originally dropped from the team but was reprieved by Washbrook 's injury . The England selectors were widely condemned for their decisions , which were seen as an investment in youth rather than necessarily picking the best players available at the time . Their frequent changes meant the home team had used a total of 21 players for the five Tests .
Australia made three changes . Having taken only seven wickets in the first four Tests at an average of 61 @.@ 00 , off spinner Ian Johnson was replaced by leg spinner Doug Ring . Australia 's second change was forced on them ; the injured medium pacer Ernie Toshack was replaced by the opening batsman Sid Barnes , who had missed the Fourth Test with a rib injury . This meant Australia were playing with one extra batsman and one less frontline bowler . The final change was the return of first @-@ choice wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon from injury and the omission of his deputy Ron Saggers .
The two nations had last met at The Oval in the Fifth Test of the 1938 Ashes series , during Australia 's previous tour of England . On that occasion , England made a Test world record score of 903 / 7 declared , and Len Hutton made 364 , an individual Test world record . Australia batted in both innings with only nine men because of injuries sustained by Bradman and Jack Fingleton during Hutton 's 13 @-@ hour marathon effort . They collapsed to the heaviest defeat in Test history , by an innings and 579 runs . It was Australia 's last Test before World War II and they had not lost a Test since then .
Hundreds of spectators had slept on wet pavements outside the stadium in rainy weather on the eve of the Test to queue for tickets . Bradman had announced his forthcoming retirement at the end of the season , so the public were anxious to witness his last appearance at Test level .
= = Scorecard = =
= = = England innings = = =
= = = Australia innings = = =
= = 14 August : Day One = =
English skipper Norman Yardley won the toss and elected to bat on a rain @-@ affected pitch . Precipitation in the week leading up to the match meant the Test could not start until after midday . Yardley 's decision was regarded as a surprise . Although The Oval had a reputation as a batting paradise , weather conditions suggested that bowlers would be at an advantage . Jack Fingleton , a former Test team @-@ mate of Bradman who was covering the tour as a journalist , thought the Australians would have bowled had they won the toss . However , O 'Reilly disagreed , saying the pitch was so wet it should have favoured the batsmen because the ball would bounce slowly from the surface . He further thought the slippery run @-@ up areas would have forced the faster bowlers to operate less vigorously to avoid injuring themselves . The damp conditions necessitated the addition of large amounts of sawdust to allow the bowlers to keep their footing , because parts of the pitch were muddy . The humidity , along with the rain , assisted the bowlers ; Lindwall in particular managed to make the ball bounce at variable heights .
Dewes and Len Hutton opened for England , a move that attracted criticism of Yardley for exposing the debutant Dewes to the new ball bowling of Lindwall and Keith Miller . After Hutton opened the scoring with a single from the second ball of the day , Dewes was on strike . The single had almost turned into a five when Sam Loxton fired in a wide return , but Sid Barnes managed to prevent from going for four overthrows . Dewes took a single from the opening over — bowled by Lindwall — and thus faced the start of the second over , which was delivered by Miller . Dewes had been troubled by Miller in the past . During the Victory Tests in 1945 , Miller had repeatedly dismissed the batsman , and during a match for Cambridge University against the Australians earlier in the tour , Dewes had used towels to pad his torso against Miller 's short balls . During his short innings , Dewes was also visibly nervous and kept on moving around , unable to stand still .
Miller caused a stoppage after his first ball in order to sprinkle sawdust on the crease . With the second ball , he bowled Dewes — who was playing across the line — middle stump for one with an inswinger to leave England at 2 / 1 . However , despite the early wicket , the bowlers appeared to lack confidence in their run @-@ up on the soggy ground . Bradman made an early bowling change and brought Johnston into the attack to replace Miller after the latter had bowled three overs for the concession of two runs . At this time , Bradman adopted relatively defensive field settings despite the early breakthrough . Bill Edrich joined Hutton and they played cautiously until the former attempted to hook a short ball from Johnston . He failed to get the ball in the middle of the bat and it looped up and travelled around 10 metres ( 33 ft ) . Lindsay Hassett took the catch just behind square leg , diving sideways and getting two hands to the ball . This left England at 10 / 2 as Denis Compton came to the crease . Lindwall bounced Compton , drawing an edge that flew towards the slips cordon . However , the ball continued to rise and cleared the ring of Australian fielders . Hutton called Compton for a run , but his surprised partner was watching the ball narrowly evade the slips catchers and dropped his bat in panic . Luckily for Compton , the ball went to Hassett at third man , who stopped the ball and waited for Compton to regain his bat and his composure before returning the ball , thereby forfeiting the opportunity to run him out . However , this sporting gesture did not cost Australia many runs because when Compton was on three , Lindwall bowled another bouncer . Compton went for a hook shot and Arthur Morris ran from his position at short square leg to take a difficult catch . Bradman later said he had remembered how Compton had been out in exactly the same position in the corresponding match at the same ground during the 1938 series . Fingleton described Morris 's effort as " one of the catches of the season " . England were 17 / 3 , and Crapp came in to join Hutton . At this point , Bradman began to put in place more attacking field settings . Johnston then hit Hutton on the fingers with a ball that rose sharply after pitching . Bradman took Lindwall off after 50 minutes and replaced him with Miller , who then removed Crapp , caught behind from an outside edge for a 23 @-@ ball duck , leaving England at 23 / 4 . When play was adjourned for lunch with England on 29 / 4 , Hutton was 17 while Yardley was on four . According to Fingleton , Hutton " had never been in the slightest difficulty " . He had played cautiously but did not seem hurried by the bowling . Miller had taken 2 / 3 from six overs .
After the lunch break , England added six runs to be 35 / 4 , before Lindwall bowled Yardley with a swinging yorker . The debutant Watkins came in , having earned a reputation in Glamorgan 's match against Australia for hooking . He made several attempts at the shot in his innings of 16 balls . He attempted a hook shot from a short ball and missed before being hit on the shoulder by another Lindwall bouncer , having tried to hook the ball downwards in an unorthodox manner akin to a tennis serve . He was then dismissed without scoring after playing across the line and being trapped leg before wicket by Johnston for a duck to leave England at 42 / 6 . For his troubles , Watkins also collected a bruise from the hit to the shoulder , which inhibited his bowling later in the match . Lindwall then removed Godfrey Evans , Alec Bedser and Young , all yorked by swinging deliveries in the space of two runs , as England fell from 45 / 6 to 47 / 9 . This brought Hollies in at No. 11 to accompany Hutton , who then hit the only boundary of the innings , lofting Lindwall for a straight drive back over his head . The ball almost went for six , landing just short of the boundary . The innings ended at 52 when Hutton — who never appeared troubled by the bowling — leg glanced Lindwall and was caught by wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon , who caught the ball one @-@ handed at full stretch to his left . Lindwall described the catch as one of the best he had ever seen , while O 'Reilly called it " extraordinarily good " .
The match saw Lindwall at his best . In his post @-@ lunch spell , Lindwall bowled 8 @.@ 1 overs , taking five wickets for eight runs , and finishing with 6 / 20 from 16 @.@ 1 overs . Bradman described the spell as " the most devastating and one of the fastest I ever saw in Test cricket " . Fingleton , who played against the Bodyline attack in 1932 – 33 , said " I was watching a man almost the equal of Larwood [ the Bodyline spearhead ] in pace ... Truly a great bowler " . O 'Reilly wrote Lindwall 's " magnificent performance must go down as one of the greatest bowling efforts in Anglo @-@ Australian Tests . He had two gruelingly long sessions in the innings and overcame each so well that he set the seal on his well @-@ earned reputation as one of the best bowlers ever . " Hutton was the only batsman to resist the Lindwall @-@ led attack , scoring 30 in 124 minutes and surviving 147 deliveries . The next most resilient display was from Yardley , who scored seven runs in 31 minutes of resistance , facing 33 balls . Miller and Johnston took 2 / 5 and 2 / 20 respectively , and Australia 's pace trio removed all the batsmen without Bradman having to call upon Ring 's leg spin .
In contrast , Australia batted with apparent ease , as the overcast skies cleared and sun came out . The debutant Watkins sent down four overs for 19 runs with his bruised shoulder and did not bowl again . He was in much pain and his limp bowling did little to trouble the Australian openers . Morris and Barnes batted comfortably and passed England 's first innings total by themselves , taking less than an hour to push the Australians into the lead . O 'Reilly felt the Australian openers wanted to prove " the pitch itself had nothing whatever to do with the English batting debacle " . Australia reached 100 at 17 : 30 with Barnes on 52 and Morris on 47 . The only chance came when Barnes powerfully square cut Bedser low to point , where Young spilled the catch . When Young came on to bowl , his finger spin was expected to trouble the batsmen on a rain @-@ affected surface , but he delivered little variation in pace and trajectory and Barnes in particular hit him repeatedly through the off side field . The score had reached 117 after only 126 minutes , when Barnes was caught behind from Hollies for 61 . The right @-@ handed Australian opener stumbled forward to a fast @-@ turning leg break that caught his outside edge . He had overbalanced and would have been stumped if he had failed to make contact with the leather . This brought Bradman to the crease shortly before 18 : 00 , late on the first day . As Bradman had already announced the tour would be his last at international level , the innings would be his last at Test level if Australia batted only once . The crowd gave him a standing ovation as he walked out to bat ; Yardley led the Englishmen and the crowd in giving his Australian counterpart three cheers , before shaking Bradman 's hand . With 6 @,@ 996 Test career runs , Bradman needed only four runs to average exactly 100 in Test cricket . Bradman took guard and played the first ball from Hollies , a leg break , from the back foot . The leg spinner pitched the next ball up , bowling Bradman for a duck with a googly that went between bat and pad as the Australian skipper leaned forward . Bradman appeared stunned by what had happened and slowly turned around and walked back to the pavilion , receiving another large round of applause . It was claimed by many , including Hollies , that Bradman became emotional and had tears in his eyes at the ovation given to him by the crowd and the English players , and that this hampered his ability to see and hit the ball . Bradman admitted to being moved by the applause , but always denied shedding tears , saying " to suggest I got out , as some people did , because I had tears in my eyes while I was looking at the bowler was quite untrue . Eric Hollies deceived me and he deserves full credit . "
Hassett came in at 117 / 2 and together with Morris saw Australia to the close at 153 / 2 . Morris was unbeaten on 77 , having hit two hook shots from Hollies for four . Hassett was on 10 .
= = 16 August : Day Two = =
15 August was a Sunday , and thus a rest day . Play resumed on Monday , the second morning , and Morris registered his third century of the Test series and his sixth in ten Ashes matches . Overall , it was his seventh century in 14 Tests . It had taken him 208 minutes and he had hit four fours . Hassett and Morris took the score to 226 before their 109 @-@ run stand was broken when Young trapped Hassett lbw for 37 after 134 minutes of batting . As the Australians had dismissed their hosts cheaply on the first day and were already well in the lead , they had plenty of time to complete a victory , so Hassett and Morris had no need to take undue risks and scored at a sedate pace . The following batsmen were unable to establish themselves at the crease . Miller came in and tried to attack , but made only five before overbalancing and stumbling forward out of his crease , allowing Evans to stump him from the bowling of Hollies . Harvey , the youngest player in the Australian squad at the age of 19 , came to the crease at 243 / 4 and quickly displayed the exuberance of youth . He hit Young for a straight @-@ driven four and then pulled him for another boundary , but the attacking strokeplay did not last . Harvey succumbed to Hollies , hitting him to Young . The young batsman was having trouble against the turning ball , so he decided to use his feet and step towards the pitch of the ball . The Warwickshire spinner noticed this , and delivered a topspinner that dipped more than usual , and the batsman mistimed his off @-@ drive , which went in the air towards mid @-@ off . Hollies ' success against the middle @-@ order prompted Yardley to opt to continue with the older ball even when a replacement was available , a move that was rarely made throughout the series as the pacemen dominated the bowling . Hollies did not spin the ball significantly but relied on variations in flight to defeat his opponents .
Loxton came in with the score at 265 / 5 and accompanied Morris for 39 further runs before he fell to the new ball . He appeared uncomfortable with the outswingers and leg cutters of Bedser , and was beaten several times , before Edrich had him caught behind for 15 . Lindwall came in and attacked immediately , scoring two fours before falling for nine . He played a cover drive from the bowling of Young , but hit the ball too early and thus launched it into the air , and it was caught by Edrich at cover point to leave the score at 332 / 7 . Morris was then finally removed for 196 , ending an innings noted for its numerous hooks and off @-@ drives . It took a run out to remove Morris ; he attempted a quick run to third man after being called through from the non @-@ striker 's end by Tallon , but was too slow for the substitute fielder Reg Simpson 's arm . Tallon , who scored 31 , put on another 30 runs with Ring , before both were out with Australia 's score on 389 , ending the tourists ' innings . Both were caught by Crapp in slips from the bowling of Hollies and Bedser respectively . Morris had scored more than half the runs as the rest of the team struggled against the leg spin of Hollies , who took 5 / 131 . England had relied heavily on spin bowling ; Young took 2 / 118 and of the 158 @.@ 2 overs bowled , 107 were delivered by the two slow men . Hollies pitched the ball up repeatedly , coaxing the Australians into playing front @-@ foot shots from balls that spun after pitching on off stump .
England started their second innings 337 runs in arrears . Dewes took strike and got off the mark from Lindwall when he aimed a hook shot and was credited with a boundary when the ball came off his shoulder . Lindwall 's steepling bouncer rose over his bat and narrowly missed his head . Soon after , Lindwall made the early breakthrough , bowling Dewes — who offered no shot — for 10 to leave England 20 / 1 . Dewes had often committed to playing the ball from the front foot before the bowler delivered the ball , thereby putting himself into difficulty . This was because of his habit of leaning his weight onto his back foot as the ball was being bowled , which meant that a forward lean would instinctively result . Edrich joined Hutton and the pair consolidated the England innings , which reached 54 / 1 at the close at the second day 's play , which was hastened by bad light .
= = 17 August : Day Three = =
Early on the third day , Lindwall bowled Edrich — who was playing across the line — between bat and pad for 28 , hitting the off stump with a ball that cut inwards , leaving the score at 64 / 2 , before Compton and Hutton consolidated the innings and took the score to 121 at lunch without further loss . Hutton and Compton were 42 and 37 respectively . Compton started slowly but had accelerated as the adjournment approached . The morning 's batting had been relatively slow , with only 67 runs scored in 100 minutes , of which Hutton added only 23 . The morning session also featured a tight spell of 13 overs by Ring . The leg spinner did not bowl consistently or accurately , and although the batsman hit him regularly , they did not place their shots , which often went to the fielders . At the other end , Johnston bowled his finger spin from around the wicket with a well @-@ protected off side . There were four men in the off side ring and they had much work to do as Hutton hit the ball there repeatedly . The English batsmen progressed steadily and both Johnston and Ring had one confident appeal for lbw against Compton , but there were no other scares . Towards the end of the morning session , the second new ball became available but Bradman decided to bide his time . He allowed Johnston to rest after his morning spell and used Lindwall and Miller — delivering off spinners — to bowl with the old ball for the last half hour before lunch break so that the trio could use the adjournment to recuperate before attacking with the new ball .
After lunch , Lindwall and Johnston took the new ball , and the partnership progressed only four further runs to 61 in 110 minutes . On 39 , Compton aimed a hard cut shot from Johnston 's bowling , which flew into Lindwall 's left hand at second slip for a " freak slip catch " . Hutton managed to continue resisting the Australians before Miller struck Crapp in the neck with a bouncer . The batsman did not react to the blow and did not bother to rub the point of impact . After hitting a series of cover drives for boundaries , Hutton edged Miller to Tallon and was out for 64 , having top @-@ scored in both innings . He had batted for over four hours and left England at 153 / 4 . Thereafter , the home side collapsed . Crapp was bowled by Miller for nine , and two runs later , Ring dismissed debutant Watkins for two , his only wicket for the match . Watkins swung Ring to the leg side and the ball went straight into the hands of Hassett , who did not need to move from his position on the boundary , leaving England at 167 / 6 . Lindwall returned and yorked Evans , who appeared to not detect the delivery in the poor light , for eight . The umpires thus called off play after Yardley appealed against the light . The ground was then hit by rain , resulting in a premature end to the day 's play with England at 178 / 7 , having lost 4 / 25 .
= = 18 August : Day Four = =
England resumed on the fourth morning with only three wickets in hand and they were still 159 runs in arrears . Johnston quickly removed the last three wickets to seal an Australian victory by an innings and 149 runs . Only ten runs were added ; the match ended when Hollies fell for a golden duck after skying a ball to Morris , immediately after Yardley 's departure . Johnston ended with 4 / 40 from 27 @.@ 3 overs while Lindwall took 3 / 50 from 25 overs . Miller claimed 2 / 22 while Ring bowled the most overs , 28 , to finish with 1 / 44 . Given the time lost to inclement weather on the first day , Australia had won the match in less than three days of playing time .
= = Aftermath = =
This result sealed the series 4 – 0 in favour of Australia . The match was followed by a series of congratulatory speeches . Bradman began with :
No matter what you may read to the contrary , this is definitely my last Test match ever . I am sorry my personal contribution has been so small ... It has been a great pleasure for me to come on this tour and I would like you all to know how much I have appreciated it ... We have played against a very lovable opening skipper ... It will not be my pleasure to play ever again on this Oval but I hope it will not be the last time I come to England .
Yardley spoke after Bradman :
In saying good @-@ bye to Don we are saying good @-@ bye to the greatest cricketer of all time . He is not only a great cricketer but a great sportsman , on and off the field . I hope this is not the last time we see Don Bradman in this country .
Bradman was then given three cheers and the crowd sang " For He 's a Jolly Good Fellow " before dispersing .
The win brought Australia closer to Bradman 's aim of going through the tour undefeated . The Fifth Test was the last international match , and Australia only had seven further matches to negotiate . They secured three consecutive innings victories against Kent , the Gentlemen of England and Somerset . They then took first innings leads of more than 200 against the South of England and Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI , but both matches were washed out . The last two matches were two @-@ day non @-@ first @-@ class matches against Scotland , both won by an innings . Bradman 's men thus completed the tour undefeated , earning themselves the sobriquet The Invincibles .
= No Can Do =
" No Can Do " is a song by English girl group Sugababes from their sixth studio album , Catfights and Spotlights ( 2008 ) . It was written by Jason Pebworth and George Astasio of The Invisible Men , Jon Shave and VV Brown , and produced by The Invisible Men in collaboration with Si Hulbert . The song was released in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 19 December 2008 as the album 's second and final single . " No Can Do " is a pop song with influences of R & B and soul . It contains a sample of Sweet Charles Sherrell 's " Yes It 's You " , and contains influences of Motown music and songs performed by The Jackson 5 .
The song received mixed reviews from critics , who were ambivalent towards its Motown influence . " No Can Do " peaked at number 23 on the UK Singles Chart and is one of the group 's lowest @-@ charting singles in the UK . The single also charted on the Danish and Slovakian airplay charts . The music video for " No Can Do " was directed by Marco Puig , and was inspired by a piece of pop created by Allen Jones in the 1960s . It features the group using twenty half @-@ naked men as objects such as cars , motorcycles and bridges . The Sugababes performed the song in November 2008 to promote the release of the New Xbox Experience , and at Ponty 's Big Weekend in July 2009 .
= = Background and release = =
Following the release of their fifth studio album , Change ( 2007 ) , and the completion of its supporting tour , the Sugababes announced that they would take a year @-@ long break to record their sixth studio album . Despite the announcement , the trio soon began work on the album , titled Catfights and Spotlights , which they eventually recorded within a matter of weeks and in between various festivals . " No Can Do " was co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by The Invisible Men team members Jason Pebworth and George Astasio . The two musicians co @-@ wrote the song in collaboration with Jon Shave and VV Brown , and co @-@ produced it with Si Hulbert . The song was programmed collectively by Hulbert , Shave , Pebworth and Melvin Kuiters , mixed by Jeremy Wheatley and engineered by Dave Palmer . " No Can Do " was recorded at Metropolis Studios in London , England .
" No Can Do " was released as the second and final single from Catfights and Spotlights . When Digital Spy questioned group member Keisha Buchanan about her reaction to its release , she responded : " I 'm really excited about it . I 'm looking forward to people hearing another side to the album . This single has got a kind of Jackson 5 feel to it which I love . The whole album has got a really old @-@ school , laid @-@ back Motown sound , so hopefully ' No Can Do ' will get more people interested in the album . " " No Can Do " was released as a digital download in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 19 December 2008 . The following day , it was made available as a CD single , which consists of three remixes of the track and a cover version of Keane 's song " Spiralling " .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" No Can Do " is an uptempo pop song with influences of R & B and soul . It features prominent bass instrumentation provided by the keyboard , guitar , trombone , trumpet , saxophone and brass . " No Can Do " is based around a sample of Sweet Charles Sherrell 's " Yes It 's You " , as written and produced by Nugetre and Hal Ritson , respectively . The song is largely inspired by Motown music and is reminiscent of songs performed by The Jackson 5 , namely their 1969 song " I Want You Back " . Adrian Thrills of the Daily Mail described it as " a bubbly Jackson Five pastiche " . The Motown influences are most evident within the song 's beat . The record 's influences also derive from the music of girl groups from the 1960s . According to the digital sheet music published at Sheet Music Direct , " No Can Do " was composed in the key of G major using common time , with a tempo of 96 beats per minute .
Matthew Chisling of AllMusic noted that the song " [ builds ] on the recurring themes of enticing harmonies and vocal showcasing which are seen as the most dominant traits that the girls are showing off this time around " . The lyrics of " No Can Do " address the riddance of a boyfriend , following the group 's " trademark super @-@ energised big goodbye songs " . Buchanan stated during an interview with BBC 's Sarah Jane Griffiths that the lyrics are " about your partner treating you really bad and you saying , ' Not any more . Or No Can Do ' " .
= = Response = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical reception for " No Can Do " was mixed . David Balls of Digital Spy gave the song a two out of five star rating , and wrote , " in comparison to the majority of the group 's singles , it 's a half @-@ hearted , bland and middle of the road offering that lacks the excitement of Sugababes at their best " . He did , however , call the song an improvement from the group 's previous single " Girls " . A writer from Orange criticised the song 's incorporation of multiple genres as " less than the sum of its parts " . The reviewer was also unfavourable of the sampling of " Yes It 's You " , which was noted as " giving the ladies ' warblings a strange air of karaoke with the wrong lyrics " as a result of its resemblance to " I Want You Back " . The writer concluded the review by stating that " things are just a little lacklustre ; the trio 's vocals are still strong , but missing the sass that made them famous " .
Entertainment.ie 's Lauren Murphy regarded " No Can Do " and album track " Side Chick " as " feeble uptempo tracks that sound like they 've been plucked at random from a pop factory conveyor belt " . A writer from the Daily Record commented that " as much as [ ' No Can Do ' ] is mainstream and poppy , it 's hardly their most remarkable offering " . Popjustice considered the song to be " above average " but not the best track from the album , while Fraser McAlphine of the BBC Chart Blog wrote that it " won 't be the all @-@ conquering pop superbeast that it could be " . A positive response came from AllMusic writer Matthew Chisling , who considered the song to be a " show @-@ stopping [ number ] " and stated that it " work [ s ] as shimmering displays of subtle strength " . Virgin Media 's Johnny Dee praised inclusion of the Motown beat , which according to him makes the song " feel retro and modern simultaneously .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" No Can Do " entered the UK Singles Chart on 13 December 2008 at number 170 , based on digital downloads from Catfights and Spotlights . Upon its release as a single , the song peaked at number 23 in the issue dated 10 January 2009 with 12 @,@ 890 copies sold . Subsequently , " No Can Do " became the group 's lowest @-@ charting single since 2006 's " Follow Me Home " and their third @-@ lowest charting single overall . The song is also one of their lowest @-@ selling singles to date . " No Can Do " brought the Sugababes ' total single sales in the UK to three million . The single also peaked at number eleven on the Danish airplay chart , number 53 on the Slovakian airplay chart , and number 67 on Billboard 's European Hot 100 Singles chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " No Can Do " was directed by Marco Puig , who previously directed videos for recording artists such as Robbie Williams and Madonna . The video was filmed in November 2008 , and was released onto the iTunes Store later that month . On YouTube , it was released on 2 December 2008 . The video 's inspiration stemmed from a piece of art created by the sculptor Allen Jones in the 1960s , involving the use of female mannequins as everyday pieces of furniture . Shortly before its release , pictures of the group 's members with men in tight underpants surfaced online ; according to Alison Maloney of The Sun , this " [ left ] little to the imagination " . The Sugababes wore glamorous gowns and had large hair and long eyelashes for the video , which features twenty muscly men who are used as pieces of furniture .
The video opens with a scene of group member Amelle Berrabah , who is spread out on the floor and surrounded by multiple men . Berrabah , Buchanan and other group member Heidi Range join together and walk on a bridge , which is constructed by the men 's bodies . Later , Buchanan straddles onto two men who pretend to be a motorbike . Berrabah and Range then drive a car made from the men 's bodies . During the milk bar scene , the trio are surrounded by men who are used as tables and lamps . Another scene shows Berrabah and Range in a car constructed by the men . At the end of the video , Range uses a microphone to yell at the men who are standing in a line . Balls described the video as " a little racier than we 'd expect from Keisha and Co " , but acknowledged that " it 's nice to see the girls letting their hair down for a change " . He compared it to the music video for Kylie Minogue 's 2003 single " Slow " . VV Brown , the co @-@ writer of " No Can Do " , stated that she did not expect the video to be racy : " Being very honest , I didn 't see in that way . I saw the song as more fun and cheeky , rather than sassy and glossy like that . "
= = Live performances and impact = =
The Sugababes performed " No Can Do " on 14 November 2008 for Children in Need . The trio performed the song later that month to promote the release of the New Xbox Experience , as part of a set list that included their singles " Push the Button " and " About You Now " . They performed " No Can Do " on 18 July 2009 at Ponty ’ s Big Weekend , which was held at Ynysangharad Park in Pontypridd , Wales , and dedicated the performance to Michael Jackson who died a month earlier . Buchanan named " No Can Do " one of her favourite songs from the Sug | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
ababes ' career , stating : " I love ' No Can Do ' because it 's such a different sound for us . I really like the whole old @-@ school , laid @-@ back sound and it 's got a kind of Jackson 5 feel to it which I love . "
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Catfights and Spotlights .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Unearthed ( Fringe ) =
" Unearthed " is the 11th episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . While the body of a young , recently deceased girl is being harvested of its organs , she suddenly comes back to life yelling classified naval launch codes and Russian phrases , leading the Fringe Division to a recently murdered naval officer . The episode was written by co @-@ executive producers David H. Goodman and Andrew Kreisberg , and was directed by producer Frederick E. O. Toye .
Though the episode was produced at the end of the first season " Unearthed " first aired during the second season , on January 11 , 2010 , in a one @-@ time timeslot . An estimated 7 @.@ 79 million viewers tuned into the episode , giving it a " whopping " ratings improvement over its best ratings of the season . It was included in the second season 's DVD release as a special feature . The episode was almost unanimously disliked by critics , with one reviewer calling it " a stinker that should have remained safely out of public view . " Numerous critics also disliked guest actress Alice Kremelberg 's performance , particularly when her character becomes possessed by a male ghost .
Netflix streaming service lists " Unearthed " as episode 21 of season one .
= = Plot = =
A seventeen @-@ year @-@ old girl , Lisa Donovan ( Alice Kremelberg ) , is declared brain dead at a hospital and is pulled off life support . While the doctors remove her organs for donation , she suddenly comes back from the dead and yells highly classified naval missile codes . Fringe Division arrives to investigate , along with a naval officer ; he tells them the codes are tied to a missing sailor called Andrew Rusk ( Chazz Menendez ) . Lisa is unaware of the numbers or Rusk , but suddenly starts speaking Russian while Olivia ( Anna Torv ) , Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) , and Walter ( John Noble ) question her . The naval officer informs them that Rusk is fluent in the language .
Olivia asks Lisa 's mother Maureen ( Amy Carlson ) for permission to run more tests on the girl as a means to find Rusk , but Maureen disagrees . Meanwhile , Lisa has a vision of Rusk standing behind her , which leads Maureen to conclude they should end the investigation , as it is causing Lisa to experience these strange occurrences . Walter posits that Lisa 's aneurysm tied her to Rusk and gave them a psychic bond . Having continued to suffer visions , Lisa soon calls Olivia and leads her to Rusk 's body . It is determined that at the same time Lisa was taken off life support , Rusk was murdered . Walter believes that part of Rusk 's consciousness transferred over to Lisa . Walter clashes with the family 's priest ( Sean Dugan ) over her resurrection . Olivia learns that Rusk had recently experienced high levels of radiation ; Walter posits that , due to this heavy radiation exposure , Rusk 's energy is not completely " expended " .
Lisa is transferred to Walter 's lab , where he gives her special drugs to extract Rusk 's thoughts from her mind . Instead , Rusk gains control of Lisa 's body and demands to know where he is . His description of the murderer leads them another naval officer , who tells them Rusk 's physically abused wife Teresa ( Annie Parisse ) hired him for the murder . Believing that he has left her mind , they learn too late that Rusk is still in control of Lisa ; he goes to exact revenge on Teresa , but is stopped by Peter before he can go through with the murder . Lisa is eventually able to purge Rusk from her consciousness . The final scene shows an unrelated car crash victim suddenly waking up , mumbling in Russian : " My Star " , the pet name Rusk called his wife , meaning that Rusk is back .
= = Production = =
Co @-@ executive producers David H. Goodman and Andrew Kreisberg wrote " Unearthed " , while producer Frederick E. O. Toye worked as the episode director . " Unearthed " was the last episode filmed during the first season schedule . Although it was filmed during the first season , " Unearthed " aired during the following season on Monday , January 11 , 2010 , a departure from its normal timeslot on Thursdays . Actor Joshua Jackson explained the move in April 2009 , " [ It 's ] for boring reasons . They only had 22 airdates for our show this year , but they ordered 23 episodes , so we shot one for next year , which is just silly TV network stuff . It 's not for any cool reason like we had something we needed in New York that we couldn 't shoot elsewhere . It 's just an accounting issue . " That same month , executive producer / showrunner Jeff Pinkner further commented on the episode chronology for the new season , " It won 't be the first episode , and it probably won 't be the second , but it 'll be somewhere in the first batch of episodes . It 's a stand @-@ alone , but it still honors the condition that we know it will fall into the world . "
Fox issued a press release on January 11 previewing the episode 's plot . It concluded , " While the girl 's mind @-@ bending condition intensifies , Walter dusts off some old lab videos and hypothesizes the unthinkable , sending Olivia and Peter to investigate the bewildering case in an original ' Unearthed ' episode of Fringe and here 's another mystery : is it an unaired episode from Season One or is it from an alternate universe ? " As the press release purposely alluded to whether the episode was indeed originally part of the first season or from the parallel universe , one critic wrote that " FOX [ was just ] having fun with the fact that Fringe has alternate universes " and that readers of the press release should " take this with a grain of salt " . According to Fox 's media site , " Unearthed " was listed as the 21st episode of season one , despite its broadcast during the second season and inclusion in that season 's DVD release as a special feature . Though one character had been killed off earlier in the second season , a former series regular appeared in the episode , sparking confusion among some viewers . As the broadcasting change went unexplained at the time , one media outlet speculated it was a marketing ploy on the network 's part , believing the episode title was " more than a stunning coincidence " and that it was a reference to co @-@ creator J.J. Abrams ' other television series , Lost .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
On its initial broadcast in the United States , " Unearthed " was watched by an estimated 7 @.@ 79 million viewers , earning a 2 @.@ 8 / 7 share among viewers aged 18 – 49 . The episode aired on a Monday night , which was a departure from its usual timeslot on Thursdays . This led it temporarily into direct competition with another science fiction series , Heroes ; Fringe easily won , as Heroes had its lowest rated airing in the show 's history while , according to SFScope 's Sarah Stegall , " Unearthed " gave Fringe a " whopping 24 percent improvement over its best ratings this season . "
= = = Reviews = = =
Critical reception to the episode was generally negative . A.V. Club 's Noel Murray graded the episode with a C- , explaining he didn 't want to watch a season one cast @-@ off , and that some of the episode moments were " generic [ ally ] embarrassing " , such as when Olivia tricked someone into telling her Rusk was sick and when Rusk failed to kill his wife after falling into the " old Fallacy Of The Talking Killer " cliche . New York 's Tim Grierson thought it was " the lamest in recent memory " and " a stinker that should have remained safely out of public view " . He did however remark that the episode allowed him to see how far the show had improved since its first season . In a slightly more positive review , MTV 's Josh Wigler wrote " As far as standard installments of Fringe go , ' Unearthed ' ranks somewhere in the middle of the pack , but the quality diminishes due to its awkward placement in the middle of season two " . IGN 's Ramsey Isler rated the episode 6 @.@ 4 / 10 , commenting that it was " cheesy , with mediocre writing and some fairly bad performances from the guest supporting cast " . Isler found little to redeem the episode , and wished the story 's partial focus on the intersection of science and faith had been further explored .
Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times thought the " premise was a little thinly stretched over the hour " and believed it would have been overshadowed by stronger episodes in season one , but was glad to have another hour of Fringe regardless . SFScope contributor Sarah Stegall disliked that the network failed to issue a " disclaimer " about the episode 's production date , stating " ... maybe the producers assume that all their audiences are brand new to the franchise . Or perhaps , unhappily , it is a sign that Fox has given up on this show , and no longer cares whether its lingering audience is confused . " She concluded , " As a standalone episode , this one was of middling interest , and I can see why Fox would have dropped it from the Season One lineup . Fans looking eagerly for more ' mythology ' episodes , where the links between the Fringe team , Massive Dynamics [ sic ] , Nina Sharpe , William Bell and , for all I know , the Illuminati are explored , may be disappointed . " Jane Boursaw of AOL TV was also critical of Fox for giving no warning about the episode and thought it should actually have been titled ' Walter vs. The Priest . ' " She continued , " The whole episode was an interesting intersect between science and faith , not to mention the whole ' being possessed by a dead person because your brain waves crossed during life and death ' thing . You can tell it was vintage Fringe -- if indeed it was -- because the storylines are more complex than that these days , what with the alternate universe and Leonard Nimoy and all . " Various critics noted guest actress Alice Kremelberg 's performance , particularly when she had to give the impression she was possessed by a male ghost ; most reviews were negative , though Boursaw praised it , giving Kremelberg " high fives " .
= Don Getty =
Donald Ross " Don " Getty , OC AOE ( August 30 , 1933 – February 26 , 2016 ) was a Canadian politician who served as the 11th Premier of Alberta between 1985 and 1992 . A member of the Progressive Conservatives , he served as Energy Minister and Federal and Intergovernmental Affairs Minister in the government of Peter Lougheed before leaving politics for the private sector in 1979 . He returned to politics six years later to contest the leadership contest resulting from Lougheed 's retirement . He defeated two other candidates , and became Premier November 1 , 1985 .
As Premier , Getty was faced with an economic slowdown and falling energy prices , which hit Alberta 's petroleum @-@ dominated economy hard . Faced with mounting government deficits and increasing unemployment , he cut social spending and intervened with government money to prevent businesses from failing . Several of these interventions backfired in high profile fashion , failing at their intended objective and costing scarce public funds as well . While some analysts argue that Getty 's fiscal program laid the groundwork for Ralph Klein 's later balancing of the provincial budget , on Getty 's departure from office the government 's debt had reached $ 11 billion , setting the stage for his successor to characterize the Getty years as an era of wasteful and excessive spending .
His efforts at strengthening Alberta 's presence in Canada initially appeared more successful , as he won the agreement of Canada 's other first ministers in including elements of Senate reform in the Meech Lake and Charlottetown Accords , but these efforts came to naught when both accords were rejected — the second by the Canadian public , including a majority of Albertans . Getty was also facing political problems within Alberta , including a defeat in his home riding of Edmonton @-@ Whitemud in the 1989 election ( leading to a successful by @-@ election in Stettler , vacated by a P.C. MLA ) and leadership machinations from some of his own ministers . In light of this , he resigned the Premiership in 1992 .
Before entering politics , Getty had been a quarterback for the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League . He passed for more than eight thousand yards over his ten @-@ year career , and was put on the team 's Wall of Fame in 1992 .
= = Early life = =
Don Getty was born on August 30 , 1933 in Westmount , Quebec , the son of Beatrice Lillian ( Hampton ) Getty ( 1910 – 1973 ) and Charles Ross Getty ( 1909 – 1974 ) . His father had dropped out of McGill University 's medical school due to the Great Depression and worked a variety of jobs — sometimes more than one at a time — to support his wife , three sons , and two daughters . Getty 's childhood was spent in Verdun , Toronto , Ottawa , London , and Agincourt , sharing a three @-@ room apartment with his seven @-@ member family in the last . Returning for London in time for high school , he became an accomplished athlete ( drinking eggnog to gain enough weight to play football ) and was elected students ' council president . Sports were his passion , and he was an especially great fan of the Montreal Canadiens and Toronto Argonauts running back Royal Copeland .
= = = Football = = =
After graduating , Getty enrolled to study business administration at the University of Western Ontario , where he became a football star and a member of The Kappa Alpha Society . He quarterbacked the Western Ontario Mustangs to Eastern Collegiate Union Championships in 1954 and 1955 , and was awarded the Claude Brown Memorial Trophy as the outstanding athlete at UWO in 1955 . He also played basketball , and was part of championship teams in that sport in 1952 , 1953 , and 1954 . A week after his 1955 graduation , he married Margaret Mitchell , his high school sweetheart . The Edmonton Eskimos had offered Getty a professional contract , so the newlyweds drove out west in an old blue Buick .
While still playing football , Getty was hired by Imperial Oil in 1955 . He worked for Midwestern Industrial Gas Limited , beginning in 1961 as Lands and Contracts Manager with a promotion to Assistant General Manager following in 1963 . In 1964 he founded his own company , Baldonnel Oil and Gas Company , before entering the world of finance as a partner with Doherty , Roadhouse , and McCuaig investments in 1967 .
= = = MLA and cabinet minister = = =
In 1965 , Getty was approached by fellow Eskimos veteran and Progressive Conservative leader Peter Lougheed to run in the 1967 provincial election . Getty agreed to run in Strathcona West , and defeated incumbent Social Crediter Randolph McKinnon by more than one thousand votes . He entered the Legislative Assembly of Alberta as one of six newly elected P.C.s. Four years later , in the 1971 election , Getty was re @-@ elected by more than 3 @,@ 500 votes in the new riding of Edmonton @-@ Whitemud and was appointed Minister of Federal and Intergovernmental Affairs in the new Lougheed majority government . With Getty and the government both re @-@ elected by increasing margins in the 1975 election , Lougheed appointed him Minister of Energy . In this capacity Getty partially continued his responsibility for relations with the federal government , as energy policy was a major sticking point between the two governments ( at one point , federal Energy Minister Donald Macdonald called Getty " dripping with venom " ) . Getty did not seek re @-@ election in the 1979 election .
= = = Hiatus from politics and leadership fight = = =
While out of politics , Getty became the head of an investment firm and sat on the boards of a number of corporations , including the Royal Bank of Canada and Celanese Canada . However , when Lougheed stepped down from the Progressive Conservative leadership in 1985 , Getty entered the contest to replace him and immediately became the favourite . At an October convention , Getty won a second ballot victory against Minister of Municipal Affairs Julian Koziak and former legislator Ron Ghitter .
= = Premier = =
Getty was appointed Premier November 1 , 1985 . He returned to the legislature just over a month later , winning a by @-@ election in his old riding of Edmonton @-@ Whitemud . As Premier for nearly seven years , Getty presided over some of Alberta 's toughest economic times . His time in office was characterized by attempts to reduce the government 's budget deficit and interventions calculated to stabilize the economy during the recession of the 1980s . When Getty became Premier he left his predecessor 's cabinet completely intact .
= = = Budget deficit = = =
After Getty won the party leadership , Lougheed told him to expect a budget deficit of $ 2 @.@ 5 billion in his first year in office , though the figure turned out to be $ 2 @.@ 1 billion . Things got worse the next year as a drop in energy prices led to the oil @-@ rich province running a deficit of $ 3 @.@ 4 billion , as energy revenues fell by $ 3 billion . Getty 's Treasurer , Dick Johnston , reacted by raising taxes by $ 1 billion and cutting program spending by 6 @.@ 3 % , including decreases of 3 % in grants to schools , universities , municipalities , and hospitals . In 1990 , due to these measures , Johnston predicted that the government would be in surplus by the 1995 fiscal year . By 1992 , program spending was growing at a rate of 2 @.@ 3 % annually , among the lowest rates in Canada . In fact , when adjusted for population growth and inflation , government spending fell over Getty 's term in office , with non @-@ health care program spending 40 % lower in 1993 than it had been in 1986 ( health spending had remained approximately constant over the same period ) . Even so , Getty entered the premiership with no public debt and left with the public debt at $ 11 billion .
= = = Economic intervention = = =
Getty 's government was faced with a combination of a general economic malaise and falling oil prices . The slowdown in the energy sector contributed to a decrease in capital spending , which reduced demand for labour in the construction industry by 50 % between 1980 and 1985 . Many workers left the province , which suppressed real estate prices and hurt financial institutions ; two Albertan banks , the Canadian Commercial Bank and the Northlands Bank , failed in September 1985 . Credit unions were facing similar troubles , and the Lougheed government had , in its last days , injected $ 100 million into the industry .
Getty 's response to these issues was interventionist . During his first budget , he targeted spending at the province 's struggling agricultural sector , including a $ 2 billion loan program meant to address high interest rates . His government tried to stimulate the energy sector by making loan guarantees to Husky Oil ( $ 380 million ) and Syncrude ( $ 200 million ) for new and expanded capital projects . The government also provided a $ 55 million guarantee — in addition to a $ 20 million loan — to Peter Pocklington 's Gainers meat @-@ packing plant ; when Pocklington defaulted on the loan , the government seized , and eventually closed , the plant . This incident and others contributed to a perception that Getty 's administration was willing to spend public money to support large businesses , but that it was indifferent to the struggles of labour ( the Gainers loan had initially been made after the government brokered a labour settlement favourable to the plant 's management ) . In 1986 the price of oil bottomed at $ US10 a barrel . Getty responded by providing the oil industry with $ 250 million in incentives and royalty cuts . By the end of 1986 Alberta had granted another nine @-@ month cut from 12 % to 1 % in royalties at the Suncor oilsands .
Most damaging to the government 's reputation was the failure of the Principal Group , an Edmonton @-@ based trust company . Its investment subsidiaries were ordered shut down June 30 , 1987 , by court orders obtained at the instigation of Provincial Treasurer Dick Johnston . The parent company went bankrupt August 10 amid accusations of fraud . A court @-@ ordered investigation led by Bill Code found that the company was in trouble as early as 1980 and , though subsequent economic downturns hurt it , " it would not have been profitable in any event " . It also found that Consumer and Corporate Affairs Minister Connie Osterman had disregarded 1984 warnings from a regulator in her department that the company was likely insolvent . Though Osterman was fired shortly after the report 's release , Getty 's immediate offer of an $ 85 million settlement to investors further hurt the government 's reputation in areas of business .
A similar incident stemmed from the 1992 privatization of Alberta Government Telephones ( AGT ) . NovaTel , a cellular subsidiary of AGT , had made a number of financing deals with local companies in the late 1980s , and many of these deals were collapsing just as the government was prepared to sell AGT . At the last moment , the government removed NovaTel from the AGT share offering . NovaTel 's liabilities eventually cost the government more than $ 600 million .
= = = Intergovernmental and constitutional affairs = = =
As a former Minister of Federal and Intergovernmental Affairs , Getty had strong views about constitutional matters , and about Senate reform in particular . He made the cause the centrepiece of Alberta 's constitutional policy going into the Meech Lake Accord discussions . The Accord 's final version included a provision whereby the Prime Minister would continue to recommend senatorial appointments to the Governor @-@ General , but would have to make their recommendations from lists provided by the provincial governments . Once it became apparent that the Meech Lake Accord would fail , Getty 's government introduced the Senatorial Selection Act , which provided for an election process whenever there was a vacant Senate seat for Alberta . However , Getty 's favoured candidate , Progressive Conservative Bert Brown , was soundly defeated by Stan Waters of the upstart Reform Party of Canada , which opposed Meech Lake and favoured aggressive senate reform . Though Prime Minister Brian Mulroney opposed the legislation , he eventually recommended Waters for appointment to the Senate . Getty was still more successful at pursuing senate reform during the negotiations for the Charlottetown Accord , when he won the addition of a Triple @-@ E Senate to the package , against Mulroney 's opposition . However , the Charlottetown Accord failed after a national referendum in which a majority of Canadians , including 60 @.@ 2 % of Albertans , rejected it .
In 1991 , Getty 's Progressive Conservatives formally severed ties with the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada , which was becoming increasingly unpopular under Mulroney . Getty also broke with Mulroney on a number of issues other than Senate reform , including the new federal Goods and Services Tax , which he fought unsuccessfully against implementing . His government also implemented legislation , against Mulroney 's express wishes , that made English the only official language of Alberta . Despite these steps , Getty remained a supporter of the federal Conservatives ( and not the Reform Party , to which many provincial P.C.s were defecting ) , whose unpopularity rubbed off on him .
Getty 's government also made progress on aboriginal land claims in the northern part of the province . In addition to creating Canada 's first Métis land base in 1989 , Getty took the lead in an ultimately unsuccessful effort to negotiate a settlement between the federal government and the Lubicon Cree .
= = = Political style = = =
In contrast to his predecessor , who was actively involved in most elements of his government , Getty preferred to set the government 's broad direction and leave lower @-@ level details to his ministers . Ralph Klein , while serving as Environment Minister under Getty , commented that " If you are a minister , you run that portfolio yourself " and expressed an appreciation for the freedom that the Premier gave his cabinet . Al Adair , who served in two different portfolios under Getty , described this approach in his memoirs as " you make the decisions , you run your department , but make mistakes and you 're gone " . Lisac credits him for knowing when to intervene and when not to , but Adair felt that his approach led to ministers working too much in isolation .
Getty was a private , reserved person , which , combined with his tendency to delegate to ministers , sometimes gave the impression of an uncaring aloofness . During the Principal Group affair , which he left primarily in the hands of Treasurer Dick Johnston and Consumer and Corporate Affairs Minister Elaine McCoy , a photographer captured a shot of Getty playing golf while his press secretary had said that he was " working out of the office " . This was typical of his strained relationship with the media , which Adair attributed to the Premier 's awkwardness and the media 's unfairness .
Although Getty governed with fairly large majorities during his tenure , they were nowhere near as large as the ones Lougheed enjoyed . His first election as premier saw the return of the provincial Liberals to the legislature after being shut out for 15 years . That same election saw the Alberta NDP pick up 16 seats in the legislature . In contrast , during his last two terms , Lougheed never faced more than six opposition MLAs in total .
= = = Decline and retirement = = =
Getty called the 1989 election less than three years into his 1986 mandate to take advantage of the economic optimism prevalent in the province , partly as a result of the Canada @-@ U.S. free trade agreement . While the P.C.s made spending promises including paving all of the province 's secondary highways , the Liberals under new leader Laurence Decore stressed dealing with the deficit . The overall end result was respectable for the government , as it won a sixth term in government with a net loss of only two seats . However , Getty was defeated in his own riding by Liberal Percy Wickman . Brian C. Downey resigned his seat in the rural central Alberta riding of Stettler to allow Getty to run in a by @-@ election , which he won handily . He built a home in the riding on Buffalo Lake , and was later accused of arranging for the lake to be risen so it would be better @-@ suited for fishing ( though Adair claimed that the arrangements had been in place since 1979 , when he had been Minister of Recreation , Parks and Wildlife ) .
Getty 's relationship with his own party was often stormy . Shortly after he lost his riding in 1989 , a group of Calgary Conservatives , including party budget director Jack Major and Getty 's old leadership rival Ron Ghitter , began making plans to force party renewal , with or without Getty . They felt that the party was perceived as being tired , directionless , arrogant , and deaf to urban concerns , and that it was in political trouble in the crucial battleground of Calgary . At the 1989 party convention , recently retired cabinet minister Marvin Moore , who had organized Ghitter 's 1985 leadership campaign , advocated for a leadership review ; after a speech by Getty , the convention voted to refer the recommendation to a committee for months of study . Cabinet ministers , including Treasurer Dick Johnston and Education Minister Jim Dinning , began to consider leadership bids in the event that Getty retired or was pushed out .
In 1992 , as the national referendum on the Charlottetown Accord and the release of a report on the NovaTel incident loomed , Getty decided to leave politics . In his last months , he deliberately refrained from taking measures that he knew would be popular , such as shrinking cabinet , in order to leave them for his successor . After a party leadership election chose Ralph Klein to succeed him , Getty resigned as party leader December 5 and as Premier several days later .
= = = Political legacy = = =
As Premier , Klein positioned himself in contrast to Getty , asserting that the government had " a spending problem " , and stating that he had become Premier at a time of " uncontrolled spending " . Given Klein 's aggressive spending cuts , which shaped the political climate of Alberta for much of the 1990s , Getty 's legacy with respect to public finances has been criticized . However , Kevin Taft , writing four years before entering politics , challenged this view , asserting that Getty was running " the tightest government in Canada " . Besides its management of the deficit , Getty 's government is remembered for the creation of Family Day . For the most part , however , Getty dropped quickly from the public view and public memory . Lisac suggests that this is because , unlike his predecessor and successor , he lacked a central message :
= = Professional football career = =
Getty played 10 seasons with the Edmonton Eskimos as a quarterback . For the first part of his career , he backed up Jackie Parker and filled in for him when he was moved to running back . Eskimos coach Pop Ivy surprised many observers when he started Getty at quarterback in the third game of the 1956 western final ( which was a three @-@ game series at the time ) during the 44th Grey Cup , with Parker at running back . However , it bore results as Parker tied the record for most touchdowns scored in a Grey Cup game , at three . Getty also handed the ball to Johnny Bright for two touchdowns and scored two himself on quarterback keeps from the one @-@ yard line , as the Eskimos won their third consecutive championship over the Montreal Alouettes by a score of 50 – 27 . He continued with Eskimos until 1963 , and also made three appearances in the 1965 season .
Getty was one of the most successful Canadian @-@ born quarterbacks in the history of the Canadian Football League and sits at third on the all @-@ time passing yardage list of Canadian quarterbacks , behind Russ Jackson and Gerry Dattilio , with nearly nine thousand yards . He was declared the outstanding Canadian player in the Western Interprovincial Football Union in 1959 , and was the runner up ( to Jackson ) for the Schenley Award as the league 's most outstanding Canadian player the same year . He was placed on the Eskimos ' Wall of Honor in 1992 .
= = = Career statistics = = =
1Until and including the 1958 season , a tackle for a loss on a passing play was registered as a rushing attempt .
= = Retirement and death = =
Getty kept a low profile after leaving politics . He assumed several corporate directorships and spent time with his grandchildren . Unlike Lougheed , he rarely commented on political matters . He was appointed as an Officer to the Order of Canada in 1998 .
In July 2008 , after Ed Stelmach announced $ 2 billion in funding to industry to develop carbon capture technology , Getty 's company sought some of the funding to bury carbon dioxide in salt caverns near Two Hills .
On February 26 , 2016 , Getty died of heart failure at the age of 82 in Edmonton , following years of declining health .
= = Honours = =
He was appointed as an Officer of the Order of Canada on 21 October 1998 . He was appointed as a Member of the Alberta Order of Excellence in 1999 . Also received the Canadian Version of the Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Medal the 125th Anniversary of the Confederation of Canada Medal in 1992 . The Canadian Version of the Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal in 2002 and the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal in 2012 .
In 2012 He was Inducted into the London Sports Hall of Fame in London , Ontario in Recognition of His achievements in Canadian Football .
On 19 November 2013 He received the Honorary Degree of Doctor of Laws from the University of Alberta .
= = Electoral record = =
= = = As party leader = = =
* Party did not nominate candidates in the previous election .
= = = As MLA = = =
= = = Party leadership contest = = =
= Brough Castle =
Brough Castle is a ruined castle in the village of Brough , Cumbria , England . The castle was built by William Rufus around 1092 within the old Roman fort of Verterae to protect a key route through the Pennine mountains . The initial motte and bailey castle was attacked and destroyed by the Scots in 1174 during the Great Revolt against Henry II . Rebuilt after the war , a square keep was constructed and the rest of the castle converted to stone .
The Clifford family took possession of Brough after the Second Barons ' War in the 1260s ; they built Clifford 's Tower and undertook a sequence of renovations to the castle , creating a fortification in a typical northern English style . In 1521 , however , Henry Clifford held a Christmas feast at the castle , after which a major fire broke out , destroying the property . The castle remained abandoned until Lady Anne Clifford restored the property between 1659 and 1661 , using it as one of her northern country homes . In 1666 another fire broke out , once again rendering the castle uninhabitable . Brough Castle went into sharp decline and was stripped first of its fittings and then its stonework . The castle 's masonry began to collapse around 1800 .
In 1921 , Brough Castle was given to the state and is now run by English Heritage as a tourist attraction . It is a listed building and a scheduled monument .
= = 11th century = =
Brough Castle was built on the site of the Roman fort of Verterae , a 3 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 2 ha ) fortification that was occupied until the 5th century . The site protected the Stainmore Pass that stretched from the River Eden across the Pennines , and the Roman road connecting Carlisle and Ermine Street , a valuable trading route during the period .
Following the Norman conquest of England in 1066 , William the Conqueror subdued the north of the country in a sequence of harsh campaigns , and the north @-@ west region became a contested border territory between the Normans and the Scottish kings . William 's son , William Rufus , invaded the north @-@ west in 1091 and built Brough Castle around 1092 , placing it in the north part of the old Roman fort in order to make use of the existing earthworks , in a similar way to nearby Brougham and Lancaster . The north side of the site overlooks the River Eden . This castle appears to have been a motte and bailey design ; the keep had stone foundations and a main structure built from timber , while the rest of the former fort was turned into a palisaded bailey . The village of Church Brough was created alongside the castle at around the same time , in the form of a planned settlement , part of the Norman colonisation of the low @-@ lands in the region .
= = 12th century = =
The region around Brough continued to be disputed between the kings of England and Scotland ; in 1173 , William the Lion of Scotland invaded as part of the Great Revolt against the rule of Henry II . William 's army struck south but failed to take Wark and moved on to attack Carlisle instead ; when that failed too , they successfully took Appleby before turning their attention to Brough .
Brough , guarded by six knights , put up a strong resistance , but William took the outer defences and then besieged the keep , threatening to execute the garrison if the castle was not surrendered . The keep was set on fire , forcing the surrender of the garrison , including one knight who , according to the chronicler Jordan Fantosme , fought on first with spears and then wooden stakes , until finally overwhelmed . William then destroyed the remaining defences of the castle using Flemish mercenary troops . Henry II 's forces defeated William at the battle of Alnwick and Brough Castle was recovered later in the year .
Henry II had a square stone keep constructed in the 1180s by first Theobald de Valoignes and then Hugh de Morville , who rebuilt the remains of the castle . It was placed into the bailey wall , allowing it to directly support the outer defences . Thomas de Wyrkington conducted further work between 1199 and 1202 for King John , converting the castle entirely into stone .
= = 13th – 15th centuries = =
King John granted the lordship of Westmoreland , including Brough , to Robert de Vieuxpont in 1203 . Robert enlarged the castle in order to exert his authority over the region , where he was competing for control with other members of his extended family . In 1206 , King John briefly entrusted his captive niece Eleanor to the custody of Robert . Robert died in 1228 , leaving substantial debts of £ 2 @,@ 000 to the Crown and passing the castle to his young son , John . His son 's guardian , Hubert de Burgh appointed the Prior of Carlisle to run the estate and the castle was left to fall into ruin . John died supporting the rebels during the Second Barons ' War between 1264 and 1267 and his lands were divided between his two daughters , Isabel and Idonea . Isabel de Vieuxpont inherited Brough and the eastern Vieuxpont estates ; Henry III gave guardianship of some of these lands to Roger de Clifford ; Roger then married Isabel , acquiring all her lands and beginning a long period of Clifford control of the castle .
The Cliffords successfully recombined the former Vieuxpont estates by 1333 , and were able to controlled the Eden valley through their castles at Appleby , Brougham , Pendragon and Brough . Robert Clifford controlled Brough by around 1308 and improved the defences , rebuilding the east wall and constructing a new hall , alongside his apartments which were located in a new circular tower , called Clifford 's Tower . These apartments may have been similar to those surviving at Appleby Castle , also built by Robert .
Robert died fighting the Scots at the battle of Bannockburn and the region around the castle was attacked in 1314 and 1319 , causing significant damage to neighbouring Church Brough . Around this time the village of Market Brough was established along the road overlooked by the castle , in an attempt by the Cliffords to maximise the possibilities for profits from trade along the valley . Market Brough acquired a royal charter in 1330 and seems to have rapidly overtaken Church Brough as the main settlement in the area .
In the 1380s Roger , the fifth baron , decided to modify the castle , partially to improve the defences . Roger conducted work to most of the Clifford castles in the area and at Brough he rebuilt the south wall and reconstructed the living accommodation , replacing the existing hall with a more fashionable first @-@ floor hall and chamber block . Clifford 's Tower was converted for use as bedrooms and some of the old hall was converted into a solar. in With the exception of Clifford 's Tower , these renovations at Brough reflected the popular architectural style of castles in the north of England at the time , stressing square lines and towers in preference to the rounder shapes prevalent in the south . The bailey was cobbled over at around this time .
The gatehouse was reinforced with buttresses and an additional courtyard built within the bailey around 1450 , possibly by Thomas Clifford . During the Wars of the Roses between the rival houses of the Lancastrians and the Yorkists , the Clifford supported the Lancastrians . Thomas died in 1455 , followed by his son John in 1461 ; Brough was temporarily seized from the Cliffords by the Yorkists , until John 's son Henry was restored to his lands in 1485 by Henry VII .
= = 16th – 17th centuries = =
Henry Clifford used the castle until 1521 , when a fire broke out after a lavish Christmas Feast , destroying the inhabitable parts of the castle . Henry died shortly afterwards and the castle remained ruined for many years .
The castle was restored in the 17th century by Lady Anne Clifford , a major landowner in the Clifford family who retired to the north during the years of the Commonwealth after the English Civil War . Although Anne was a royalist , she was protected by powerful friends within the ruling Parliamentary faction and able to enjoy her properties freely . She rebuilt a number of the Clifford castles , including Brough , where she conducted restoration work between 1659 and 1661 . Anne undertook more work at Brough than anywhere else on her estates , aiming to restore it to its pre @-@ 1521 condition . Although Anne would have been familiar with contemporary styles , her restoration work was quite traditional in approach , drawing on existing northern castle architecture and deliberately trying to recreate 12th century features in the keep . As part of this work , new windows , a ground floor entrance to the keep and new service accommodation was installed to allow her to live a late 17th century lifestyle , and the castle had 24 fireplaces by 1665 .
Anne renamed Brough 's keep as " the Roman Tower " , in the belief that it had been built by the Romans . She divided her time at the castle between living in Clifford 's Tower , part of the castle 's apartments and , as work progressed , the keep ; by 1665 , she was able to spend her Christmas at the castle for the first time . In 1666 another fire struck the castle , however , rendering it uninhabitable . In the aftermath , the remaining buildings in the bailey was converted for use as a law court , and Anne died in 1676 , the castle unrestored .
= = 18th – 21st centuries = =
Anne 's daughter , Margaret , married John Tufton , the Earl of Thanet . John 's son , Thomas , stripped the castle around 1695 to support the reconstruction of Appleby Castle . The furnishings were sold in 1714 and in 1763 much of the stone from Clifford 's Tower was plundered for use in the construction of Brough Mill ; the castle was subsequently completely abandoned . The south @-@ west corner of the keep partially collapsed around 1800 .
In 1920 more of the south @-@ west corner collapsed and the castle 's owner , Lord Hothfield , gave the property to the Office of Works . Work to stabilise the ruins was carried out and the castle , as a listed building and ancient monument , eventually passed into the control of English Heritage as a tourist attraction . There were initial archaeological excavations on the site in 1925 , and then further work in 1970 @-@ 71 , 1993 , 2007 and 2009 . Erosion continues to be a threat to the castle 's masonry , and as of 2010 English Heritage considered the castle 's condition to be declining , with some parts at particular risk .
= German cruiser Leipzig =
Leipzig was the lead ship of her class of light cruisers built by the German navy . She had one sister ship , Nürnberg . Leipzig was laid down in April 1928 , was launched in October 1929 , and was commissioned into the Reichsmarine in October 1931 . Armed with a main battery of nine 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns in three triple turrets , Leipzig had a top speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) .
Leipzig participated in non @-@ intervention patrols during the Spanish Civil War . In the first year of World War II , she performed escort duties for warships in the Baltic and North seas . While on one of these operations in December 1939 , the ship was torpedoed by a British submarine and badly damaged . Repairs were completed by late 1940 , when she returned to service as a training ship . She provided gunfire support to the advancing Wehrmacht troops as they invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 .
In October 1944 , Leipzig collided with the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen ; the damage was so severe that the navy decided complete repairs were unfeasible . The ship was patched up to keep her afloat , and she helped to defend Gotenhafen from the advancing Red Army in March 1945 . She then carried a group of fleeing German civilians , reaching Denmark by late April . After the end of the war , Leipzig was used as a barracks ship for minesweeping forces and was scuttled in July 1946 .
= = Design = =
Leipzig was 177 meters ( 581 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 16 @.@ 3 m ( 53 ft ) and a maximum draft of 5 @.@ 69 m ( 18 @.@ 7 ft ) forward . She displaced 8 @,@ 100 metric tons ( 8 @,@ 000 long tons ; 8 @,@ 900 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two steam turbines and four 7 @-@ cylinder MAN two @-@ stroke double @-@ acting diesel engines , which were the basis for the unsuccessful US Navy Hooven @-@ Owens @-@ Rentschler design . Steam for the turbines was provided by six Marine @-@ type double @-@ ended oil @-@ fired boilers . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) and a range of approximately 3 @,@ 900 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 200 km ; 4 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) using only the diesel engines . Leipzig had a crew of 26 officers and 508 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with nine 15 cm SK C / 25 guns mounted in three triple gun turrets . One was located forward , and two were placed in a superfiring pair aft , all on the centerline . They were supplied with between 1 @,@ 080 and 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for between 120 and 166 shells per gun . As built , the ship was also equipped with two 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns in single mounts ; they had 400 rounds of ammunition each . Leipzig also carried four triple torpedo tube mounts located amidships ; they were supplied with twenty @-@ four 50 cm ( 20 in ) torpedoes . She was also capable of carrying 120 naval mines . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick amidships and an armored belt that was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Leipzig was laid down at the Reichsmarinewerft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven on 28 April 1928 and launched on 18 October 1929 . She was commissioned into the Reichsmarine on 8 October 1931 . The ship trained extensively in the Baltic Sea throughout 1932 and 1933 , and also made several goodwill cruises overseas . In 1934 , she and the cruiser Königsberg made the first goodwill visit to the United Kingdom since the end of World War I. In late 1934 , Leipzig went into drydock for modifications . An aircraft catapult was installed on the aft superstructure and a crane for handling float planes replaced one of her boat derricks . The original single @-@ mount 8 @.@ 8 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns were replaced with twin mounts . These modifications were made in Kiel . In early 1935 , Leipzig joined the old pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Schlesien , the new heavy cruiser Deutschland , and the light cruiser Köln for major fleet exercises .
Later in 1935 , Adolf Hitler visited the ship during training maneuvers with the rest of the fleet . The ship joined her sister Nürnberg and Köln for exercises in the Atlantic Ocean in early 1936 . In August , Leipzig took part in the non @-@ intervention patrols off Spain during the Spanish Civil War . She conducted several patrols between August 1936 and June 1937 , and in late June , she was allegedly attacked with torpedoes ; this prompted Germany and Italy to withdraw from the non @-@ intervention patrols . She thereafter returned to Germany and went into the Baltic Sea for training , which lasted through 1938 . In March 1939 , she participated in the annexation of Memel which Germany had demanded from Lithuania . The following month , she joined the battleship Gneisenau , the cruiser Deutschland , and several destroyers and U @-@ boats for major exercises in the Atlantic . Additional maneuvers were conducted through the middle of 1939 .
= = = World War II = = =
At the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , Leipzig was assigned to the blocking force that was intended to prevent the escape of the Polish Navy from the Baltic ; they were unsuccessful . Leipzig thereafter went to the North Sea , where she and the other light cruisers laid a series of defensive minefields . This task lasted through the end of the month , after which she returned to the Baltic for training maneuvers . On 17 – 19 November , Leipzig covered a minelaying operation in the North Sea . She joined Deutschland , Köln , and three torpedo boats for a sweep in the Skagerrak for Allied shipping on 21 – 22 November . Leipzig was tasked with escorting the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau through the Skagerrak , and with covering their return on the 27th .
On 13 December , Leipzig was tasked with escorting a flotilla of destroyers and other small vessels as they proceeded through the Skagerrak to lay a minefield . While en route , the British submarine HMS Salmon attacked the German warships , and at 11 : 25 , hit Leipzig with a torpedo . The torpedo hit Leipzig just below the waterline , where a bulkhead separated two of the ship 's three boiler rooms . The explosion bent her armored deck and damaged her keel ; some 1 @,@ 700 t ( 1 @,@ 700 long tons ; 1 @,@ 900 short tons ) of water flooded the ship , and the damage cut electrical power to the ship 's pumping system . The two boiler rooms were flooded , steam lines were damaged , and the port turbine was shut down . At around the same time , her sister Nürnberg was also torpedoed . A pair of destroyers arrived to escort the damaged cruisers back to port ; an hour after Leipzig was torpedoed , one of the escorting destroyers was also torpedoed , just outside the mouth of the Elbe . Another torpedo passed just ahead of Leipzig , nearly hitting the damaged cruiser .
After safely returning to port in Kiel , Leipzig was taken into the Deutsche Werke shipyard for repairs . She was decommissioned while under repair and reclassified as a training ship . To accommodate additional training crews , four of the ship 's boilers were removed . She returned to service in late 1940 . In early June 1941 , she escorted the heavy cruiser Lützow ( formerly Deutschland ) to Norway . After she returned to the Baltic , she and the cruiser Emden provided artillery support to advancing German ground forces during Operation Barbarossa , the invasion of the Soviet Union . In September , she supported the invasion of the Baltic islands in the West Estonian archipelago . While bombarding Soviet positions on Moon Island , Leipzig was attacked unsuccessfully by the Soviet submarine Shch @-@ 317 . In late September , the ship joined the German Baltic Fleet , centered on the battleship Tirpitz ; the fleet was tasked with blocking a possible Soviet attempt to break out of the Baltic . Leipzig returned to Kiel in October , and conducted maneuvers with the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer . Leipzig became the flagship of the training fleet in 1942 ; she spent the year performing training duties .
Leipzig was decommissioned briefly in March 1943 , and recommissioned on 1 August . She was in need of an overhaul , however , and the work significantly delayed her return to operational status . Furthermore , an outbreak of meningitis killed two crewmen and created an additional delay . Leipzig returned to escort duties in the Baltic in mid @-@ September 1944 . Her first operation covered troop transports between Gotenhafen and Swinemünde in company with Admiral Scheer . On 14 October , Leipzig departed Gotenhafen , bound for Swinemünde , to take on a load of mines . In a heavy fog , she collided with the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen , which was steaming at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . At the time of collision , Leipzig was switching from her diesel cruise engines to her steam turbine main engines , a process of first uncoupling the diesels from the shafts and then coupling turbines to the shafts , which left the ship temporary without propulsion drifting out of her fairway into the path of Prinz Eugen which was moving in the opposite way Prinz Eugen struck C on her port side , just forward of her funnel , cutting her nearly in half - the forward point of the clipper bow of Prinz Eugen actually stuck out beyond the starboard side of Leipzig . The collision destroyed the number 3 ( port ) engine room , flooded a second engine room and killed or wounded 39 crewmen . The ships remained stuck fast for over a day , after which Leipzig was towed back to Gotenhafen . The damage was so severe that repairs were deemed impractical , especially considering Germany 's pressing military situation by late 1944 . Only repairs to keep her afloat in the harbor were effected .
Leipzig provided fire support to the defending German forces in March 1945 , while Soviet Red Army forces advanced on the city . On 24 March , Leipzig was moved to Hela , laden with refugees ; she was capable of steaming at only 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) . She was repeatedly attacked by Soviet aircraft , and Allied submarines attempted to torpedo her twice . She nevertheless safely reached Denmark on 29 April . Due to her poor state following the end of the war , she was used as a barracks ship for the men of the German Mine Sweeping Administration , tasked with clearing mines off the German coast . The battered ship was eventually towed out and scuttled in July 1946 .
= Isaac and Miria =
Isaac Dian ( アイザック · ディアン , Aizakku Dian ) and Miria Harvent ( ミリア · ハーヴェント , Miria Hāvento ) are fictional characters in the light novel and anime series Baccano ! written by Ryohgo Narita and illustrated by Katsumi Enami . Isaac and Miria are a pair of idiotic and eccentric lovers who dress up in costumes and commit strange robberies in Prohibition @-@ era United States . In 1930 , the duo are two of many characters who mistake an immortality elixir for alcohol and drink it at a celebration , inadvertently gaining immortality and eternal youth . The next year , they board the Flying Pussyfoot express train and survive the bloody hijacking that occurs . Isaac is arrested for various thefts in 1934 and imprisoned on Alcatraz Island . He is released the same year and reunites with Miria . The pair continue to live happily , finally realizing they are immortal in 2001 . Isaac and Miria appear in the other media relating to the Baccano ! franchise , including the video game , the two drama CDs and manga adaptation .
Numerous publications in various media have been written on the subject of Isaac and Miria 's characters . Most described them as the most entertaining characters and commented on how the series would not be the same without them . One reviewer felt that they are the protagonists of the series , which features an ensemble cast . They were awarded " Duo of the Year " in 2009 by Anime News Network .
= = Voice portrayal = =
In the Japanese version of Baccano ! ' s anime adaptation , Isaac has been voiced by Masaya Onosaka and Miria has been voiced by Sayaka Aoki . In the English version , Isaac 's role has been played by J. Michael Tatum and Caitlin Glass has played Miria . Tyler Walker , ADR director for the English version , wanted Isaac to be portrayed by someone who can convincingly portray an idiot and had a certain voice from the time period . He felt that Tatum was perfect because his voice was big , but not cheesy , and had depth . While casting Miria , he chose Glass because her voice complemented Tatum 's . He wanted a lower pitch than Isaac 's voice , but wanted the same enthusiasm for both characters .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In the light novels and anime series = = =
Within the series , set during the Prohibition @-@ era of the United States , Isaac and Miria " are a pair of idiotic lovers and thieves " who are portrayed as " always enthusiastic and optimistic " . They are often mistaken for performers because of the variety of disguises they employ during their heists , such as dressing up as mummies or as the Tramp . The duo commit a variety of eccentric robberies , including attempting to steal time by stealing watches , trying to stop anyone from entering a museum by stealing the entrance and stealing the Genoard family fortune to prevent the family from fighting over it . Miria exhibits a complete trust in Isaac | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
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Aside from the probe , The Voyage Home required no new starship designs . The USS Saratoga , the first Federation starship disabled by the probe , was the USS Reliant model from The Wrath of Khan . The Bird @-@ of @-@ Prey model from The Search for Spock was reused , but ILM built additional sturdy versions for The Voyage Home 's action sequences . The inside of the Bird @-@ of @-@ Prey was represented by a different set than The Search for Spock , but the designers made sure to adhere to a sharp and alien architectural aesthetic . To give the set a smokier , atmospheric look , the designers rigged display and instrumentation lights to be bright enough that they could light the characters , rather than relying on ambient or rigged lighting . While Paramount had instructed ILM to trash the large Spacedock model created for The Search for Spock , the team had been loath to discard the complicated model and its miles of fiber optic lighting . When The Voyage Home called for the return of Spacedock , ILM had only to reassemble the model from storage .
Robert Fletcher served as costume designer for the film . During the Earth @-@ based scenes , Kirk and his crew continue to wear their 23rd @-@ century clothing . Nimoy debated whether the crew should change costumes , but after seeing how people in San Francisco are dressed , he decided they would still fit in .
= = = Filming = = =
Nimoy chose Donald Peterman , ASC , as director of photography . Nimoy said he regarded the cinematographer as a fellow artist , and that it was important for them to agree on " a certain look " that Peterman was committed to delivering . Nimoy had seen Peterman 's work and felt it was more nuanced than simply lighting a scene and capturing an image .
The film 's opening scenes aboard the starship Saratoga were the first to be shot ; principal photography commenced on February 24 , 1986 . The set was a redress of the science vessel Grissom 's bridge from The Search for Spock , in turn a redress of the Enterprise bridge created for The Motion Picture . The scenes were filmed first to allow time for the set to be revamped as the bridge of the new Enterprise @-@ A at the end of filming .
As with previous Star Trek films , existing props and footage were reused where possible to save money , though The Voyage Home required less of this than previous films . The Earth Spacedock interiors and control booth sets were reused from The Search for Spock , although the computer monitors in these scenes featured new graphics — the old reels had deteriorated in storage . Stock footage of the destruction of the Enterprise and the Bird @-@ of @-@ Prey 's movement through space were reused . While the Bird @-@ of @-@ Prey bridge was a completely new design , other parts of the craft 's interior were also redresses ; the computer room was a modification of the reactor room where Spock died in The Wrath of Khan . After all other Bird @-@ of @-@ Prey bridge scenes were completed , the entire set was painted white for one shot that transitioned into a dream sequence during the time travel .
The Voyage Home was the first Star Trek film to extensively film on location — only one day was spent doing so in The Search for Spock . Much of the production was filmed in and around San Francisco during ten days of shooting . The production wanted to film scenes that were readily identifiable as the city . The use of extensive location shooting caused logistical problems ; a scene in which Kirk is nearly run over by an irate cab driver required 12 – 15 cars to be repositioned if the shot was incorrect , taking a half @-@ hour to reshoot . Other scenes were filmed in the city but used sets rather than real locations , such as an Italian restaurant where Taylor and Kirk eat . In the film , the Bird @-@ of @-@ Prey lands cloaked in Golden Gate Park , surprising trashmen who flee the scene in their truck . The production had planned to film in the real park , where they had filmed scenes for The Wrath of Khan , but heavy rains before the day of shooting prevented it — the garbage truck would have become bogged down in the mud . Will Rogers Park in western Los Angeles was used instead .
When Kirk and Spock are traveling on a public bus , they encounter a punk rocker blaring his music on a boom box , to the discomfort of everyone around him . Spock takes matters into his own hands and performs a Vulcan nerve pinch . Part of the inspiration for the scene came from Nimoy 's personal experiences with a similar character on the streets of New York ; " [ I was struck ] by the arrogance of it , the aggressiveness of it , and I thought if I was Spock I 'd pinch his brains out ! " On learning about the scene , Kirk Thatcher , an associate producer on the film , convinced Nimoy to let him play the role ; Thatcher shaved his hair into a mohawk and bought clothes to complete the part . Credited as " punk on bus " , Thatcher ( along with sound designer Mark Mangini ) also wrote and recorded " I Hate You " , the song in the scene , and it was his idea to have the punk — rendered unconscious by the pinch — hit the stereo and turn it off with his face .
Much of the Cetacean Institute , Taylor 's workplace , was created by using the real @-@ life Monterey Bay Aquarium . A holding tank for the whales was added via special effects to the Aquarium 's exterior . For close @-@ ups of the characters as they watched the whales in the tank , the Aquarium 's walls and railings were measured and replicated for a set on the Paramount parking lot . One scene takes place by a large glass through which observers view the whales — and Spock 's initiation of a mind meld — underwater . Footage of the actors shot in front of them as they reacted to a brick wall in the Aquarium was combined with shots taken from their rear as they stood in front of a large blue screen at ILM to produce this scene . The footage of Spock 's melding with the whales was shot weeks later in a large water tank used to train astronauts for weightlessness .
In the film , Uhura and Chekov visit the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise . The real Enterprise , out at sea at the time , was unavailable for filming , so the non @-@ nuclear @-@ powered carrier USS Ranger ( CV @-@ 61 ) was used . Oakland International Airport was used for the foreground element of Starfleet Headquarters . Scenes in the San Francisco Bay were shot at a tank on Paramount 's backlot .
The scene in which Uhura and Chekov question passersby about the location of nuclear vessels was filmed with a hidden camera . However , the people with whom Koenig and Nichols speak were extras hired off the street for that day 's shooting and , despite legends to the contrary , knew they were being filmed . In an interview with StarTrek.com , Layla Sarakalo , the extra who said , " I don 't know if I know the answer to that ... I think it 's across the bay , in Alameda , " stated that after her car was impounded because she refused to move it for the filming , she approached the assistant director about appearing with the other extras , hoping to be paid enough to get her car out of impoundment . She was hired and told not to answer Koenig 's and Nichols ' questions . However , she answered them and the filmmakers kept her response in the film , though she had to be inducted into the Screen Actors Guild in order for her lines to be kept .
Vulcan and the Bird @-@ of @-@ Prey exterior was created with a combination of matte paintings and a soundstage . Nimoy had searched for a suitable location for the scene of the Enterprise crew 's preparations to return to Earth , but various locations did not work , so the scene was instead filmed on a Paramount backlot . The production had to mask the fact that production buildings were 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) away . A wide @-@ angle shot of Spock on the edge of a cliff overlooking the scene was filmed at Vasquez Rocks , a park north of Los Angeles . The Federation council chamber was a large set filled with representatives from many alien races . Production manager Jack T. Collis economized by building the set with only one end ; reverse angle shots used the same piece of wall . The positions of the Federation President 's podium and the actors on the seats were switched for each shot . Since The Voyage Home was the first Star Trek film to show the operations at Starfleet Command , Bennett and Nimoy visited NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory to learn how a real deep space command center might look and operate . Among the resulting set 's features was a large central desk with video monitors that the production team nicknamed " the pool table " ; the prop later became a fixture in USS Enterprise @-@ D 's engine room on the television series Star Trek : The Next Generation .
= = = Effects = = =
Nimoy approached ILM early in development and helped create storyboards for the optical effects sequences . Many shots used matte paintings to extend backgrounds and create establishing shots without the cost of building a set . Matte supervisor Chris Evans attempted to create paintings that felt less contrived and more real — while the natural instinct of filmmaking is to place important elements in an orderly fashion , Evans said that photographers would " shoot things that [ ... ] are odd in some way " and end up with results that look natural instead . The task of establishing the location and atmosphere at Starfleet Headquarters fell to the matte department , who had to make it feel like a bustling futuristic version of San Francisco . The matte personnel and Ralph McQuarrie provided design input . The designers decided to make actors in the foreground more prominent , and filmed them on a large area of smooth concrete runway at the Oakland Airport . Elements like a shuttlecraft that thirty extras appeared to interact with were also mattes blended to appear as if they were sitting by the actors . Ultimately the artists were not satisfied with how the shot turned out ; matte photography supervisor Craig Barron believed that there were too many elements in the scene .
The scenes of the Bird @-@ of @-@ Prey on Vulcan were combinations of live @-@ action footage — actors on a set in the Paramount parking lot that was covered with clay and used backdrops — and matte paintings for the ship itself and harsh background terrain . The scene of the ship 's departure from Vulcan for Earth was more difficult to accomplish ; the camera pans behind live @-@ action characters to follow the ship as it leaves the atmosphere , and other items like flaming pillars and a flaring sun had to be integrated into the shot . Rather than try to match and combine camera pans of each element , each component was shot with a static camera and the pan was added to the resulting composite by a motion control camera . The sun ( a light bulb focused by a convex lens ) was shot in different passes to create realistic light effects on the Bird @-@ of @-@ Prey without having the light bleed around other elements in the shot .
The script called for the probe to vaporize the Earth 's oceans , generating heavy cloud cover . While effects cinematographer Don Dow wanted to go to sea and record plumes of water created by exploding detonating cords in the water , the team decided to create the probe 's climatic effect in another way after a government fishing agency voiced concerns for the welfare of marine life in the area . The team used a combination of baking soda and cloud tank effects ; the swirling mist created by the water @-@ filled tank was shot on black velvet , and color and dynamic swirls were added by injecting paint into the tank . These shots were composited onto a painting of the Earth along with overlaid lightning effects , created by double @-@ exposing lights as they moved across the screen .
The Bird @-@ of @-@ Prey 's travel through time was one of the most difficult effects sequences of the film . While ILM was experienced in creating the streaking warp effect they used for previous films , the sequence required the camera to trail a sustained warp effect as the Bird @-@ of @-@ Prey rounded the sun . Matching the effect to the model was accomplished through trial @-@ and @-@ error guesswork . The team did not have the time to wait for the animation department to create the sun for this shot . Assistant cameraman Pete Kozachic devised a way of creating the sun on @-@ stage . He placed two sheets of textured plexiglass next to each other and backlit them with a powerful yellow light . The rig was rotated on a circular track and the sheet in front created a moire pattern as its position shifted . Animator John Knoll added solar flare effects to complete the look ; Dow recalled that the effect came close to matching footage of the sun taken by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory .
Traveling through time , Kirk and crew experience what author Jody Duncan Shay termed a " dreamlike state " . The script 's only direction for the effect was " now [ they ] go through time " ; Nimoy and McQuarrie envisioned Kirk 's dream as a montage of bizarre images . The filmmakers decided early on that part of the dream sequence would use computer @-@ generated animation to give it an unreal quality divorced from the rest of the film . ILM worked from McQuarrie 's storyboards and created a rough mock @-@ up or animatic to show Nimoy and hone the direction of the sequence . For the very beginning of the dream , the inside of the Bird @-@ of @-@ Prey bridge was painted stark white . Part of the final sequence involved morphing the heads of the Enterprise crew into one another ; ILM digitized the cast members ' heads using a 3 @-@ D scanning technology developed by Cyberware and used the resulting data for the computer models . Because each head model had the same number of key points of reference , transforming one character into another was simple ; more difficult , the animators recalled , was ensuring that the transformation looked " pleasing " and not " grotesque " . The resulting thirty seconds of footage took weeks to render ; the department used every spare computer they could find to help in the processing chores . ILM 's stage , optical , and matte departments collaborated to complete other shots for the dream sequence . The shot of a man 's fall to Earth was created by filming a small puppet on bluescreen . Shots of liquid nitrogen composited behind the puppet gave the impression of smoke . The background plate of the planet was a large matte that allowed the camera to zoom in very close . The final shot of marshy terrain was practical and required no effects .
The filmmakers knew from the beginning of production that the whales were their biggest effects concern ; Dow recalled that they were prepared to change to another animal in case creating the whales proved too difficult . When Humphrey the Whale wandered into the San Francisco Bay , Dow and his camera crew attempted to gather usable footage of the humpback but failed to do so . Other footage of real humpbacks either did not exist on 35 mm film or would have been difficult to match to specific actions required by the script . Compositing miniatures shot against bluescreen on top of water backgrounds would not have provided realistic play of light . Creating full @-@ size mechanical whales on tracks would severely limit the types of angles and shots . To solve the whale problem , Rodis hired robotics expert Walt Conti . While Conti was not experienced in film , Rodis believed his background in engineering and design made him well @-@ equipped for Rodis ' planned solution : the creation of independent and self @-@ contained miniature whale models .
After watching footage of whale movement , Conti determined that the models could be simplified by making the front of the whale entirely rigid , relying on the tail and fins for movement . Conti showed footage of the operation of a 30 @-@ inch ( 76 cm ) prototype to Paramount executives , who according to Conti , " loved it ... It really knocked them out . " With Paramount 's approval , ILM hired marine author , conservationist and illustrator Pieter Folkens to sculpt a realistic whale exterior . ILM decided on a finished model size of 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) — the size prevented delicate components like the tail from buckling under stress — and fitted it with mechanics and radio equipment required for control and operation . To prevent water from ruining the whale 's electronics , the modelmakers sealed every individual mechanical component rather than attempting to waterproof the entire whale . Balloons and lead weights were added to achieve the proper balance and buoyancy . The finished models were put in the swimming pool of Serra High School in San Mateo , California , for two weeks of shooting ; the operation of the whales required four handlers and divers with video cameras to help set up the shots . Accurately controlling the whales was difficult because of the murky water — ILM added diatomaceous earth to the water to match realistic ocean visibility . For a few shots , such as the whales ' breaching the water towards the end of the film , the creatures were represented by life @-@ size animatronics shot at Paramount .
Models of the starship USS Enterprise were destroyed in the previous film partly because visual effects supervisor Ken Ralston wanted to build a " more state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art ship for the next film " , but the filmmakers made the less costly decision to have the crew return to serve on the duplicate USS Enterprise A , and six weeks were spent repairing and repainting the old model . A travel pod from Star Trek : The Motion Picture was also reused for the ending , although the 20 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) interior set had to be rebuilt . Graphic designer Michael Okuda designed smooth controls with backlit displays for the Federation . Dubbed " Okudagrams " , the system was also used for displays on the Klingon ship , though the buttons were larger .
= = = Audio = = =
James Horner , composer for The Wrath of Khan and The Search for Spock , declined to return for The Voyage Home . Nimoy turned to his friend Leonard Rosenman , who had written the music to Fantastic Voyage , Ralph Bakshi 's The Lord of the Rings , and two Planet of the Apes sequels . Rosenman wrote an arrangement of Alexander Courage 's Star Trek television theme as the title music for The Voyage Home , but Nimoy requested an original composition . Music critic Jeff Bond writes , " The final result was one of the most unusual Star Trek movie themes , " consisting of a six @-@ note theme and variations set against a repetitious four @-@ note brass motif ; the theme 's bridge borrows content from Rosenman 's " Frodo March " for The Lord of the Rings . The melody is played in the beginning of the film on Vulcan and the scenes of Taylor 's search for Kirk to help find her whales .
The Earth @-@ based setting of the filming gave Rosenman leeway to write a variety of music in different styles . Nimoy intended the crew 's introduction to the streets of San Francisco to be accompanied by something reminiscent of George Gershwin , but Rosenman changed the director 's mind , and the scene was scored with a contemporary jazz fusion piece by Yellowjackets . When Chekov flees detention aboard the aircraft carrier , Rosenman wrote a bright cue that incorporates classical Russian compositions . The music for the escape from the hospital was done in a baroque style . More familiar Rosenman compositions include the action music for the face off between the Bird @-@ of @-@ Prey and a whaling ship in open water , and the atmospheric music ( reminiscent of the composer 's work in Fantastic Voyage ) during the probe 's communication . After the probe leaves , a Vivaldiesque " whale fugue " begins . The first sighting of the Enterprise @-@ A uses the Alexander Courage theme before the end titles .
Mark Mangini served as The Voyage Home 's sound designer . He described it as different from working on many other films because Nimoy appreciated the role of sound effects and made sure that they were prominent in the film . Since many sounds familiar to Star Trek had been established — the Bird @-@ of @-@ Prey 's cloaking device , the transporter beam , et al . — Mangini focused on making only small changes to them . The most important sounds were those of the whales and the probe . Mangini 's brother lived near biologist Roger Payne , who had recordings of whale song . Mangini went through the tapes and chose sounds that could be mixed to suggest conversation and language . The probe 's screeching calls were the whale song in distorted form . The humpback 's communication with the probe at the climax of the film contained no dramatic music , meaning that Mangini 's sounds had to stand alone . He recalled that he had difficulty with envisioning how the scene would unfold , leading Bennett to perform a puppet show to explain . Nimoy and the other producers were unhappy with Mangini 's attempts to create the probe 's droning operating noise ; after more than a dozen attempts , the sound designer finally asked Nimoy what he thought the probe should sound like . Mangini recorded Nimoy 's guttural " wub @-@ wub @-@ wub " response , distorted it with " just the tiniest bit of dressing " , and used it as the final sound .
The punk music during the bus scene was written by Thatcher after he learned that the audio for the scene would be by " Duran Duran , or whoever " and not " raw " and authentic punk . Thatcher collaborated with Mangini and two sound editors who were in punk bands to create their own music . They decided that punk distilled down to the sentiment of " I hate you " , and wrote a song centered on the theme . Recording in the sound studio as originally planned produced too clean a sound , so they moved to the outside hallway and recorded the song in one take using cheap microphones to create a distorted sound . The song was also used in Paramount 's Back to the Beach .
= = Reception = =
= = = Release = = =
The Voyage Home opened theatrically in North America on Thanksgiving weekend , November 26 , 1986 . Since Star Trek had traditionally performed poorly internationally , the producers created a special trailer for foreign markets that de @-@ emphasized the Star Trek part of the title , as well as retelling the events of The Wrath of Khan and The Search for Spock . Winter recalled that the marketing did not seem to make a difference . The Voyage Home was the first Star Trek film shown in the Soviet Union , screened by the World Wildlife Fund on June 26 , 1987 , in Moscow to celebrate a ban on whaling . Attending the screening with Nimoy , Bennett was amazed the film proved as entertaining to the Russians as it did with American audiences ; he said " the single most rewarding moment of my Star Trek life " was when the Moscow audience applauded at McCoy 's line , " The bureaucratic mentality is the only constant in the universe . We 'll get a freighter . " Bennett believed it was a clear " messenger of what was to come " .
Vonda N. McIntyre wrote a novelization that was released at the same time as the film . It was the biggest tie @-@ in novel published by Pocket Books , and spent eight weeks on The New York Times bestseller list , peaking at # 3 . MCA Records released the film 's soundtrack November 26 , 1986 .
In its first week , The Voyage Home ended " Crocodile " Dundee 's 8 @-@ week reign of the American box office . The Star Trek film made $ 39 @.@ 6 million in its first five days of release , exceeding The Search for Spock 's opening by $ 14 million . Ultimately , the film grossed a global total of $ 133 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 against its $ 21 million cost ( $ 1 million under budget ) . In six weeks , The Voyage Home sold $ 81 @.@ 3 million in tickets , more than the franchise 's second or third film , and almost as much as Star Trek : The Motion Picture . The film was a major commercial success for Paramount , which released five of the top ten films of the year , and garnered 22 percent of all money taken in at American theaters . Much of the credit for Paramount 's success was given to chairman Frank Mancuso , Sr. , who moved The Voyage Home 's release from Christmas to Thanksgiving after research showed that the film might draw filmgoers away from The Golden Child .
Despite grossing $ 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 less than Star Trek : The Motion Picture , The Voyage Home was the most profitable of the series , grossing $ 133 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 against a $ 21 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 budget .
= = = Critical response = = =
The Voyage Home received mostly positive reviews — Nimoy called it the most well @-@ received of all Star Trek films made at that point — and it appealed to general audiences in addition to franchise fans . The movie was a " loose , jovial , immensely pleasurable Christmas entertainment " for The Washington Post 's Paul Attanasio , and a retrospective BBC review called the film " one of the series ' strongest episodes and proof that the franchise could weather the absence of space @-@ bound action and the iconic USS Enterprise , and still be highly enjoyable " . Although Janet Maslin of The New York Times admitted the film 's plot was " demented " , she wrote that the film " has done a great deal to ensure the series ' longevity " . Rushworth Kidder of the Christian Science Monitor praised the film for giving audiences a view of their modern life from a different perspective , while simultaneously proving that a film does not need to have murder , violence , innuendo or even a main villain for dramatic storytelling .
The film 's " fish out of water " comedy and acting were mostly lauded . The Courier Mail wrote that the film was funnier than its predecessors , and while not " flippant " , a sense of humor was revealed through the efforts of the cast , writers and director . Newsweek 's David Ansen considered The Voyage Home not only the most light @-@ hearted of the movie franchise , but the most true in spirit to the original television series . A more negative review was offered by Liam Lacey of The Globe and Mail , who wrote that under Nimoy 's " choppy " direction there was a lack of comic timing paired with feeble humor .
The special effects were generally well @-@ received ; critics for The Sydney Morning Herald and Courier Mail noted that the effects played a lesser role in the film compared to the characters and dialogue . Similarly , USA Today felt the lack of special effects allowed the cast to " prove themselves more capable actors than ever before " . Maslin wrote that Nimoy 's technical direction left " much to be desired " ( pointing out a special effects scene where the Bird @-@ of @-@ Prey does not cast a shadow on the whaling ship as a mistake ) , but his " unmistakable " sincerity made up for these issues .
The Voyage Home garnered 11 nominations at the 14th annual Saturn Awards , tying Aliens for number of nominations . Nimoy and Shatner were nominated for best actor for their roles , and Catherine Hicks was nominated for best supporting actress . At the 59th Academy Awards , The Voyage Home was nominated for Best Cinematography , Sound ( Terry Porter , David J. Hudson , Mel Metcalfe and Gene Cantamessa ) , Sound Effects Editing , and Original Score .
= = = Home media = = =
The Voyage Home was first released on VHS home media on September 30 , 1987 . Paramount Home Video spent $ 20 million marketing the film 's release alongside 10 episodes of the original series . The video sold hundreds of thousands of copies in the United States and Canadian markets , and was in the top ten rankings for sales and rentals in December and January 1988 . Paramount re @-@ released the film on March 12 , 1992 , with Fatal Attraction as part of a " Director 's Series " ; these editions had additional commentary and were presented in a widescreen letterbox format to preserve the film 's original cinematography . Nimoy was interviewed on the Paramount lots and discussed his acting career as well as his favorable opinion of the widescreen format .
A " bare bones " DVD of the film was released on November 9 , 1999 . Aside from the film , the contents include the original theatrical trailer and the introduction from the " Director 's Series " VHS release . Three and a half years later , a two disc " Collector 's Edition " was released with supplemental material and the same video transfer as the original DVD release . Among other special features , it contains a text commentary by Michael Okuda and an audio commentary from director Leonard Nimoy and star William Shatner .
The film was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc in May 2009 to coincide with the new Star Trek feature , along with the other five films that feature the original crew in Star Trek : Original Motion Picture Collection . The Voyage Home was remastered in 1080p high @-@ definition . Each film in the set has an additional soundtrack , enhanced to 7 @.@ 1 Dolby TrueHD standard . The disc features a new commentary track by Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman , the writers of the 2009 Star Trek film .
= Battle of Bizani =
The Battle of Bizani took place in Epirus on 4 – 6 March [ O.S. 19 – 21 February ] 1913 . The battle was fought between Greek and Ottoman forces during the last stages of the First Balkan War , and revolved around the forts of Bizani , which covered the approaches to Ioannina , the largest city in the region .
At the outbreak of the war , the Greek Army on the Epirus front did not have the numbers to initiate an offensive against the German @-@ designed defensive positions in Bizani . However , after the campaign in Macedonia was over , a large number of Greek troops were redeployed to Epirus , where Crown Prince Constantine himself assumed command . In the battle that followed the Ottoman positions were breached and Ioannina taken . Despite having a slight numerical advantage , this was not the decisive factor in the Greek victory . Rather , " solid operational planning " by the Greeks was key as it helped them implement a well @-@ coordinated and executed assault that did not allow the Ottoman forces time to react .
= = Background = =
As the main war effort of Greece was initially turned towards Macedonia , on the Epirus front the Greek army was outnumbered by the Ottoman Yanya Corps at the outbreak of hostilities in October 1912 . After stopping an initial attack by the Ottoman commander Esat Pasha at Gribovo , however , the Greeks succeeded in liberating Preveza ( October 21 ) and pushing north in the direction of Ioannina , repulsing an Ottoman attack at Pente Pigadia ( Beshpinar ) . On November 5 , a small force from Corfu made a landing and captured the coastal area of Himarë without facing significant resistance , and on December 20 Greek troops improved their positions in Epirus and entered Korçë , north of Ioannina , thus cutting off its last supply route and threatening the city 's northeastern flank .
= = Prelude = =
The terrain south of Ioannina provided excellent defensive ground . Moreover , the Ottoman forces further reinforced their positions with permanent fortifications , constructed under the direction of the German General Rüdiger von der Goltz . These were equipped with concrete artillery emplacements , bunkers , trenches , barbed wire , searchlights and machine gun positions . The Ioannina fortress area included two major fortresses , those of Bizani and Kastritsa , guarding the main southern approaches , along with five smaller forts in a ring around the city , covering the western and northwestern approaches . The forts were well supplied with artillery , totaling some 102 pieces ( most of them 87 mm ) . By December 1912 , both sides were reinforced : the Ottomans received part of the Vardar Army , retreating after the Battle of Monastir , bringing their forces up to some 35 @,@ 000 , while the Greeks also brought up the 2nd Division from Macedonia and a number of volunteer regiments , for a total of 25 @,@ 000 men . The Greeks launched a first attack on the fortress area on December 14 . The Ottomans succeeded in repelling it in a series of actions that lasted until December 22 , and even gained some ground , albeit at the cost of high casualties which depleted their numbers to some 26 @,@ 000 men .
With operations in Macedonia completed , the Greek High Command now turned its attention to Epirus . Three divisions were transferred to the theater , raising the total of Greek troops to ca . 40 @,@ 000 , along with 80 artillery pieces ( amongst which 12 heavy 105 mm and 155 mm guns ) and six aircraft . On the other hand , an additional number of Ottoman soldiers , who were retreating from the Macedonian front , reinforced the defenders . Throughout the period , the siege continued actively , with artillery duels , attacks by Albanian irregulars on Greek supply lines , and reconnaissance and bombing missions on the city by the Greek airplanes . At the same time , the hardships of the winter affected the morale of both sides . The Greek Epirus front commander , General Konstantinos Sapountzakis , launched a new frontal attack on January 20 . Although it gained ground , pushing the defenders back into the fort of Bizani , the high casualty rate and the worsening weather resulted in the operation being suspended a few days later .
During the preparations , a mixed unit that included local women protected the left flank of the Greek Army , against a possible attack by Ottoman groups that were stationed in Paramythia . Moreover , groups consisting of local females supported the Greek side in several ways , particularly in the transportation of guns , food , clothes , and other important supplies . On specific occasions women also participated in the armed conflicts against the Ottoman forces , some of them were distinguished in the battlefield , like Maria Nastouli , who reached the rank of captain .
= = Battle = =
After the renewed failure , Sapountzakis was relieved of his command and replaced by Crown Prince Constantine . Constantine now proceeded to carefully marshal his forces , bringing up more men and artillery . The Crown Prince formulated a new plan , whereby his army would feign an attack on Bizani from the southeast , while the main effort would be actually directed on the fortress area 's southwestern flank .
The Greek artillery began firing a preparatory bombardment on March 4 , continuing through the day . It is estimated that the Greeks fired 150 rounds per gun in this bombardment , while Ottoman counter @-@ fire was hampered by lack of ammunition . The assault was launched on 5 March [ O.S. 20 February ] 1913 , with three Greek infantry divisions — the 4th , 6th and 8th Infantry Divisions — thrusting against the eastern and western sectors of the defensive perimeter . At the same time the Metsovon Joint Brigade launched a diversionary attack from the north . The first Greek units , under heavy artillery support , breached the defensive line in Tsouka sector at morning , and during the following hours the Ottoman defenses were broken in five locations . As a result , the defending Ottoman units from Tsouka to Manoliasa retreated immediately to Ioannina in order to avoid encirclement . Moreover , as these breakthroughs from different axes threatened to collapse the entire defensive perimeter and to cut off his front echelons , Esat Pasha was forced to keep his reserve troops back and engage them in a defensive role . By 18h , the Greek 1st Evzone Regiment , together with the 9th Battalion commanded by Major Ioannis Velissariou , entered the village of Agios Ioannis on the southern outskirts of Ioannina .
As a consequence of the Greek advance , the fortresses of Bizani and Kastritsa were cut off by 16h and isolated from the rest of the Ottoman army and its headquarters in Ioannina . As night fell , the forts ceased firing , and their garrisons abandoned them , trying to cut through the rather loose Greek encirclement to Ioannina . In their attempt to withdraw towards Ioannina , a significant number of Ottoman troops , totaling 35 officers and 935 soldiers , were captured by the Greek units positioned on the city 's southern outskirts . Several Ottoman positions capitulated the next morning , although Bizani and Kastritsa continued to resist until after the surrender . Meanwhile , Esat Pasha realized that the battle was lost , and tried to evacuate as many troops and wounded as he could to the north . As the Greeks pressed their advance however , he contacted the city 's foreign consulates to seek help in negotiating a surrender . At 23 : 00 on 6 March [ O.S. 21 February ] 1913 , he agreed upon the unconditional surrender of Ioannina and the Ottoman garrison to the Greeks . The following day the Greek forces under Crown Prince Constantine were parading through the flag @-@ covered streets of the city . On the other hand , Esat Pasha upon arriving in Turkey was welcomed as a national hero .
= = = Aerial warfare = = =
The Greek forces used a small fleet of six aircraft , which mainly consisted of Maurice Farman MF.7 biplanes , during the operations . They used an airfield near Nicopolis and performed several reconnaissance and bombing missions with considerable effect . Among the aviators were Dimitrios Kamperos , Michael Moutoussis and Christos Adamidis , who were flying above the Bizani and Ioannina sectors at a height of 1 @,@ 600 – 2 @,@ 300 meters ( 5 @,@ 200 – 7 @,@ 500 ft ) . On numerous occasions Ottoman troops , after recovering from their initial confusion , attempted to shoot down the aircraft with their rifles , with little success . Nevertheless , N. de Sackoff , a Russian pilot flying for the Greeks , became the first pilot ever shot down in combat , when his biplane was hit by ground fire . He then came down near Preveza , repaired his plane and resumed flight back to his base . The day Ioannina came under Greek control , Adamidis , also a native of the city , landed his aircraft on the city Town Hall square , to the adulation of an enthusiastic crowd .
= = Aftermath = =
During the battle , the Greek army inflicted some 2 @,@ 800 Ottoman casualties , while suffering only 284 of its own . The Greeks captured some 8 @,@ 600 prisoners , while the remainder of the Ottoman garrison was able to retreat into Albania . The Greeks also captured 108 artillery pieces and large amounts of matériel . On 16 March [ O.S. 3 March ] 1913 the Greek forces entered Gjirokastër and Delvinë , and took Tepelenë the next day . At the end of the war they reached a line that stretched from the Ceraunian mountains ( above Himarë ) on the Ionian coast to Lake Prespa to the east . The success in the Epirus front enabled the Greek headquarters to transfer part of the army to Thessaloniki , in preparation for a confrontation against the Bulgarians .
Given the strongly entrenched opposition the Greek Army faced , historian Richard Hall cites the Battle of Bizani and the fall of Ioannina as Greece 's greatest military achievement in the First Balkan War . Numerical superiority was not a decisive factor for the Greeks during the final assault . Instead it was the way they planned their operations that led to a well coordinated and executed assault and left no opportunity for the Ottoman side to react in time . The surrender of Ioannina secured Greek control of southern Epirus and the Ionian coast . At the same time , it was denied to the newly formed Albanian state , for which it might have provided a southern anchor @-@ point comparable to Shkodër in the north ( see also Provisional Government of Albania ) .
= Linda Syddick Napaltjarri =
Linda Yunkata Syddick Napaltjarri ( born c . 1937 ) is a Pintupi- and Pitjantjatjara- speaking Indigenous artist from Australia 's Western Desert region . Her father was killed when she was young ; her mother later married Shorty Lungkarta Tjungarrayi , an artist whose work was a significant influence on Linda Syddick 's painting .
Linda Syddick was one of many Western Desert women who took up painting in the early 1990s , as part of a broader contemporary Indigenous Australian art movement . She began painting some time prior to 1991 , when her work was first exhibited in Alice Springs . Her work includes a distinctive fusion of Christian and Aboriginal traditional themes and motifs . She has been a finalist in the National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Awards on at least four occasions , and in the Blake Prize ( a religious art competition ) at least three times . Her works are held by numerous galleries including the National Gallery of Australia , the Art Gallery of New South Wales and the Art Gallery of South Australia . Linda Syddick was the subject of a portrait painted by Robert Hannaford , which was a 1992 finalist in Australia 's premiere portrait competition , the Archibald Prize .
= = Life = =
Sources differ on the year of Linda Syddick 's birth . The Art Gallery of South Australia suggests 1941 ; Birnberg and Kreczmanski 's biographical survey suggests circa 1937 . The ambiguity around the year of birth is in part because Indigenous Australians operate using a different conception of time , often estimating dates through comparisons with the occurrence of other events . She was born near Western Australia 's Wilkinkarra , or Lake Mackay , northeast of Kiwirrkurra Community , Western Australia and northwest of Kintore , Northern Territory .
'Napaljarri ' ( in Warlpiri ) or ' Napaltjarri ' ( in Western Desert dialects ) is a skin name , one of sixteen used to denote the subsections or subgroups in the kinship system of central Australian Indigenous people . These names define kinship relationships that influence preferred marriage partners and may be associated with particular totems . Although they may be used as terms of address , they are not surnames in the sense used by Europeans . Thus ' Linda Syddick ' is the element of the artist 's name that is specifically hers . Linda has also been referred to as Tjungkaya Napaltjarri , however she is not the artist Tjunkiya Napaltjarri , who lived at Papunya , Northern Territory .
Linda Syddick 's parents were Wanala or Napulu Nangala and Rintja Tjungurrayi ; however Rintja ( or Riintja ) was killed in a revenge attack when Linda was still very small , and in 1943 her mother moved to Kintore . Linda 's stepfather Shorty Lungkarta Tjungarrayi was a significant influence on her early painting . Short Lungkata was also the father of artist Wintjiya Morgan Napaltjarri ( known as Wintjiya No. 2 and no relation to yet another artist , Wintjiya Napaltjarri ) . Linda married Musty Siddick , had two children Ruby and Irene , and in the 1970s they were living in a Northern Territory Pintupi community called Yayayi . After Musty 's death she remarried .
Linda Syddick has also achieved recognitition as a painter 's model : she was the subject of Robert Hannaford 's painting that was a finalist in the 2002 Archibald Prize , Australia 's premier portrait prize .
= = Art = =
= = = Background = = =
Contemporary Indigenous art of the western desert began when Indigenous men at Papunya began painting in 1971 , assisted by teacher Geoffrey Bardon . This initiative , which used acrylic paints to create designs representing body painting and ground sculptures , rapidly spread across Indigenous communities of central Australia , particularly following the commencement of a government @-@ sanctioned art program in central Australia in 1983 . By the 1980s and 1990s , such work was being exhibited internationally . The first artists , including all of the founders of the Papunya Tula artists ' company , had been men , and there was resistance amongst the Pintupi men of central Australia towards women painting . However , there was also a desire amongst many of the women to participate , and in the 1990s a large number of them began to create paintings . In the western desert communities such as Kintore , Yuendumu , Balgo , and on the outstations , people were beginning to create art works expressly for exhibition and sale .
= = = Career = = =
Linda Syddick was painting by 1991 , when her works were hung in a private gallery — Gallery Gondwana — in Alice Springs . Her works , such as A nest of crosses , gladly borne painted for an exhibition titled Mary Mackillop : a tribute , combine traditional Indigenous painting techniques and motifs with Christian imagery and themes . Linda Syddick had two paintings included in an exhibition , From Appreciation to Appropriation , at the Flinders University Art Museum City Gallery in 2000 . One — Eucharist — again looked at Christian influences in Indigenous culture ; the other dealt with Hollywood influences , and was titled ET : the bicycle ride . Linda 's interest in Christian iconography is reflected in the inclusion of her work The Eucharist in another Flinders University Art Museum exhibition , Holy , Holy , Holy in 2004 , which examined the advent of Christianity in Australia . Other works represent her traditional country , such as her painting Tingari Men at Wilkingkarra ( Lake Mackay ) , which was a finalist at the 2009 National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Awards . Artists of the Western Desert region , such as Linda Syddick , frequently portray figures from the Tingari cycle of ' songlines ' , particularly the Tingari Men . These are ancestral elders who − in the Dreaming − travelled over vast areas , performing rituals and creating the country .
In 1990 Linda Syddick went to Sydney to see her work Ngkarte Dreaming hung in the Blake Prize exhibition – one of three occasions prior to 1994 on which she was a Blake finalist . The Adelaide Biennial of Australian Art included one of her paintings in 1998 . She has been represented on several occasions in the National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Awards , in 1995 , 2006 ( with her painting The Witch Doctor and the Windmill ) , 2008 ( with Big rain at Walukurritje ) , and 2009 , with Tingari Men at Wilkingkarra ( Lake Mackay ) . Linda 's works are held in several major public collections , including the National Gallery of Australia , the Art Gallery of New South Wales and the Art Gallery of South Australia .
= = Collections = =
Art Gallery of New South Wales
Art Gallery of South Australia
Artbank
Auckland City Art Gallery
Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory
National Gallery of Australia
= = Awards = =
2009 – finalist , 26th National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award
2008 – finalist , 25th National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award
2006 – finalist , 23rd National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award
1995 – finalist , 12th National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award
= HMS Fortune ( H70 ) =
HMS Fortune was one of nine F @-@ class destroyers built for the Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1930s . Although she was assigned to the Home Fleet upon completion , the ship was detached to the Mediterranean Fleet to enforce the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides during the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 39 . Several weeks after the start of the Second World War in September 1939 , Fortune helped to sink a German submarine . The ship escorted the larger ships of the fleet during the early stages of World War II and played a minor role in the Norwegian Campaign of 1940 . Fortune was sent to Gibraltar in mid @-@ 1940 and formed part of Force H where she participated in the attack on Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir . The ship escorted numerous convoys to Malta in 1940 – 41 until she was badly damaged by Italian bombers in mid @-@ 1941 .
After repairs were completed , Fortune was briefly assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet before she was transferred to the Eastern Fleet in the Indian Ocean in early 1942 . The ship screened an aircraft carrier during the Battle of Madagascar later that year and was assigned to convoy escort duties for the rest of 1942 and early 1943 . She returned home in February to begin conversion into an escort destroyer . The ship was transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy ( RCN ) when it was completed in mid @-@ 1943 and renamed HMCS Saskatchewan . The ship spent the next year escorting convoys in the North Atlantic before she was transferred to the English Channel to defend convoys during the Normandy landings in June 1944 . Sasketchewan engaged some German patrol boats the following month and was lightly damaged . She was sent to Canada for repairs and a general refit and did not return to the UK until January 1945 . The ship resumed her former duties until the end of the war in May and then ferried troops back to Canada for several months . Sasketchewan was judged surplus later that year and was sold for scrap , in early 1946 .
= = Description = =
The F @-@ class ships were repeats of the preceding E class . They displaced 1 @,@ 405 long tons ( 1 @,@ 428 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 940 long tons ( 1 @,@ 970 t ) at deep load . The ships had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet 3 inches ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . They were powered by two Brown @-@ Curtis geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by three Admiralty three @-@ drum boilers . The turbines developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . Fortune barely exceeded her designed speed during her sea trials . She carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 6 @,@ 350 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 760 km ; 7 @,@ 310 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ships ' complement was 145 officers and ratings .
The ships mounted four 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' in sequence from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , they had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . The F class was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rack and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
Fortune had her rear torpedo tubes replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder ( 76 mm ) AA gun by April 1941 . In February – May 1943 , she was converted into an escort destroyer . A Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar was fitted and a Type 271 target indication radar was installed above the bridge , replacing the director @-@ control tower and rangefinder . The ship also received a HF / DF radio direction finder mounted on a pole mainmast . Her short @-@ range AA armament was augmented by four 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon guns and the .50 @-@ calibre machine guns were replaced by a pair of Oerlikons . A split Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar was installed abreast ' A ' gun and stowage for a total of 70 depth charges meant that ' Y ' gun , the 12 @-@ pounder and her Two @-@ Speed Destroyer Sweep ( TSDS ) minesweeping gear had to be removed to compensate for their weight .
= = Construction and career = =
Fortune , the 23rd ship of that name in the Royal Navy , was laid down by John Brown & Company at their Clydebank shipyard on 27 July 1933 . She was launched on 29 August 1934 and completed on 27 April 1935 . The ship cost 247 @,@ 564 pounds , excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament . Fortune was initially assigned to the 6th Destroyer Flotilla ( DF ) of the Home Fleet , but detached to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1937 to enforce the arms embargo imposed on both sides in the Spanish Civil War by the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . The 6th DF was renumbered the 8th Destroyer Flotilla in April 1939 , five months before the start of World War II .
After a pair of fishing trawlers were sunk by a submarine off the Hebrides after the start of World War II in September 1939 , the 6th and 8th DFs were ordered to sweep the area on 19 September . The following day , Fortune and three of her sister ships sank the German submarine U @-@ 27 and then resumed their normal escort duties . In February 1940 , she was one of the escorts for Convoy TC 3 carrying troops from Canada to the UK . In the following month , while escorting units of the Home Fleet north @-@ west of the Shetlands on 20 March , she was credited with sinking U @-@ 44 , although later research suggests that the submarine was destroyed in a minefield which had been laid by other British destroyers on 13 March .
During the Norwegian Campaign , Fortune played a minor role escorting the oiler RFA War Pindari to Namsos on 15 April . On 25 April , she ferried part of the 2nd Battalion , the South Wales Borderers to Bogen and Lenvik . A few days later the ship escorted the aircraft carriers Ark Royal and Glorious and the battleship Valiant off the coast of Norway . In early May , she escorted two cruisers ferrying troops to occupy Iceland . In August , Fortune was briefly transferred to the 4th DF and on 10 August , the ship rescued survivors from the torpedoed armed merchant cruiser Transylvania . Later in the month , she escorted a convoy to Gibraltar and was transferred to Force H on the 28th .
= = = Force H , 1940 – 41 = = =
During Operation Hats , the ship escorted Force H while the carriers Argus and Ark Royal flew off fighter aircraft for Malta and conducted an airstrike on Cagliari on 2 August . On 13 September , Force H rendezvoused with a convoy that was carrying troops intended to capture Dakar from the Vichy French . Ten days later , they attacked Dakar where Fortune sank the French submarine Ajax on the 24th , rescuing 76 of the crew . In November , the ship escorted the carriers during Operations Coat and White as they flew off fighters for Malta and attacked the airfield at Elmas , Sardinia . During the former operation , Fortune was detached and escorted Force F to Malta , streaming her TSDS gear at the head of the convoy to serve as a fast minesweeper .
In early January 1941 , she participated in Operation Excess . Three months later , Fortune and four other destroyers escorted the light cruiser HMS Sheffield , the battlecruiser Renown , and Ark Royal in Operation Winch , which delivered a dozen Hurricane fighters to Malta . Beginning on 24 April , Fortune and Force H covered Argus flying off more Hurricanes as well as the destroyers of the 5th Destroyer Flotilla sailing to Malta in Operation Dunlop . In early May she was part of the destroyer screen with five other destroyers for the battleship Queen Elizabeth , and the light cruisers Naiad , Fiji and Gloucester which were joining the Mediterranean Fleet . This was part of Operation Tiger which included a supply convoy taking tanks to the Middle East and the transfer of warships . Fortune and her sisters had their TSDS gear deployed en route to Malta . Despite this , one merchant ship was sunk by mines and another damaged . During the return voyage on 10 May , the ship was badly damaged by 250 @-@ kilogram ( 550 lb ) bomb that detonated nearby . The shockwave ruptured the hull , knocked out her engines , slightly bent her propeller shafts , and caused a lot of flooding . Her crew jettisoned nearly 18 @,@ 000 pounds ( 8 @,@ 200 kg ) of topweight and she was able to reach a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) en route to Gibraltar for temporary repairs . Fortune then sailed to Chatham Royal Dockyard for permanent repairs that lasted until November .
Although she returned to Gibraltar that same month , the ship did not become fully operational and mechanical problems restricted her to local duties until February 1942 . On the 9th of that month , Fortune escorted the light cruiser Cleopatra to Malta and then escorted her and a convoy including the transport MV Breconshire to Alexandria , Egypt where they arrived on the 17th . She was transferred to the 2nd DF of the Eastern Fleet and arrived at Trincomalee , Ceylon on 7 March . Admiral James Somerville , commander of the fleet , assigned her to screen the slow ships of Force B as he organised his forces in anticipation of the Japanese Indian Ocean Raid . On 4 April , the ship rescued 88 survivors from the torpedoed freighter MV Glenshiel . Fortune returned to the Mediterranean to participate in Operation Vigorous , a convoy from Alexandria to Malta , in June . After the ship returned to the Indian Ocean , she was assigned to the 12th DF and escorted the carrier Illustrious when that ship supported operations on Madagascar in September . Fortune spent the rest of the year and the first part of 1943 escorting convoys in the Indian Ocean until she was sent home in February for conversion into an escort destroyer .
= = = HMCS Saskatchewan = = =
Upon completion of the conversion , the ship was transferred to the RCN on 31 May , renamed Saskatchewan , and then gifted to Canada on 15 June 1943 . She was assigned to Escort Group C3 , of the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force , as the " Senior Officer 's " ship , which was based in Londonderry Port . The ship remained with the group until she was transferred to the 12th Escort Group in May 1944 where she later patrolled the western entrance to the English Channel after the Normandy landings to protect shipping from German attacks .
Together with the destroyers Qu 'Appelle , Skeena , and Restigouche , Saskatchewan attacked three German patrol boats off Brest on the night of 5 – 6 July , with sinking the German patrol boat V715 . Sasketchewan was lightly damaged and suffered one man dead and four wounded . The ship was sent to Canada for a refit and arrived at Halifax on 6 August . She began her refit at Shelburne , Nova Scotia which lasted until November . More work was required at St. John 's , Newfoundland and Sasketchewan did not return to Britain until January 1945 .
Upon her arrival , she was assigned first to the 14th Escort Group and then the 11th Escort Group . With the end of the war on 9 May , the ship ferried Canadian troops back home , arriving on 30 May . She made four voyages between St John 's and Quebec City before being declared surplus on 23 September , although the ship was not paid off until 28 January 1946 at Sydney , Nova Scotia . Sasketchewan was sold later that year to the International Iron & Metal Co. for scrap .
= = Ship 's bell = =
The ship 's bell of Saskatchewan is currently at the Vancouver Island Military Museum in Nanaimo , British Columbia . The Christening Bells Project at Canadian Forces Base Esquimalt Naval and Military Museum includes information from the ship 's bell of Saskatchewan , which was used for baptism of babies onboard ship .
= The Well @-@ Worn Lock =
" ' The Well @-@ Worn Lock " is the eighth episode of the first season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on December 20 , 1996 . The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter , and directed by Ralph Hemecker . " The Well @-@ Worn Lock " featured guest appearances by Paul Dooley and Lenore Zann .
Clinical social worker Catherine Black ( Megan Gallagher ) aids a family as they come to terms with the incestuous abuse they have suffered for decades . However , the father who is responsible still commands respect and political connections in the area , making the case a difficult one .
" The Well @-@ Worn Lock " is the third of seven Millennium episodes written by Carter . Hemecker would return to direct an episode in each of the show 's seasons . The episode opens with a quote from Robert Louis Stevenson , and features several actors who would reappear in unrelated roles in both Millennium and its sister series The X @-@ Files .
= = Plot | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
920s . She was assigned to the First Carrier Division with Akagi on 1 April 1928 . During the 1930s Hōshō was fitted with three different types of transverse arresting gear for trials .
= = = Shanghai = = =
Along with Kaga , Hōshō was assigned to the First Carrier Division and sent to China during the Shanghai Incident that began in January 1932 . Operating with the Third Fleet , Hōshō arrived at the mouth of the Yangtze River on 1 February . Her aircraft participated in the IJN 's first aerial combat on 5 February when three fighters , escorting two attack aircraft , were engaged by nine Chinese fighters ; one Chinese fighter was damaged . Two days later , the two carriers sent some of their aircraft to Kunda Airfield where they flew ground attack missions in support of the Imperial Japanese Army . Between 23 and 26 February , Kaga and Hōshō bombers attacked Chinese airfields at Hangzhou and Suzhou , destroying a number of Chinese aircraft on the ground . On 26 February , six fighters from Hōshō , escorting nine attack aircraft from Kaga on one of the bombing raids , shot down two of five Chinese fighters that engaged them . The First Carrier Division rejoined the Combined Fleet on 20 March , after a ceasefire had been declared on 3 March .
= = = Fourth Fleet Incident = = =
Hōshō participated in the Combined Fleet Maneuvers of 1935 where she was attached to the IJN Fourth Fleet . The fleet was caught out in a typhoon on 23 September . The carrier and a number of other Japanese ships were badly damaged in what was referred to as the " Fourth Fleet Incident . " The ship 's forward flight deck collapsed and part had to be cut away before the carrier could proceed to Yokosuka for repairs . The Fourth Fleet Incident and the Tomozuru Incident of 1934 , in which a top @-@ heavy torpedo boat capsized in heavy weather , caused the Japanese command to investigate the stability of all their ships , resulting in a number of design changes to improve stability and increase hull strength .
While the Hōshō was at the dockyard between 22 November 1935 and 31 March 1936 , her stability was improved ; the forward flight deck 's supports were reinforced and increased in number ; the ship 's AA guns , aircraft crane and upper deck aviation fuel tanks were removed ; the funnels were fixed in the horizontal position with their mouths angled slightly downwards ; the front sides of Hōshō 's forward hangar and bridge were reinforced ; and the ship 's hull was reinforced in the vicinity of her rear hangar to increase her longitudinal strength . At full load , her metacentric height after these changes was 1 @.@ 11 meters ( 3 ft 8 in ) . Six twin 13 @.@ 2 mm Type 93 Hotchkiss machine guns were also fitted .
= = = Sino @-@ Japanese War = = =
During the Sino @-@ Japanese War , Hōshō returned to the Third Fleet and supported land operations of the army in China around August or October 1937 with Ryūjō , later joined by Kaga . Hōshō 's air unit began flying ground support missions in the Shanghai area on 16 July . Three of the ship 's Nakajima A2N fighters engaged two Martin B @-@ 10 heavy bombers on 25 July , shooting down one of them .
The ship departed on 1 September to refuel , but did not return to the Shanghai area . Accompanied by Ryūjō , she sailed to the South China coast and began operations against Chinese forces near Canton on 21 September . On that day , Hōshō contributed six fighters to escort bombers attacking airfields at Tienho and Paiyun . They claimed six enemy aircraft shot down , but the range proved to be too long . Five of the fighters ran out of fuel and had to ditch in the sea , although the aircrews were rescued . Hōshō and Ryūjō bombers continued with almost daily attack missions until the end of September . Hōshō and Ryūjō returned to the Shanghai area on 3 October and Hōshō 's aircraft were temporarily transferred to Kunda airfield to support ground operations . On 17 October , Hōshō transferred all of her aircraft to Ryūjō and returned to Japan .
Hōshō was placed in reserve on 1 December 1937 . Her aircraft elevators were enlarged in 1939 : the forward elevator to 12 @.@ 8 by 8 @.@ 5 meters ( 42 by 28 ft ) and the rear elevator to 13 @.@ 7 by 7 meters ( 45 by 23 ft ) . On 12 August 1939 Hōshō was deemed useful as a training carrier and , in critical battles , as a platform for A4N1 ( Type 95 ) fighters and B4Y1 ( Type 96 ) torpedo bombers , for as long as those planes remained serviceable . A later investigation determined on 23 December 1940 that she could not operate the latest aircraft types like the Mitsubishi A6M Zero , the Aichi D3A " Val " , or the Nakajima B5N " Kate " in combat . Also , the small size of the carrier 's airgroup limited the ship 's potential value to the fleet in any future conflicts .
= = = World War II = = =
= = = = Pearl Harbor and Midway = = = =
Hōshō began the Pacific War in the Third Carrier Division assigned to the 1st Fleet under Vice Admiral Shirō Takasu . The carrier , captained by Karou Umetani , was tasked along with Zuihō to provide air support , including scouting , anti @-@ submarine patrols , and combat air patrol for the Combined Fleet 's " Main Body " battle @-@ line of six battleships : Nagato , Mutsu , Fusō , Yamashiro , Ise , and Hyūga . With the Main Body , Hōshō sortied from the Inland Sea on 7 December 1941 to provide distant cover for the carrier forces under Chūichi Nagumo which were attacking Pearl Harbor . The battleship force turned back 300 nautical miles ( 556 km ) east of Japan , but Hōshō became separated on 10 December due to radio silence restrictions while conducting anti @-@ submarine air operations . The carrier was located by scout aircraft the next day 500 nautical miles ( 926 km ) east of the Main Body and returned to port at Kure on 12 December .
On 29 May 1942 , Hōshō sortied from Japan with the rest of the fleet for the operation which resulted in the Battle of Midway , providing modest air protection , scouting , and anti @-@ submarine support for the Main Body , now consisting of the battleships Yamato , Nagato , and Mutsu . Her aircraft complement for the operation consisted of eight obsolete Yokosuka B4Y carrier attack aircraft ( torpedo bombers ) .
With the Main Body trailing 300 nautical miles ( 556 km ) behind the carrier striking force , Hōshō missed the major portion of the battle in which Nagumo 's four fleet carriers were ambushed and fatally damaged by US carrier aircraft on 4 June . The next day , Hōshō aircraft helped guide the remnants of Nagumo 's force to a rendezvous with the Main Body . Around the same time , one of Hōshō 's aircraft , crewed by pilot Shigeo Nakamura and observer Kiyoshi Ōniwa , discovered the burning , sinking Hiryū . Photographs of the abandoned carrier taken by Ōniwa have been described as " among the most dramatic of the war in the Pacific " . With the battle lost , a significant strategic defeat for Japan , the carrier returned to Japan with the rest of the fleet , arriving at the Hashirajima anchorage on 14 June .
= = = = Training ship = = = =
After her return to Japan , Hōshō was transferred to the Third Fleet , unofficially assigned to the training fleet ( later called the Mobile Force Training Force ) , and officially assigned in October . She conducted flight training in the Inland Sea for aircraft that flew in from shore bases , since no aircraft were based on board Hōshō . On 15 January 1943 , the 50th Air Flotilla was created for carrier aircrew training and both Hōshō and Ryūhō were assigned to the new unit . The two ships provided carrier landing training and served as target ships for torpedo training . In January 1944 , Hōshō was reassigned to the 12th Air Fleet , then to the Combined Fleet , but continued to perform the same mission of training fleet carrier pilots in the Inland Sea . In this role , Hōshō shuttled back and forth between Kure and the Western Inland Sea , spending equal amounts of time at each location .
In order to service new and larger aircraft like the Nakajima B6N " Jill " torpedo bomber and the Yokosuka D4Y " Judy " dive bomber , the flight deck was extended over 6 meters ( 19 ft 8 in ) at each end to a total length of 180 @.@ 8 meters ( 593 ft 2 in ) from 27 March to 26 April 1944 . Hōshō also received new arresting gear and a new crash barrier . The additional weight high up in the ship adversely affected her stability and she was restricted from operations in bad weather lest she capsize . At some point during the war the ship 's 14 cm guns were removed and she received about twenty 25 @-@ millimeter Type 96 autocannons in single mounts . They fired .25 @-@ kilogram ( 0 @.@ 55 lb ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 900 m / s ( 3 @,@ 000 ft / s ) ; at 50 ° , this provided a maximum range of 7 @,@ 500 meters ( 8 @,@ 202 yd ) , and an effective ceiling of 5 @,@ 500 meters ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) . The 15 @-@ round magazines needed to be changed frequently , and the maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute .
After the modifications , Hōshō continued to provide training to navy pilots in the Inland Sea , including acting as a target ship for torpedo training . At 05 : 30 on 19 March 1945 , possibly while berthed at Kure , the carrier was caught in an air raid by carrier aircraft from the United States Task Force 58 . Hōshō 's flight deck was damaged by three bomb hits which killed six crewmen . Emergency repairs were made and her captain was ordered to keep her in readiness on 10 April . However , this order was revoked two days later and the carrier became a " 4th reserve ship " with most of her crew transferred elsewhere . Hōshō was taken out of reserve as a " special guard ship " on 1 June and many of her crew were transferred back . During this time , the ship remained moored and camouflaged off Nishinomishima at Kure .
Hōshō was slightly damaged by a single bomb or aerial rocket hit when the Allies attacked Kure again in July 1945 . Information is scarce on the extent of the ship 's involvement in the action , but it appears the carrier 's participation was minimal , as it embarked no aircraft at the time . Hōshō was repaired within 15 days , but the termination of hostilities in September 1945 found the carrier still docked at Kure .
= = Post @-@ war = =
After the war , Hōshō served as a repatriation transport to retrieve Japanese servicemen and civilians stationed overseas and return them to Japan . In October and November 1945 , accompanied by the cruiser Kashima , she carried 700 passengers from Wotje Atoll , 311 from Jaluit Atoll , and an undocumented number from Enewetak Atoll to Uraga , Kanagawa .
In December 1945 , Hōshō 's overhanging flight deck at the bow was cut off and her hangars were modified to carry more passengers . Thereafter , she undertook more repatriation missions beginning with one to Wewak on 5 January 1946 and subsequent trips to China . In total , the carrier made nine repatriation trips before 15 August 1946 and transported about 40 @,@ 000 passengers .
Hōshō was transferred to the Ministry of the Interior on 31 August for disposal . She was scrapped in Osaka from 2 September 1946 to 1 May 1947 by the Kyôwa Shipbuilding Company .
= Mary Kom ( film ) =
Mary Kom is a 2014 Indian biographical sports film directed by Omung Kumar and produced by Sanjay Leela Bhansali . The film stars Priyanka Chopra in the lead role of the eponymous boxer , with Darshan Kumar and Sunil Thapa in supporting roles as her husband and mentor , respectively . The film depicts Kom 's journey of becoming a boxer to her victory at the 2008 World Boxing Championships in Ningbo . Chopra made her first appearance as a Hindi playback singer with the lullaby , " Chaoro " , in the film .
The feature was developed by writer Saiwyn Quadras , who suggested the storyline to Kumar when Kom , despite her numerous achievements , was not a familiar name in India . Kumar met Kom to ask her permission for the film , much before her bronze medal victory at the 2012 Summer Olympics , which brought her recognition . Chopra underwent extensive physical training for three months to attain a muscular physique . She also trained for Kom 's distinct boxing styles . Principal photography started in June 2013 at Filmistan Studio , where only the boxing sequences were filmed continuously for twenty days . After the plans to shoot in Kom 's hometown Manipur were dropped due to safety concerns , the film was shot in Dharamshala and Manali , where a major portion of Manipur was recreated .
The film premiered at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival , becoming the first Hindi film to be screened on the opening night of the festival . The film was released on 5 September 2014 to generally positive reviews from critics , with Chopra receiving critical acclaim . Made on a budget of ₹ 150 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 2 million ) , the film grossed ₹ 1 @.@ 04 billion ( US $ 15 million ) at the box @-@ office , emerging as a commercial success . Mary Kom received several accolades at award ceremonies across India . The film won the Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment honor at the 62nd National Film Awards and was nominated at the 60th Filmfare Awards in the Best Film and the Best Actress ( Chopra ) categories .
= = Plot = =
The film opens with a pregnant Mangte Chungeijang Kom ( Priyanka Chopra ) , heading towards the hospital with her husband Onler Kom ( Darshan Kumaar ) . Onler is mistaken for an insurgent and beaten when he tries to find a vehicle despite a curfew . The film then shifts to a flashback with Kom , finding boxing gloves in the remains of an air crash in 1991 , which prompted her interest in boxing despite her father 's disapproval . During an early fight , she chases a boy and ends up in a boxing gym . After realising Narjit Singh ( Sunil Thapa ) , coach of the gym , and of the Asian champion Dingko Singh , Kom tells him about her boxing aspirations . He asks her to visit the gym for the next thirty days and says that he will only teach her if she is deserving enough . She starts visiting the gym , informing her mother but not her father . Days pass but her coach does not enquire about her . Due to Kom 's dedication and stubbornness , Singh starts training her , suggesting she change her name to Mary Kom .
After winning the state level championship , her father confronts her for keeping about her involvement in the sport from him . Her father asks her to choose between him and boxing : she chooses the sport . Kom has to fight a wrestler to arrange money to get her household cow back , which is where she meets the footballer Onler Kom .
After watching her victorious 2002 Women 's World Amateur Boxing Championships match on television , Kom reconciles with her father , who apologises to her for not understanding her passion for the sport . Meanwhile , Onler proposes to her and agrees never to ask her to quit boxing . After she wins the 2006 Women 's World Amateur Boxing Championships , Kom agrees to marry him ; however , her coach shows his unhappiness towards the decision . After the marriage , Kom gets pregnant and gives up her career to look after her family .
Kom gives birth to twins and applies for a government job . However , she refuses the position of a police constable , feeling that as a world @-@ champion boxer , she is above that . It devastates her to learn that people no longer recognise her . Onler encourages her to revive her boxing training . She joins the gym again , leaving her husband to look after the twins at home . Her coach is still upset about her decision to marry , but Kom makes a comeback in the National Boxing Championship . Despite performing better than her opponent , she loses the match due to the apparent partiality of the judges . Kom throws a chair in anger towards them , resulting in a ban . She later writes an apology letter , and the official accepts it , not without insulting her .
Kom then asks Coach Singh to train her , as she thinks that he is the one who can get the best out of her . He starts training her with gruelling activities and she reaches the finals of the 2008 AIBA Women 's World Boxing Championships . Meanwhile , Onler Kom informs her about one of her children having ventricular septal defect . In the subsequent fight , Kom fails to defend herself . After a knockout punch from her opponent , Kom hallucinates about her husband and children in the audience . She regains her strength and fights back , winning the 2008 Women 's World Amateur Boxing Championships . On the podium while accepting the medal , she learns that her son 's surgery was successful and she is given the nickname " Magnificent Mary " . The film ends with the Indian flag waving and the Indian national anthem .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
During his work as an art director on Sanjay Leela Bhansali 's Saawariya ( 2007 ) , Omung Kumar started writing two scripts simultaneously for his directorial debut . However , neither of the films were made . He then asked writer Saiwyn Quadras to look for a woman @-@ oriented biographical subject for his first film , specifying " a role that no actress would turn down . " He added that he " wanted to make a film that would be like the Mother India of someone 's career . " Historical personalities such as Rani Laxmi Bai and Queen Elizabeth I of England came up for discussion ; however they did not inspire Kumar . Quadras put forward the name of five @-@ time world boxing champion Mary Kom , who despite numerous achievements , was at that time an unfamiliar name in India . Kumar admitted that he felt disgusted after being told of Kom 's achievements as he was unaware of her existence . After Quadras approached Kumar with the script for Mary Kom , Kumar decided to make his directorial debut with a film about Kom .
Quadras , who was interested in sports , started writing the screenplay for the film in 2011 , which took two years to complete . Quadras arranged a meeting with Kom via her manager in the year he started writing the script . Kumar went to Manipur to meet Kom and to seek her permission to make the film . However , Kom was surprised by the development as the sport , especially women 's boxing , was not well known in India . However , she was enthusiastic about the idea .
Research for the film was done through sources , online information , and newspaper archives . Her videos played a key role in the research . The writer also had several telephone and email conversations with Kom and her manager regarding her biography . In her interactions with Quadras and Kumar , Kom was honest and forthcoming when it came to the details of her life , and had significant input in the screenplay . However , Quadras 's main challenge was to make the film authentic and cinematic , explaining that he wrote the film in a manner that showed the struggles Kom went through as a female sportsperson who had to confront opposition from her father , politics and making a comeback after a long career break . The film only shows the period from her early struggles and her comeback after motherhood . The fifth World Boxing Championship and the London Olympics were left out because of a contract that permitted to depict Kom 's life up to 2008 . The contract for the film was signed at that time when Kom was not even qualified for the London Olympics .
In a 2012 meeting with Sanjay Leela Bhansali , on being asked by Bhansali about his plans , Kumar told him about the film , explaining that this was not " his kind of cinema " , given Bhansali 's signature work . Still , he wanted to hear the story and was also enthusiastic towards the project . After hearing the script , he liked it and immediately agreed to produce the film . However , Kumar 's colleagues were not sure if a film based in Manipur would be well received by the audience . This concern evaporated after the 2012 Summer Olympics , where Kom won a bronze medal . Her win also brought the recognition of her previous achievements . After the news of the development of the film broke in the media , the makers clarified that the film was in development since 2011 , much before the Olympics , and they were not influenced by her recent success . In an interview with Press Trust of India , Bhansali revealed that the story of the film was so inspiring , it touched his heart and described the film as " a rare experiment " . He added , " Not many films are based on biopics of living people . I am proud that I am part of this film . "
= = = Casting and characters = = =
Priyanka Chopra was Omung Kumar 's and Sanjay Leela Bhansali 's original choice for the title role . In early November 2012 , media reports suggested that Chopra entered negotiations to star in the film , which the actress denied initially . Later in that month , it was confirmed that she had been cast for the part . She was initially skeptical about the film due to the demanding nature of the character , which included training , muscle building and learning the sport . She later agreed to appear in the film because of Kumar 's confidence in her . After Chopra was cast for the title role , Mary Kom revealed her own satisfaction with the choice of actor , calling her the " perfect choice " . In an interview with Daily News and Analysis , Mary Kom said " I don 't think anybody could have done it as well as Priyanka . She is the best actress to play me . Acting anybody can do , but boxing will be different as one needs a certain type of body structure . She suits that . Her body is very structured , like that of a boxer . "
In contrast , it took the casting directors Shruti Mahajan and Parag Mehta several months of auditions to finalize the appropriate supporting actors for the film . In May 2013 , It was reported that Danny Denzongpa was approached to play Kom 's coach Narjit Singh in the film . Instead , Sunil Thapa was cast for the role of Kom 's coach . Darshan Kumar was finalized as Kom 's husband , footballer Onler Kom , after a series of auditions which included three different looks representing three different stages in his life . Robin Das , a National School of Drama professor , was cast in the role of Kom 's father .
Before the shooting of the film began , Chopra prepared for three months . The preparations included building the physique of a boxer and learning the sport . Samir Jaura , who previously trained Farhan Akhtar for Bhaag Milkha Bhaag was brought to train Chopra . Before agreeing to meet her , he saw Kom 's fight videos to understand her body language . Chopra , at that time , was busy with her other works — filming for Gunday , and dubbing for Krrish 3 . It was then decided that Jaura would accompany her to film shoots , so that continuity in training could be maintained . Though he did not get a chance to meet Kom , he prepared a workout plan with the help of her videos . She started training in April 2013 to develop body like a boxer . Chopra found it hard to train vigorously to attain a boxer 's physique . She was put on a low @-@ carb , high @-@ protein diet . In an Interview with Deccan Chronicle , she said " As a girl it was very difficult to build those muscles . I had to build in three months what Mary did in 15 years . "
Chopra got a fifteen days break from her other commitments to train continuously for the film . She relocated to her bungalow in Goa , where she would train for five hours every day . After completing workouts , which included weights and circuit training , she insisted on training for boxing . Later , boxing was made a part of her daily workout . She was particularly trained by Kom 's coaches to learn her distinct boxing style . Chopra explained that she did not have to act like a boxer , but had to become one and said " To learn boxing was a religion . Today , I can play the sport as I know the rules , body posture , foot work , I can hit , I can defend . I know the game . "
Chopra described Mary Kom as being a very special and personal film due to the inspiring theme . She revealed that she channelled grief of father 's death into the film saying " I started this film at the hardest point in my life , four days after my father passed away . All my grief , everything , I have shoved into this movie . A part of my soul has gone into it . " In an interview with Daily News and Analysis , Chopra revealed that since she could not look like her , she did not try to imitate Kom as her main focus was to represent Kom 's spirit and personality . In July 2013 , Chopra visited Kom 's home town of Manipur to learn more about her life . As a part of her research , Chopra stayed with Kom and her family for three to four days , went to her boxing academy and church to learn more about her and called Kom for details . Kom stated " When she came to Manipur , she knew about boxing so I gave her tips as a mother and a wife , how I went about managing my home and profession , how I live with my family – basically she got to know aspects of my family life . "
Darshan Kumar described his character as an " encouraging husband " , who is the pillar of strength in Kom 's life . He found the character challenging due to contrasting personalities . Unlike Chopra , Kumar did not met Onler Kom before the film , working mainly from videos provided by Kom to the makers , and helping the actor to understand the nuances of his character . For the role , he had to undergo training to learn the Manipuri accent , which was difficult for him being a Punjabi . Kumar had to lose 12 kg to look convincing , and followed a strict , grilled chicken and oil @-@ free fish protein diet for three months .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
The production design was handled by Kumar 's wife Vanita , who had worked with her husband for several years . After plans to shoot in Manipur were dropped because of safety concerns , extensive research was done to find locations similar to Manipur . Their search ended in Himachal Pradesh , Manali , where a major portion of the state was created . Vanita used a real structure instead of a set to show Kom 's childhood home in Kangathei . She recreated the look and feel of Manipur in Dharamsala and Manali .
During the search , she found two houses that were similar to the houses where Kom spent her childhood and where she lived after her marriage . For authenticity , the house was filled with items similar to those found at Kom 's house such as indigenous short stools and woven curtains sourced from Manipur . The designers also created a room for her awards and trophies ; Kom has a separate trophy room where all her awards are kept . Quotes from the Bible were added on the walls . A 19th @-@ century church in Dharamsala was chosen for the wedding sequence . Vanita noted that " the cinematic realism , was a different experience from the grandeur of Bhansali 's sets . " However , Vanita found difficult to recreate the run @-@ down gym where Kom was trained . A place was chosen with minimal facilities and water leaking onto the walls . She revealed that her sets had to feel authentic rather than artificially created . Designer Rajat Tangri handled costuming and visited Manipur to study fabric used in local clothing . Tangri used photographs from Kom 's childhood to create clothing which ranged from traditional to sporty and athletic attires . For Kom 's wedding sequence in the film , the designer created an exact replica of the wedding gown that Kom wore for her wedding .
The Hollywood @-@ based makeup artist Mark Garbarino was selected to work on Chopra 's makeup . At first , they wanted her to look exactly like Kom by using prosthetic makeup . Chopra did a prosthetic test in the United States which included heavier eyelids for a more East @-@ Asian look . However , the final result did not appeal to the makers . Also , the prosthetic would not hold during filming of the heavy @-@ action boxing scenes . It was later reported that Chopra 's look would be created post production by using Visual effects . However , the results were unsatisfactory and hence , this idea was also dropped . Chopra said " We tried a bunch of stuff – Visual effects , prosthetics , makeup , [ but ] it looked too gimmicky . That 's when we decided to go with just carrying the essence of the film , rather than the outer , cosmetic part . " Later , Uday Shirali ( Chopra 's makeup artist since Agneepath ) was hired . For creating boxing scars , makeup artist Subhash Shinde was employed . His biggest challenges was to make the fight marks look as realistic as possible as it required a lot of time and detailing . He stated , " Every punch or scar needed to look real , change colour and age with time on screen , and shouldn 't look like they were created using makeup . " He did some research by visiting hospitals to understand more about skin injuries .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography started in June 2013 at Filmistan , Mumbai . Hindustan Times reported that the set was ready at Filmistan studio , but following Chopra 's father 's death , the plans for shooting were put on hold . To make the boxing scenes as authentic as possible some of the crew members , including Kumar , learnt boxing to get the necessary understanding of the sport to film the fight scenes . Initially , the makers had planned to use actors and teach them boxing to film the boxing scenes . However , they realised that it would become a task to teach boxing to actors , which would consume time . They also thought that if both Chopra and her opponents were not real boxers , it would not look convincing enough . Finally , professional boxers were employed to film the boxing sequences for giving a more natural feel and convincing look . Chopra found it very difficult filming the boxing scenes as she got hurt several times saying , " They are real boxers and they don 't know how to fake a punch , they had to really hit you . So I had to get hit a lot and that was really hard . " Robert Miller , the sports coordinator for films such as Bhaag Milkha Bhaag and Chak De ! India , was hired to choreograph the fight sequences .
The second schedule commenced in Manali in late March 2014 , after Chopra was done with her other film commitments . Before filming , Chopra had to re @-@ train herself all over again to build muscles . Bhansali planned an elaborate schedule for her , which would ensure that her physicality and agility were suitable before she started shooting for the film . While filming a sequence in a marketplace , more than ten thousand people gathered on the sets . Limited security arrangements had been made , which were not able to handle the crowds in what was not believed to be a heavily @-@ populated area . When Chopra stepped out of her van , some fans tried to approach her , causing the general loss of control . Finally , the shoot was cancelled and crew had to leave . Filming in Manali continued till early April 2014 , before shifting to Dharamshala . During filming one of the fight sequences in Dharamsala , Chopra suffered an eye injury , which the makeup team exaggerated for effect . The filming in Dharamshala continued till 19 April 2014 . Cinematographer Keiko Nakahara used a hand @-@ held camera during the shooting of the film . The film was shot in 57 days over the course of two years .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack of the film consists of seven original songs composed by Shashi @-@ Shivam ( Pathak ) . They were written by Prashant Ingole , Sandeep Singh and Bijou Thaangjam ( Manipuri Lyrics ) ; Priyanka Chopra made her first appearance as a Hindi playback singer for a lullaby , " Chaoro " . The song " Salaam India " , composed by Shivam Pathak was chosen as the official song at the 2014 Asian Games , held in South Korea .
The Times of India noted that the soundtrack is both , " inspirational and soul @-@ stirring " , describing the opening track " Ziddi Dil " as a " clear winner that could lift anyone 's spirits in a time of distress . " Bollywood Hungama gave it a rating of 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 , and said that the composers did justice to the theme of the film . Writing for Rediff.com , Joginder Tuteja gave the soundtrack a rating of 3 out of 5 , calling it " motivational " , and that " Mary Kom 's soundtrack may not be an instant chart @-@ buster , but it holds its own . " The Koimoi review stated that all the songs on the album are an " absolute delight to hear " . They added that " The Mary Kom album is a good blend of romantic and inspirational numbers . The classic mix of excellent singers by composers Shashi Suman and Shivam has given the album some great numbers . " The Financial Express wrote " the music of Mary Kom performs well [ ... ] , the music composers have done a fairly good job " .
= = Marketing and release = =
The first poster for the film was revealed on 14 July 2014 by Chopra through her Twitter account . It portrayed a muscular Priyanka Chopra as Mary Kom in sports clothing , with her hair tied in a pony tail , punching a bag . It received positive feedback from film critics , industry professionals , and audiences alike . The Hindustan Times noted that " [ w ] ith well @-@ built muscles and a completely toned body , Priyanka looks fierce in the poster where she is posing with a punch . " The poster went viral on social media , with the hashtag " # MaryKomFirstLook " trending in India and worldwide . On 15 July , Chopra tweeted another poster for the film , which was also well @-@ received and the final poster was released the same day . The first teaser was released on Chopra 's birthday , 18 July , which showed the actor as Kom getting ready for her boxing match with the tagline " Most Champions Make Their Name . She Made History " . The trailer release was highly anticipated , with media reporting that it would be unveiled on 24 July 2014 . However , it was released the day before at an event on 23 July and had positive reception from media and critics . On 27 August 2014 , a special screening was held for selected members of media , trade and critics , where 20 minutes of raw footage from the film was previewed , creating a positive buzz . As a part of promotional strategy , Bhansali Productions released a doll , which looked like Chopra as Mary Kom .
The film was originally scheduled for release on 2 October 2014 ( on Gandhi Jayanti ) , however , it was announced that the film was postponed to an uncertain date to revamp the film to feature more events surrounding Kom 's life . The media reported that the makers were working on two different versions , a longer version for the Indian market and another for the international market . After the uncertainty of a release date for a month , it was announced that the film would be finally released on 5 September ( Teacher 's Day ) and clashing with Chopra 's cousin Parineeti Chopra starrer Daawat @-@ e @-@ Ishq . Yash Raj Films requested Bhansali to shift the release date , which he refused due to previous release date changes of the film and start of promotional activities . Later , Yash Raj Films postponed Daawat @-@ e @-@ Ishq release date by two weeks .
Mary Kom had its world premiere at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival on 4 September 2014 . It became the first Hindi film to be screened on the opening night of the film festival . It was initially released to 1500 screens worldwide . The film was released in overseas markets by Eros International as part of a four @-@ film deal between Eros and Viacom 18 studios . The rights to television broadcasting belongs to Viacom18 's flagship general entertainment channel Colors . The film was not released in Kom 's home state of Manipur because of the ban on Bollywood films by the Imphal @-@ based separatist militant group , Revolutionary Peoples Front ( RPF ) since 2000 . In an interview with Press Trust of India , Kom expressed her sadness that people from her own state won 't be able to see her biopic . However , unauthorized DVDs and VCDs flooded the state , with the DVD format being in great demand as the only option for native people to watch the film .
Made on a budget of ₹ 150 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 2 million ) including , production , prints and advertising , Mary Kom earned ₹ 200 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 0 million ) , and before release recouped more than its cost from brand tie @-@ ups . The film made profits of ₹ 50 million ( US $ 740 @,@ 000 ) before the release . Partnership was arranged in a way that the products from brands were either showcased in the film or the brands promoted the film in their advertising . The satellite rights of the film were sold for ₹ 140 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 1 million ) and music rights for ₹ 30 million ( US $ 450 @,@ 000 ) . The film was released in DVDs on 15 October 2014 across all regions in a one @-@ disc pack in NTSC format . Distributed by Shemaroo Entertainment , it contained behind @-@ the @-@ scene footage and deleted scenes . The VCD and Blu @-@ ray versions were released at the same time . The Mary Kom Blu @-@ ray is the first Blu @-@ ray title in India to feature a Dolby Atmos soundtrack .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Chopra received critical acclaim for her performance as Kom . Subhash K. Jha awarded the film 5 stars out of 5 describing it as the film as " a motivational masterpiece " and said , " From first frame to last it grips your senses and irrigates the parched corridors of your heart like very few bio @-@ pics in recent times . Debutant director Omang Kumar weaves seamlessly in and out of Ms Kom 's remarkable life creating a work that is as dramatic as Mehboob 's Mother India and as inspiring as Attenborough 's Gandhi . " Rediff.com rated the film 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 , noting it as a victory for its protagonist Chopra , scriptwriter Saiwyn Quadras , and director Omung Kumar and writing , " Mary 's story is delivered with a sincerity that makes it irresistible . " Sonia Chopra from Sify described the film as a " thrilling ringside view " , saying that " Mary Kom is an important film that 's hugely inspiring . But more importantly , it 's also great fun to watch . " The Times of India gave the film a rating of 4 stars out of 5 calling it as Bollywood 's answer to Academy Award @-@ winning film Million Dollar Baby ( 2004 ) . Bollywood Hungama gave it 4 stars , stating " Omung Kumar certainly deserves an ovation for having shown the guts to make a biopic on Mary Kom , something which will surely go down in the history of exemplary biopics on Indian celluloid . " Namrata Joshi from Outlook rated the film with 3 stars out of 4 and commented on the simple , unpretentious storyline that dramatized important events from the champion 's life .
Bhawana Somaaya rated the film 4 stars out of 5 , stating that film was not solely a medium for entertainment and that the main purpose of Mary Kom was to depict courage , stability , truth and innocence . The Economic Times gave a rating of 4 stars out of 5 , noting that the film is well on its way to being one of the most praised sports @-@ based films since Chak De India and Bhaag Milkha Bhaag and wrote " This is one of those boxing movies which is much more than boxing . It takes you to a place which is beyond ruptured cheeks , cracked jaws , and fractured ribs of the protagonist . " Yahoo ! India rated the film 4 stars out of 5 and noted that it evoked many emotions , calling it a " must watch " . Writing for Hindustan Times , Anupama Chopra rated the film 3 out of 5 noted it as a " worthy attempt " and said that the film had sincerity and was crafted with care . Mayank Shekhar also rated the film with 3 stars , stating that his biggest concern before getting into the film was that the film @-@ makers ( Sanjay Leela Bhansali ) would excessively " Bollywood @-@ ise " Kom 's story . He commented that this fear was " thankfully " unfounded .
On the contrary , Business Standard criticized the film for not showing enough about boxing in general rather than Kom in particular . It stated that " while Mary Kom is entertaining , it should have aspired to be more . " Rajeev Masand wrote that the film was " watchable , but never great like it should 've been " . Shubhra Gupta from The Indian Express gave a rating of two and half noting " Film gets bloated by extraneous songs " and criticized the product placements calling them a " distraction from the story . " The India Today reviewer , Rohit Khilnani criticized Kumar 's direction and wrote " The story is predictable from the word go and there are absolutely no surprise elements . A lot could have been done with such a strong protagonist but the director doesn 't experiment . " Sudhish Kamath from The Hindu criticized the film , saying the film should be only watched for Chopra , but that the script was generic and predictable , and the plot was actually manipulative .
= = = Box office = = =
The film collected ₹ 85 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) on its opening day . Following the positive word of mouth , Saturday collections showed a growth of 20 % from Friday and went on to collect ₹ 90 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) . The collection on Sunday showed an additional 20 % growth from Saturday , collecting approximately ₹ 110 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 6 million ) . The film collected ₹ 275 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 1 million ) net over its first weekend . For a film featuring a female protagonist , the film recorded the highest collections of all time . The film had a drop of 55 % on its first Monday and went on to collect ₹ 36 million ( US $ 530 @,@ 000 ) , making a four @-@ day total of ₹ 305 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 5 million ) . The collections on Tuesday were of ₹ 33 million ( US $ 490 @,@ 000 ) . It collected approximately ₹ 400 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 9 million ) nett in its first week . The film collected ₹ 110 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 6 million ) in its second week , crossing the ₹ 500 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 4 million ) mark at the domestic box @-@ office . The film 's domestic nett collection was over ₹ 610 million ( US $ 9 @.@ 1 million ) . Mary Kom grossed ₹ 1 @.@ 04 billion ( US $ 15 million ) at the box @-@ office and was a commercial success .
= = = Accolades = = =
Mary Kom won the National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment at the 62nd National Film Awards . At the 60th Filmfare Awards , the film was nominated for Best Film and Best Actress for Chopra . The film received eight nominations at the 21st Screen Awards , where it won Best Actress for Chopra . It received ten nominations at the Producers Guild Film Awards , including nominations for Best Film and Best Director and won five awards : Best Actress in a Leading Role for Chopra , Best Debut Director for Kumar , Dialogue of the Year and the President 's Award for Best Film . Additionally , it was nominated for the Best Film and Best Actress at the 16th IIFA Awards , winning the Best Debut Director for Kumar .
= The Fourth Horseman ( Millennium ) =
" The Fourth Horseman " is the twenty @-@ second episode of the second season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on May 8 , 1998 . The episode was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by Dwight Little . " The Fourth Horseman " featured guest appearances by Kristen Cloke and Glenn Morshower .
In this episode , offender profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) investigates the initial outbreak of a deadly virus , and discovers that his employers , the Millennium Group may pose a danger to his safety .
" The Fourth Horseman " was written under the belief that the series would soon be cancelled , and inspired in part by the outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy in the United Kingdom . The episode has earned positive responses from critics , and was seen by approximately 4 @.@ 61 million households during its initial broadcast .
= = Plot = =
On a farm in Baraboo , Wisconsin in 1986 , a farmer finds his entire warehouse of chickens dead , the floor soaked in blood . He attempts to run , but collapses dead , bleeding profusely and covered in dark lesions .
Twelve years later , Millennium Group member | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
and Tom Servo who are forced to watch bad films while trapped in outer space by their captor , Pearl Forrester . To stay sane while watching the bad movies , Mike and the robots mock the film as they watch . During the episode , their silhouetted images are superimposed over the film to give the impression that they are sitting in a cinema as they make their jokes . The Projected Man was the first episode of the ninth season . It was originally broadcast on Sci @-@ Fi Channel on 14 March 1998 , the second season of the series to premiere on that channel . It was the series ' second film to star Bryant Haliday ; his film Devil Doll had been previously lampooned . Series writer Paul Chaplin spoke negatively about Haliday 's performance , saying , " I guess Haliday was considered to be someone who could carry a film . I don 't know much about movies , but in mid @-@ 1960s England they must have been about three million years behind the music . "
= = = Home media = = =
In 2006 , The Projected Man was released on DVD by Cinema Club .
= Sonic Rush =
Sonic Rush is a 2005 platform handheld video game developed by Sonic Team and Dimps for the Nintendo DS as part of Sega 's Sonic the Hedgehog series . It was released on November 15 , 2005 in North America , November 18 in the PAL region , and November 23 in Japan . It is a 2D platform game , but Sonic 's and Blaze 's sprites are rendered in 3D , creating a 2.5D effect . Boss battles , along with a Sonic @-@ exclusive special stage , are entirely 3D . The game 's storyline follows the intertwining adventures of a new character , Blaze the Cat , and the series ' main character , Sonic the Hedgehog . They respectively battle Doctor Eggman and his doppelgänger Eggman Nega at certain points throughout the game .
The game was announced under the working title Sonic DS at Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) 2004 , and under Sonic Rush at E3 2005 . The game 's 2.5D format was based on Sonic Team 's idea to combine elements from 2D and 3D games in the series . Upon release , Sonic Rush was positively received by critics , with praise stemming from the game 's music and similarity to older games in the series and criticism stemming from its overall quickness . A sequel , Sonic Rush Adventure , was later created and released in 2007 .
= = Gameplay = =
Sonic Rush is a 2D platform game , similar to earlier games in the series as well as later ones like Sonic Advance . The player controls either Sonic the Hedgehog or Blaze the Cat , who differ in terms of special abilities . In the tradition of past Sonic games , gameplay consists of moving quickly through levels , collecting rings and defeating enemies . The player collects rings as a form of health ; when they are attacked by an enemy , their rings bounce in all directions . If they are hit by an enemy and have no rings , they lose a life . Both of the DS 's screens are used to display the play area , with the player 's character moving between them as necessary . Levels in the game are divided into " zones " , each consisting of two acts of normal gameplay then a 3D boss battle . The course of the game differs depending on whether Sonic or Blaze is chosen ; the seven zones are the same , but are accessed in different orders . During boss battles , Blaze fights Doctor Eggman and Sonic fights an Eggman doppelgänger called Eggman Nega . As the characters ' stories progress , they meet each other several times and unite in the final zone that comes after the seventh . The game features a special stages can access via certain handles in order to obtain the Chaos Emeralds . These Special Stages resemble those of Sonic the Hedgehog 2 and utilises the DS ' stylus controls . Blaze , on the other hand , can 't enter special stages as she earns Sol Emeralds throughout her story . When the player completes both Sonic and Blaze 's stories and collect all the Chaos Emeralds , they can access a final story .
New features include a grading system that grades the player based on the time it takes for them to complete the level ; they can return to levels later to try for a higher grade . There is a point system based on the one in Sonic Advance 2 but displaying points in multiple categories . There is also a " Tension Gauge " on the left side of the screen which is filled by doing tricks and defeating enemies . The energy it generates allows the player to use boosts of speed while moving ; defeating enemies , moving through the level more quickly which results in more points and a higher grade , and when playing as Sonic , accessing the special stage . Although the game is primarily two @-@ dimensional , there are three @-@ dimensional elements which create a 2.5D effect . For the first time in the series , Sonic and Blaze 's sprites are rendered in 3D . The game 's boss battles are 3D .
The game has a two @-@ player mode in which Sonic and Blaze race to the end of a chosen level from the game . There is also a feature in which players who own the game can send a demo of the game to other Nintendo DS users .
= = Plot = =
Blaze the Cat is somehow pulled from her native dimension into Sonic 's world . Her world had seven Sol Emeralds — similar to the Chaos Emeralds — but they were stolen by Doctor Eggman . She then makes it her goal to retrieve them ; this is where Sonic meets her . While she is searching for the Sol Emeralds , Sonic is searching for the Chaos Emeralds . Blaze meets Cream the Rabbit and is surprised by her politeness . Meanwhile , Miles " Tails " Prower learns that Blaze 's world and Sonic 's are merging somehow . Sonic grows suspicious of Blaze , and along with Tails , looks for her . Soon , after they find Blaze and Cream , Sonic questions Blaze about her nature , but she refuses to give any information and leaves with Cream . Sonic follows her to Eggman Nega 's base , where it is revealed that Eggman and Eggman Nega are working together to collect both the Chaos Emeralds and the Sol Emeralds . Blaze declares that she is the only one who can save their worlds , without anyone 's help . Sonic and Blaze fight each other , until Sonic wins the fight and Blaze realizes the error of her ways .
After Eggman kidnaps Cream , Blaze goes after him while Sonic takes on Nega . Sonic collects the last of the seven Chaos Emeralds ; and meets Blaze , who fails to protect the Sol Emeralds . Sonic and his friends help Blaze realize the meaning of friendship and she turns into Burning Blaze — apparently her answer to Sonic 's Super Sonic form — while Sonic turns into Super Sonic . They fight Eggman and Eggman Nega and defeat them . The two worlds are restored , forcing Blaze to return to her own world . As she flies there , she realizes that she truly understands her powers . Later , on Sonic 's planet , Cream is crying because she misses Blaze , but Sonic tells her that Blaze promised to return someday .
= = Development = =
Sonic Rush was developed by Sonic Team and Dimps , and published by Sega . Yuji Naka , Sega 's executive managing director , announced the game at Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) 2004 , along with Project Rub . A demo of the newly titled Sonic Rush was featured at E3 2005 , and won video game publication IGN 's " Biggest Surprise " award . Blaze the Cat , a new character , was revealed at Tokyo Game Show ( TGS ) 2005 . The game 's 2.5D format was based on Sonic Team 's idea to combine elements from 2D and 3D games in the series . Director Akinori Nishiyama stated in a September 2005 interview with GameSpot that Sonic Team " wanted to keep the elements from 2D , yet still explore some of the new elements from 3D . " At TGS 2005 , he stated that while working on Sonic Advance 3 , he realized that the series was becoming more complicated , opting for a " fast , dynamic action " approach to the next title in the series . This is the first Sonic handheld game to feature the 4Kids actors who previously did voice @-@ work for the anime Sonic X.
= = Reception = =
Sonic Rush was released on November 15 , 2005 in North America ; November 18 in Europe ; and November 23 in Japan . It was the ninth best @-@ selling DS game of December 2006 . It sold approximately 360 @,@ 000 copies in Europe , making it Sega 's fourth best @-@ selling game during the third quarter of its fiscal year ending March 2007 .
The game was released to " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . Critics praised the game for its usage of elements from older Sonic games . GameSpot , IGN , and Nintendo Power compared the game to older games in the series , specifically those on the Sega Genesis . GameSpy staff writer Greg Sewart offered a similar opinion , also praising the game for its " gorgeous graphics " . The game 's overall quickness was not as well received . GameSpy 's Greg Sewart , although giving a mostly positive review , complained that " it 's so fast you almost can 't tell what 's going on most of the time . " 1UP.com and GamePro thought similarly . The game 's music was well @-@ received , called " bright [ and ] buoyant " by 1UP.com and compared to that of Jet Set Radio by GameSpot . GameSpy called the music " all very fitting and very catchy " , noting its use of sampling and unconventional structure .
In 2008 , Sonic Rush was listed at # 17 in IGN 's list of the top 25 DS games . On September 11 , 2009 , it was listed as one of the " cheers " on IGN 's " Cheers & Tears " list of action games for the DS .
= = Legacy = =
Sonic Rush introduced Blaze , who has become a recurring character in the series . Blaze appeared for the second time in Sonic the Hedgehog in 2006 , and then in Sonic Rush Adventure , the sequel to Sonic Rush , and numerous other games . For the 3DS version of Sonic Generations , Water Palace , a stage from Sonic Rush , was featured as a remade stage .
= USS West Ekonk ( ID @-@ 3313 ) =
USS West Ekonk ( ID @-@ 3313 ) was a cargo ship for the United States Navy during World War I. She was later known as SS West Ekonk in civilian service under American registry , and as SS Empire Wildebeeste under British registry .
West Ekonk was launched for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) in June 1918 as a part of the West ships , a series of steel @-@ hulled cargo ships built on the West Coast of the United States for the World War I war effort . At one point West Ekonk had the distinction of being the ninth fastest @-@ built ocean @-@ going ship in the world . Pressed into cargo service for the US Navy , USS West Ekonk was commissioned into the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) and completed three round @-@ trip voyages to Europe for the Navy . After decommissioning in mid 1919 , she was briefly in cargo service out of Baltimore and New York before being laid up in Norfolk , Virginia .
West Ekonk was reactivated for cargo service out of Los Angeles in early 1924 . By 1926 , she was sailing out of New York and called at ports such as Liverpool and Hamburg . In 1933 , she was sold to the Lykes Brothers Steamship Company and operated for two of its subsidiary shipping lines through the mid @-@ 1930s . In late 1940 she was sold to British interests to help fill the United Kingdom 's urgent need for merchant ships .
After sailing to the UK as West Ekonk , the ship was renamed Empire Wildebeeste and sailed in transatlantic convoys , making three round @-@ trips between March 1941 and December 1942 . On the westbound leg at the beginning of her fourth round @-@ trip , she straggled behind her convoy and was torpedoed and sunk by German submarine U @-@ 106 on 24 January 1942 . Nine men died in the attack ; the 22 survivors were rescued by American destroyer USS Lang ( DD @-@ 399 ) and landed at Bermuda .
= = Design and construction = =
The West ships were cargo ships of similar size and design built by several shipyards on the West Coast of the United States for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) for emergency use during World War I. All were given names that began with the word West , like West Ekonk , one of some 24 West ships built by Skinner & Eddy of Seattle , Washington . West Ekonk ( Skinner & Eddy No. 25 ; USSB No. 1178 ) was laid down on 16 April 1918 . She was launched on 22 June with an elapsed time of 57 working days — 67 calendar days — from keel laying to launch . West Ekonk was completed on 13 July , 73 working days after her keel laying , and in a list of the ten fastest @-@ constructed ocean @-@ going ships compiled in 1920 by Edward N. Hurley , the wartime chairman of the USSB , West Ekonk was listed as the ninth fastest @-@ constructed ship in the world .
West Ekonk was the fourth ship built under a USSB contract that called for Skinner & Eddy to deliver 14 ships at a cost of $ 1 @,@ 672 @,@ 000 each , but the cost of extras during her construction added $ 35 @,@ 268 . Skinner & Eddy received a $ 69 @,@ 200 bonus for West Ekonk 's early completion , which brought the total cost of the ship to $ 1 @,@ 776 @,@ 468 .
West Ekonk was 5 @,@ 630 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 409 feet 5 inches ( 124 @.@ 79 m ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 54 feet 2 inches ( 16 @.@ 51 m ) abeam . West Ekonk had a steel hull and a deadweight tonnage of 8 @,@ 800 DWT . The ship had a single steam turbine that drove her single screw propeller which moved the ship at an 11 @.@ 5 @-@ knot ( 21 @.@ 3 km / h ) pace .
= = World War I = =
After her 13 July 1918 completion , West Ekonk was handed over to the United States Navy for use in the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) and assigned the identification number 3313 . She was commissioned at Seattle , as USS West Ekonk ( ID @-@ 3313 ) the same day with Lieutenant Commander Richard Willowden , United States Naval Reserve Forces , in command .
West Ekonk sailed to Port Costa , California , and took on a load of wheat flour and sailed for New York , via the Panama Canal , on 24 July . After reaching New York on 27 August , West Ekonk joined a France @-@ bound convoy , departing on 4 September .
West Ekonk arrived at Brest , France , on 19 September , discharged her cargo , and headed back to New York on 30 September . She took on a load of freight consigned to the Italian government and set out for Genoa in early November . West Ekonk was en route to Italy when the Armistice that ended fighting was signed on 11 November . After completing her trip , she made another cargo run to Genoa , sailing from New York in late January 1919 and returning on 3 April 1919 . Six days later West Ekonk was decommissioned and returned to the USSB .
= = Interwar career = =
West Ekonk 's activities immediately after her return to the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) in April are not known , but in mid @-@ June The Washington Post reported that West Ekonk would be among the 26 ships allocated to sail out of Baltimore beginning later in the month . In early March 1920 , The New York Times reported on West Ekonk 's arrival in New York from Liverpool , and in April and June reported on West Ekonk 's departure to and arrival from Hamburg .
After being laid up in a reserve fleet in Norfolk , Virginia , some time after mid 1920 , West Ekonk was one of two ships reactivated for service out of Los Angeles in early 1924 . By early 1926 , however , West Ekonk was sailing from Galveston , Texas , to Liverpool , sometimes carrying passengers in addition to freight . In December 1927 , West Ekonk 's master and chief engineer each received a $ 50 bonus from the Conservation Committee of the Merchant Fleet Corporation when West Ekonk was named to an honor roll for efficient operation ; they were one of 50 duos so honored . On 23 December 1928 , West Ekonk was anchored in the River Thames at Gravesend , Kent , United Kingdom when she was struck by the British cargo ship Glynwen and sustained damage to her port bow .
In 1933 , West Ekonk was sold to Lykes Brothers Steamship Company and home @-@ ported at Houston , Texas . West Ekonk sailed for the Dixie UK Line , a subsidiary operation of Lykes , for most of 1935 , sailing between Galveston and Liverpool . By December 1935 , West Ekonk had begun sailing for another subsidiary of Lykes Brothers , the Ripley Steamship Company , and continued sailing on the same Galveston – Liverpool route through September 1937 . West Ekonk 's activities over the next three years are not recorded .
= = World War II = =
In November 1940 , while the United States was still neutral , the United States Maritime Commission ( USMC ) , a successor to the USSB , granted Lykes Brothers permission to sell West Ekonk and five other cargo ships to the British Ministry of War Transport ( MoWT ) . After West Ekonk took on a load of steel and scrap , the ship sailed to Halifax , where she joined convoy HX 99 in sailing for Liverpool on 26 December 1940 . On 30 December , the ship 's compass went out but West Ekonk was able to remain in her station in the convoy , and safely arrived at Liverpool on 11 January 1941 , despite sailing through a gale with sleet storms on 4 January . In his notes for the convoy , P. E. Parker , the convoy 's commodore , singled out H. MacKinnon , master of West Ekonk , for praise of his seamanship in keeping West Ekonk in the convoy without a working compass .
After her arrival at Liverpool , West Ekonk was renamed Empire Wildebeeste — MoWT ships taking a name prefixed with " Empire " and joined westbound convoy OB 293 in sailing for the United States on 2 March 1941 . The convoy dispersed four days later , and though seven ships were sunk by four German submarines , Empire Wildebeeste safely docked at Baltimore on 24 March . After sailing to Hampton Roads , Virginia , on 1 April and on to Halifax on 6 April , Empire Wildebeeste was scheduled to sail as a part of HX 120 on 10 April , but apparently did not arrive in time . She instead sailed in convoy HX 121 which departed Halifax six days later . Convoy HX 121 was attacked by two U @-@ boats on 28 April and four ships were hit , two ahead of Empire Wildebeeste and two to the starboard . Even though another ship was sunk on 1 May , Empire Wildebeeste successfully delivered her cargo of pig iron to Middlesbrough on 7 May .
After making her way across the Atlantic independently , Empire Wildebeeste arrived at Norfolk , Virginia , on 25 June . After making intermediate stops in Baltimore and Hampton Roads , she sailed for Halifax with a load of scrap iron on 17 July , reaching her destination three days later . She departed in convoy HX 140 on 22 July and arrived at Belfast Lough on 5 August and Newport on 8 August . After arriving at Milford Haven on 25 August , she sailed from there two days later in convoy ON 10 for Halifax , where she arrived on 13 September . From there , Empire Wildebeeste sailed to Montreal and back to Halifax by 5 October . She departed Halifax that same day as a part of convoy HX 153 , but had unspecified problems that caused her to drop out and put in at St. John 's , Newfoundland , on 11 October . After aborted attempts to sail east in convoys SC 50 and SC 52 , Empire Wildebeeste finally reached Loch Ewe on 25 November as a part of convoy SC 54 and Methil on 30 November .
After Empire Wildebeeste made a trip to Hull and back by 23 December , she sailed to Loch Ewe five days later and then departed from Liverpool on 2 January 1942 as a part of convoy ON 53 . Empire Wildebeeste strayed behind even before the convoy dispersed on 19 January , and was left to sail on to Baltimore independently . At 06 : 53 on 24 January , Empire Wildebeeste was struck by a torpedo launched from German submarine U @-@ 106 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Hermann Rasch . Empire Wildebeeste went down at position 39 ° 30 ′ N 59 ° 54 ′ W ; eight crewmen and one naval gunner were killed during the attack and sinking . American destroyer Lang was dispatched from Bermuda to pick up the master , 18 crewmen , and three gunners , and landed them in Bermuda .
= Pullman Square =
Pullman Square is a lifestyle center in downtown Huntington , West Virginia , United States between 8th and 10th Street and 3rd Avenue and Veteran 's Memorial Boulevard . It is located on what was known as the Superblock , a large urban renewal project that saw the demolishing of four city @-@ square @-@ blocks in 1970 .
= = History = =
= = = Superblock = = =
The Superblock was to be a large revitalizaion project in downtown Huntington . In 1970 , a four @-@ block 9 @-@ acre ( 36 @,@ 000 m2 ) vacant site was created for the next " large development , " however , problems besieged the area for decades . In 1974 , a master plan was developed for the vacant site .
In 1977 , the Huntington Civic Arena was constructed on one parcel . One year later , a group of entrepreneurs wanted to construct a 350 @-@ room hotel and retail stores , however , the plan died by 1980 . In 1983 , the National Shamrock Development and Investment Company wanted to develop the property and took a two @-@ year lease on the project . By mid @-@ 1985 , however , the lease ran out and the developers could not receive financial backing due to the failure in their $ 15 million Urban Development Action Grant request .
In the spring of 1986 , the Huntington Development Corporation suggested that an off @-@ track betting facility be constructed , however , the idea died after Governor Arch Moore vetoed an off @-@ track betting bill that was critical to the project 's success . In 1987 , the Webb Companies presented a plan for a $ 110 million mixed @-@ use complex called RiverCenter that would feature a 20 @-@ story office tower , an underground parking garage and a skyway to the Harris Riverfront Park . The project failed when two large tenants could not be found to anchor the project . In 1988 , the city 's grant to help develop the project was revoked .
Another instance included an outlet mall proposal that was announced on May 6 , 1987 , however , two @-@ months later , the Herald @-@ Dispatch reported that the project was " dead " and that the " 13 @-@ year history of failure haunts ( the ) Superblock . " Another proposal , on April 28 , 1989 reported on a development that was " on tap , " followed by an article several years later that stated , " super development dream fails to become reality . " In 1992 , a two @-@ story shopping center was proposed but the idea failed to receive tenant support .
A Chi @-@ Chi 's Mexican restaurant was constructed on the corner of 3rd Avenue and 10th Street in 1991 . These developments were mostly suburban in nature and was not conductive to improvements in downtown Huntington . A Holiday Inn was constructed adjacent to the Big Sandy Superstore Arena between 8th and 9th Street in 1998 .
= = = Intermodal facility = = =
In 1998 , $ 27 million for an intermodal facility was appropriated from Congress ; an additional $ 6 @.@ 7 million came from state and local funding . Then Governor Cecil Underwood had promised $ 700 @,@ 000 in 1999 , with local lawmakers funding the additional $ 1 @.@ 3 million ; an additional $ 4 million was to be allocated from the state over the next two years .
The proposed facility was for a Tri @-@ State Transit Authority ( TTA ) bus transfer station , retail development and associated parking structures and would occupy a two @-@ block surface parking lot between 8th Street and 10th Street along 3rd Avenue . A later study by Woolpert suggested at least 150 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 14 @,@ 000 m2 ) of retail and a parking structure that has 800 to 1 @,@ 400 spaces . Yet another study suggested that retail , entertainment , dining , housing , cultural , and educational aspects be included in the project . A ground breaking ceremony was planned in early 2000 with initial completion of the project in 2001 .
In order to complete the Superblock , Chi @-@ Chi 's would need to be evicted , however , it was granted and opportunity to have a restaurant within the proposed development . Chi @-@ Chi 's refused to leave the Superblock , however , citing that they wanted to " upgrade and remodel " the restaurant .
In 1999 , Robert C. Byrd allocated $ 8 million to federal appropriation bills for the Superblock project . Another $ 400 @,@ 000 was allocated from the Federal Transit Administration to the Huntington Transit Authority for the feasibility study and master plan for the intermodal facility .
= = = Pullman Square = = =
On September 30 , 1999 , it was announced that the Huntington Urban Renewal Authority was in negotiations with the Transit Authority and an unnamed Columbus , Ohio developer for the Superblock . In early October , President Bill Clinton signed the Transportation Appropriations bill , which provided an additional $ 12 million in funds for the intermodal facility .
On October 18 , 2000 , Steiner + Associates ( dropped in favor of Metropolitan Partners with the same developers ) , a Columbus , Ohio developer that specializes in recreating downtown urban environments , announced a $ 60 million 200 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 20 @,@ 000 m2 ) . retail and entertainment complex between 10th streets and 3rd Avenue and Veterans Memorial Boulevard that would resemble an " old @-@ time small town " and would fit within the " historic context of the existing downtown . " The developers had previously constructed similar developments in Newport , Kentucky with the completion of Newport on the Levee and Easton Town Center in Columbus . The project would include stores , restaurants and a 12 to 16 @-@ screen movie theater and would open in fall of 2002 . Two parking structures would be constructed as well . The parking structure between 8th and 9th Street would be four @-@ levels and include 940 parking spaces , but could be expanded upward to include an office tower ; the parking structure between 9th and 10th Streets would be three @-@ levels and include the movie complex on top . Broken down , the project plan included ,
65 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 6 @,@ 000 m2 ) of retail ,
30 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m2 ) of restaurants ,
25 @,@ 300 sq , ft. of office space ,
25 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 2 @,@ 300 m2 ) of entertainment , and
a 2 @,@ 300 @-@ seat , 50 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 5 @,@ 000 m2 ) theater .
The plan included narrowing 3rd Avenue from four @-@ lanes westbound towards the Robert C. Byrd Bridge to one @-@ lane in each direction with angled parking , however , this was later revised to one @-@ lane in each direction with parallel parking and a center variable lane . The road narrowing plan was envisioned as a traffic calming measure .
In January 2002 , the Huntington Urban Renewal Authority began eminent domain proceedings against Chi @-@ Chi 's . The parent company of Chi @-@ Chi 's , Prandium Inc . , had refused to sell the property and rejected the city 's final offer on October 19 , 2000 and refused all negotiations and communications with the Authority and with Metropolitan Partners . In March , Prandium Inc. refused an offer of $ 975 @,@ 000 for the property plus $ 200 @,@ 000 in relocation costs , which was over the appraised value of the property . The company requested a sale price of $ 2 million instead . The company , however , went into Chapter 11 bankruptcy reorganization in March . In May , Chi @-@ Chi 's wanted to sell the property for $ 1 @.@ 15 million , including undisclosed costs for relocation and loss of business , but later reversed out of the deal and wanted $ 1 @.@ 75 million .
During November 2002 , Metropolitan Partners filed a grant request to the West Virginia Economic Development Grant Committee . It received $ 10 @.@ 6 million in infrastructure improvements . A lawsuit was later filed by the Jackson County , West Virginia lawyer Larry Harless , questioning the legality of the committee and its work . Eventually , the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia nullified the grant process and the grants that were given .
On March 26 , 2003 , the Superblock was sold to the developers of Pullman Square , Metropolitan Partners . Chi @-@ Chi 's had until April 15 to vacate ; it was demolished on the 29th . The opening date had been pushed back from spring to summer 2004 due to a court case that was being considered by the West Virginia Supreme Court . In July 2003 , the West Virginia Legislature passed legislation that withstood the Court of Appeals , however , the Pullman Square project had to be re @-@ approved by the reconstituted grant committee . The grant money was once again awarded in August , however , two citizens ' lawsuits by Larry Harless once again disputed the process . In their case , they stated that the state may provide loans to the projects but not to the grants , and questioned the legality of the state 's video lottery . The West Virginia Economic Development Grant Committee was to finance the grants by selling bonds which would be repaid from profits on video lottery .
On October 17 , 2003 , the state Supreme Court ruled that the state could proceed with the sale of bonds financing Pullman Square and 48 other projects throughout the state .
= = = Construction and opening = = =
Construction began on Pullman Square on July 16 , 2004 with the excavation of the parking lot for the parking structures . It opened on November 19 , 2004 with Marquee Cinemas . Others , such as Empire Books & News , EB Games and Starbucks , opened in early December . In June 2005 , the Funny Bone Comedy Club opened , followed by Cold Stone Creamery in July and pizzeria Uno Chicago Grill and Max & Erma 's in August .
A few months after opening , the Uno Chicago Grill was sued for not paying the builders , suppliers , and utilities . It soon changed its name to La Sha 's West Virginia Bistro and was headed by Powerball winner Jack Whittaker ; however , it closed on February 22 , 2007 after another lawsuit was filed after Metropolitan Huntington LLC complained that the Bistro owed thousands for rent .
Edible Arrangements was announced on August 5 , 2006 . The retail store , specializing in fruit bouquets and designer arrangements of fruit , opened in the fall . A few months later , on January 11 , 2007 , Moe 's Southwest Grill closed for remodeling . The quick @-@ casual restaurant later reluctantly announced that it was , in fact , moving to a nearby location on 9th Street . On March 17 Runway Couture opened next to Inspired , featuring west coast @-@ inspired fashions ; both are owned by Deneene Chafin . Moe 's Southwest Grill maintained goodfaith talks with Pullman Square and after protracted negotiations Metropolitan Partners agreed to Moe 's corporate lease arrangements and subsequently surrendered the keys to the former location on November 5 , 2007 .
On May 8 , 2008 , it was announced that Community Trust Bank would locate a bank branch at the corner of 3rd Avenue and 10th Street . It would include spaces for more retail that is currently " under negotiations " . Construction began in August . The Garage Chophouse , however , pulled out of Pullman Square . In June , it was announced that Uno Chicago Grill would reopen under the franchise of Rick Rose , who owns some Bennigan 's restaurants in Ohio , and under Mike Bartrum , a retired NFL player . The restaurant sells Chicago @-@ style pizza and could open by July 30 . Benny 's Cheesesteaks opened on June 19 , the second location for the Columbus , Ohio @-@ based restaurant that sells Philadelphia @-@ style hoagies , wings , wraps , and beer . Heels , a high @-@ end shoe store owned by the owner of Inspired and Runway Couture made its debut in July .
= = = = Tenants = = = =
= = = Success = = =
Since Pullman Square 's opening in 2004 , the lifestyle center has boasted many successes . Max & Erma 's is the number one chain in the number of sales , while EB Games is number one in sales for their region . Cold Stone Creamery is listed as being in the top 10 of all stores in the United States .
= Hugo Black =
Hugo Lafayette Black ( February 27 , 1886 – September 25 , 1971 ) was an American politician and jurist . A member of the Democratic Party , Black represented Alabama in the United States Senate from 1927 to 1937 , and served as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1937 to 1971 . Black was nominated to the Supreme Court by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and confirmed by the Senate by a vote of 63 to 16 ( 6 Democratic Senators and 10 Republican Senators voted against him . ) He was first of nine Roosevelt nominees to the Court , and he outlasted all except for William O. Douglas . Black is widely regarded as one of the most influential Supreme Court justices in the 20th century .
The fifth longest @-@ serving justice in Supreme Court history , Black is noted for his advocacy of a textualist reading of the United States Constitution and of the position that the liberties guaranteed in the Bill of Rights were imposed on the states ( " incorporated " ) by the Fourteenth Amendment . During his political career , Black was regarded as a staunch supporter of liberal policies and civil liberties . However , Black consistently opposed the doctrine of substantive due process ( the anti @-@ New Deal Supreme Court cited this concept in such a way as to make it impossible for the government to enact legislation that interfered with the freedom of business owners ) and believed that there was no basis in the words of the Constitution for a right to privacy , voting against finding one in Griswold v. Connecticut . Black endorsed Roosevelt in both the 1932 and 1936 US Presidential elections and was a staunch supporter of the New Deal .
= = Early years = =
Hugo LaFayette Black was the youngest of the eight children of William Lafayette Black and Martha Toland Black . He was born on February 27 , 1886 , in a small wooden farmhouse in Ashland , Alabama , a poor , isolated rural Clay County town in the Appalachian foothills .
Because his brother Orlando had become a medical doctor , Hugo decided at first to follow in his footsteps . At age seventeen , he left school and enrolled at Birmingham Medical School . However , it was Orlando who suggested that Hugo should enroll at the University of Alabama School of Law . After graduating in June 1906 , he moved back to Ashland and established a legal practice . His practice was not successful there , so Black moved to Birmingham in 1907 where he specialized in labor law and personal injury cases .
Consequent to his defense of an African American who was forced into a form of commercial slavery after incarceration , Black was befriended by A. O. Lane , a judge connected with the case . When Lane was elected to the Birmingham City Commission in 1911 , he asked Black to serve as a police court judge , an experience that would be his only judicial experience prior to the Supreme Court . In 1912 , Black resigned that seat in order to return to practicing law full @-@ time . He was not done with public service ; in 1914 , he began a four @-@ year term as the Jefferson County Prosecuting Attorney .
Three years later , during World War I , Black resigned in order to join the United States Army , eventually reaching the rank of captain . He served in the 81st Field Artillery , but was not assigned to Europe . He joined the Birmingham Civitan Club during this time , eventually serving as president of the group . He remained an active member throughout his life , occasionally contributing articles to Civitan publications .
On February 23 , 1921 , he married Josephine Foster ( 1899 – 1951 ) , with whom he would have three children : Hugo L. Black , II ( 1922 – 2013 ) , an attorney ; Sterling Foster ( 1924 – 1996 ) , and Martha Josephine ( born 1933 ) . Josephine died in 1951 ; in 1957 , Black married Elizabeth Seay DeMeritte .
= = Ku Klux Klan and anti @-@ Catholicism = =
In 1921 , Black successfully defended E. R. Stephenson in the sensationalistic trial for the murder of a Catholic priest , Father James E. Coyle . Black joined the Ku Klux Klan shortly after , thinking it necessary for his political career . Running for the Senate as the " people 's " candidate , Black believed he needed the votes of Klan members . Near the end of his life , Black would admit that joining the Klan was a mistake , but he went on to say " I would have joined any group if it helped get me votes . " Black , along with fellow politician and friend , Bibb Graves , were known in Alabama Klan circles as the Gold Dust Twins .
Biographers in the 1990s examined Black 's views of religious denominations . Ball found regarding the Klan that Black " sympathized with the group 's economic , nativist , and anti @-@ Catholic beliefs . " Newman said Black " disliked the Catholic Church as an institution " and gave numerous anti @-@ Catholic speeches in his 1926 election campaign to Ku Klux Klan meetings across Alabama . However in 1937 The Harvard Crimson reported on Black 's appointment of a Jewish law clerk , noting that he " earlier had appointed Miss Annie Butt , a Catholic , as a secretary , and the Supreme Court had designated Leon Smallwood , a Negro and a Catholic as his messenger . "
= = = Thurgood Marshall and Brown v. Board of Education = = =
Black was one of the Associate Justices who held in Brown v. Board of Education that segregation in public schools is unconstitutional . The plaintiffs were represented by Thurgood Marshall . A decade later , on October 2 , 1967 Marshall became the first African American to be appointed to the Supreme Court , and served with Black on the Court until Black 's retirement on September 17 , 1971 .
= = = United States v. Price = = =
In United States v. Price eighteen Ku Klux Klan members were charged with murder and conspiracy for the deaths of James Chaney , Andrew Goodman and Michael Schwerner , but the charges were dismissed by the trial court . A unanimous Supreme Court , which included Black , reversed the dismissal and ordered the case to proceed to trial . Seven of these men , including fellow Klansmen Samuel Bowers , Cecil Price and Alton Wayne Roberts were found guilty of the crime ; eight of them , including Lawrence A. Rainey , were found not guilty ; and three of them , including Edgar Ray Killen , had their cases end in a mistrial .
= = Senate career = =
In 1926 , Black sought election to the United States Senate from Alabama , following the retirement of Senator Oscar Underwood . Since the Democratic Party dominated Alabama politics at the time , he easily defeated his Republican opponent , E. H. Dryer , winning 80 @.@ 9 % of the vote . He was reelected in 1932 , winning 86 @.@ 3 % of the vote against Republican J. Theodore Johnson .
Senator Black gained a reputation as a tenacious investigator . In 1934 , for example , he chaired the committee that looked into the contracts awarded to air mail carriers under Postmaster General Walter Folger Brown , an inquiry which led to the Air Mail scandal . In order to correct what he termed abuses of " fraud and collusion " resulting from the Air Mail Act of 1930 , he introduced the Black @-@ McKellar Bill , later the Air Mail Act of 1934 . The following year he participated in a Senate committee 's investigation of lobbying practices . He publicly denounced the " highpowered , deceptive , telegram @-@ fixing , letterframing , Washington @-@ visiting " lobbyists , and advocated legislation requiring them to publicly register their names and salaries .
In 1935 , Black became chairman of the Senate Committee on Education and Labor , a position he would hold for the remainder of his Senate career . In 1937 he sponsored the Black @-@ Connery Bill , which sought to establish a national minimum wage and a maximum workweek of thirty hours . Although the bill was initially rejected in the House of Representatives , an amended version of it , which extended Black 's original maximum workweek proposal to forty @-@ four hours , was passed in 1938 ( after Black left the Senate ) , becoming the Fair Labor Standards Act .
Black was an ardent supporter of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal . In particular , he was an outspoken advocate of the Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937 , popularly known as the court @-@ packing bill , FDR 's unsuccessful plan to expand the number of seats on the Supreme Court in his favor .
Black would throughout his career as a senator give speeches based on his belief in the ultimate power of the Constitution . He came to see the actions of the anti @-@ New Deal Supreme Court as judicial excess ; in his view , the Court was improperly overturning legislation passed by large majorities of Congress .
During his Senate career Black consistently opposed the passage of Anti @-@ Lynching legislation . In 1935 Black lead a filibuster of the Wagner @-@ Costigan anti @-@ lynching bill . The Pittsburgh Post Gazette reported that when a motion to end the fillibuster was defeated " [ t ] he southerners — headed by Tom Connally of Texas and Hugo Black of Alabama — grinned at each other and shook hands . "
= = Appointment to the Supreme Court = =
Soon after the failure of the court @-@ packing plan , President Roosevelt obtained his first opportunity to appoint a Supreme Court Justice when conservative Willis Van Devanter retired . Roosevelt wanted the replacement to be a " thumping , evangelical New Dealer " who was reasonably young , confirmable by the Senate , and from a region of the country unrepresented on the Court . The three final candidates were Solicitor General Stanley Reed , Sherman Minton , and Hugo Black . Roosevelt said Reed " had no fire , " and Minton did not want the appointment at the time . The position would go to Black , a candidate from the South , who , as a senator , had voted for all 24 of Roosevelt 's major New Deal programs . Roosevelt admired Black 's use of the investigative role of the Senate to shape the American mind on reforms , his strong voting record , and his early support , which dated back to 1933 . Both Reed and Minton were later appointed to the Supreme Court ; Reed was the next Justice appointed by Roosevelt , while Minton was appointed by Harry Truman in 1949 .
On August 12 , 1937 , Roosevelt nominated Black to fill the vacancy . By tradition , a senator nominated for an executive or judicial office was confirmed immediately and without debate . However , when Black was nominated , the Senate departed from this tradition for the first time since 1853 ; instead of confirming him immediately , it referred the nomination to the Judiciary Committee . Black was criticized for his presumed bigotry , his cultural roots , and his Klan membership , when that became public .
The Judiciary Committee recommended Black 's confirmation by a vote of 13 – 4 on August 16 of that year .
The next day the full Senate considered Black 's nomination . Rumors relating to Black 's involvement in the Ku Klux Klan surfaced among the senators , and two Democratic senators tried defeating the nomination . However , no conclusive evidence of Black 's involvement was available at the time , so after six hours of debate , the Senate voted 63 – 16 to confirm Black . Ten Republicans and six Democrats voted against Black . Alabama Governor Bibb Graves appointed his own wife , Dixie B. Graves , to fill Black 's vacated seat .
The next month , the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette investigated Black 's past . Ray Sprigle won a Pulitzer Prize for his series of articles revealing Black 's involvement in the Klan . However , the controversy soon subsided ; the criticism was highly partisan , and polls showed that the attacks had little effect on public opinion of Black . Black also addressed public concerns in person : " I did join the Klan . I later resigned . I never rejoined .... Before becoming a Senator I dropped the Klan . I have had nothing to do with it since that time . I abandoned it . I completely discontinued any association with the organization . I have never resumed it and never expect to do so . "
Black was close friends with Walter Francis White , the black executive secretary of the NAACP who would help assuage critics of the appointment . Chambers v. Florida ( 1940 ) , an early case where Black ruled in favor of African American criminal defendants who experienced due process violations , helped put concerns to rest .
= = Supreme Court career = =
As soon as Black started on the Court , he advocated judicial restraint and worked to move the Court away from interposing itself in social and economic matters . Black vigorously defended the " plain meaning " of the Constitution , rooted in the ideas of its era , and emphasized the supremacy of the legislature ; for Black , the role of the Supreme Court was limited and constitutionally prescribed .
During his early years on the Supreme Court , Black helped reverse several earlier court decisions taking a narrow interpretation of federal power . Many New Deal laws that would have been struck down under earlier precedents were thus upheld . In 1939 Black was joined on the Supreme Court by Felix Frankfurter and William O. Douglas . Douglas voted alongside Black in several cases , especially those involving the First Amendment , while Frankfurter soon became one of Black 's ideological foes . From 1946 until 1971 , Black was the Senior Associate Justice of the Supreme Court .
= = = Relationship with other justices = = =
In the mid @-@ 1940s , Justice Black became involved in a bitter dispute with Justice Robert H. Jackson as a result of Jewell Ridge Coal Corp. v. Local 6167 , United Mine Workers ( 1945 ) . In this case the Court ruled 5 – 4 in favor of the UMW ; Black voted with the majority , while Jackson dissented . However , the coal company requested the Court rehear the case on the grounds that Justice Black should have recused himself , as the mine workers were represented by Black 's law partner of 20 years earlier . Under the Supreme Court 's rules , each Justice was entitled to determine the propriety of disqualifying himself . Jackson agreed that the petition for rehearing should be denied , but refused to give approval to Black 's participation in the case . Ultimately , when the Court unanimously denied the petition for rehearing , Justice Jackson released a short statement , in which Justice Frankfurter joined . The concurrence indicated that Jackson voted to deny the petition not because he approved of Black 's participation in the case , but on the " limited grounds " that each Justice was entitled to determine for himself the propriety of recusal . At first the case attracted little public comment , however , after Chief Justice Harlan Stone died in 1946 , rumors that President Harry S. Truman would appoint Jackson as Stone 's successor led several newspapers to investigate and report the Jewell Ridge controversy . Black and Douglas allegedly leaked to newspapers that they would resign if Jackson were appointed Chief . Truman ultimately chose Fred M. Vinson for the position .
In 1948 , Justice Black approved an order solicited by Abe Fortas that barred a federal district court in Texas from further investigation of significant voter fraud and irregularities in the 1948 Democratic primary election for United States Senator from Texas . The order effectively confirmed future President Lyndon Johnson 's apparent victory over former Texas Governor Coke Stevenson .
Black later clashed with fellow Justice Abe Fortas during the 1960s . In 1968 , a Warren clerk called their feud " one of the most basic animosities of the Court . "
= = = 1950s and beyond = = =
Vinson 's tenure as Chief Justice coincided with the Red Scare , a period of intense anti @-@ communism in the United States . In several cases the Supreme Court considered , and upheld , the validity of anticommunist laws passed during this era . For example , in American Communications Association v. Douds ( 1950 ) , the Court upheld a law that required labor union officials to forswear membership in the Communist Party . Black dissented , claiming that the law violated the First Amendment 's free speech clause . Similarly , in Dennis v. United States , 341 U.S. 494 ( 1951 ) , the Court upheld the Smith Act , which made it a crime to " advocate , abet , advise , or teach the duty , necessity , desirability , or propriety of overthrowing the Government of the United States . " The law was often used to prosecute individuals for joining the Communist Party . Black again dissented , writing :
" Public opinion being what it now is , few will protest the conviction of these Communist petitioners . There is hope , however , that , in calmer times , when present pressures , passions and fears subside , this or some later Court will restore the First Amendment liberties to the high preferred place where they belong in a free society . "
Beginning in the late 1940s , Black wrote decisions relating to the establishment clause , where he insisted on the strict separation of church and state . The most notable of these was Engel v. Vitale ( 1962 ) , which declared state @-@ sanctioned prayer in public schools unconstitutional . This provoked considerable opposition , especially in conservative circles . Efforts to restore school prayer by constitutional amendment failed .
In 1953 Vinson died and was replaced by Earl Warren . While all members of the Court were New Deal liberals , Black was part of the most liberal wing of the Court , together with Warren , Douglas , William Brennan , and Arthur Goldberg . They said the Court had a role beyond that of Congress . Yet while he often voted with them on the Warren Court , he occasionally took his own line on some key cases , most notably Griswold v. Connecticut ( 1965 ) , which established that the Constitution protected a right to privacy . In not finding such a right implicit in the Constitution , Black wrote in his dissent that " Many good and able men have eloquently spoken and written ... about the duty of this Court to keep the Constitution in tune with the times . ... For myself , I must with all deference reject that philosophy . "
Black 's most prominent ideological opponent on the Warren Court was John Marshall Harlan II , who replaced Justice Jackson in 1955 . They disagreed on several issues , including the applicability of the Bill of Rights to the states , the scope of the due process clause , and the one man , one vote principle .
= = Jurisprudence = =
Black 's jurisprudence is among the most distinctive of any members of the Supreme Court in history and has been influential on justices as diverse as Earl Warren , William Rehnquist , and Antonin Scalia .
Black 's jurisprudence had three essential components : history , literalism , and absolutism . Black 's love of history was rooted in a lifelong love of books , which led him to the belief that historical study was necessary for one to prevent repeating society 's past mistakes . Black wrote in 1968 that " power corrupts , and unrestricted power will tempt Supreme Court justices just as history tells us it has tempted other judges . "
Second , Black 's commitment to literalism involved using the words of the Constitution to restrict the roles of the judiciary — Black would have justices validate the supremacy of the country 's legislature , unless the legislature itself was denying people their freedoms . Black wrote : " The Constitution is not deathless ; it provides for changing or repealing by the amending process , not by judges but by the people and their chosen representatives . " Black would often lecture his colleagues , liberal or conservative , on the Supreme Court about the importance of acting within the limits of the Constitution .
Third , Black 's absolutism led him to enforce the rights of the Constitution , rather than attempting to define a meaning , scope , or extent to each right . Black expressed his view on the Bill of Rights in his opinion in the 1947 case , Adamson v. California , which he saw as his " most significant opinion written : "
" I cannot consider the Bill of Rights to be an outworn 18th century ' strait jacket . ' ... Its provisions may be thought outdated abstractions by some . And it is true that they were designed to meet ancient evils . But they are the same kind of human evils that have emerged from century to century wherever excessive power is sought by the few at the expense of the many . In my judgment the people of no nation can lose their liberty so long as a Bill of Rights like ours survives and its basic purposes are conscientiously interpreted , enforced , and respected ... I would follow what I believe was the original intention of the Fourteenth Amendment — to extend to all the people the complete protection of the Bill of Rights . To hold that this Court can determine what , if any , provisions of the Bill of Rights will be enforced , and if so to what degree , is to frustrate the great design of a written Constitution .
= = = Judicial restraint = = =
Black intensely believed in judicial restraint and reserved the power of making laws to the legislatures , often scolding his more liberal colleagues for what he saw as judicially created legislation . Conservative justice John M. Harlan II would say of Black : " No Justice has worn his judicial robes with a keener sense of the limitations that go with them . " Black advocated a narrow role of interpretation for justices , opposing a view of justices as social engineers or rewriters of the Constitution . Black opposed enlarging constitutional liberties beyond their literal or historic " plain " meaning , as he saw his more liberal colleagues do . However , he also condemned the actions of those to his right , such as the conservative Four Horsemen of the 1920s and 1930s , who struck down much of the New Deal 's legislation .
Black forged the 5 – 2 majority in the 1967 decision Fortson v. Morris , which cleared the path for the Georgia State Legislature to choose the governor in the deadlocked 1966 race between Democrat Lester Maddox and Republican Howard Callaway . Whereas Black voted with the majority under strict construction to uphold the state constitutional provision , his colleagues Douglas and Abe Fortas dissented . According to Douglas , Georgia tradition would guarantee a Maddox victory though he had trailed Callaway by some three thousand votes in the general election returns . Douglas also saw the issue as a continuation of the earlier decision Gray v. Sanders , which had struck down Georgia 's County Unit System , a kind of electoral college formerly used to choose the governor . Black argued that the U.S. Constitution does not dictate how a state must choose its governor . " Our business is not to write laws to fit the day . Our task is to interpret the Constitution , " Black explained .
= = = Textualism and originalism = = =
Black was noted for his advocacy of a textualist approach to constitutional interpretation . He took a " literal " or absolutist reading of the provisions of the Bill of Rights and believed that the text of the Constitution is absolutely determinative on any question calling for judicial interpretation , leading to his reputation as a " textualist " and as a " strict constructionist " . While the text of the constitution was an absolute limitation on the authority of judges in constitutional matters , within the confines of the text judges had a broad and unqualified mandate to enforce constitutional provisions , regardless of current public sentiment , or the feelings of the justices themselves .
Thus , Black refused to join in the efforts of the justices on the Court who sought to abolish capital punishment in the United States , whose efforts succeeded ( temporarily ) in the term immediately following Black 's death . He claimed that the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendment 's reference to takings of " life " , and to " capital " crimes , meant approval of the death penalty was implicit in the Bill of Rights . He also was not persuaded that a right of privacy was implicit in the Ninth or Fourteenth amendments , and dissented from the Court 's 1965 Griswold decision which invalidated a conviction for the use of contraceptives . Black said " It belittles that [ Fourth ] Amendment to talk about it as though it protects nothing but ' privacy ' ... ' privacy ' is a broad , abstract , and ambiguous concept ... The constitutional right of privacy is not found in the Constitution . "
Justice Black rejected reliance on what he called the " mysterious and uncertain " concept of natural law . According to Black that theory was vague and arbitrary , and merely allowed judges to impose their personal views on the nation . Instead , he argued that courts should limit themselves to a strict analysis of the actual text of the Constitution . Black was , in addition , an opponent of the " living constitution " theory . In his dissent to Griswold ( 1965 ) , he wrote :
I realize that many good and able men have eloquently spoken and written , sometimes in rhapsodical strains , about the duty of this Court to keep the Constitution in tune with the times . The idea is that the Constitution must be changed from time to time , and that this Court is charged with a duty to make those changes . For myself , I must , with all deference , reject that philosophy . The Constitution makers knew the need for change , and provided for it . Amendments suggested by the people 's elected representatives can be submitted to the people or their selected agents for ratification . That method of change was good for our Fathers , and , being somewhat old @-@ fashioned , I must add it is good enough for me .
Thus , some have seen Black as an originalist . David Strauss , for example , hails him as " [ t ] he most influential originalist judge of the last hundred years . " Black insisted that judges rely on the intent of the Framers as well as the " plain meaning " of the Constitution 's words and phrases ( drawing on the history of the period ) when deciding a case .
Black additionally called for judicial restraint not usually seen in Court decision @-@ making . The justices of the Court would validate the supremacy of the legislature in public policy @-@ making , unless the legislature was denying people constitutional freedoms . Black stated that the legislature " was fully clothed with the power to govern and to maintain order . "
= = = Federalism = = =
Black held an expansive view of legislative power , whether that be state or federal , and would often vote against judicial review of state laws that could be struck down under the Commerce Clause . Previously , during the 1920s and 1930s , the Court had interpreted the commerce clause narrowly , often striking down laws on the grounds that Congress had overstepped its authority . After 1937 , however , the Supreme Court overturned several precedents and affirmed a broader interpretation of the commerce clause . Black consistently voted with the majority in these decisions ; for example , he joined Mulford v. Smith , 307 U.S. 38 ( 1939 ) , United States v. Darby Lumber Co . , 312 U.S. 100 ( 1941 ) , Wickard v. Filburn , 317 U.S. 111 ( 1942 ) , Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States , 379 U.S. 241 ( 1964 ) , and Katzenbach v. McClung , 379 U.S. 294 ( 1964 ) .
In several other federalism cases , however , Black ruled against the federal government . For instance , he partially dissented from South Carolina v. Katzenbach , 383 U.S. 301 ( 1966 ) , in which the Court upheld the validity of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 . In an attempt to protect the voting rights of African Americans , the act required any state whose population was at least 5 % African American to obtain federal approval before changing its voting laws . Black wrote that the law ,
... by providing that some of the States cannot pass state laws or adopt state constitutional amendments without first being compelled to beg federal authorities to approve their policies , so distorts our constitutional structure of government as to render any distinction drawn in the Constitution between state and federal power almost meaningless .
Similarly , in Oregon v. Mitchell ( 1970 ) , he delivered the opinion of the court holding that the federal government was not entitled to set the voting age for state elections .
In the law of federal jurisdiction , Black made a large contribution by authoring the majority opinion in Younger v. Harris . This case , decided during Black 's last year on the Court , has given rise to what is now known as Younger abstention . According to this doctrine , an important principle of federalism called " comity " — that is , respect by federal courts for state courts — dictates that federal courts abstain from intervening in ongoing state proceedings , absent the most compelling circumstances . The case is also famous for its discussion of what Black calls " Our Federalism , " a discussion in which Black expatiates on
proper respect for state functions , a recognition of the fact that the entire country is made up of a Union of separate state governments , and a continuance of the belief that the National Government will fare best if the States and their institutions are left free to perform their separate functions in their separate ways .
Black was an early supporter of the " one man , one vote " standard for apportionment set by Baker v. Carr . He dissented in support of this view in Baker 's predecessor case , Colegrove v. Green .
= = = Civil rights = = =
As a senator , Black filibustered an anti @-@ lynching bill . However , during his tenure on the bench , Black established a record more sympathetic to the civil rights movement . He joined the majority in Shelley v. Kraemer ( 1948 ) , which invalidated the judicial enforcement of racially restrictive covenants . Similarly , he was part of the unanimous Brown v. Board of Education ( 1954 ) Court that struck down racial segregation in public schools . Black remained determined to desegregate the South and would call for the Supreme Court to adopt a position of " immediate desegregation " in 1969 's Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education .
Black wrote the court 's majority opinion in Korematsu v. United States , which validated Roosevelt 's decision to intern Japanese Americans on the West Coast during World War II . The decision is an example of Black 's belief in the limited role of the judiciary ; he validated the legislative and executive actions that led to internment , saying " it is unnecessary for us to appraise the possible reasons which might have prompted the order to be used in the form it was . "
Black also tended to favor law and order over civil rights activism . This led him to read the Civil Rights Act narrowly . For example , he dissented in a case reversing convictions of sit @-@ in protesters , arguing to limit the scope of the Civil Rights Act . In 1968 he said , “ Unfortunately there are some who think that Negroes should have special privileges under the law . ” Black felt that actions like protesting , singing , or marching for " good causes " one day could lead to supporting evil causes later on ; his sister @-@ in @-@ law explained that Black was " mortally afraid " of protesters . Black opposed the actions of some civil rights and Vietnam War protesters and believed that legislatures first , and courts second , should be responsible for alleviating social wrongs . Black once said he was " vigorously opposed to efforts to extend the First Amendment 's freedom of speech beyond speech , " to conduct .
= = = First Amendment = = =
Black took an absolutist approach to First Amendment jurisprudence , believing the first words of the Amendment that said " Congress shall make no law ... " Black rejected the creation of judicial tests for free speech standards , such as the tests for " clear and present danger " , " bad tendency " , " gravity of the evil , " " reasonableness , " or " balancing . " Black would write that the First Amendment is " wholly ' beyond the reach ' of federal power to abridge ... I do not believe that any federal agencies , including Congress and the Court , have power or authority to subordinate speech and press to what they think are ' more important interests . ' "
He believed that the First Amendment erected a metaphorical wall of separation between church and state . During his career Black wrote several important opinions relating to church @-@ state separation . He delivered the opinion of the court in Everson v. Board of Education ( 1947 ) , which held that the establishment clause was applicable not only to the federal government , but also to the states .
Black 's majority opinion in McCollum v. Board of Education ( 1948 ) held that the government could not provide religious instruction in public schools . In Torcaso v. Watkins ( 1961 ) , he delivered an opinion which affirmed that the states could not use religious tests as qualifications for public office . Similarly , he authored the majority opinion in Engel v. Vitale ( 1962 ) , which declared it unconstitutional for states to require the recitation of official prayers in public schools .
Justice Black is often regarded as a leading defender of First Amendment rights such as the freedom of speech and of the press . He refused to accept the doctrine that the freedom of speech could be curtailed on national security grounds . Thus , in New York Times Co. v. United States ( 1971 ) , he voted to allow newspapers to publish the Pentagon Papers despite the Nixon Administration 's contention that publication would have security implications . In his concurring opinion , Black stated ,
In the First Amendment the Founding Fathers gave the free press the protection it must have to fulfill its essential role in our democracy . The press was to serve the governed , not the governors . The Government 's power to censor the press was abolished so that the press would remain forever free to censure the Government . The press was protected so that it could bare the secrets of government and inform the people . Only a free and unrestrained press can effectively expose deception in government . [ ... ] The word ' security ' is a broad , vague generality whose contours should not be invoked to abrogate the fundamental law embodied in the First Amendment .
He rejected the idea that the government was entitled to punish " obscene " speech . Likewise , he argued that defamation laws abridged the freedom of speech and were therefore unconstitutional . Most members of the Supreme Court rejected both of these views ; Black 's interpretation did attract the support of Justice Douglas .
However , he did not believe that individuals had the right to speak wherever they pleased . He delivered the majority opinion in Adderley v. Florida ( 1966 ) , controversially upholding a trespassing conviction for protesters who demonstrated on government property . He also dissented from Tinker v. Des Moines ( 1969 ) , in which the Supreme Court ruled that students had the right to wear armbands ( as a form of protest ) in schools , writing ,
While I have always believed that under the First and Fourteenth Amendments neither the State nor the Federal Government has any authority to regulate or censor the content of speech , I have never believed that any person has a right to give speeches or engage in demonstrations where he pleases and when he pleases .
Moreover , Black took a narrow view of what constituted " speech " under the First Amendment ; for him , " conduct " did not deserve the same protections that " speech " did . For example , he did not believe that flag burning was speech ; in Street v. New York ( 1969 ) , he wrote : " It passes my belief that anything in the Federal Constitution bars a State from making the deliberate burning of the American flag an offense . " Similarly , he dissented from Cohen v. California ( 1971 ) , in which the Court held that wearing a jacket emblazoned with the words " Fuck the Draft " was speech protected by the First Amendment . He asserted that this activity " was mainly conduct , and little speech . "
As a Justice , Black held the view that the Court should literally enforce constitutional guarantees , especially the First Amendment free speech clause . He was often labeled an ‘ activist ’ because of his willingness to review legislation that arguably violated constitutional provisions . Black maintained that literalism was necessary to cabin judicial power .
For these reasons , he was one of the dissenting votes in the case of George Anastaplo who was prohibited from the Illinois Bar because he refused to denounce communists and refused to give a testimony of his political ideology . Black is quoted as stating :
Anastaplo has not indicated , even remotely , a belief that this country is an oppressive one in which the ' right of revolution ' should be exercised . Quite the contrary , the entire course of his life , as disclosed by the record , has been one of devotion and service to his country — first , in his willingness to defend its security at the risk of his own life in time of war and , later , in his | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
-@ West ( born 9 April 1971 ) is an English former professional footballer who played as a striker .
Fortune @-@ West started his career with Eastern Counties League side Tiptree United , and played for four more non @-@ League sides before securing a move into the Football League with Gillingham in July 1995 . He finished his first season with them as top scorer , and had several short stints with other League clubs before joining Cardiff City , where he played for three seasons . He played for the side as they achieved two promotions , but left on a free transfer .
Fortune @-@ West spent three seasons with Doncaster Rovers , winning promotion in his first , but was released in 2006 . He then moved back into non @-@ League football with Rushden & Diamonds , but soon made loan returns to the League with Torquay United and Shrewsbury Town . Fortune @-@ West joined Cambridge United in August 2007 before starting a spell on loan with York City in January 2008 . He then had spells further down the pyramid with Alfreton Town , North Ferriby United , Goole and Armthorpe Welfare .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career in non @-@ League football = = =
Fortune @-@ West was born on 9 April 1971 in Stratford , London and grew up as a supporter of Leyton Orient . He started his football career in non @-@ League football with Tiptree United in the Eastern Counties League aged 17 , with whom he played one season , filling the roles of full @-@ back , centre @-@ back and striker . He moved onto Bishop 's Stortford and joined Dartford in the season they went out of business . A period at Dagenham & Redbridge followed this before he signed for Stevenage Borough in the Football Conference in 1994 . He scored 7 goals in 17 league appearances for Stevenage in 1994 – 95 , after which he moved into the Football League with Gillingham on 12 July 1995 . The fee of £ 5 @,@ 000 was raised for the cash @-@ strapped Kent club by its Supporters ' Club . Becoming a full @-@ time professional necessitated giving up a degree course at the University of Greenwich .
= = = Football League = = =
Fortune @-@ West 's first season at Gillingham , 1995 – 96 , saw him score in each of his first three league matches . He was Gillingham 's top scorer with 15 goals from 45 appearances , as the club earned promotion into the Second Division as Third Division runners @-@ up . Having made eight appearances and scored three goals for Gillingham during 1996 – 97 , he joined Leyton Orient on loan in March 1997 until the end of the season , making three appearances . He signed for Second Division side Lincoln City on a free transfer in June 1998 , and after making 11 appearances and scoring 1 goal , was loaned out to Rotherham United in the Third Division . He scored four goals in five appearances during a one @-@ month loan spell , before Brentford signed him for a £ 60 @,@ 000 fee in November 1998 . His debut for Brentford came in a 2 – 1 away defeat to Leyton Orient on 21 November 1998 , and scored 1 goal in 15 appearances , before returning to Rotherham for a fee of £ 35 @,@ 000 in February 1999 .
He scored 8 goals in 17 appearances as Rotherham made the Third Division play @-@ offs , which saw them lose to Leyton Orient in a penalty shoot @-@ out in the semi @-@ final . The 1999 – 2000 season saw Fortune @-@ West finish as Rotherham 's top scorer with 17 goals in 43 appearances , while the club won promotion into the Second Division as Third Division runners @-@ up . After a month into 2000 – 01 , he joined Cardiff City of the Third Division for a fee of £ 300 @,@ 000 on 11 September 2000 . They earned promotion into the Second Division as Third Division runners @-@ up , and he scored 13 goals from 41 appearances over the season . By the end of the season , Cardiff 's rivals Swansea City were believed to be ready to make an attempt at signing Fortune @-@ West . He scored Cardiff 's second goal in their play @-@ off semi @-@ final first leg match against Stoke City , which finished as a 2 – 1 away victory in April 2002 . However , after featuring in a 2 – 0 home defeat in the second leg , Cardiff missed out on making the final , losing 3 – 2 on aggregate . He finished 2001 – 02 with 44 appearances and 11 goals . He earned a second promotion with Cardiff in 2002 – 03 after they won the play @-@ offs , but was released following the completion of this season , in which he made 28 appearances and scored 4 goals .
Bristol Rovers denied that they were interested in signing Fortune @-@ West in June 2003 , before Doncaster Rovers of the Third Division signed him on a two @-@ year contract . His first season with the club , 2003 – 04 , saw him score 12 goals in 43 appearances as they won the Third Division championship , earning a place in the Second Division . During this season , he formed a strike partnership with Gregg Blundell . Fortune @-@ West suffered a knee injury caused by wear and tear to the knee joint in October 2004 , which resulted in him undergoing surgery , and he returned to the side in March 2005 . He was to be offered a new deal in April 2005 and finished the season with 7 goals in 28 appearances . The 2005 – 06 season was his last with Doncaster , as he was released after scoring 4 goals in 33 appearances .
= = = Rushden & Diamonds and Shrewsbury Town = = =
He returned into non @-@ League football after he signed for Conference National club Rushden & Diamonds in June 2006 on a two @-@ year contract . He joined Torquay United of League Two on loan in September 2006 as cover for the injured Mickey Evans , but was recalled by Rushden due to an injury crisis in early November 2006 . He had made five appearances for Torquay . Days later , he signed for another League Two team , Shrewsbury Town , originally on a two @-@ month loan deal . His Shrewsbury debut came as a 60th @-@ minute substitute in a 2 – 0 away defeat to Milton Keynes Dons on 18 November 2006 , after hoping he would be able to play in the FA Cup tie against Hereford United . The loan was extended to the end of 2006 – 07 in January 2007 . Following Shrewsbury 's 2 – 0 home win over Notts County in February 2007 , manager Gary Peters referred to Fortune @-@ West as ' Ronseal ' , as he does " exactly what it says on the tin " . His final appearance for Shrewsbury came in the 2007 League Two play @-@ off Final against Bristol Rovers at Wembley Stadium on 26 May 2007 , coming on as a substitute in the 80th @-@ minute , as Shrewsbury lost 3 – 1 . With the season over , Fortune @-@ West returned to his parent club Rushden , who he left by mutual consent in August 2007 .
= = = Return to non @-@ League football = = =
He signed for Conference Premier team Cambridge United in August 2007 after playing for them in a pre @-@ season friendly . He started his Cambridge career by scoring four goals in the first three matches , which included a hat @-@ trick in their 5 – 1 home victory over Farsley Celtic on 21 August 2007 . He was named as the Conference Premier Player of the Month for August 2007 . He signed for Conference Premier rivals York City on loan until the end of 2007 – 08 on 31 January 2008 , after which he said he was looking to sign for the club permanently in the summer . He scored on his debut , a 2 – 0 home win over Grays Athletic after coming on as a 46th @-@ minute substitute for Richard Brodie on 9 February 2008 . He started ahead of Brodie in the following matches against Halifax Town and Histon , but struggled during these matches . Cambridge attempted to recall him from his loan in March 2008 , but league rules meant that he would not be able to return . He returned to Cambridge following the expiration of his loan spell at York in April 2008 , in which he made 13 appearances and scored 2 goals . He featured in Cambridge 's play @-@ off semi @-@ final second leg 2 – 1 home win over Burton Albion ; this result meant the team reached the final 4 – 3 on aggregate . He came on for the last fifteen minutes of the final against Exeter City at Wembley Stadium on 18 May 2008 , but Cambridge lost 1 – 0 . He was released by the club in May 2008 after making 33 appearances and scoring 7 goals .
On 11 June 2008 , Fortune @-@ West joined Conference North outfit Alfreton Town on a one @-@ year contract for 2008 – 09 . He made his debut in a 3 – 2 home victory over Hyde United on 9 August 2008 and scored two headers late on in the following match , a 2 – 2 away draw with Solihull Moors . He scored a 61st @-@ minute equaliser with a close range header at home to Bury Town in the FA Cup first round on 8 November 2008 , bringing the score to 2 – 2 , which eventually finished as a 4 – 2 victory , seeing Alfreton progress to the second round . After struggling to affirm a place in the team , he was released by Alfreton on 28 January 2009 . He signed for North Ferriby United of the Northern Premier League Premier Division , and made his debut as a 65th @-@ minute substitute in a 4 – 0 away defeat to Nantwich Town on 28 February 2009 . Fortune @-@ West joined Northern Premier League Division One South club Goole in July 2009 , debuting in a 1 – 1 home draw with Carlton Town on 15 August 2009 . In November 2010 , he joined Northern Counties East League Premier Division side Armthorpe Welfare . He became player @-@ manager of Armthorpe in May 2012 , following the resignation of long @-@ term boss Des Bennett . On 4 April 2013 , he resigned from his position .
= = Personal life = =
Fortune @-@ West has two nephews who are professional footballers ; Clayton Fortune and Jonathan Fortune . He married Radmila Cvijetinovic in Tower Hamlets , London in June 1996 , and the couple had a child in 2000 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Honours = =
Doncaster Rovers
Football League Third Division : 2003 – 04
= You 're Getting Old =
" You 're Getting Old " is the seventh episode and the mid @-@ season finale of the fifteenth season of the American animated television series South Park , and the 216th episode of the series overall . It first aired on Comedy Central in the United States on June 8 , 2011 . In the episode , Stan begins to develop a profound sense of cynicism after celebrating his tenth birthday . Meanwhile , Randy latches onto a new music genre , " tween wave , " in an attempt to fit in , which causes problems in his marriage with Sharon .
The episode was written by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker and was produced at the end of the show 's " spring " run . He and co @-@ creator Matt Stone had created the idea of Stan 's existential crisis as a parallel with their own real @-@ life aging . " You 're Getting Old " ends abruptly ; Stan 's parents separate and his problem remains unresolved . The conclusion was inspired by modern television dramas , which are often serialized and are less likely to have the standard " happy ending . " The episode created significant media attention , and was interpreted by some critics as a metaphor for the frustration experienced by creators Parker and Stone stemming from the show 's continued production .
The episode received very positive reviews from contemporary television critics , who praised the episode 's ending and overarching theme on growing older . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was seen by 2 @.@ 29 million viewers the week it was broadcast . The episode 's ending is continued in the mid @-@ season premiere , " Ass Burgers " , which aired in October 2011 . " You 're Getting Old " was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray along with the rest of the fifteenth season on March 27 , 2012 .
= = Plot = =
At Stan 's tenth birthday party , his present from Kyle is the latest CD from a " tween wave " band , but Sharon forbids Stan to listen to the CD and promptly takes it away . After Randy argues with Sharon over the matter , he decides to sit down and listen to the CD ( which , to the viewer and the adults , is the sound of drum beats and defecation ) . Randy claims to enjoy the CD , but Sharon does not believe him . As tween wave music becomes popular , Sharon and the other boys ' parents forbid them from listening to any of it , and try to play for them The Police 's song " Every Breath You Take " as an example of what they consider to be good music . To the boys and the viewer , however , it literally sounds like people defecating on the soundtrack , just as the " tween wave " music is presented as sounding to the adults . That night , Stan secretly listens to the confiscated music but discovers , to his confusion , that it now " sounds like shit " .
Stan goes to the doctor , who , after examining him , diagnoses him as a " cynical asshole " . From ice cream to movie trailers , Stan can now only see the bad in things , and this negative outlook alienates him from Kyle , Kenny , and Cartman , who begin avoiding him . When Stan catches them secretly going to the movies without him after lying about having the flu , he comes along , only for his attitude to ruin the trailers and Kyle , Kenny , and Cartman leave the theater . Cartman then coldly informs Stan that they do not want to hang out with him anymore and leaves with Kenny . As Stan and Kyle argue over this , Stan literally sees Kyle as a large piece of feces that defecates instead of talking , indicating that he sees them as " shit " .
Sharon accuses Randy of merely feigning interest in modern music in order to hold onto his childhood dreams of being a musician , and deny that he is getting older . Randy , however , ignores her , and starts performing tween wave music at the local bowling alley under the name " Steamy Ray Vaughn " , with defecation as part of the act . During a duet with a woman billing herself as " Steamy Nicks " , Sharon catches Randy at the bowling alley , resulting in an argument . She excoriates him for the various schemes and fads that he has often briefly taken with over the years , such as getting into fights at baseball games , playing World of Warcraft , and becoming a celebrity chef , but Randy reveals that he is unhappy , and has been for a long time . The two agree that while they are both unhappy , they do not feel the same about each other any more . Two old farmers , who previously watched Randy perform , overhear the argument and break into the Marshes ' home to steal Randy 's underwear , believing that they are acting humanely on its behalf .
As Fleetwood Mac 's song " Landslide " plays , Sharon and Randy separate and sell their house , with Stan , Sharon and older sibling Shelly moving into a new home . The police arrest the farmers and recover Randy 's underwear . A new friendship appears to develop between Kyle and Cartman , who share a smile while playing video games together . Stan , now completely alienated from his friends , shows no signs of his cynicism ending .
= = Production = =
" You 're Getting Old " was the final episode of the spring run , which contained the first seven episodes of South Park 's fifteenth season . The first element of the episode 's plot line to be crafted was Stan 's tenth birthday and his feeling of getting old , as a reference to Parker and Stone 's own aging ( at the time of the episode 's broadcast , Stone had just turned 40 and Parker was 41 ) . They decided to make a two @-@ part episode , with the second half airing at the beginning of the fall run , set to begin in October 2011 . Parker and Stone did not write the second part until they reconvened in the fall .
Another idea from which the episode was crafted was the fictional " tween wave " genre : initially , the episode would have found the genre enjoyed by all citizens of the town of South Park , not just a younger audience . By Sunday , completed animated shots were being edited together and set to the song " Landslide " by Fleetwood Mac . The song 's use in the episode was unsure until Tuesday night , when they eventually received clearance to use it . Parker noted later that they had backup songs to use if necessary , but none fit as well as " Landslide " . They were very satisfied with the ending , feeling it provided a very emotional conclusion to the show . In addition , the episodes contains what Parker describes in the commentary as " our favorite thing of any South Park ever " : the Duck President , who communicates by spraying feces from his mouth . " Every time in the retake room when Duck President was on , shitting , quacking and shitting , we just thought it was the greatest thing ever , " he remarked .
The dialogue between Sharon and Randy that would provoke significant attention was not scripted until Tuesday morning , less than 48 hours prior to broadcast , and was one of the last completed parts of the show . Parker likened the scene to an afterthought , as he felt it was not necessarily central to the episode 's story .
= = Themes = =
The episode 's top theme has been described as " universal and timeless , but also specific and personal : growing up and dealing with change . " The episode makes it clear that Stan 's pre @-@ adolescent battle with cynicism is not necessarily representative of all " tweens " ; one reviewer described the character 's problem as more common to depression . The episode also mocks how " cynical culture breeds cynical audiences , " typified in the " contemptuous trailers " for predictable films during the scene set at the cinema , which often end with the insult " Fuck you ! " Sean O 'Neal , in the episode 's review at The A.V. Club , linked the episode 's theme to modern culture : " The Internet has turned nearly everyone into a cynic . " Time reviewer James Poniewozik disagreed with his assessment , but did note that " there 's definitely an argument that the instant dissection of all experience online encourages a kind of protective dismissiveness . " The episode was also interpreted as a satire of immediate online responses from fans , who criticize South Park as stale but continue to watch regardless .
South Park generally ends on a positive note and " resets " upon the next episode , in which way it is connected to traditional television sitcoms , as it does not serialize or employ story arcs with frequency . An example of this format is best characteristic of the show 's early years , in which the character of Kenny was killed in each episode . In contrast , the stark , abrupt ending of " You 're Getting Old " was inspired by modern television dramas , in which events can go poorly , and the episode ends regardless . The character of Sharon references this in one of the episode 's final moments , criticizing , on a meta level , the show 's form and reliance on " happy endings . " Stone likened this structure to an " immature view of the world " : he remarks in the episode 's DVD commentary that things do not often end on a " happy " note in real @-@ life . Likewise , the dialogue between Sharon and Randy near the end of the episode functions as a meta @-@ comment on the show 's general form , which is consequently broken .
A central element of the episode ’ s plot line concerns the fictional " tween wave " genre of music , which consists of audible flatulence and defecation in a literal sense . In the episode , children love tween wave while adults are generally repelled by it ; this joke serves as a commentary on generation gaps . In this sense , Parker related it to the plot line of the Hans Christian Andersen short story " The Emperor 's New Clothes " . Reviewers interpreted the episode 's use of literal feces as just a simple example of the show 's use of scatological humor , but also a comment on the dismissiveness of things vulgarly described as " crap " or " shit . " Alan Sepinwall of HitFix interpreted the final dialogue as a criticism of those lacking passion , and also an observation on the show 's recurring philosophy , which he described as the exact opposite : " how other people care too much about things , and that many of our big problems and scandals would go away if everyone could just relax and feel less passionate . "
= = Cultural references = =
The episode makes a reference to the 2011 films Mr. Popper 's Penguins and Jack and Jill , the latter an Adam Sandler comedy notable for its extremely poor reception . Its inclusion in the episode was actually based off the film 's trailer . Reviewers suggested various different musical genres as the " tween wave " genre parodied in the episode , including dubstep , crabcore , and chillwave . In addition , prior to the episode 's broadcast , Todd Martens of the Los Angeles Times predicted " tween wave " would be a spoof of the hip hop group Odd Future , who were also receiving heavy media attention at that time . In his desperate attempt to fit in with popular music , Stan 's father , Randy , forms his own tween wave act : " Steamy Ray Vaughan , " a pun on the blues guitarist Stevie Ray Vaughan , who collaborates with singer " Steamy Nicks , " a pun on Stevie Nicks , vocalist from Fleetwood Mac . The episode also makes reference to the 2011 video game L.A. Noire .
= = Reception = =
= = = Media coverage = = =
Comedy Central 's press release prior to the airing of the episode alluded to its significance , stating : " After Stan celebrates his 10th birthday , he begins to see everything differently ... The very fabric of South Park begins to unravel . " Coinciding with production and performance of the Broadway musical The Book of Mormon produced by the South Park creators , there had been speculation over doubt within the writing team on the future of South Park . Following the episode 's broadcast , it received significant media attention due to its ending and themes . Much of the conversation centered on the final scene of dialogue between the Marshes , with Entertainment Weekly noting it could be " a not @-@ so @-@ thinly @-@ veiled way of Stone and Parker telling us they had a similar discussion about their very show . " Critics pointed to a March 2011 profile in The Hollywood Reporter , in which they spoke at how they dreaded to return to producing South Park : " I don 't know how we 're going to do it . It 's a nightmare . " " Knowing that Parker and Stone have been experiencing a bit of an existential crisis or even just restlessness definitely made tonight seem unusually thematically heavy , " remarked Sean O 'Neal of The A.V. Club .
Parker and Stone were in New York to attend the 65th Tony Awards , when they were requested for interviews and had to answer questions at press junkets regarding the episode . On June 15 , 2011 , Parker and Stone appeared on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart , where they denied being unhappy with the show and stated that they still enjoy producing episodes . Parker commented that , while the episode did deal with some issues they had with the show , they particularly enjoyed creating " You 're Getting Old " , and that despite not knowing what upcoming episodes would be about , they would figure it out upon resuming production in August 2011 . " Looking back at it , it kinda does look like we ’ re kinda saying we don 't want to do this anymore , but it 's not really what we were saying , " said Parker in the episode 's DVD commentary .
= = = Critical reception = = =
In its original American broadcast on June 8 , 2011 , " You 're Getting Old " was watched by 2 @.@ 295 million viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research .
Reaction to " You 're Getting Old " was positive . Critics pointed to the self @-@ referencing aim of the episode in growing older and redefining senses of humor as well as cynicism . While Ramsey Isler of IGN found the episode to be largely humorless and monotonous , he interpreted this as intentional on the part of the show 's creators , who he believed had grown weary of creating the series . Isler called the final moments of the episode " the most somber material the series has ever produced ... providing the emotional soundtrack for a montage of images that just rip the heart out of any South Park fan " , giving the episode an 8 @.@ 5 / 10 . HitFix 's review on the episode focused on its personal philosophic themes , with reviewer Alan Sepinwall stating " But what was interesting about Stan 's existential crisis , and how he struggled to like anything , is that the show 's philosophy has often largely been about how other people care too much about things ... Yet here , Stan 's lack of passion – and the Marsh parents ' – was clearly shown to be a bad thing for them . "
Sean O 'Neal of The A.V. Club commented on the " finality " of the episode , noting that although the creators were still under contract until 2013 , " there are already scores of people questioning on IMDB boards and Twitter whether it was , in fact , a surprise series finale . " O 'Neal saw the use of the Fleetwood Mac song " Landslide " ( the only song in the episode that does not feature the sounds of defecation ) in the episode 's closing moments to have served as " both a parody of a self @-@ serious drama 's season finale and an actual , self @-@ serious , dramatic season finale . " James Poniewozik of Time remarked that the episode moved him to tears , commenting that it is " one of those episodes that managed to combine the many different things lesser South Park episodes do individually : pop @-@ culture parody , scatological hilarity and stories about childhood . " He described the dialogue between the Marshes as “ stunningly genuine , ” summarizing the episode as " simultaneously one of the most juvenile episodes South Park has ever done , and possibly its most mature . "
In December 2011 Time magazine ranked the episode at # 7 in its list of Top 10 TV Episodes of 2011 , with James Poniewozik commenting , " With no easy wrap @-@ up to Stan 's depression and ending with an entirely unironic montage set to ' Landslide ' , South Park showed that it too can grow up — if , thankfully , not by much . "
= Captain Future ( magazine ) =
Captain Future was a science fiction pulp magazine launched in 1940 by Better Publications , and edited initially by Mort Weisinger . It featured the adventures of Captain Future , a super @-@ scientist whose real name was Curt Newton , in every issue . All but two of the novels in the magazine were written by Edmond Hamilton ; the other two were by Joseph Samachson . The magazine also published other stories that had nothing to do with the title character , including Fredric Brown 's first science fiction sale , " Not Yet the End " . Captain Future published unabashed space opera , and was , in the words of science fiction historian Mike Ashley , " perhaps the most juvenile " of the science fiction pulps to appear in the early years of World War II . Wartime paper shortages eventually led to the magazine 's cancellation : the last issue was dated Spring 1944 .
= = Publication history and contents = =
Although science fiction ( sf ) had been published before the 1920s , it did not begin to coalesce into a separately marketed genre until the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories , a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . By the end of the 1930s , the field was booming . Better Publications , a pulp magazine publisher which had acquired Thrilling Wonder Stories in 1936 , launched three new magazines as part of this boom . The first two were Startling Stories , which appeared in January 1939 , and Strange Stories , which began the following month ; both were edited by Mort Weisinger , who was also the editor of Thrilling Wonder Stories . Edmond Hamilton , an established science fiction writer , met with Leo Margulies , Better Publication 's editorial director , in early 1939 , and they subsequently planned the launch of a new magazine with the lead character of Curt Newton , a super @-@ scientist who lived on the moon and went by the name " Captain Future " . Margulies announced the new magazine at the first World Science Fiction Convention , held in New York in July 1939 , and the first issue , edited by Weisinger , appeared in January of the following year . Captain Future 's companions in the series included an enormously strong robot named Grag , an android named Otho , and the brain of Simon Wright , Newton 's mentor . Joan Randall , Newton 's girlfriend , was also a regular character . Better Publications followed up the magazine launch with a companion comic , Startling Comics , which appeared in May 1940 ; Captain Future was the protagonist of the lead story . Weisinger left in 1941 to edit comics following the adventures of Superman , and was replaced by Oscar J. Friend .
Captain Future was a hero pulp : these were pulps which were built around a central character , with every issue containing a lead story featuring that character . Every issue of Captain Future contained a novel about Curt Newton . Hamilton was willing to write the lead novel for every issue , but was concerned that he might be drafted , so Margulies made arrangements for other writers to contribute the lead stories . Hamilton escaped the draft , but Margulies had already made arrangements for other writers to work on the series , and so two of the seventeen lead novels in the magazine were written by Joseph Samachson , instead of by Hamilton . The house name " Brett Sterling " was invented to conceal the identity of the new writer ; it was used for both of Samachson 's contributions , as well as some of Hamilton 's . Hamilton also wrote regular features that provided background material on the stories : " Worlds of Tomorrow " provided information about the planets featured in the stories , and " The Futuremen " covered Newton 's companions . In addition to the novels about Curt Newton , Captain Future published both new and reprinted science fiction stories that were unconnected with the lead character . Fredric Brown 's first sf sale , " Not Yet the End " , appeared in the Winter 1941 issue ; and Weisinger reprinted David H. Keller 's The Human Termites and Laurence Manning 's The Man Who Awoke , both abridged , in the first few issues of the magazine ; these had originally appeared in 1929 and 1933 , respectively , and were from back issues of Wonder Stories , which Better Publications had acquired the rights to in 1936 . The magazine was unashamedly focused on straightforward space opera : a typical plot saw Captain Future and his friends save the solar system , or perhaps the entire universe , from a villain . Sf historian Mike Ashley describes the magazine as " perhaps the most juvenile " of the World War II crop of science fiction pulps . Wartime paper shortages killed the magazine in mid @-@ 1944 , but more Captain Future novels saw print in Startling Stories , some over the next two years , with more following in 1950 and 1951 .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Captain Future was pulp format , 128 pages , and was priced at 15 cents ; the first seven issues were edited by Mort Weisinger , and the remaining ten by Oscar J. Friend . There were three issues to a volume . The schedule was quarterly , with one omission : there was no Fall 1943 issue . The publisher was Better Publications , with offices in Chicago and New York , for all issues . The magazine was subtitled " Wizard of Science " for the first four issues ; after that the subtitle was " Man of Tomorrow " , a name that had already been used by the Superman franchise for their hero .
Thirteen Captain Future novels were reprinted as paperbacks at the end of the 1960s , all by Popular Library . Ten of these , all printed in 1969 , were originally printed in Captain Future as follows :
= Široka Kula massacre =
The Široka Kula massacre was the killing of 41 civilians in the village of Široka Kula near Gospić , Croatia during the Croatian War of Independence . The killings began on 13 October 1991 and continued until late October . They were perpetrated by the Croatian Serb SAO Krajina police and generally targeted ethnic Croat civilians in Široka Kula . Several victims were ethnic Serbs suspected by the police of collaboration with Croatian authorities . Most of the victims ' bodies were thrown into the Golubnjača Pit , a nearby karst cave .
Thirteen individuals were charged and tried in connection with the killings , four were convicted in absentia in Belgrade . The other eleven were tried and convicted in absentia in Gospić . One of the those convicted by Gospić County Court subsequently returned to Croatia , where he was granted a retrial and acquitted . A monument dedicated to the victims of the massacre was built in the village in 2003 .
= = Background = =
In August 1990 , an insurrection took place in Croatia centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas , including parts of Lika , around the city of Gospić , with significant Serb populations . The areas were subsequently named SAO Krajina and , after declaring its intention to integrate with Serbia , the Government of Croatia declared it to be a rebellion . By March 1991 , the conflict escalated into the Croatian War of Independence . In June 1991 , Croatia declared its independence as Yugoslavia disintegrated . A three @-@ month moratorium followed , after which the decision came into effect on 8 October .
As the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) increasingly supported the SAO Krajina , the Croatian Police were unable to cope . Thus , the Croatian National Guard ( ZNG ) was formed in May 1991 . The development of the military of Croatia was hampered by a UN arms embargo introduced in September , while the military conflict in Croatia continued to escalate — the Battle of Vukovar started on 26 August . By the end of August the fighting intensified in Lika as well , specifically as the Battle of Gospić continued through much of September .
= = Killings = =
SAO Krajina forces occupied the village of Široka Kula in September 1991 . The village was located 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 miles ) northeast of Gospić in Lika . It had an ethnically mixed prewar population of 536 consisting of Croats and Serbs , but most of the Croat population fled by the end of the month .
On 13 October , the chief of the SAO Krajina police in Široka Kula instructed the remaining Croats in the village to move to two houses before they were evacuated . After the civilians complied with the request , SAO Krajina forces shot at the assembled villagers , while houses owned by Croats were looted and torched by a mob . The attack resulted in thirteen civilian deaths . The victims were killed using shotguns and their bodies thrown into burning houses . Some of the victims were burned to death . Most of those killed were elderly , and at least one of the victims was a child . In the following days , the killings continued . According to a 2013 news report , a total of 41 civilians were killed in the village that month , and most of the corpses thrown into the Golubnjača Pit , 22 of which were retrieved from the karst cave as of 2011 . In November 1992 , Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) police estimated that the bodies of approximately forty Croat civilians were thrown into the pit .
In mid @-@ October , SAO Krajina police arrested four Serbian civilians in Široka Kula , Mane Rakić and his three children for allegedly collaborating with Croatian authorities . During the night of 20 / 21 October , the police searched Rakić 's home , and then killed his wife in another house in Široka Kula . Her body was doused with kerosene and torched . By the end of the month , Rakić and his children were also murdered and their remains thrown into the Golubnjača Pit .
= = Aftermath = =
Five SAO Krajina police officers were prosecuted by Knin District Court in 1992 for the murder of the Rakić family . The investigation was spurred on by requests from relatives of the victims , who threatened the RSK authorities that they would notify the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) unless the RSK authorities continued searching , which led Đuro Kresović , president of Knin District Court to write to the Minister of the Interior of the RSK asking for instructions on how to proceed , stating that any attempt to retrieve the bodies of the Rakić family would uncover numerous other bodies in the Golubnjača Pit . He requested instructions on how to proceed with the investigation and what to do if the UNPROFOR found out about the bodies in the pit . Even though the RSK investigation was completed , trial of those suspected of involvement in the murders did not begin before 2010 in Belgrade . The trial and the appeals process were concluded in 2013 , resulting in four convictions : Čedo Budisavljević was sentenced to thirteen years in prison , while Mirko Malinović , Milan Bogunović and Bogdan Gruičić were sentenced to twelve , ten , and eight years in prison respectively .
In 1994 , the County Court in Gospić tried and convicted in absentia a group of seven Croatian Serbs for their involvement in the killings of eight civilians ( members of the Nikšić and Orešković families , but not the Rakić family ) in Široka Kula , handing out prison sentences . Nikola Zagorac , Miroslav Serdar and Dragan Vunjak were sentenced to 20 years in prison each , while Dane Serdar , Dušan Uzelac , Milorad Barać and Dragan Uzelac each received sentences of 15 years in prison . In 1997 , the County Court in Gospić also tried Vladimir Korica and Branko Banjeglav in absentia for taking part in the massacre . Both of them were convicted and sentenced to 12 years in prison . None of those convicted in absentia served any prison time . Dane Serdar voluntarily returned to Croatia in September 2003 and was granted a retrial as he had been convicted in absentia . Dane Serdar 's 1994 conviction was overturned and he was acquitted in September 2004 , after prosecution failed to present sufficient evidence against him .
A monument to the victims of the massacre , as well as 164 World War II victims from the area of Široka Kula , was built in 2003 . The monument , designed by Petar Dolić and named the Croatian History Portal ( Portal hrvatske povijesti ) , was unveiled by the relatives of those killed in the 1991 massacre on 13 October , marking the 12th anniversary of the killings .
= Glad ( duke ) =
Glad ( Bulgarian : Глад , Hungarian : Galád , Romanian : Glad , Serbian : Глад ) was the ruler of Banat ( in present @-@ day Romania and Serbia ) at the time of the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin around 900 AD , according to the Gesta Hungarorum . The Gesta , which was written by an author known in modern scholarship as Anonymus in the second half of the 12th century or in the early 13th century , is the earliest extant Hungarian chronicle . The Gesta did not refer to the enemies of the conquering Hungarians ( or Magyars ) , who had been mentioned in earlier annals and chronicles , but wrote of a dozen persons , including Glad , who are unknown from other primary sources of the Hungarian Conquest . Therefore , modern historians debate whether Glad was an actual enemy of the conquerors or only a " fictitious person " made up by Anonymus . In Romanian historiography , Glad is described as one of the three Romanian dukes who ruled a historical region of present @-@ day Romania in the early 10th century .
According to the Gesta , Glad came from Vidin in Bulgaria . He occupied Banat with the assistance of " Cumans " before the arrival of the Magyars . Anonymus wrote that Cumans , Bulgarians , and Vlachs ( or Romanians ) , supported Glad against the invading Magyars , but the latter annihilated their united army in a battle near the Timiș River . The Gesta presents Ahtum , who ruled Banat in the early 11th century , according to the longer version of the Life of St Gerard , as Glad 's descendant .
= = Background = =
The earliest record of the Magyars ( or Hungarians ) is connected to their alliance with the Bulgars against a group of Byzantine prisoners who were planning to cross the Lower Danube in an attempt to return to their homeland around 837 AD . They dwelled in the steppes north and northwest of the Black Sea . A group of rebellious subjects of the Khazar Khaganate , known as Kabars , joined them , according to the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus . The Annals of St. Bertin states that the Magyars launched their first military expedition against the Carolingian Empire in 861 .
The Magyars invaded Bulgaria in alliance with the Byzantine Empire in 894 . In retaliation , the Bulgars entered into an alliance with the Pechenegs . They jointly invaded the Magyars ' lands , forcing them to leave the Pontic steppes and cross the Carpathian Mountains in search of a new homeland . In the Carpathian Basin , the Magyars " roamed in the wildernesses of the Pannonians and Avars " before attacking " the lands of the Carinthians , Moravians and Bulgars " , according to the contemporaneous Regino of Prüm .
The Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin is the principal subject of the Gesta Hungarorum , which is the earliest extant Hungarian chronicle . Most scholars agree that a notary of Béla III of Hungary , who ruled between 1173 and 1196 , wrote the Gesta after the king 's death . According to an alternative theory , the author of the Gesta , who is now known as Anonymus , had served Béla II of Hungary before starting to complete his work around 1150 . Anonymus did not write of Svatopluk I of Moravia , Braslav , Duke of Lower Pannonia and the invading Magyars ' other opponents who had been mentioned in works written in earlier centuries . Neither did he refer to the Magyars ' fights with the Moravians , Franks and Bavarians which had been described in earlier annals and chronicles . On the other hand , Anonymus wrote of local polities and rulers — including Gelou , the Vlach duke of Transylvania , Menumorut , the lord of the regions between the rivers Mureș , Someș and Tisza , and Salanus , the Bulgar ruler of the lands between the Danube and the Tisza — unknown from other primary sources .
= = Banat on the eve of the Hungarian Conquest = =
Stirrups , horse bits and spear points from inhumation graves unearthed at Sânpetru German suggest that the Avars settled along the Mureș River in Banat soon after their conquest of the Carpathian Basin in the late 560s . However , most archaeological finds in the lands south of the Mureș that had been attributed to the Avars are dated to the " Late Avar " period . Written sources show the survival of Gepids under Avar rule in the wider region of the Timiș River . For instance , the Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta wrote of " three Gepid settlements " which were destroyed by an invading Byzantine army in 599 or 600 . A rich burial yielding weapons unearthed at Pančevo and the Treasure of Sânnicolau Mare show that an important center of power existed in Banat in the " Late Avar " period , according to archaeologist Florin Curta . However , " Late Avar " cemeteries did not survive the 8th century .
The Franks launched a series of expeditions against the Avar Khaganate in 790s , causing its disintegration . Krum of Bulgaria , who reigned between around 802 and 814 , soon tried to take advantage of the fall of the Avars and invaded former Avar territories , but no contemporaneous report mentioned his conquest in the Carpathian Basin . The Abodrites who lived in " Dacia on the Danube as neighbors of the Bulgars " sent envoys to Emperor Louis the Pious in 824 , complaining " about vicious aggression by the Bulgars " and seeking the emperor 's assistance against them , according to the Royal Frankish Annals . The Abodrites inhabited the lands along either the Timiș or the Tisza . According to a memorial inscription from Provadia , a Bulgar military commander , Onegavonais , drowned in the Tisza , implying Omurtag of Bulgaria 's attempts to expand his rule in the region in the 820s . The Bulgars invaded Moravia in 863 and 883 , suggesting that they controlled at least the crossing @-@ points across the rivers Mureș and Tisza , according to the historian István Bóna .
Bóna writes that the Bavarian Geographer is the last source which contains contemporaneous information of the eastern regions of the Carpathian Basin in the 9th century . According to this source , which is actually a list of the tribes inhabiting the lands east of the Carolingian Empire around 840 , the Merehani , who had 30 civitates , or fortified centers , lived along the southernmost parts of the empire 's eastern frontiers . Their land also bordered on Bulgaria . According to an alternative theory of the location of Moravia , which is primarily based on the Bavarian Geographer and Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus 's report of " great Moravia , the unbaptized " , Banat was the center of this early medieval polity , which was annihilated by the conquering Magyars . Archaeologist Silviu Oța identifies the Merehani with the Abodrites , adding that they were obviously a Slavic tribe . The name of the Karaš and other rivers implies that a population speaking a Turkic language — Avar , Bulgar , or Pecheneg — also inhabited the Banat in the Early Middle Ages , but those rivers may have received their names only in the 11th or 12th centuries .
Historian Vlad Georgescu writes that archaeological research has proven the existence of about 60 settlements in Glad 's duchy . Other historians , including Sălăgean and Pop , say that the earth @-@ and @-@ wooden or stone fortresses unearthed at Bulci , Cenad , Ilidia , Orșova , Pescari , and Vladimirescu were Glad 's forts . Florin Curta says that the dating of these sites is uncertain .
= = Anonymus 's narration = =
= = = Glad and his duchy = = =
According to the Gesta Hungarorum , Rus ' princes gave a short description of the Carpathian Basin to the Magyar commanders before they decided to invade the territory . The princes told them that " Slavs , Bulgarians , Vlachs , and the shepherds of the Romans " inhabited the territory . In short , Anonymus continued , one of the princes , the Prince of Halych , also informed the Magyar leaders of the polities among which the territory was divided and their rulers . Among these local rulers , the Rus ' prince listed Glad who had " taken possession of the land from the river Mureș up to the castle " of Ursua ( Orşova or Vršac ) with the help of the Cumans . In another chapter of the Gesta , Anonymus wrote that Glad " held power from the Mureș River to the castle of Palanka " , showing that he identified Glad 's duchy with the territory that is now known as Banat . Anonymus explicitly referred to Glad as " the prince of that country " in the same chapter .
The Gesta did not write of the peoples inhabiting Glad 's duchy . On the other hand , it stated that Glad commanded " a great army of horsemen and foot soldiers " and his army was " supported by Cumans , Bulgarians and Vlachs " . According to Tudor Sălăgean and other Romanian historians , the list of the peoples reflects the one @-@ time ethnic composition of the Banat , showing that a Turkic people ( Pechenegs , Avars or Kabars ) , Bulgarians and Vlachs , or Romanians , inhabited the region in the late 9th century . Historian Victor Spinei writes that Anonymus 's reference to the " Cumans " supporting Glad 's army shows that Glad sought the Pechenegs ' assistance against the invading Magyars .
Anonymus wrote that Glad had come " from the castle of Vidin " and occupied his duchy " with the help of the Cumans " . This report , together with Anonymus 's reference to the Bulgarians ' assistance against the Magyars , suggests that Glad was subjected to Simeon I of Bulgaria , according to Sălăgean . This theory is not accepted by historian Ioan @-@ Aurel Pop , who writes that it is only an " attractive " scholarly hypothesis which has not been proven . Madgearu says that the Banat , which had been an integral part of Bulgaria since the late 820s , became an independent state under Glad 's rule after the death of Simeon I in 927 . Pop also says Anonymus 's reference to Glad 's arrival from Vidin suggest that Glad was either Bulgarian or Romanian , because the region of that town was densely populated by Romanians . The name of Glad is most probably of South Slavic origin , according to Pop and Neagu Djuvara . In connection with Glad , Anonymus also emphasized that " from his line was born " a chieftain , named Ahtum , whom Stephen I of Hungary defeated in the first half of the 11th century , according to the Long Life of Saint Gerard .
= = = The conquest of Banat = = =
According to the Gesta Hungarorum , the Magyars conquered the lands between the Danube and the Tisza , Transylvania , the western regions of present @-@ day Slovakia and Transdanubia before their supreme head , Árpád , and his chieftains decided to send an army to invade Glad 's duchy . They dispatched three commanders — named " Zovárd , Kadocsa , and Vajta " — with the task . The three commanders crossed the Tisza at Kanjiža and halted at the Csesztreg River before advancing as far as the Bega River . In the next two weeks , they forced the inhabitants of the region between the Mureș and Someș to yield and to give their sons as hostages . Thereafter , Anonymus continued , the Magyar army marched towards the Timiș and " encamped beside the ford of Foeni " where they wanted to cross the river . However , Glad and his large army awaited them on the other bank . A day later , Zovárd " enjoined his brother , Kadocsa , to go lower down with half his army and try to cross in any way in order to attack the enemy " , and Kadocsa obeyed this command . Both divisions crossed the river and stormed the enemy camp . In the battle , " two dukes of the Cumans and three kneses of the Bulgarians were slain " before Glad decided to retreat , but his army was annihilated .
Anonymus writes that Glad took shelter in " the castle of Kovin " , while the Magyars marched to " the borders of the Bulgarians " and encamped at the Ponjavica River . Zovárd , Kadocsa and Vajta laid siege to Kovin , forcing Glad to surrender it three days later . In short , they also seized Orșova where they lived " for a whole month " , according to the Gesta . Vajta returned to Árpád , taking with him the hostages and the booty , while Zovárd and Kadocsa sent an envoy to Árpád to ask permission to invade the Byzantine Empire . Ioan @-@ Aurel Pop writes that Glad must have survived his defeat and recovered at least parts of his duchy in exchange for paying a tribute to the Magyars , because his descendant , Ahtum , ruled the territory some decades later , according to Anonymus .
= = Glad in modern historiography = =
Glad is one of the local rulers who are mentioned only in the Gesta Hungarorum . Historians have continuously debated the reliability of Anonymus 's work which was first published in 1746 . Anonymus 's reference to the Cumans , Bulgarians and Vlachs supporting Glad is one of the key points in the scholarly debate , because the Cumans did not arrive in Europe before the 1050s . Vlad Georgescu , Victor Spinei , Ioan @-@ Aurel Pop and many other Romanian historians identify the " Cumans " , or Cumani , as Pechenegs , Avars or Kabars , saying that the Hungarian word that Anonymus translated as " Cuman " ( kun ) originally dubbed any Turkic tribe . According to other historians , including Dennis Deletant , György Györffy and Carlile Aylmer Macartney , Anonymus 's reference to the three peoples is an anachronism , which reflects the ethnic composition of the late 13th @-@ century Bulgaria .
In Romanian historiography , Glad is presented as one of the three local " voivodes " who ruled territories inhabited by Romanians at the time of the Hungarian Conquest . Madgearu and Pop list almost a dozen place @-@ names from the Banat and its wider region which suggest that settlements were named after Glad . For instance , a village named Cladova ( formerly Galadua ) and a monastery named Galad were first mentioned in 1308 and 1333 , respectively , and an Ottoman document from 1579 referred to two villages named Gladeš and a settlement named Kladova . Silviu Oța writes that the theory of a connection between Glad and the name of those settlements is " considerably weak " , because neither the origins nor the chronology of those place names have so far been thoroughly studied . Oţa also says , " the historical geography of the Banat is reflected quite accurately in the chronicle " , which suggests that Anonymus knew the geographical features of the region , but does not prove that Glad was a real person . According to Györffy and other historians , Anonymus who invented all local rulers in the Gesta named Glad after the village where the monastery was built . Deletant , Macartney and other scholars also say that Anonymus seems to have borrowed many episodes of his narrative of Glad ( including his connection with Vidin ) from the story of his alleged descendant , Ahtum , in the Long Life of Saint Gerard .
= RNA thermometer =
An RNA thermometer ( or RNA thermosensor ) is a temperature @-@ sensitive non @-@ coding RNA molecule which regulates gene expression . RNA thermometers often regulate genes required during either a heat shock or cold shock response , but have been implicated in other regulatory roles such as in pathogenicity and starvation .
In general , RNA thermometers operate by changing their secondary structure in response to temperature fluctuations . This structural transition can then expose or occlude important regions of RNA such as a ribosome binding site , which then affects the translation rate of a nearby protein @-@ coding gene .
RNA thermometers , along with riboswitches , are used as examples in support of the RNA world hypothesis . This theory proposes that RNA was once the sole nucleic acid present in cells , and was replaced by the current DNA → RNA → protein system .
Examples of RNA thermometers include FourU , the Hsp90 cis @-@ regulatory element , the ROSE element and the Hsp17 thermometer .
= = Discovery = =
The first temperature @-@ sensitive RNA element was reported in 1989 . Prior to this research , mutations upstream from the transcription start site in a lambda ( λ ) phage cIII mRNA were found to affect the level of translation of the cIII protein . This protein is involved in selection of either a lytic or lysogenic life cycle in λ phage , with high concentrations of cIII promoting lysogeny . Further study of this upstream RNA region identified two alternative secondary structures ; experimental study found the structures to be interchangeable , and dependent on both magnesium ion concentration and temperature . This RNA thermometer is now thought to encourage entry to a lytic cycle under heat stress in order for the bacteriophage to rapidly replicate and escape the host cell .
The term " RNA thermometer " was not coined until 1999 , when it was applied to the rpoH RNA element identified in Escherichia coli . More recently , bioinformatics searches have been employed to uncover several novel candidate RNA thermometers . Traditional sequence @-@ based searches are inefficient , however , as the secondary structure of the element is much more conserved than the nucleic acid sequence .
= = Distribution = =
Most known RNA thermometers are located in the 5 ' untranslated region ( UTR ) of messenger RNA encoding heat shock proteins — though it has been suggested this fact may be due , in part , to sampling bias and inherent difficulties of detecting short , unconserved RNA sequences in genomic data .
Though predominantly found in prokaryotes , a potential RNA thermometer has been found in mammals including humans . The candidate thermosensor heat shock RNA @-@ 1 ( HSR1 ) activates heat @-@ shock transcription factor 1 ( HSF1 ) and induces protective proteins when cell temperature exceeds 37 ° C ( body temperature ) , thus preventing the cells from overheating .
= = Structure = =
RNA thermometers are structurally simple and can be made from short RNA sequences ; the smallest is just 44 nucleotides and is found in the mRNA of a heat @-@ shock protein , hsp17 , in Synechocystis species PCC 6803 . Generally these RNA elements range in length from 60 @-@ 110 nucleotides and they typically contain a hairpin with a small number of mismatched base pairs which reduce the stability of the structure , thereby allowing easier unfolding in response to a temperature increase .
Detailed structural analysis of the ROSE RNA thermometer revealed that the mismatched bases are actually engaged in nonstandard basepairing that preserves the helical structure of the RNA ( see figure ) . The unusual basepairs consist of G @-@ G , U @-@ U , and UC @-@ U pairs . Since these noncanonical base pairs are relatively unstable , increased temperature causes local melting of the RNA structure in this region , exposing the Shine @-@ Dalgarno sequence .
Some RNA thermometers are significantly more complex than a single hairpin , as in the case of a region found in CspA mRNA which is thought to contain a pseudoknot , as well as multiple hairpins .
Synthetic RNA thermometers have been designed with just a simple single @-@ hairpin structure . However , the primary sequence of such short RNA thermometers can be sensitive to mutation , as a single base change can render the hairpin inactive in vivo .
= = Mechanism = =
RNA thermometers are found in the 5 ' UTR of messenger RNA , upstream of a protein @-@ coding gene . Here they are able to occlude the ribosome binding site ( RBS ) and prevent translation of the mRNA into protein . As temperature increases , the hairpin structure can ' melt ' and expose the RBS or Shine @-@ Dalgarno sequence to permit binding of the small ribosomal subunit ( 30S ) , which then assembles other translation machinery . The start codon , typically found 8 nucleotides downstream of the Shine @-@ Dalgarno sequence , signals the beginning of a protein @-@ coding gene which is then translated to a peptide product by the ribosome . In addition to this cis @-@ acting mechanism , a lone example of a trans @-@ acting RNA thermometer has been found in RpoS mRNA where it is thought to be involved in the starvation response .
A specific example of an RNA thermometer motif is the FourU thermometer found in Salmonella enterica . When exposed to temperatures above 45 ° C , the stem @-@ loop that base @-@ pairs opposite the Shine @-@ Dalgarno sequence becomes unpaired and allows the mRNA to enter the ribosome for translation to occur . Mg2 + ion concentration has also been shown to affect the stability of FourU . The most well @-@ studied RNA thermometer is found in the rpoH gene in Escherichia coli . This thermosensor upregulates heat shock proteins under high temperatures through σ32 , a specialised heat @-@ shock sigma factor .
Though typically associated with heat @-@ induced protein expression , RNA thermometers can also regulate cold @-@ shock proteins . For example , the expression of two 7kDa proteins are regulated by an RNA thermometer in the thermophilic bacterium Thermus thermophilus and a similar mechanism has been identified in Enterobacteriales .
RNA thermometers sensitive to temperatures of 37 ° C can be used by pathogens to activate infection @-@ specific genes . For example , the upregulation of prfA , encoding a key transcriptional regulator of virulence genes in Listeria monocytogenes , was demonstrated by fusing the 5 ' DNA of prfA to the green fluorescent protein gene ; the gene fusion was then transcribed from the T7 promoter in E. coli , and fluorescence was observed at 37 ° C but not at 30 ° C.
= = Implications for the RNA world hypothesis = =
The RNA world hypothesis states that RNA was once both the carrier of hereditary information and enzymatically active , with different sequences acting as biocatalysts , regulators and sensors . The hypothesis then proposes that modern DNA , RNA and protein @-@ based life evolved and selection replaced the majority of RNA 's roles with other biomolecules .
RNA thermometers and riboswitches are thought to be evolutionarily ancient due to their wide @-@ scale distribution in distantly @-@ related organisms . It has been proposed that , in the RNA world , RNA thermosensors would have been responsible for temperature @-@ dependent regulation of other RNA molecules . RNA thermometers in modern organisms may be molecular fossils which could hint at a previously more widespread importance in an RNA world .
= = Other examples = =
Hsp90 cis @-@ regulatory element regulates hsp90 in Drosophila , increasing the translation rate of the heat shock protein at high temperatures .
The ibpAB operon of E. coli is predicted to contain two co @-@ operative RNA thermometers : a ROSE element and the IbpB thermometer .
ROSE1 and ROSEAT2 are found in rhizobiales Bradyrhizobium japonicum and Agrobacterium tumefaciens respectively . They exist in the 5 ' UTR of HspA mRNA , and repress heat shock protein translation at physiological temperatures .
= Friends =
Friends is an American television sitcom , created by David Crane and Marta Kauffman , which originally aired on NBC from September 22 , 1994 , to May 6 , 2004 , lasting ten seasons . With an ensemble cast starring Jennifer Aniston , Courteney Cox , Lisa Kudrow , Matt LeBlanc , Matthew Perry and David Schwimmer , the show revolves around six friends living in Manhattan . The series was produced by Bright / Kauffman / Crane Productions , in association with Warner Bros. Television . The original executive producers were Kevin S. Bright , Marta Kauffman , and David Crane .
Kauffman and Crane began developing Friends under the title Insomnia Cafe between November and December 1993 . They presented the idea to Bright , and together they pitched a seven @-@ page treatment of the show to NBC . After several script rewrites and changes , including a title change to Friends Like Us , the series was finally named Friends .
Filming took place at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank , California . All ten seasons of Friends ranked within the top ten of the final television season ratings ; ultimately reaching the No. 1 spot with its eighth season . The series finale on May 6 , 2004 , was watched by around 52 @.@ 5 million American viewers , making it the fifth most watched series finale in television history , and the most watched television episode of the 2000s decade .
Friends received acclaim throughout its run , becoming one of the most popular television shows of all time . The series was nominated for 62 Primetime Emmy Awards , winning the Outstanding Comedy Series award in 2002 for its eighth season . The show ranked no . 21 on TV Guide 's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time and no . 7 on Empire magazine 's The 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time . In 1997 , the episode " The One with the Prom Video " was ranked no . 100 on TV Guide 's 100 Greatest Episodes of All @-@ Time . In 2013 , Friends ranked no . 24 on the Writers Guild of America 's 101 Best Written TV Series of All Time and no . 28 on TV Guide 's 60 Best TV Series of All Time .
= = Premise = =
Rachel Green flees her wedding day and seeks out childhood friend Monica Geller , a New York City chef . They become roommates , and Rachel joins Monica 's social circle of single people in their mid @-@ 20s : struggling actor Joey Tribbiani , business professional Chandler Bing , masseuse and musician Phoebe Buffay , and newly divorced paleontologist Ross Geller , Monica 's older brother . To support herself , Rachel becomes a waitress at Central Perk , a Manhattan coffeehouse where the group often hangs out ; when not there , the six are usually at Monica and Rachel 's nearby West Village apartment , or Joey and Chandler 's across the hall .
Episodes typically depict the friends ' comedic and romantic adventures and career issues , such as Joey auditioning for roles or Rachel seeking jobs in the fashion industry . The six characters each have many dates and serious relationships , such as Monica with Richard Burke and Ross with Emily Waltham . Ross and Rachel 's intermittent relationship is the most often @-@ recurring storyline ; during the ten seasons of the show they repeatedly date and break up , even while Ross briefly marries Emily , he and Rachel have a child , Chandler and Monica date and marry each other , and Phoebe marries Mike Hannigan . Other frequently recurring characters include Ross and Monica 's parents in Long Island , Ross 's ex @-@ wife and their son , Central Perk barista Gunther , Chandler 's ex @-@ girlfriend Janice , and Phoebe 's twin sister Ursula .
= = Characters = =
The series featured six main characters throughout its run :
Jennifer Aniston portrays Rachel Green , a fashion enthusiast and Monica Geller 's best friend from childhood . Rachel first moves in with Monica in season one after nearly marrying Barry Farber , whom she realizes she does not love . Rachel and Ross Geller are later involved in an on @-@ again @-@ off @-@ again relationship throughout the series . Rachel dates other men during the series , such as an Italian neighbor , Paolo , in season one ; Joshua Bergin , a client from Bloomingdale 's , in season four ; Tag Jones , her assistant , in season seven ; and Joey Tribbiani in season ten . Rachel ’ s first job is as a waitress at the coffeehouse Central Perk , but she later becomes an assistant buyer at Bloomingdale 's in season three , and a buyer at Ralph Lauren in season five . Rachel and Ross have a daughter named Emma in " The One Where Rachel Has a Baby , Part Two " at the end of season eight . In the final episode of the series , Ross and Rachel finally confess their love for each other , and Rachel gives up a job in Paris to be with him .
Courteney Cox portrays Monica Geller , the mother hen of the group and a chef , known for her perfectionist , bossy , competitive , and obsessive @-@ compulsive nature . Monica is often jokingly teased by the others for having been extremely overweight as a child , especially by her brother Ross . Monica works as a chef in various restaurants throughout the show . Monica ’ s first serious relationship is with long @-@ time family friend Richard Burke , who is twenty @-@ one years her senior . The couple maintains a strong relationship for some time , until Richard expresses that he does not want to have children , much to Monica ’ s dismay . Monica and Chandler Bing later start a relationship after spending a night with each other in London in the season four finale , leading to their marriage in season seven and adoption of twins at the end of the series .
Lisa Kudrow portrays Phoebe Buffay , an eccentric masseuse and self @-@ taught musician . As a child , Phoebe lived in uptown New York with her mother , until she committed suicide and Phoebe took to the streets . Phoebe is ditsy but street smart . She writes and sings her own quirky songs , accompanying herself on the guitar . She has an " evil " identical twin named Ursula , who shares Phoebe ’ s quirkiness , but , unlike Phoebe , seems to be selfish and uncaring . Phoebe is childlike and innocent in disposition . She tends to use her past misfortunes such as her mother ’ s suicide as sympathy ploys – or rather , to mock others ' self @-@ indulgent self @-@ pity . Phoebe has three serious relationships over the show 's run : David , a scientist , in season one , whom she breaks up with when he moves to Minsk on a research grant ; Gary , a police officer whose badge she finds , in season five ; and an on @-@ and @-@ off relationship with Mike Hannigan in seasons nine and ten . In season nine , Phoebe and Mike break up due to his desire not to marry . David returns from Minsk , leading to the two getting back together , but she eventually rejects him for Mike when both of them propose to her . Phoebe and Mike marry in season ten .
Matt LeBlanc portrays Joey Tribbiani , a struggling actor and food lover who becomes famous for his role on soap opera Days of Our Lives as Dr. Drake Ramoray . Joey is a simple @-@ minded womanizer with many short @-@ term girlfriends . Despite his womanizing , Joey is innocent , caring , and well @-@ intentioned . Joey often uses the catchphrase pick @-@ up line " How you doin ' ? " in his attempts to win over most of the women he meets . Joey rooms with his best friend Chandler for years , and later with Rachel . | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
with " good chemistry . " Robert Bianco of USA Today was complimentary of Schwimmer , calling him " terrific . " He also praised the female leads , but was concerned that Perry 's role as Chandler was " undefined " and that LeBlanc was " relying too much on the same brain @-@ dead stud routine that was already tired the last two times he tried it . " The authors of Friends Like Us : The Unofficial Guide to Friends thought that the cast was " trying just a little too hard " , in particular Perry and Schwimmer .
As the series progressed , reviews became more positive , and Friends became one of the most popular sitcoms of its time . It is now often ranked among the all @-@ time best TV shows . Critics commended the series as having consistently sharp writing and chemistry between the main actors . Noel Holston of Newsday , who had dismissed the pilot as a " so @-@ so Seinfeld wannabe " in 1994 , repudiated his earlier review after rewatching the episode , and felt like writing an apology to the writers . Heather Havrilesky of Salon.com thought that the series " hit its stride " in the second season . Havrilesky found the character @-@ specific jokes and situations " could reliably make you laugh out loud a few times each episode " , and the quality of writing allowed the stories to be " original and innovative . " Bill Carter of The New York Times called the eighth season a " truly stunning comeback . " Carter found that by " generating new hot storylines and high @-@ decibel laughs " , the series made its way " back into the hearts of its fans . " However , Liane Bonin of Entertainment Weekly felt that the direction of the ninth season was a " disappointing buzzkill " , criticizing it for the non @-@ stop celebrity guest spots and going into jump the shark territory . Although disappointed with the season , Bonin noted that " the writing [ was ] still sharp . " Havrilesky thought that the tenth season was " alarmingly awful , far worse than you would ever imagine a show that was once so good could be . " Friends was featured on Time 's list of " The 100 Best TV Shows of All @-@ Time " , saying , " the well @-@ hidden secret of this show was that it called itself Friends , and was really about family . "
Reviews of the series finale were mixed . USA Today 's Robert Bianco described the finale as entertaining and satisfying , and praised it for deftly mixing emotion and humor while highlighting each of the stars . Sarah Rodman of the Boston Herald praised Aniston and Schwimmer for their acting , but felt that their characters ' reunion was " a bit too neat , even if it was what most of the show 's legions of fans wanted . " Roger Catlin of the Hartford Courant felt that newcomers to the series would be " surprised at how laughless the affair could be , and how nearly every strained gag depends on the sheer stupidity of its characters . " Ken Parish Perkins , writing for Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram , pointed out that the finale was " more touching than comical , more satisfying in terms of closure than knee @-@ slappingly funny . "
= = = Awards = = =
To maintain the series ' ensemble format , the main cast members decided to enter themselves in the same acting categories for awards . Beginning with the series ' eighth season , the actors decided to submit themselves in the lead actor balloting , rather than in the supporting actor fields . The series was nominated for 62 Primetime Emmy Awards , winning six . Aniston and Kudrow are the only main cast members to win an Emmy , while Cox is the only actor not to be nominated . The series won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series in 2002 , receiving nominations in 1995 , 1996 , 1999 , 2000 , and 2003 . The series also won an American Comedy Award , one GLAAD Media Award , one Golden Globe Award , three Logie Awards , six People 's Choice Awards , one Satellite Award , and one Screen Actors Guild Award .
= = = Ratings = = =
The table below shows the ratings of Friends in the United States , where it consistently ranked within the top ten of the final television season ratings . " Rank " refers to how well Friends rated compared to other television series that aired during primetime hours of the corresponding television season . It is shown in relation to the total number of series airing on the then @-@ six major English @-@ language networks in a given season . " Viewers " refers to the average number of viewers for all original episodes , broadcast during the television season in the series ' regular timeslot . The " season premiere " is the date that the first episode of the season aired , and the " season finale " is the date that the final episode of the season aired . So far , Friends has been the last sitcom to reach the No. 1 spot on television , as its successors were CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , American Idol , NBC Sunday Night Football and NCIS .
= = Cultural impact = =
Although the producers thought of Friends as " only a TV show " , numerous psychologists investigated the cultural impact of Friends during the series ' run . Aniston 's hairstyle was nicknamed " The Rachel " , and copied around the world . Joey 's catchphrase , " How you doin ' ? " , became a popular part of Western English slang , often used as a pick @-@ up line or when greeting friends . The series also influenced the English language , according to a study by the University of Toronto that found that the characters used the emphasized word " so " to modify adjectives more often than any other intensifier . Although the preference had already made its way into the American vernacular , usage on the series may have accelerated the change . Perry 's habit of ending a sentence unfinished for sarcasm also influenced viewers ' speech . Following the September 11 attacks , ratings increased 17 % over the previous season .
Friends is parodied in the twelfth season Murder , She Wrote episode " Murder Among Friends . " In the episode , amateur sleuth Jessica Fletcher ( Angela Lansbury ) investigates the murder of a writer for Buds , a fictional television series about the daily lives of a group of city friends . The episode was devised after CBS moved Murder , She Wrote from its regular Sunday night timeslot to a Thursday night timeslot directly opposite Friends on NBC ; Angela Lansbury was quoted by Bruce Lansbury , her brother and Murder , She Wrote 's supervising producer , as having " a bit of an attitude " about the move to Thursday , but he saw the plot as " a friendly setup , no mean @-@ spiritedness . " Jerry Ludwig , the writer of the episode , researched the " flavor " of Buds by watching episodes of Friends .
The Central Perk coffee house , one of the principal settings of the series , has inspired various imitations worldwide . In 2006 , Iranian businessman Mojtaba Asadian started a Central Perk franchise , registering the name in 32 countries . The decor of the coffee houses is inspired by Friends , featuring replica couches , counters , neon signage and bricks . The coffee houses also contain paintings of the various characters from the series , and televisions playing Friends episodes . James Michael Tyler , who plays the Central Perk manager in the series , Gunther , attended the grand opening of the Dubai cafe , where he worked as a waiter . Central Perk was rebuilt as part of a museum exhibit at Warner Bros. Studios , and was shown on The Ellen DeGeneres Show in October 2008 . Jennifer Aniston revisited the set for the first time since the series finale in 2004 . From September 24 to October 7 , 2009 , a Central Perk replica was based at Broadwick Street , Soho , London . The coffee house sold real coffee to customers and featured a display of Friends memorabilia and props , such as the Geller Cup from the season three episode " The One with the Football . " In Beijing , business owner Du Xin opened a coffee shop named Central Perk in March 2010 . There are two Friends themed cafes in Pakistan as well . One in Lahore known as " Friends Cafe " and the other in Peshawar called " Central Perk " . Both of those cafes have an iconic couch , a guitar and foosball table , quotes from the show on the walls and even episode reruns on a projector . They 're also planning to have their own Gunther at the bar .
Friends has also developed an alternative family lifestyle by representing young people that live unconventional domestic lives . It presents the idea that " all you need is good friends " and can construct families through choice . The audience is able to identify with the program through the troubles seen on weekly episodes . It portrays a new way of living life and developing relationships which are not normally seen in conventional society . According to a pop @-@ culture expert at the University at Buffalo , Friends is " one of those rare shows that marked a change in American culture . " The images of youth and the roles they portray are better defined and represent a lifestyle that centres around creating and sustaining relationships between friends running their own lives and seeking help from each other .
The Guardian 's TV and radio blog stated that Friends has impacted the creation of other television shows such as How I Met Your Mother . The similarities between the two consist of both sitcoms taking place in Manhattan , a group of white adults who are funny and have similar character traits .
Readers of TV Guide voted the cast of Friends their Best Comedy cast of all time , ranking at 29 % of the votes , beating Seinfeld , which registered 18 % . A poll undertaken by 60 Minutes and Vanity Fair named Friends the third greatest sitcom of all time . In 2014 , the series was ranked by Mundo Estranho the Best TV Series of All Time .
= = Distribution = =
= = = Broadcast = = =
After the produced pilot lived up to NBC 's hopes , the series premiered with the name Friends on September 22 , 1994 , in the coveted Thursday 8 : 30 p.m. timeslot . The pilot aired between Mad About You and Seinfeld , and was watched by almost 22 million American viewers . The series was a huge success throughout its run , and was a staple of NBC 's Thursday night line @-@ up , dubbed by the network as Must See TV . When Crane told reporters in 2001 that the ninth season was a possibility , critics believed that he was posturing , and that at least two of the cast members would not sign on for another season . When it was confirmed that Friends would return for a ninth season , the news was mainly about the amount of money — $ 7 million per episode — that it took to bring the series back for another season .
After year @-@ long expectations that the ninth season would be the series ' last , NBC signed a deal in late December 2002 to bring the series back for a final tenth season . The series ' creative team did not want to extend negotiations into the next year , and wanted to start writing the rest of the ninth season episodes and a potential series finale . NBC agreed to pay $ 10 million to Warner Bros. for the production of each tenth season episode , the highest price in television history for a 30 @-@ minute series . Although NBC was unable to bring in enough advertising revenue from commercials to cover the costs , the series was integral to the Thursday night schedule , which brought high ratings and profits to the other television series . The cast demanded that the tenth season be reduced from the usual 24 episodes to 18 episodes to allow them to work on outside projects .
In fall 2001 , Warner Bros. Domestic Cable made a deal with sister network TBS ( both are owned by Time Warner ) to air the series in rerun syndication . Warner Bros. Domestic Cable announced that it had sold additional cable rights to Friends to Nick at Nite which began airing in the fall of 2011 ( unlike the TBS and broadcast syndication airings , Nick at Nite broadcasts of the series , which began airing as part of a seven @-@ night launch marathon on September 5 , 2011 , replace the end credit tag scenes with marginalized credits featuring promotions for the series and other Nick at Nite programs ) . Warner Bros. was expected to make $ 200 million in license fees and advertising from the deal . Nick at Nite paid $ 500 @,@ 000 per episode to air the episodes after 6 p.m. ET for six years through fall 2017 . TBS also renewed its contract for the same six @-@ year period as Nick at Nite but paid $ 275 @,@ 000 per episode because airings were restricted to before 6 p.m. ET except for the first year . In syndication until 2005 , Friends had earned $ 4 million per episode in cash license fees for a total of $ 944 million .
Beginning on March 5 , 2012 , high definition versions of all 236 Friends episodes were made available to local broadcast stations , starting with the pilot episode . For the remastered episodes , Warner Bros. restored previously cropped images on the left and right sides of the screen , using the original 35 mm film source , to use the entire 16 : 9 widescreen frame . These masters had been airing in New Zealand on TV2 since January 2011 . Netflix added all ten seasons of Friends in high definition to their streaming service in the United States on January 1 , 2015 .
= = = International = = =
Friends has aired on different channels in the UK , including Channel 4 , Sky1 , E4 , and Comedy Central UK . On September 4 , 2011 , Friends officially ended on E4 after the channel re @-@ ran the series since 2004 . Comedy Central took over the rights to air the program from October 2011 . In the Republic of Ireland each season of the show made its European debut on RTÉ2 . After 2004 RTÉ2 began to repeat the series from the start before moving over to TV3 and its digital channel 3e in 2010 . As of February 2015 , repeats of the show have returned to RTÉ2 while also broadcasting on Comedy Central Ireland .
Friends has aired in Australia on the Seven Network ( season 1 only ) , Nine Network ( season 2 – 10 ) , Network Ten ( 2007 – 09 , repeats ) , on GEM ( a sub @-@ channel of the Nine Network ) , and on pay TV channel TV Hits formerly aired on Arena , 111 Hits . The show is broadcast on TV2 in New Zealand .
In Canada , the series was broadcast on Global . In later years , it was syndicated on several of its cable sibling networks , including Slice , DTour , and TVTropolis , its previous incarnation . In India the show is broadcast by Comedy Central India on various times .
= = = Merchandise = = =
All ten seasons have been released on DVD individually and as a box set . Each Region 1 season release contains special features and footage originally cut from the series , although Region 2 releases are as originally aired . For the first season , each episode is updated with color correction and sound enhancement . A wide range of Friends merchandise has been produced by various companies . In September 1995 , WEA Records released the first album of music from Friends , the Friends Original TV Soundtrack , containing music featured in previous and future episodes . The soundtrack debuted on the Billboard 200 at number 46 , and sold 500 @,@ 000 copies in November 1995 . In 1999 , a second soundtrack album entitled Friends Again was released . Other merchandise include a Friends version of the DVD game " Scene It ? " , and a quiz video game for PlayStation 2 and PC entitled Friends : The One with All the Trivia . On September 28 , 2009 , a box set was released in the UK celebrating the series ' 15th anniversary . The box set contained extended episodes , an episode guide , and original special features .
Warner Home Video released a complete series collection on Blu @-@ ray on November 13 , 2012 . The collection does not feature the extra deleted scenes and jokes that were included on prior DVD releases .
= = Spin @-@ offs = =
= = = Joey = = =
After the series finale in 2004 , LeBlanc signed on for the spin @-@ off series , Joey , following Joey 's move to Los Angeles to pursue his acting career . Kauffman and Crane were not interested in the spin @-@ off , although Bright agreed to executive produce the series with Scott Silveri and Shana Goldberg @-@ Meehan . NBC heavily promoted Joey and gave it Friends ' Thursday 8 : 00 pm timeslot . The pilot was watched by 18 @.@ 60 million American viewers , but ratings continually decreased throughout the series ' two seasons , averaging 10 @.@ 20 million viewers in the first season and 7 @.@ 10 million in the second . The final broadcast episode on March 7 , 2006 was watched by 7 @.@ 09 million viewers ; NBC cancelled the series on May 15 , 2006 after two seasons . Bright blamed the collaboration between NBC executives , the studio and other producers for quickly ruining the series :
On Friends , Joey was a womanizer , but we enjoyed his exploits . He was a solid friend , a guy you knew you could count on . Joey was deconstructed to be a guy who couldn 't get a job , couldn 't ask a girl out . He became a pathetic , mopey character . I felt he was moving in the wrong direction , but I was not heard .
= = = Film rumors = = =
Following the series finale , rumors began to emerge of a Friends film , although all were proven untrue . Rumors of a film reemerged after the release of the Sex and the City film in 2008 , which proved to be a success at the box office . The Daily Telegraph reported in July 2008 that the main cast members had agreed to star in the project , and that filming was going to start within the next 18 months . When asked about the film , Kudrow said that she was unaware of the talks , but expressed interest in the idea . The director of publicity for Warner Bros. , Jayne Trotman , said there was " no truth in the story " , and Perry 's spokeswoman added that " nothing is happening in this regard , so the rumor is false . " Kudrow and Cox told the Associated Press in January 2010 that they had never been approached by Crane and Kauffman to make a film version of the series .
Co @-@ creator Marta Kauffman denied new rumors of a reunion in 2013 . She said there would never be a Friends movie as the characters had all grown up : " Friends was about that time in your life when your friends are your family and once you have a family , there 's no need anymore . " When LeBlanc visited a British polo match where royalty were present , he reported that " all they ( Prince William and Harry ) wanted to know was ' When is the Friends reunion ? ' That 's all they wanted to know about . " ( He continued , " I told them to [ censored ] off . " )
In December 2013 , following rumors suggesting that Aniston and Cox were discussing plans for a 2014 reunion , a poster titled ' The One After The 10 Year Break ' went viral on the internet , claiming to be an advertisement for a reunion show . The poster was met with excitement at first , and then anger after a tweet by Lisa Kudrow implied that the rumor was untrue . It was later confirmed on January 16 , 2014 , that the poster was made by a fan , who later apologized for misleading fans of the show .
= Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite =
Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite is the debut album by American R & B recording artist Maxwell , released on April 2 , 1996 , by Columbia Records . He worked on the album between 1994 and 1995 at Electric Lady Studios , RPM , Sorcerer , and Chung King Studios in New York City , and CRC Studios in Chicago . The record 's music features a mellow , groove @-@ based sound with elements of funk , jazz , smooth soul , and quiet storm . A concept album , Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite was composed as a song cycle that focuses on an adult romance , based in part on Maxwell 's personal experiences .
Although Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite was not an immediate commercial success , it was helped by the release of its second single " Ascension ( Don 't Ever Wonder ) " . Eventually becoming a million @-@ seller , the album was also a success with critics , who praised it as a departure from the mainstream , hip hop @-@ oriented R & B of the time , while earning Maxwell several accolades and comparisons to soul singers of the past , particularly Marvin Gaye and Prince .
The success of Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite elevated Maxwell 's reputation to that of a sex symbol and a notable performer in the music industry . He was credited with shaping the " neo soul " movement of musicians that rose to prominence during the late 1990s . Along with D 'Angelo 's Brown Sugar ( 1995 ) and Erykah Badu 's Baduizm ( 1997 ) , the album provided commercial exposure to neo soul and has since been cited by several critics as Maxwell 's greatest work .
= = Background and recording = =
After receiving a low @-@ cost Casio keyboard from a friend , Brooklyn , New York @-@ native Maxwell began composing material at age 17 . Raised in the borough 's East New York @-@ section , Maxwell 's previous musical experience included his beginnings as a singer in the congregation of his Baptist church , which had become an integral part of his life after the death of his father in a plane crash . Already a fan of what he described as " jheri curl soul " , which was the trademark of early 1980s R & B acts such as Patrice Rushen , S.O.S. Band and Rose Royce , Maxwell began to teach himself to play a variety of instruments . According to him , the R & B of the early 1980s contained " the perfect combination of computerized instrumentation with a live feel " , and that the genre 's dynamics later became lost due to the influence of hip hop on R & B. Despite facing ridicule from classmates for being shy and awkward , he progressed and continued to develop his musical abilities .
At 19 , Maxwell began performing throughout the New York club circuit while supporting himself by waiting tables during the day . He was able to gain access to a 24 track recording studio and started to record songs for a demo tape , which he circulated among his friends . The demo engendered interest , and his official debut concert performance at Manhattan nightclub Nell 's drew a crowd . During the next two years , Maxwell wrote and recorded over three hundred songs and played frequently at small venues throughout New York City . Maxwell 's performances continued to draw interest and increase the buzz about him , and he was called " the next Prince " by a writer from Vibe magazine who attended one of his shows . After earning a considerable reputation , Maxwell signed a recording contract with Columbia Records in 1994 . He adopted his middle name as a moniker out of respect for his family 's privacy .
Maxwell recorded his debut album between 1994 and 1995 at Electric Lady Studios , RPM Studios , Sorcerer Studios and Chung King Studios in New York City , and at CRC Studios in Chicago , Illinois . Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite was produced primarily by Peter Mokran , who was credited as P.M. , and Maxwell , who was credited as " MUSZE " , a play on the word muse . Columbia executives reluctantly gave Maxwell creative freedom in his contract and were hesitant to allow him produce the album alone . They assigned Chicago @-@ based , English producer and multi @-@ instrumentalist Stuart Matthewman to the project , but he only produced the first few tracks . Matthewman had previously worked with English R & B and jazz group Sade . During the recording sessions , Maxwell worked extensively with collaborators , including Matthewman , soul singer @-@ songwriter Leon Ware , and funk guitarist Melvin " Wah @-@ Wah Watson " Ragin . Prior to working with Maxwell , Ware and Ragin were collaborators of soul musician Marvin Gaye ; Ware had produced and composed most of Gaye 's tenth album I Want You ( 1976 ) .
Production assistance and instrumentation from such veteran session musicians contributed significantly to Urban Hang Suite 's vintage overtones and classic R & B influences . Matthewman and Maxwell played several instruments during recording for the album , including guitar , drums , saxophone , bass , and keyboards . They also composed three of the album 's eleven tracks together . After the recording sessions ended in March 1995 , Urban Hang Suite was mixed by P.M. ( Peter Mokran ) and audio engineer Mike Pela , after which it was mastered by Tom Coyne at Sterling Sound in New York City .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Although one of his earliest influences was early 1980s urban R & B , Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite was inspired by the sounds and themes of classic soul artists such as Marvin Gaye , Curtis Mayfield , Barry White , Stevie Wonder and Prince . According to Prince biographer Alex Hahn , Maxwell adopts the singer 's sound and style , particularly from songs such as " Do Me , Baby " ( 1982 ) and " Pink Cashmere " ( 1993 ) , while The New York Times 's Amy Linden said that he " melds a soft @-@ spoken singing style with the fluid , spacious grooves often associated with the cocktail funk of Sade " . Critics have also noted Maxwell 's falsetto singing voice , and the music 's atmospheric , funky instrumentation , featuring mellow horns , wah wah guitar , Rhodes piano and deep , articulate bass lines . The tempo of the songs slowly diminishes through the course of the album 's songs . One critic attributes the tempo decrease to Stuart Matthewman 's production . The album contains elements of funk , jazz , contemporary R & B and quiet storm , and it is mostly composed of sexual balladry and slow jams .
A concept album , Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite features song cycle that focuses on an adult romance from first encounter to its dramatic conclusion . Over the course of the album , Maxwell details a single passionate encounter . Throughout , it examines the concept with lyrical themes of love , sex and spirituality , as well as issues such as commitment , marriage and monogamy . Maxwell has described the themes and his thoughts on romance as " idealistic " on Urban Hang Suite . Rolling Stone editor David Fricke compared the album 's concept to that of Marvin Gaye 's 1978 record Here , My Dear , which dealt with his divorce , saying that Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite had been reworked as a treatise on monogamy . The album has been noted for the sincerity of Maxwell 's lyrics , which depict a man 's weakness and vulnerability to a woman 's love . In an interview with music journalist Mark Coleman , Maxwell cited his respect for African @-@ American women as the inspiration for the respectful nature of his lyrics towards women . Maxwell told Interview 's Dimitri Erhlich that his main muse for Urban Hang Suite was women , and further elaborated on his inspiration , stating :
Maxwell also cited his grandmother and other West Indian women he knows as the inspiration behind his romantic notions . Music journalists inferred that the album was inspired by or based on an unsuccessful affair in Maxwell 's life . Maxwell said in an interview , " I 'm so innately romantic and always have been , and I went through this particular romantic experience and based my album on that " . The album 's liner notes have a dedication from Maxwell to his " musze " , stating " I could never have done this without you " .
The album opens with an instrumental track , " The Urban Theme " , which begins with the sound of a stylus dropping on a vinyl record . The track 's prominent funk sound is reminiscent of the music of the Brand New Heavies . " Welcome " features the album 's prominent sexual vibe , and contains a quiet storm sound and saxophone . The two opening tracks both contain prominent funk influence . Roni Sarig wrote that their " early ' 80s full @-@ band R & B and jazz pop grooves are reminiscent of Maze 's brightest days and Steely Dan 's coolest nights . " The funk @-@ influenced " Sumthin ' Sumthin ' " , which was co @-@ written by Leon Ware , contains a strong , rhythmically tight groove created by the implementation of the " pocket " bass technique . Co @-@ written by songwriter Itaal Shur , " Ascension ( Don 't Ever Wonder ) " opens with a funky groove and bass line , and features a forceful rhythm and rough funk sound . The song contains strong gospel overtones with references to God in the lyrics . The song has been covered by gospel artists such as Londa Larmond and LaShun Pace .
Cited by Blender magazine as one of the " Greatest Make @-@ Out Songs of All Time " , " ... Til the Cops Come Knockin ' " contains sexually explicit lyrics and a slower tempo than its preceding tracks . It also contains the sound of distant sirens and " grinding porn @-@ movie " guitar licks . The songs " Whenever Wherever Whatever " and " Lonely 's the Only Company ( I & II ) " are ballads that contain themes of vulnerability to love . " Suitelady ( The Proposal Jam ) " completes the album 's concept of monogamy with lyrics depicting a marriage proposal from Maxwell . Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite closes with the instrumental track " The Suite Theme " . While the length of the track is listed as 13 : 47 minutes , the song ends after 6 : 00 minutes , followed by a period of silence , before resuming with a hidden track , which consists of 1 : 41 minutes of an instrumental version of " ... Til the Cops Come Knockin ' " .
= = Release and reception = =
After Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite was completed , the finished recordings were presented to Columbia Records in mid 1995 . It was shelved for nearly a year , because of issues with Columbia 's management , the label 's extensive reorganization , and record executives ' doubts regarding the album 's commercial potential . The marketplace dominance of hip hop soul in 1995 was in contrast with Maxwell 's monogamous themes and older soul influences , which Columbia worried would be interpreted as old @-@ fashioned . The label 's executives also feared that his romantic concept and image would not appeal to listeners . Maxwell made matters worse by refusing to allow his picture to be placed on the album 's front cover ; instead he preferred to have the track listing and other information he felt was more important about the album in place of his photo . Regarding the cover , Maxwell later said " I wanted people to have the facts : the title , the selections and the fact that you had to basically buy it . I wanted people to come to the music and not base any opinion on the image " . Columbia reached a compromise with Maxwell and used a promotional shot of him as the back cover . The album 's front cover art also features a picture of a pair of golden women 's shoes on the floor of a hotel room , with the bar coding prominently displayed . In the period before its release , Maxwell wrote and demoed songs for a subsequent studio album , and embarked on an African American college tour with Groove Theory and the Fugees .
Released on April 2 , 1996 , Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite was slow to obtain commercial interest . On April 20 , it made its chart debut at number 38 on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums in the United States . The gold @-@ certified single " Ascension ( Don 't Ever Wonder ) " , which had shipped 500 @,@ 000 copies in the US by October , was considered by music journalists to be a significant factor in consumers ' increased interest in the album . On September 17 , Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . By 1997 , the album had shipped one million copies , earning platinum status from the RIAA . It spent seventy @-@ eight weeks on the Billboard 200 albums chart , while becoming a Top 30 chart hit in the United Kingdom . In 2002 , it was certified double platinum , and by 2008 , it stood as Maxwell 's best @-@ selling album , having sold 1 @,@ 790 @,@ 000 copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan .
Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite received positive reviews from critics . It was called a " masterpiece " by several reviewers who viewed it as a departure from the mainstream , hip hop @-@ oriented R & B of the time . Maxwell was also compared to soul singers of the 1960s and 1970s . Writing for Vibe , OJ Lima said the record was a " refreshing detour from hump @-@ bouncin ' ' 90s R & B " , while Dimitri Ehrlich from Entertainment Weekly wrote that Maxwell " smooths hip @-@ hop 's and soul 's edges , proving that black dance music doesn 't automatically mean ghetto culture . " Jim Farber of the New York Daily News called it " one of the few modern sex albums to offer a sense of succor " , and Urban Latino hailed it as " one of the most soulful releases of the year " , writing that Maxwell exhibited " the soul of Curtis Mayfield , the poetics of Beni More and the stage presence of Michael Jackson , pre @-@ Thriller " . In American Visions , Michael George wrote , " In an age where young , black artists are criticized ( often rightly so ) for misogynistic lyrics , Maxwell 's focus on commitment is refreshing . But more important , he can flat @-@ out sing . " In The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , Arion Berger later said , " [ Maxwell 's ] laid @-@ back romanticism has heat at its core and a powerful groove that grounds the music : By varying the push of the beat but retaining the central mellow vibe , Maxwell creates a sound as felicitous on headphones as it is in the bedroom . " Peter Shapiro was more critical , panning Maxwell 's lyrics and calling the album an " overly mannered pastiche of early 70s soul ... all style and no substance " . In The Village Voice , Robert Christgau rated the album a " dud " , indicating " a bad record whose details rarely merit further thought " .
At the end of 1996 , Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite named one of the year 's 10 best albums in lists published by Rolling Stone , Time , and USA Today . It was named the 20th best album of 1996 in the Pazz and Jop , an annual poll of American critics nationwide , published by The Village Voice . For the record , Maxwell was nominated for the 1997 Grammy Award for Best R & B Album , received three NAACP Image Award nominations , and wins in the categories of Best Male R & B / Soul Album and Best Male R & B / Soul Single ( for " Ascension " ) , as well as Best R & B / Soul or Rap New Artist , for the 1997 Soul Train Awards . That year , Rolling Stone voted him Best R & B Artist . The album 's success also earned Maxwell his own MTV Unplugged special , which was a popular measure of mainstream success for recording artists in the 1990s . Nick Coleman from The Independent later cited Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite as the " sexiest record of 1996 " , while Q magazine called it " one of the very best R & B records of the ' 90s . " Stylus Magazine ranked it at number six on their list of the Top Ten Albums from 1996 . The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = Legacy = =
Along with musicians D 'Angelo and Erykah Badu , Maxwell was credited with helping to shape the " neo soul " movement that rose to prominence during the late 1990s . Along with D 'Angelo 's Brown Sugar ( 1995 ) and Badu 's Baduizm ( 1997 ) , Urban Hang Suite has been recognized by writers for beginning neo soul 's popularity and helping the genre obtain commercial visibility . However , in contrast to D 'Angelo , Maxwell was more conventional in his approach on his debut album . The term " neo soul " was penned in the late 1990s by record executive Kedar Massenburg , who managed both D 'Angelo and Erykah Badu . According to Shapiro , the term itself refers to a musical style that obtains its influence from more classical styles , and bohemian musicians seeking a soul revival , while setting themselves apart from the more contemporary sounds of their mainstream R & B counterparts . In commenting on the " new soul revival " in music , Maxwell told Entertainment Weekly in 1997 that " everything out there musically was inspired or influenced by something from the past . It 's not about creating some super @-@ fresh new thing . If it doesn 't lend itself to your history , how is it going to extend to your future ? " According to Kerika Fields , Maxwell received an overwhelmingly positive reaction to his debut album from music listeners due to their weariness of contemporary black music 's predictability .
Maxwell 's role in writing and producing the album exhibited a level of artistic control by an R & B artist that was uncommon in the recording industry at the time . On Maxwell 's emergence with Urban Hang Suite , writer Carol Brennan cited him , along with the Fugees , D 'Angelo and Tony Rich , as neo soul musicians that " exhibited the identifying characteristics of this new breed of R & B artists : lyrics that give voice to intense personal expression , creative control over the music , and a unexpectedly successful debut . " In his book A Change Is Gonna Come : Music , Race & the Soul of America ( 2006 ) , Craig Hansen Werner lists Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite as important in neo soul , including it along with R. Kelly 's R. ( 1998 ) , D 'Angelo 's Voodoo ( 2000 ) , the Young Disciples ' Road to Freedom ( 1991 ) , Aaliyah 's self @-@ titled final release ( 2001 ) , Faith Evans ' Keep the Faith ( 1998 ) and " anything by Seal " as among " the starter kit " for the genre . In Songs in the Key of Black Life : A Rhythm and Blues Nation ( 2003 ) , writer Mark Anthony Neal cited the album as one of the most popular of neo soul recordings , along with Musiq Soulchild 's Aijuswanaseing ( 2000 ) and India.Arie 's Acoustic Soul ( 2001 ) , that helped to redefine the boundaries and contours of black pop and R & B.
The unexpected commercial and critical success of Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite helped establish Maxwell as a serious performer in the music industry . He was described by critics as " part of a new generation of smooth soul crooners " , and he obtained a reputation among fans as a sex symbol , which according to one journalist , was due to his " wild " afro and " extravagant cheekbones " . His concert performances in promotion of the album attracted many female fans . One sold @-@ out concert at New York City 's Radio City Music Hall was praised by Rolling Stone , who compared him to R & B singers such as Gaye , Prince , Frankie Beverly , and Luther Vandross . The magazine highlighted Maxwell 's showmanship , " down @-@ to @-@ earth " attitude and body movements including dropping down to his knees , swiveling his hips in a " slow grind " , and crawling across the stage while singing . Essence writer Jeannine Amber compared his stage presence to Teddy Pendergrass . According to some journalists , Maxwell 's appeal to female fans was due to the respectful and sincere nature of his lyrics regarding women . In Contemporary Musician ( 1998 ) , Mary Alice Adams examined the personal impact of his debut album on listeners :
Maxwell 's following studio albums were received less enthusiastically by critics , who were more critical of his songwriting on his next two studio albums , Embrya ( 1998 ) and Now ( 2001 ) . Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite has since been cited by several critics as his best album , including Stephen Cook from AllMusic , who said it was " destined to become a classic contemporary R & B disc " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite adapted from liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
= Bahrain =
Bahrain ( / bɑːˈreɪn / ; Arabic : البحرين al @-@ Baḥrayn ) , officially the Kingdom of Bahrain ( Arabic : مملكة البحرين Mamlakat al @-@ Baḥrayn ) , is an island country situated near the western shores of the Persian Gulf in the Middle East . It is an archipelago with Bahrain Island , the largest land mass , at 55 km ( 34 mi ) long by 18 km ( 11 mi ) wide . Saudi Arabia lies to the west and is connected to Bahrain by the King Fahd Causeway while Iran lies 200 km ( 124 mi ) to the north across the Persian Gulf . The peninsula of Qatar is to the southeast across the Gulf of Bahrain . The population in 2010 stood at 1 @,@ 234 @,@ 571 , including 666 @,@ 172 non @-@ nationals .
Bahrain is the site of the ancient Dilmun civilisation . It has been famed since antiquity for its pearl fisheries , which were considered the best in the world into the 19th century . Bahrain was one of the earliest areas to convert to Islam ( AD 628 ) . Following a period of Arab rule , Bahrain was occupied by the Portuguese in 1521 , who in turn were expelled in 1602 by Shah Abbas I of the Safavid dynasty under the Persian Empire . In 1783 , the Bani Utbah clan captured Bahrain from Nasr Al @-@ Madhkur and it has since been ruled by the Al Khalifa royal family , with Ahmed al Fateh as Bahrain 's first hakim . In the late 1800s , following successive treaties with the British , Bahrain became a protectorate of the United Kingdom . In 1971 , Bahrain declared independence . Formerly a state , Bahrain was declared a Kingdom in 2002 . In 2011 , the country experienced protests inspired by the regional Arab Spring .
Bahrain had the first post @-@ oil economy in the Persian Gulf . Since the late 20th century , Bahrain has invested in the banking and tourism sectors . The country 's capital , Manama , is home to many large financial structures . Bahrain has a high Human Development Index and was recognised by the World Bank as a high income economy .
= = Etymology = =
In Arabic , Bahrayn is the dual form of bahr ( " sea " ) , so al @-@ Bahrayn means " the two seas " , although which two seas were originally intended remains in dispute . The term appears five times in the Quran , but does not refer to the modern island — originally known to the Arabs as Awal — but rather to all of Eastern Arabia ( most notably al @-@ Katif and al @-@ Hasa ) .
Today , Bahrain 's " two seas " are instead generally taken to be the bay east and west of the island , the seas north and south of the island , or the salt and fresh water present above and below the ground . In addition to wells , there are areas of the sea north of Bahrain where fresh water bubbles up in the middle of the salt water as noted by visitors since antiquity . An alternate theory with regard to Bahrain 's toponymy is offered by the al @-@ Ahsa region , which suggests that the two seas were the Great Green Ocean ( the Persian Gulf ) and a peaceful lake on the Arabian mainland . Another supposition by al @-@ Jawahari suggests that the more formal name Bahri ( lit . " belonging to the sea " ) would have been misunderstood and so was opted against .
Until the late Middle Ages , " Bahrain " referred to the region of Eastern Arabia that included Southern Iraq , Kuwait , Al @-@ Hasa , Qatif and Bahrain . The region stretched from Basra in Iraq to the Strait of Hormuz in Oman . This was Iqlīm al @-@ Bahrayn 's " Bahrayn Province " . The exact date at which the term " Bahrain " began to refer solely to the Awal archipelago is unknown . The entire coastal strip of Eastern Arabia was known as " Bahrain " for a millennium . The island and kingdom were also commonly spelled Bahrein into the 1950s .
= = History = =
= = = Antiquity = = =
Bahrain was home to the Dilmun civilization , an important Bronze Age trade centre linking Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley . Bahrain was later ruled by the Assyrians and Babylonians .
From the 6th to 3rd century BC , Bahrain was part of the Persian Empire ruled by the Achaemenian dynasty . By about 250 BC , Parthia brought the Persian Gulf under its control and extended its influence as far as Oman . The Parthians established garrisons along the southern coast of the Persian Gulf to control trade routes .
During the classical era , Bahrain was referred to by the ancient Greeks as Tylos , the centre of pearl trading , when the Greek admiral Nearchus serving under Alexander the Great landed on Bahrain . Nearchus is believed to have been the first of Alexander 's commanders to visit the island , and he found a verdant land that was part of a wide trading network ; he recorded : “ That on the island of Tylos , situated in the Persian Gulf , are large plantations of cotton trees , from which are manufactured clothes called sindones , of strongly differing degrees of value , some being costly , others less expensive . The use of these is not confined to India , but extends to Arabia . ” The Greek historian , Theophrastus , states that much of Bahrain was covered by these cotton trees and that Bahrain was famous for exporting walking canes engraved with emblems that were customarily carried in Babylon .
Alexander had planned to settle Greek colonists on Bahrain , and although it is not clear that this happened on the scale he envisaged , Bahrain became very much part of the Hellenised world : the language of the upper classes was Greek ( although Aramaic was in everyday use ) , while Zeus was worshipped in the form of the Arabian sun @-@ god Shams . Bahrain even became the site of Greek athletic contests .
The Greek historian Strabo believed the Phoenicians originate from Bahrain . Herodotus also believed that the homeland of the Phoenicians was Bahrain . This theory was accepted by the 19th @-@ century German classicist Arnold Heeren who said that : " In the Greek geographers , for instance , we read of two islands , named Tyrus or Tylos , and Arad , Bahrain , which boasted that they were the mother country of the Phoenicians , and exhibited relics of Phoenician temples . " The people of Tyre in particular have long maintained Persian Gulf origins , and the similarity in the words " Tylos " and " Tyre " has been commented upon . However , there is little evidence of any human settlement at all on Bahrain during the time when such migration had supposedly taken place .
The name Tylos is thought to be a Hellenisation of the Semitic , Tilmun ( from Dilmun ) . The term Tylos was commonly used for the islands until Ptolemy ’ s Geographia when the inhabitants are referred to as ' Thilouanoi ' . Some place names on Bahrain go back to the Tylos era ; for instance the name of Arad , a residential suburb of Muharraq , is believed to originate from " Arados " , the ancient Greek name for Muharraq .
In the 3rd century , Ardashir I , the first ruler of the Sassanid dynasty , marched on Oman and Bahrain , where he defeated Sanatruq the ruler of Bahrain . At this time , Bahrain was known as Mishmahig ( which in Middle @-@ Persian / Pahlavi means " ewe @-@ fish " ) .
Bahrain was also the site of worship of a shark deity called Awal . Worshipers built a large statue to Awal in Muharraq , although it has now been lost . For many centuries after Tylos , Bahrain was known as Awal . By the 5th century , Bahrain became the centre for Nestorian Christianity , with the village Samahij as the seat of bishops . In 410 , according to the Oriental Syriac Church synodal records , a bishop named Batai was excommunicated from the church in Bahrain . As a sect , the Nestorians were often persecuted as heretics by the Byzantine Empire , but Bahrain was outside the Empire 's control offering some safety . The names of several Muharraq villages today reflect Bahrain 's Christian legacy , with Al Dair meaning “ the monastery ” .
Bahrain 's pre @-@ Islamic population consisted of Christian Arabs ( mostly Abd al @-@ Qays ) , Persians ( Zoroastrians ) , Jews and Aramaic @-@ speaking agriculturalists . According to Robert Bertram Serjeant , the Baharna may be the Arabized " descendants of converts from the original population of Christians ( Aramaeans ) , Jews and Persians inhabiting the island and cultivated coastal provinces of Eastern Arabia at the time of the Muslim conquest " . The sedentary people of pre @-@ Islamic Bahrain were Aramaic speakers and to some degree Persian speakers , while Syriac functioned as a liturgical language .
= = = Time of Muhammad = = =
Muhammad 's first interaction with the people of Bahrain was the Al Kudr Invasion . Muhammad ordered a surprise attack on the Banu Salim tribe for allegedly plotting to attack Medina . He had gotten news that some tribes were assembling an army on Bahrain and preparing to attack the mainland . But the tribesmen retreated when they learned Muhammad was leading an army to do battle with them .
Traditional Islamic accounts state that Al @-@ ʿAlāʾ Al @-@ Haḍrami was sent as an envoy during the Expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha ( Hisma ) to the Bahrain region by the prophet Muhammad in AD 628 and that Munzir ibn @-@ Sawa al @-@ Tamimi , the local ruler , responded to his mission and converted the entire area .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
In AD 899 , the Qarmatians , a millenarian Ismaili Muslim sect seized Bahrain , seeking to create a utopian society based on reason and redistribution of property among initiates . Thereafter , the Qarmatians demanded tribute from the caliph in Baghdad , and in AD 930 sacked Mecca and Medina , bringing the sacred Black Stone back to their base in Ahsa , in medieval Bahrain , for ransom . According to historian Al @-@ Juwayni , the stone was returned 22 years later in 951 under mysterious circumstances . Wrapped in a sack , it was thrown into the Great Mosque of Kufa in Iraq , accompanied by a note saying " By command we took it , and by command we have brought it back . " The theft and removal of the Black Stone caused it to break into seven pieces .
Following their AD 976 defeat by the Abbasids , the Qarmations were overthrown by the Arab Uyunid dynasty of al @-@ Hasa , who took over the entire Bahrain region in 1076 . The Uyunids controlled Bahrain until 1235 , when the archipelago was briefly occupied by the Persian ruler of Fars . In 1253 , the Bedouin Usfurids brought down the Uyunid dynasty , thereby gaining control over eastern Arabia , including the islands of Bahrain . In 1330 , the archipelago became a tributary state of the rulers of Hormuz , though locally the islands were controlled by the Shi 'ite Jarwanid dynasty of Qatif . In the mid @-@ 15th century , the archipelago came under the rule of the Jabrids , a Bedouin dynasty also based in Al @-@ Ahsa that ruled most of eastern Arabia .
= = = Early @-@ modern era = = =
In 1521 , the Portuguese allied with Hormuz and seized Bahrain from the Jabrid ruler Migrin ibn Zamil , who was killed during the takeover . Portuguese rule lasted for around 80 years , during which time they depended mainly on Sunni Persian governors . The Portuguese were expelled from the islands in 1602 by Abbas I of the Safavid dynasty of Persia , which gave impetus to Shia Islam . For the next two centuries , Persian rulers retained control of the archipelago , interrupted by the 1717 and 1738 invasions of the Ibadhis of Oman . During most of this period , they resorted to governing Bahrain indirectly , either through the city of Bushehr or through immigrant Sunni Arab clans . The latter were tribes returning to the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf from Persian territories in the north who were known as Huwala ( literally : those that have changed or moved ) . In 1753 , the Huwala clan of Nasr Al @-@ Madhkur invaded Bahrain on behalf of the Iranian Zand leader Karim Khan Zand and restored direct Iranian rule .
In 1783 , Al @-@ Madhkur lost the islands of Bahrain following his defeat by the Bani Utbah tribe at the 1782 Battle of Zubarah . Bahrain was not new territory to the Bani Utbah ; they had been a presence there since the 17th century . During that time , they started purchasing date palm gardens in Bahrain ; a document shows that 81 years before arrival of the Al @-@ Khalifa , one of the shaikhs of the Al Bin Ali tribe ( an offshoot of the Bani Utbah ) had bought a palm garden from Mariam bint Ahmed Al Sanadi in Sitra island .
The Al Bin Ali were the dominant group controlling the town of Zubarah on the Qatar peninsula , originally the center of power of the Bani Utbah . After the Bani Utbah gained control of Bahrain , the Al Bin Ali had a practically independent status there as a self @-@ governing tribe . They used a flag with four red and three white stripes , called the Al @-@ Sulami flag in Bahrain , Qatar , Kuwait , and the Eastern province of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia . Later , different Arab family clans and tribes from Qatar moved to Bahrain to settle after the fall of Nasr Al @-@ Madhkur of Bushehr . These families included the Al Khalifa , Al @-@ Ma 'awdah , Al @-@ Fadhil , Al @-@ Mannai , Al @-@ Noaimi , Al @-@ Sulaiti , Al @-@ Sadah , Al @-@ Thawadi and other families and tribes .
The Al Khalifa family moved from Qatar to Bahrain in 1799 . Originally , their ancestors were expelled from Umm Qasr in central Arabia by the Ottomans due to their predatory habits of preying on caravans in Basra and trading ships in Shatt al @-@ Arab waterway until Turks expelled them to Kuwait in 1716 where they remained until 1766 .
Around the 1760s , the Al Jalahma and Al Khalifa clans , both belonging to the Utub federation , migrated to Zubarah in modern @-@ day Qatar , leaving Al Sabah as the sole proprietors of Kuwait .
= = = 19th century and later = = =
In the early 19th century , Bahrain was invaded by both the Omanis and the Al Sauds . In 1802 it was governed by a twelve @-@ year @-@ old child , when the Omani ruler Sayyid Sultan installed his son , Salim , as Governor in the Arad Fort . In 1816 , the British political resident in the Gulf , William Bruce , received a letter from the Sheikh of Bahrain who was concerned about a rumour that Britain would support an attack on the island by the Imam of Muscat . He sailed to Bahrain to reassure the Sheikh that this was not the case and drew up an informal agreement assuring the Sheikh that Britain would remain a neutral party .
In 1820 , the Al Khalifa tribe were recognised by Great Britain as the rulers ( " Al @-@ Hakim " in Arabic ) of Bahrain after signing a treaty relationship . However , ten years later they were forced to pay yearly tributes to Egypt despite seeking Persian and British protection .
In 1860 , the Al Khalifas used the same tactic when the British tried to overpower Bahrain . Writing letters to the Persians and Ottomans , Al Khalifas agreed to place Bahrain under the latter 's protection in March due to offering better conditions . Eventually the Government of British India overpowered Bahrain when the Persians refused to protect it . Colonel Pelly signed a new treaty with Al Khalifas placing Bahrain under British rule and protection .
Following the Qatari – Bahraini War in 1868 , British representatives signed another agreement with the Al Khalifas . It specified that the ruler could not dispose of any of his territory except to the United Kingdom and could not enter into relationships with any foreign government without British consent . In return the British promised to protect Bahrain from all aggression by sea and to lend support in case of land attack . More importantly the British promised to support the rule of the Al Khalifa in Bahrain , securing its unstable position as rulers of the country . Other agreements in 1880 and 1892 sealed the protectorate status of Bahrain to the British .
Unrest amongst the people of Bahrain began when Britain officially established complete dominance over the territory in 1892 . The first revolt and widespread uprising took place in March 1895 against Sheikh Issa bin Ali , then ruler of Bahrain . Sheikh Issa was the first of the Al Khalifa to rule without Persian relations . Sir Arnold Wilson , Britain 's representative in the Persian Gulf and author of The Persian Gulf , arrived in Bahrain from Muscat at this time . The uprising developed further with some protesters killed by British forces .
Before the development of petroleum , the island was largely devoted to pearl fisheries and , as late as the 19th century , was considered to be the finest in the world . In 1903 , German explorer , Hermann Burchardt , visited Bahrain and took many photographs of historical sites , including the old Qaṣr es @-@ Sheikh , photos now stored at the Ethnological Museum of Berlin . Prior to the First World War , there were about 400 vessels hunting pearls and an annual export of more than £ 30 @,@ 000 .
In 1911 , a group of Bahraini merchants demanded restrictions on the British influence in the country . The group 's leaders were subsequently arrested and exiled to India . In 1923 , the British introduced administrative reforms and replaced Sheikh Issa bin Ali with his son . Some clerical opponents and families such as al Dossari left or were exiled to Saudi Arabia and Iran . Three years later the British placed the country under the de facto rule of Charles Belgrave who operated as an adviser to the ruler until 1957 . Belgrave brought a number of reforms such as establishment of the country 's first modern school in 1919 , the Persian Gulf 's first girls school in 1928 and the abolition of slavery in 1937 . At the same time , the pearl diving industry developed at a rapid pace .
In 1927 , Rezā Shāh , then Shah of Iran , demanded sovereignty over Bahrain in a letter to the League of Nations , a move that prompted Belgrave to undertake harsh measures including encouraging conflicts between Shia and Sunni Muslims in order to bring down the uprisings and limit the Iranian influence . Belgrave even went further by suggesting to rename the Persian Gulf to the " Arabian Gulf " ; however , the proposal was refused by the British government . Britain 's interest in Bahrain 's development was motivated by concerns over Saudi and Iranian ambitions in the region .
The Bahrain Petroleum Company ( Bapco ) , a subsidiary of the Standard Oil Company of California ( Socal ) , discovered oil in 1931 and production began the following year . This was to bring rapid modernisation to Bahrain . Relations with the United Kingdom became closer , as evidenced by the British Royal Navy moving its entire Middle Eastern command from Bushehr in Iran to Bahrain in 1935 .
In the early 1930s Bahrain Airport was developed . Imperial Airways flew there , including the Handley Page HP42 aircraft . Later in the same decade the Bahrain Maritime Airport was established , for flying @-@ boats and seaplanes .
Bahrain participated in the Second World War on the Allied side , joining on 10 September 1939 . On 19 October 1940 , four Italian SM.82s bombers bombed Bahrain alongside Dhahran oilfields in Saudi Arabia , targeting Allied @-@ operated oil refineries . Although minimal damage was caused in both locations , the attack forced the Allies to upgrade Bahrain 's defences , an action which further stretched Allied military resources .
After World War II , increasing anti @-@ British sentiment spread throughout the Arab World and led to riots in Bahrain . The riots focused on the Jewish community . In 1948 , following rising hostilities and looting , most members of Bahrain 's Jewish community abandoned their properties and evacuated to Bombay , later settling in Israel ( Pardes Hanna @-@ Karkur ) and the United Kingdom . As of 2008 , 37 Jews remained in the country . In the 1950s , the National Union Committee , formed by reformists following sectarian clashes , demanded an elected popular assembly , removal of Belgrave and carried out a number of protests and general strikes . In 1965 a month @-@ long uprising broke out after hundreds of workers at the Bahrain Petroleum Company were laid off .
= = = Independence = = =
On 15 August 1971 , Bahrain declared independence and signed a new treaty of friendship with the United Kingdom . Bahrain joined the United Nations and the Arab League later in the year . The oil boom of the 1970s benefited Bahrain greatly , although the subsequent downturn hurt the economy . The country had already begun diversification of its economy and benefited further from the Lebanese Civil War in the 1970s and 1980s , when Bahrain replaced Beirut as the Middle East 's financial hub after Lebanon 's large banking sector was driven out of the country by the war .
Following the 1979 Islamic revolution in Iran , in 1981 Bahraini Shī 'a fundamentalists orchestrated a failed coup attempt under the auspices of a front organisation , the Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain . The coup would have installed a Shī 'a cleric exiled in Iran , Hujjatu l @-@ Islām Hādī al @-@ Mudarrisī , as supreme leader heading a theocratic government . In December 1994 , a group of youths threw stones at female runners during an international marathon for running bare @-@ legged . The resulting clash with police soon grew into civil unrest .
A popular uprising occurred between 1994 and 2000 in which leftists , liberals and Islamists joined forces . The event resulted in approximately forty deaths and ended after Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa became the Emir of Bahrain in 1999 . He instituted elections for parliament , gave women the right to vote , and released all political prisoners . A referendum on 14 – 15 February 2001 massively supported the National Action Charter . As part of the adoption of the National Action Charter on 14 February 2002 , Bahrain changed its formal name from the State ( dawla ) of Bahrain to the Kingdom of Bahrain .
The country participated in military action against the Taliban in October 2001 by deploying a frigate in the Arabian Sea for rescue and humanitarian operations . As a result , in November of that year , US president George W. Bush 's administration designated Bahrain as a " major non @-@ NATO ally " . Bahrain opposed the invasion of Iraq and had offered Saddam Hussein asylum in the days prior to the invasion . Relations improved with neighbouring Qatar after the border dispute over the Hawar Islands was resolved by the International Court of Justice in The Hague in 2001 . Following the political liberalisation of the country , Bahrain negotiated a free trade agreement with the United States in 2004 .
= = = Bahraini uprising = = =
Inspired by the regional Arab Spring , Bahrain 's Shia majority started large protests against its Sunni rulers in early 2011 . The government initially allowed protests following a pre @-@ dawn raid on protesters camped in Pearl Roundabout . A month later it requested security assistance from Saudi Arabia and other GCC countries and declared a three @-@ month state of emergency . The government then launched a crackdown on the opposition that included conducting thousands of arrests and systematic torture . Almost daily clashes between protesters and security forces led to dozens of deaths . Protests , sometimes staged by opposition parties , are ongoing . More than 80 civilians and 13 policemen have been killed as of March 2014 . The lack of coverage by Arab media in the Persian Gulf , as compared to other Arab Spring uprisings , has sparked several controversies .
= = Geography = =
Bahrain is a generally flat and arid archipelago in the Persian Gulf , east of Saudi Arabia . It consists of a low desert plain rising gently to a low central escarpment with the highest point the 134 m ( 440 ft ) Mountain of Smoke ( Jabal ad Dukhan ) . Bahrain had a total area of 665 km2 ( 257 sq mi ) but due to land reclamation , the area increased to 765 km2 ( 295 sq mi ) , which is slightly larger than Hamburg or the Isle of Man .
Often described as an archipelago of 33 islands , extensive land reclamation projects have changed this ; by August 2008 the number of islands and island groups had increased to 84 . Bahrain does not share a land boundary with another country but does have a 161 km ( 100 mi ) coastline . The country also claims a further 22 km ( 12 nmi ) of territorial sea and a 44 km ( 24 nmi ) contiguous zone . Bahrain 's largest islands are Bahrain Island , the Hawar Islands , Muharraq Island , Umm an Nasan , and Sitra . Bahrain has mild winters and very hot , humid summers . The country 's natural resources include large quantities of oil and natural gas as well as fish in the offshore waters . Arable land constitutes only 2 @.@ 82 % of the total area .
Though 92 % of Bahrain is desert with periodic droughts and dust storms , the main natural hazards for Bahrainis . Environmental issues facing Bahrain include desertification resulting from the degradation of limited arable land , coastal degradation ( damage to coastlines , coral reefs , and sea vegetation ) resulting from oil spills and other discharges from large tankers , oil refineries , distribution stations , and illegal land reclamation at places such as Tubli Bay . The agricultural and domestic sectors ' over @-@ utilisation of the Dammam Aquifer , the principal aquifer in Bahrain , has led to its salinisation by adjacent brackish and saline water bodies . A hydrochemical study identified the locations of the sources of aquifer salinisation and delineated their areas of influence . The investigation indicates that the aquifer water quality is significantly modified as groundwater flows from the northwestern parts of Bahrain , where the aquifer receives its water by lateral underflow from eastern Saudi Arabia , to the southern and southeastern parts . Four types of salinisation of the aquifer are identified : brackish @-@ water up @-@ flow from the underlying brackish @-@ water zones in north @-@ central , western , and eastern regions ; seawater intrusion in the eastern region ; intrusion of sabkha water in the southwestern region ; and irrigation return flow in a local area in the western region . Four alternatives for the management of groundwater quality that are available to the water authorities in Bahrain are discussed and their priority areas are proposed , based on the type and extent of each salinisation source , in addition to groundwater use in that area .
= = = Climate = = =
The Zagros Mountains across the Persian Gulf in Iran cause low level winds to be directed toward Bahrain . Dust storms from Iraq and Saudi Arabia transported by northwesterly winds , locally called shamal wind , cause reduced visibility in the months of June and July .
Summers are very hot . The seas around Bahrain are very | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
in 1848 . Other extracts were published in various works , including parts of Book I that were included in Volume 2 of Jean Mabillon 's nine @-@ volume Acta Sanctorum , printed between 1688 and 1701 . Another set of extracts , mainly consisting of parts of Book II , was compiled by Roger Gale 's father Thomas Gale , as part of his Historicae Britannicae Scriptores XV , published at Oxford in 1691 .
= = = Editions = = =
Blake , E. O. , ed . ( 1962 ) . Liber Eliensis . Camden Third Series . London : Royal Historical Society . OCLC 462668616 .
Fairweather , Janet ( trans . ) , ed . ( 2005 ) . Liber Eliensis . Woodbridge , UK : Boydell Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84383 @-@ 015 @-@ 3 .
= Fanny Bullock Workman =
Fanny Bullock Workman ( January 8 , 1859 – January 22 , 1925 ) was an American geographer , cartographer , explorer , travel writer , and mountaineer , notably in the Himalayas . She was one of the first female professional mountaineers ; she not only explored but also wrote about her adventures . She set several women 's altitude records , published eight travel books with her husband , and championed women 's rights and women 's suffrage .
Born to a wealthy family , Workman was educated in the finest schools available to women and traveled in Europe . Her marriage to William Hunter Workman cemented these advantages , and , after being introduced to climbing in New Hampshire , Fanny Workman traveled the world with him . They were able to capitalize on their wealth and connections to voyage around Europe , North Africa , and Asia . The couple had two children , but Fanny Workman was not a motherly type ; they left their children in schools and with nurses , and Workman saw herself as a New Woman who could equal any man . The Workmans began their travels with bicycle tours of Switzerland , France , Italy , Spain , Algeria and India . They cycled thousands of miles , sleeping wherever they could find shelter . They wrote books about each trip and Fanny frequently commented on the state of the lives of women that she saw . Their early bicycle tour narratives were better received than their mountaineering books .
At the end of their cycling trip through India , the couple escaped to the Western Himalaya and the Karakoram for the summer months , where they were introduced to high @-@ altitude climbing . They returned to this then @-@ unexplored region eight times over the next 14 years . Despite not having modern climbing equipment , the Workmans explored several glaciers and reached the summit of several mountains , eventually reaching 23 @,@ 000 feet ( 7 @,@ 000 m ) on Pinnacle Peak , a women 's altitude record at the time . They organized multiyear expeditions but struggled to remain on good terms with the local labor force . Coming from a position of American privilege and wealth , they failed to understand the position of the native workers and had difficulty finding and negotiating for reliable porters .
After their trips to the Himalaya , the Workmans gave lectures about their travels . They were invited to learned societies ; Fanny Workman became the first American woman to lecture at the Sorbonne and the second to speak at the Royal Geographical Society . She received many medals of honor from European climbing and geographical societies and was recognized as one of the foremost climbers of her day . She demonstrated that a woman could climb in high altitudes just as well as a man and helped break down the gender barrier in mountaineering .
= = Early life = =
Workman was born January 8 , 1859 , in Worcester , Massachusetts , to a wealthy and elite family descended from the Pilgrims ; she was the youngest of three children . Her mother was Elvira Hazard , and her father was Alexander H. Bullock , businessman and Republican Massachusetts governor . Fanny was educated by governesses before attending Miss Graham 's Finishing School in New York City , after which she spent time in Paris and then Dresden . Thomas Pauly writes in his short biography of Workman that " early on Fanny chafed at the constraints of her privilege " . A small number of her stories from this time survive , describing her interest in adventure . In one , " A Vacation Episode " , she describes a beautiful and aristocratic English girl who is contemptuous of society . She runs away to Grindelwald , becoming an excellent alpinist and marrying an American . The story encapsulates much of Fanny 's own life : wanderlust , a love of the mountains , and a commitment to women 's rights . In 1886 , she published a short story , set during the First Indian War , in New York Magazine about " the capture and rescue of a white girl " ; a reviewer of the story stated that it was " told in a very pleasant and infatuating style " .
In 1879 , Fanny returned to the United States and on June 16 , 1882 married William Hunter Workman , a man 12 years her senior . He was also from a wealthy and educated family , having attended Yale and having received his medical training at Harvard . In 1884 they had a daughter , Rachel .
William introduced Fanny to climbing after their marriage , and together they spent many summers in the White Mountains in New Hampshire ; here she summited Mount Washington ( 6 @,@ 293 feet or 1 @,@ 918 metres ) several times . Climbing in the Northeastern United States allowed Fanny to develop her abilities together with other women . Unlike European clubs , American climbing clubs in the White Mountains allowed women to be members and encouraged women to climb . They promoted a new vision of the American woman , one who was both domestic and athletic , and Workman took to this image with enthusiasm . By 1886 , women sometimes outnumbered men on hiking expeditions in New England . In her paper on the gender dynamics of climbing in the region , Jenny Ernie @-@ Steighner states that this formative experience shaped Workman 's commitment to women 's rights , pointing out that " no other well @-@ known international mountaineers of the time , male or female , spoke as openly and fervently about women 's rights " . However , both of the Workmans disliked the provincial nature of life in Worcester , where they resided , and yearned to live in Europe . After both Fanny 's and William 's fathers died , leaving them enormous estates , the couple embarked on their first major European trip , a tour of Scandinavia and Germany .
= = Move to Europe and cycling tours = =
In 1889 the Workman family relocated to Germany citing William 's health , although Pauly speculates that this may have been merely a pretext , for he recovered surprisingly quickly . The couple 's second child , Siegfried , was born shortly after they arrived in Dresden . Although Fanny and William now had two children , Fanny refused to conform to the socially accepted role of a wife and mother , and instead became an author and adventurer . She lived a vigorous life that diverged from idealized femininity in the 1800s . As a feminist , Fanny considered herself an example of the idea that women could equal and excel over men in the arduous life , and embodied the New Woman ethos of the day . Moreover , as Miller points out in her book about women explorers , since the ideal family of the time was a large one and information about birth control was not easily available , William 's medical knowledge must have been invaluable . The Workmans left their children with nurses while they took long trips . In 1893 , Siegfried died from a combination of influenza and pneumonia . After his death , according to Pauly , Workman , through her bicycle tours , " aggressively pursued an alternative identity , one that liberated her from the conventional responsibilities of wife and mother and allowed for her interests and ambitions " . They missed their daughter 's wedding to Sir Alexander MacRobert in 1911 while exploring in the Karakoram .
Together , the Workmans explored the world and co @-@ wrote eight travel books , which describe the people , art , and architecture of the areas in which they journeyed . The Workmans were aware of their contribution to the genre of travel writing as they commented on other writers in their own works . Their mountaineering narratives said little about the culture of those remote and sparsely inhabited regions ; they included both lyrical descriptions of the sunset , for example , for their popular audience and detailed explanations of geographical features , such as glaciers , for their scientific readership . Fanny and William added scientific elements to their writings to appeal to authoritative organizations such as the Royal Geographical Society ; Fanny also believed the science would make her more legitimate in the eyes of the climbing community , but it cost her readers . In general , their bicycling tour narratives were better received than those about their mountaineering exploits . Fanny wrote the majority of these travel books herself , and in them she commented extensively on the plight of women wherever she traveled .
Stephanie Tingley writes , in her encyclopedia entry on Workman 's travel writing , that there is an implied feminist criticism of the hardships women experienced and the inferior status of the women in the societies she encountered . As a strong @-@ willed , outspoken supporter of women 's rights , Workman used their travels to demonstrate her own abilities and to highlight the inequities other women lived under . However , their travel books are written in the first @-@ person plural or third @-@ person singular , so it is difficult to decisively attribute views or voices to either William or Fanny . The Workmans ' works are colonialist in that they describe the people they meet and observe as " exotic or unusual , at worst as primitive or even subhuman " . However , at times they make it clear that the people they encounter see them in a similar light , demonstrating that they were sometimes aware of their own biases .
Between 1888 and 1893 , the Workmans took bicycling tours of Switzerland , France , and Italy . In 1891 , Fanny became one of the first women to climb Mont Blanc . She also was one of the first women to climb the Jungfrau and the Matterhorn ; her guide was Peter Taugwalder , who had made the first ascent with Edward Whymper . In 1893 , the couple decided to explore areas beyond Europe and headed for Algeria , Indochina , and India . These longer trips were Fanny 's idea . The couple 's first extended tour was a 2 @,@ 800 @-@ mile ( 4 @,@ 500 km ) bicycle trip across Spain in 1895 ; each of them carried 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) of luggage and they averaged 45 miles ( 72 km ) a day , sometimes riding up to 80 miles ( 130 km ) . Afterwards , they co @-@ wrote Sketches Awheel in Modern Iberia about their trip . In it , they described Spain as " rustic , quaint , and charming " , a common travel writing motif that did not make their book fresh or original . In Algerian Memories Fanny focused on the beauty and romance of the countryside , avoiding any commentary on the appalling urban conditions . However , she did highlight the abuse and neglect of women in Algerian society .
= = India = =
The Workmans ' trip to India , Burma , Ceylon , and Java lasted two and a half years , beginning in November 1897 , and covered 14 @,@ 000 miles ( 23 @,@ 000 km ) . At the time , Fanny was 38 and William 50 . They bicycled about 4 @,@ 000 miles ( 6 @,@ 400 km ) from the southernmost tip of India to the Himalaya in the north . In order to ensure that they had access to supplies , they rode along major thoroughfares near railways , and were sometimes forced to sleep in railway waiting rooms if no other accommodation was available . They carried minimal supplies , including tea , sugar , biscuits , cheese , tinned meats , water , pillows , a blanket for each of them , writing materials , and medical and repair kits . They dispensed with their bicycles at the northern end of their trip and hiked over passes between 14 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) and 18 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) . The trip was grueling . They often had little food or water , dealt with swarms of mosquitoes , fixed as many as 40 bicycle tire punctures per day , and slept in rat @-@ infested quarters . Fanny Workman 's book , written after the trip , highlighted the ancient architecture that they had seen rather than the contemporary local cultures . Mrs Workmans mentions in " My Asiatic Wanderings " about India " I have wheeled through much enchanting scenery , in the palm and banyan grooves of Orissa , Over the green and scarlet slopes of the Terai ... But I have never cycled 1200 miles in a country so continuously beautiful . " The Workmans possessed an unusual amount of historical knowledge about India for Westerners of the time and had read the Jakata , Mahabharata , and Ramayana before their trip . They were eager to learn about the culture that had produced these epics and spent more time learning about ancient history than interacting with living people .
= = = Labor issues = = =
During the summer of 1898 , the couple decided to escape the heat and explore the western Himalaya and Karakoram . After that , they intended to explore the area around Kanchenjunga in Sikkim , and then finally travel to the mountains bordering Bhutan on the east . Bureaucratic difficulties and weather problems abounded and impeded their plans . The most serious problems concerned labor . They hired 45 porters , outfitted them for basic mountain travel , and bought provisions , but costs skyrocketed as news of wealthy Americans circulated in the villages . They could not leave until October 3 and by then cold weather was approaching . The Workmans complain in their writings about the porters they hired , who were difficult to work with and refused to trek more than five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) per day . Three days into their journey the Workmans reached snow and the porters rebelled ; they refused to work in such cold conditions and forced the entire party to return to Darjeeling .
The Workmans struggled with labor problems continually , needing local porters to carry gear for them because they could not carry a sufficient amount for themselves for a multi @-@ month expedition . They had to transport Mummery tents , eider sleeping bags , camera equipment , scientific instruments , and a large supply of food . The porters were skeptical of the entire venture . The locals rarely climbed mountains and were not used to taking orders from a woman , which made Fanny 's position difficult . The Workmans tried to solve these problems with condescension and high @-@ handedness . Kenneth Mason maintains in his history of Himalayan mountaineering , written in 1955 , that " The Workmans were , on their journeys , the victims of their own faults . They were too impatient and rarely tried to understand the mentality of the porters and so did not get the best out of them . " Labor problems beset all of their expeditions because , as Miller puts it , " Almost alone of Victorian travellers , the Workmans had absolutely no sympathy or even common @-@ sense understanding of the local people , into whose poor and remote villages they burst with trains of followers demanding service and supplies . " In her chapter on Workman , Miller argues that the couple , being American , did not have the same sense of caste or class that British explorers had : " the Workmans , like most of their countrymen , plunged in their enterprises headlong , expecting their enormous energy to overcome all obstacles . They were justifiably criticized by the British for their callous , incompetent behavior toward the Indians . "
= = Mountaineering in the Himalayas = =
After travelling to the Himalaya the first time , the Workmans became entranced with climbing and mountaineering . Over a span of 14 years , they traveled eight times to the area , which at the time was almost completely unexplored and unmapped . Their trips were made without the benefit of modern lightweight equipment , freeze @-@ dried foods , sunblock , or radios . On each expedition , they explored , surveyed , and photographed , ultimately reporting on their findings and creating maps . The couple shared and alternated responsibilities ; one year Fanny would organize the logistics of their journey and William would work on the scientific projects and the next year they would reverse roles .
After their first trip to the Himalaya and subsequent labor problems , the Workmans hired Matthias Zurbriggen , the best and most experienced mountain climbing guide of the time . Thus , in 1899 , with 50 local porters and Zurbriggen , the Workmans began to explore the Biafo Glacier in the Karakoram , but dangerous crevasses and poor weather forced them instead to shift to the Skoro La Glacier and the unclimbed peaks around it . They reached Siegfriedhorn , an 18 @,@ 600 @-@ foot ( 5 @,@ 700 m ) summit that she named after her son , giving Fanny an altitude record for women at the time . They next camped at 17 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 200 m ) and climbed a higher peak of 19 @,@ 450 feet ( 5 @,@ 930 m ) , naming it Mount Bullock Workman . Admiring the view of a far @-@ off mountain , they commented on the grand view : they were looking at K2 , the second @-@ highest mountain in the world . Fanny Workman may have been the first woman recorded to have seen it . Finally , they climbed Koser Gunge ( 20 @,@ 997 feet or 6 @,@ 400 metres ) , giving Fanny her third successive altitude record . It was very challenging : they had to hire new porters , establish a new base camp , and remain overnight at around 18 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) . In the morning , they climbed a wall that measured 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) , and were buffeted by winds . During the summit push , Fanny 's fingers were so numb that she could no longer hold her ice ax and one of the porters abandoned them . Pauly writes , " propelled to the summit by adrenalin and desperation , the foursome lingered only long enough for their instruments to assess that the temperature was ten degrees Fahrenheit [ − 12 ° C ] and their elevation was 21 @,@ 000 feet . " Fanny was a " slow , relentless , and intrepid " climber ; " bearlike , she solidly planted one foot and then groped for another secure grip with the other " . Climbing at the beginning of the 20th century , she did not have specialized equipment like pitons or carabiners . She was able to climb to such heights , Pauly argues , because of " her dauntless persistence and her immunity to altitude sickness " .
As soon as she was able , Fanny Workman published accounts of her feats , such as an article in the Scottish Geographical Magazine . Writing about this trip at length in In the Ice World of the Himalayas , Fanny made efforts to include scientific information and experiments , touting her own modified barometer as superior , but scholarly critics were unimpressed and pointed out her lack of scientific knowledge . Popular reviewers , on the other hand , enjoyed the book , with one concluding , " We have no hesitation in saying that Dr. and Mrs. Workman have written one of the most remarkable books of travel of recent years . "
In 1902 , the Workmans returned to the Himalaya and became the first Westerners to explore the Chogo Lungma Glacier , starting in Arandu . They hired 80 porters and took four tons of supplies , but their explorations were limited by near @-@ constant snow and a 60 @-@ hour storm . In 1903 , they trekked to the Hoh Lumba Glacier with guide Cyprien Savoye . They also attempted to climb the nearby mountain they called Pyramid Peak ( later renamed Spantik , as part of the Spantik @-@ Sosbun Mountains ) . They camped the first night at 16 @,@ 200 feet ( 4 @,@ 900 m ) and the second at 18 @,@ 600 feet ( 5 @,@ 700 m ) . An ailing porter forced them to camp the third night at 19 @,@ 355 feet ( 5 @,@ 899 m ) rather than 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) and they eventually left him behind . They ascended a 22 @,@ 567 @-@ foot ( 6 @,@ 878 m ) peak , giving Fanny a new altitude record . William and a porter climbed toward the needle @-@ like spire that was the expedition 's goal . However , he abandoned the summit attempt a few hundred feet from the top because he realized they could not have descended to a safe altitude before altitude sickness set in .
After returning from their travels , the Workmans lectured all over Europe . Fanny lectured in English , German , or French , as the occasion required . At one talk in Lyon , France , 1000 people crowded into the auditorium and 700 were turned away . In 1905 Fanny became the second woman to address the Royal Geographical Society . ( Isabella Bird Bishop had been the first in May 1897 . ) Her talk was mentioned in The Times .
The Workmans returned to Kashmir in 1906 , and were the first Westerners to explore the Nun Kun massif . For this trip , the couple hired six Italian porters from the Alps , 200 local porters , and Savoye returned as guide . As Isserman , Weaver and Molenaar explain in their history of Himalayan mountaineering , the Workmans despised the local porters but were forced to recruit them ; " their otherwise invaluable books read like one long , anguished harangue against the lazy , lying , thieving , mutinous cheats on whom they unhappily depended for local support " . They planned a sequence of four camps from 17 @,@ 657 feet ( 5 @,@ 382 m ) to 21 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) . Despite labor problems , the Workmans spent the night higher than any previous mountaineers — 20 @,@ 278 feet ( 6 @,@ 181 m ) on top of Z1 on Nun Kun — at what they called " Camp America " . William wrote of Fanny :
She concentrated her attention on the end in view , often disregarding the difficulties and even the dangers that might lie in the way of accomplishment . She went forward with a determination to succeed and a courage that won success where a less determined effort would have failed . She believed in taking advantage of every opportunity . She was no quitter , and was never the first to suggest turning back in the face of discouraging circumstances .
The map the Workmans made during this trip was of low quality . According to Mason , the couple did not have a good sense of topographical direction , which meant that their measurements were inaccurate and unusable by the Survey of India .
= = = Pinnacle Peak and altitude record = = =
From 20 @,@ 278 feet ( 6 @,@ 181 m ) , at the age of 47 in 1906 , Workman climbed up to Pinnacle Peak ( 22 @,@ 735 feet or 6 @,@ 930 metres ) ( which she believed to be 23 @,@ 263 feet or 7 @,@ 091 metres ) , a subsidiary peak in the Nun Kun massif of the western Himalaya . It was her greatest mountaineering achievement . As Isserman , Weaver and Molenaar point out , the fact that she " climbed the mountain at all , without benefit of modern equipment and encumbered by her voluminous skirts , speaks to both her ability and resolve " . She set an altitude record for women that would stand until Hetti Dhyrenfurth 's 1934 ascent of Sia Kangri C ( 23 @,@ 861 feet or 7 @,@ 273 metres ) . Believing that they had both climbed above the 23 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 7 @,@ 000 m ) mark , Fanny and William now considered themselves the leading experts on climbing at altitude .
Workman vigorously defended her Pinnacle Peak altitude record against all other claimants , especially Annie Smith Peck . In 1908 , Peck claimed a new record with her climb of Peru 's Huascarán , which she believed to be 23 @,@ 000 feet ( 7 @,@ 000 m ) . However , she was misinformed as to the peak 's height and exaggerated distances she could not measure . Workman was so competitive that she paid a team of French surveyors from the Service Géographique de l 'Armée US $ 13 @,@ 000 to measure the elevation of the mountain , which was actually 22 @,@ 205 feet ( 6 @,@ 768 m ) , confirming her record . Pauly explains , " Ironically , her determination to prove herself the equal of any man at lofty elevations culminated with a withering attack on an American woman who tried to surpass her " . Determined to be the best woman , Workman was also a meticulous record @-@ keeper so that she could prove her accomplishments . Pauly concludes , " If Fanny Workman ever receives the recognition she deserves for her feminist determination to excel at this then @-@ male sport , she will surely be remembered as much for her insistence upon accurate record @-@ keeping as for the elevations she achieved . "
= = = Hispar and Siachen Glaciers = = =
In 1908 , the Workmans returned to the Karakoram and explored the 38 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 61 km ) Hispar Glacier in the Hunza Nagar region ; they went from Gilgit to Nagir over the Hispar pass ( 17 @,@ 500 feet or 5 @,@ 300 metres ) and onto the 37 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 60 km ) Biafo Glacier to Askole . Their total traverse of the glaciers was another record , and Fanny became the first woman to travel across any Himalayan glacier of this size . They were the first to explore its many side glaciers and the maps created by their Italian porters helped map the region for the first time . They recorded the physiological effects of high altitude , studied glaciers and ice pinnacles , and took meteorological measurements , including altitude data recorded with both aneroid barometers and boiling point thermometers .
The Workmans ' exploration of the Rose Glacier and the 45 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 72 km ) Siachen Glacier in Baltistan around Masherbrum in 1911 and 1912 was the most important achievement of their careers because it was the widest and longest subpolar glacier in the world and at the time , the least explored and accessible glacier as well . For two months , the Workmans explored the 45 @-@ mile glacier , climbed several mountains , and mapped the area . They spent the entire time over 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) , the high point being Indira Col which they summitted and named . On this expedition , one of their Italian guides fell into a crevasse and died ; Fanny was lucky to escape . The others were badly shaken but decided to carry on . Fanny led them across the Sia La pass ( 18 @,@ 700 feet or 5 @,@ 700 metres ) near the head of the Siachen Glacier and through a previously unexplored region to the Kaberi Glacier . This exploration and the resulting book were among her greatest accomplishments . As she wrote in her book about the trip , Two Summers in the Ice @-@ Wilds of Eastern Karakoram , she organized and led this expedition : " Dr. Hunter Workman accompanied me , this time , in charge with me of commissariat and as photographer and glacialist , but I was the responsible leader of this expedition , and on my efforts , in a large measure , must depend the success or failure of it " . At one 21 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) plateau , Fanny unfurled a " Votes for Women " newspaper and her husband snapped an iconic picture . They took trained Alpine guides and surveyors including Grant Peterkin and Surjan Singh , whose contributions ensured that , unlike numerous other maps the Workmans helped create , their map of the Siachen Glacier remained unchallenged for many years .
= = Later life and death = =
After their 1908 – 12 trip , the couple stopped exploring and turned to writing and lecturing , primarily because of the onset of World War I in 1914 . Fanny Workman became the first American woman to lecture at the Sorbonne in Paris . She was also one of the first women to be admitted as a member of the Royal Geographical Society , a distinction she earned because her publications included scientific reflections on glaciation and other phenomena . She also earned medals of honor from 10 European geographical societies and was eventually elected a member of the American Alpine Club , Royal Asiatic Society , Club Alpino Italiano , Deutscher und Österreichischer Alpenverein , and Club alpin français . She was very proud of these achievements , listing them on the title pages of her books .
Fanny Workman fell ill in 1917 and died after a long illness in 1925 in Cannes , France . Her ashes were buried in Massachusetts , and are now reinterred along with her husband 's , under a monument in Worcester Massachusetts ' Rural Cemetery that reads " Pioneer Himalayan Explorers " . In her will , she left $ 125 @,@ 000 to four colleges , Radcliffe , Wellesley , Smith , and Bryn Mawr ; the bequests were demonstrative of her long @-@ lasting interest in the advancement of women 's rights , and her belief that women were the equals of men .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Women in climbing = = =
Along with Annie Smith Peck , Workman was recognized during the early 20th century as one of the most famous female climbers in the world . Their rivalry demonstrated that women could climb the most remote and difficult terrain on the planet , and achieve the same accomplishments as male mountaineers . It was not until Peck and Workman 's feats that women had been involved in mountaineering , though they had climbed regularly in the Alps since the 1850s . In the Himalaya , in particular , mountaineering had been dominated by wealthy Englishmen . No other women , however , climbed in the Himalaya until well after World War I , by which time improvements in equipment and organization had reduced the risk and the difficulty of the expeditions .
Workman , herself an ardent feminist and a supporter of women 's suffrage , wanted her readers to understand how her contributions and achievements reflected all women 's potential . In her writings , Workman described herself as " questioning or violating the norms of Victorian female propriety " . She demonstrated that women were strong enough to thrive outside the home by showing how easy it was for her to endure strenuous physical activities like bicycling long distances in hot , humid places or mountaineering in cold temperatures and high altitudes . Workman challenged a masculine realm ; her obituary in the Alpine Journal alluded to the challenges she faced , saying that she " felt that she suffered from ' sex antagonism ' " . The author of the piece added : " it is possible that some unconscious feeling let us say of the novelty of a woman 's intrusion into the domain of exploration so long reserved to man , may in some quarters have existed ... there tended to arise ... an atmosphere shall we say of aloofness ? " However , in her study of Victorian mountaineering , Ann Colley suggests that gender discrimination was more overt at lower elevations and in regular life than at higher elevations , such as in the Himalaya . Colley states , " Away from such petty opinion emanating from society pressures , up high , above the snow line or in distant regions , women climbers could more fully experience equality and power ... If they chose , they could be just as sportsmanlike or competitive as the men . " In her entry about Workman in the Dictionary of Literary Biography , Tingley sums Workman up as " an aggressive , determined , and uncompromising turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century American woman traveler " and " one of the first women to work as a professional mountaineer and surveyor and to write about the expeditions she and her husband took to the most remote reaches of the Himalaya . She was an outspoken advocate of woman 's suffrage and made it clear that she considered herself to be a role model for other women travelers and mountaineers . "
As a result of the money Workman left in her will , Wellesley College offers a $ 16 @,@ 000 fellowship named after Fanny Workman for graduate study in any discipline to a Wellesley graduate each year . Bryn Mawr established a Fanny Bullock Workman Traveling Fellowship , which is awarded to Ph.D candidates in Archaeology or Art History when funds permit .
= = = Exploration of the Himalaya = = =
The many books and articles produced by the Workmans are " still useful " according to Mason , especially for their photographs and illustrations , but their maps are " deceptive and not always reliable " . One assessment states that although the Workmans excelled at describing meteorological conditions , glaciology , and how high altitudes affected human health and fitness , they were poor topographers . The Workmans were some of the first mountaineers to grasp that the Himalaya were the place for the ultimate climbing challenge and their explorations helped evolve mountaineering from strenuous recreation into a serious , regulated competitive sport . According to Isserman , Weaver and Molenaar , " that the Workmans were intrepid explorers and climbers none could possibly doubt , but they were also aggressive self @-@ promoters who in their eagerness for recognition and honors sometimes exaggerated the originality and significance of what they had done . " In their final assessment , Isserman , Weaver and Molenaar say " they had logged more miles and climbed more peaks than anyone to date ; they had produced five sumptuously illustrated and widely read expedition volumes ; and by simple virtue of her sex Fanny of course had set an invaluable Himalayan precedent . But the Workmans were not great mountaineers . At their best they were vigorous and competent patrons who followed capably in the hard @-@ won steps of their Italian guides . " However , in his chapter on Workman , Pauly writes that " the few recent accounts of Fanny Workman have tended to slight or belittle her achievements , but contemporaries , unaware of the far greater accomplishments to come , held the Workmans in high regard . " They were the first Americans to explore the Himalaya in depth and break the British monopoly over Himalayan mountaineering .
= = = Books = = =
Algerian memories : a bicycle tour over the Atlas to the Sahara . London : T.F. Unwin . 1895 @.@ p . 216 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
Sketches awheel in modern Iberia . London : Unwin . 1897 @.@ p . 280 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
In the ice world of Himálaya , among the peaks and passes of Ladakh , Nubra , Suru , and Baltistan . New York : Cassell & Company , Limited . 1900 @.@ p . 204 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
Ice @-@ Bound Heights of the Mustagh : An Account of Two seasons of Pioneer Exploration and High Climbing in the Baltistan Himalaya . London : A. Constable & Co . 1908 @.@ p . 444 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
Peaks and Glaciers of Nun Kun : A Record of Pioneer @-@ Exploration and Mountaineering in the Punjab Himalaya . London : Constable and Company Ltd . 1909 @.@ p . 411 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
The Call of the Snowy Hispar : A Narrative of Exploration and Mountaineering on the Northern Frontier of India . New York : Scribner . 1911 @.@ p . 520 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
Two Summers in the Ice @-@ Wilds of Eastern Karakoram : The Exploration of Nineteen Hundred Square Miles of Mountain and Glacier . New York : E. P. Dutton & Company . 1916 @.@ p . 578 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
= = = Articles = = =
" Among the Great Himalayan Glaciers . " National Geographic 13 ( Nov. 1920 ) : 405 – 406 .
" First Ascents of the Hoh Lumba and the Sosbon Glaciers in the Northwest Himalayas . " Independent 55 ( December 31 , 1903 ) : 3108 – 12 .
Through Town and Jungle : Fourteen Thousand Miles A @-@ Wheel Among the Temples and People of the Indian Plain . London : Unwin , 1904 .
" Miss Peck and Mrs. Workman . " Scientific American 102 ( Feb 12 and April 16 , 1910 ) ; 143 , 319 .
" Recent First Ascents in the Himalaya . " Independent 68 ( June 2 , 1910 ) : 1202 – 10 .
" Conquering the Great Rose . " Harper 129 ( June 1914 ) : 44 – 45 .
" Exploring the Rose . " Independent 85 ( January 10 , 1916 ) : 54 – 56 .
" Four Miles High . " Independent 86 ( June 5 , 1916 ) : 377 – 378 .
= = = Cited sources = = =
Colley , Ann C. ( 2010 ) . Victorians in the Mountains : Sinking the Sublime . Farnham : Ashgate . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4094 @-@ 0634 @-@ 1 .
Ellis , Reuben ( 2001 ) . Vertical Margins : Mountaineering and the Landscapes of Neoimperialism . Madison : University of Wisconsin Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 299 @-@ 17000 @-@ 4 .
Ernie @-@ Steighner , Jenny ( 2009 ) . " Delightful Escapes : U.S. Female Mountaineers Travel Abroad , 1890 – 1915 " . Thinking Gender Papers ( Los Angeles : UCLA Center for the Study of Women ) . Retrieved 22 October 2013 .
Isserman , Maurice ; Weaver , Stewart ; Molenaar , Dee ( 2008 ) . Fallen Giants : A History of Himalayan Mountaineering from the Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes . New Haven : Yale University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 11501 @-@ 7 .
Jordan , Jennifer ( 2009 ) . Savage Summit : The Life and Death of the First Women of K2 . New York : HarperCollins . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 175352 @-@ 7 .
Kraig , Beth ( 1999 ) . " Fanny Bullock Workman " . In Garraty , John A. ; Carnes , Mark C. American National Biography 23 . New York and Oxford : Oxford University Press. pp. 877 – 879 . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 512802 @-@ 8 .
Mason , Kenneth ( 1955 ) . Abode of Snow : A History of Himalayan Exploration and Mountaineering . New York : E.P. Dutton & Co . , Inc .
Middleton , Dorothy ( 1965 ) . Victorian Lady Travellers . New York : E.P. Dutton & Co . , Inc .
Miller , Luree ( 1976 ) . On Top of the World : Five Women Explorers in Tibet . Frome : Padding Press Ltd . ISBN 0 @-@ 8467 @-@ 0138 @-@ 3 .
Pauly , Thomas H. ( 2012 ) . Game Faces : Five Early American Champions and the Sports They Changed . Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8032 @-@ 3817 @-@ 6 .
Plint , Michael ( 1992 – 1993 ) . " The Workmans : Travellers Extraordinary " ( PDF ) . Alpine Journal 97 : 231 – 237 . Retrieved 15 October 2013 .
Tingley , Stephanie A. ( 1998 ) . " Fanny Bullock Workman " . In Ross , Donald ; Schramer , James J. Dictionary of Literary Biography : American Travel Writers , 1850 – 1915 189 . Detroit : Gale. pp. 360 – 365 . ISBN 0 @-@ 7876 @-@ 1844 @-@ 6 .
Tinling , Marion ( 1989 ) . Women into the Unknown : A Sourcebook on Women Explorers and Travelers . New York : Greenwood Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 313 @-@ 25328 @-@ 5 .
= Murasaki Shikibu Diary Emaki =
The Murasaki Shikibu Diary Emaki ( 紫式部日記絵巻 , Murasaki Shikibu nikki emaki ) is a mid @-@ 13th century emaki , a Japanese picture scroll , inspired by the private diary ( nikki ) of Murasaki Shikibu , lady @-@ in @-@ waiting at the 10th / 11th centuries Heian court and author of The Tale of Genji . This emaki belongs to the classical style of Japanese painting known as yamato @-@ e and revives the iconography of the Heian period .
Today there remain four paper scrolls of the emaki in varying condition and stored in different collections : Hachisuka , Matsudaira , Hinohara scrolls ( Tokyo ) , and Fujita scroll ( Fujita Art Museum , Osaka ) . Of the extant scrolls , the first relates the celebrations on occasion of the birth of prince Atsunari ( Atsuhira , later Emperor Go @-@ Ichijō ) in 1008 and the last those of the birth of Prince Atsunaga ( later Emperor Go @-@ Suzaku ) in 1009 . This difference in time indicates that the original emaki most likely consisted of more scrolls than exist today .
= = Description = =
The Diary of Lady Murasaki ( 紫式部日記 , Murasaki Shikibu Nikki ) records the daily life of the Heian era lady @-@ in @-@ waiting and writer , Lady Murasaki Shikibu , author of The Tale of Genji . Most likely written between 1008 and 1010 , the largest portion consists of descriptive passages of the birth of Empress Shōshi 's ( Akiko ) children ( future Emperors Go @-@ Ichijō and Go @-@ Suzaku ) and related festivities , with smaller vignettes describing life at the Imperial court and relations between other ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting and court writers such as Izumi Shikibu , Akazome Emon and Sei Shōnagon . It also gives a lively account of the regency of the powerful Fujiwara no Michinaga . Like the romantic novel Genji Monogatari , the diary deals with emotions and human relationships , particularly with Murasaki Shikibu 's constraints at the court of Akiko , loneliness and futility after her husband 's death ( in 1001 ) . The author is critical of her contemporaries , the men for their discourteous ways ( including Fujiwara no Michinaga ) and the women for their inexperience and lack of education and will . The diary is considered a masterpiece of Nikki Bungaku .
Emaki , which are long paper scrolls telling a story through texts and paintings , came to Japan through exchange with the Chinese Empire around the 6th century and spread widely among the Heian aristocracy . The subsequent Kamakura period was marked by internal strife and civil wars that fostered the rise of the warrior class . If the warriors of the bakufu preferred " quick @-@ moving narrative scrolls " such as war tales or legends , the production of emaki at the Heian court subsisted . Pictures illustrating The Tale of Genji continued to be popular into the early Kamakura period and revived interest in the author , Murasaki Shikibu . Towards the end of the 13th century , a renewed interest in the refined culture of the Heian period led some artists to return to painting styles of the Imperial Court ; many emaki were produced during this period .
The Murasaki Shikibu Diary Emaki belongs to this golden age of the emaki and according to Penelope Mason " may be regarded as one of the finest extant examples of prose @-@ poetry narrative illustration from the Kamakura period " . It was created about 200 years after the diary was written , in the mid @-@ 13th century . It transcribes the solitude and the observations of palace life from the diary but adds to the text a certain nostalgia for the glorious past of the Heian court which is typical for the 13th century , giving an overall feeling of " lost golden age " , according to Mason , even during happy events such as parties . The explanatory notes ( or captions ) , i.e. the non @-@ painting part , show little textual deviations from the diary .
An emaki of Murasaki Shikibu 's diary is mentioned in the Meigetsuki ( " Record of the clean moon " ) , the diary of the poet and scholar Fujiwara no Teika . According to this document , in 1233 several aristocrats close to cloistered Emperor Go @-@ Horikawa planned to create a new emaki of The Tale of Genji ( after the 12th century Genji Monogatari Emaki , the best known of these works ) , accompanied by another of Murasaki 's diary . However , there is no conclusive evidence that the extant scrolls correspond to those mentioned by Fujiwara no Teika , even though the consistency of manufacturing dates suggests that this is the case . The paintings of the emaki have been attributed to the painter Fujiwara Nobuzane and the captions to the excellent calligrapher Gokyōgoku ( 後京極良経 , 1169 – 1206 ) , despite definitive evidence .
= = Style and composition = =
Two elements are found in the illustrations of the emaki : people indoors engaging in activities typical of the aristocracy of the period , such as writing letters , playing instruments , exchanging poems or talking to each other ; and the gardens outside their buildings . For this reason , Mason calls the people in the emaki " house bound " . The leftward direction of scroll reading is reflected in the composition of paintings and pictures which may build to a climax from right to left ; or a main event presented on the right may be followed by its after @-@ effects to the left . Stylistically the emaki follows the principles of the onna @-@ e genre of yamato @-@ e and is in this respect similar to the Tale of Genji Scrolls ( 1120 – 1140 ) but differs from them in many other aspects . Typical for onna @-@ e , the paintings depict life at the palace with a sense of nostalgia , timeless and very retained , but purely decorative elements such as landscapes and contemplative scenes are added . Illustrations are relatively short compared to emaki of war or folktales , which according to Mason , " heightens the symbolic quality of non @-@ figural motifs " .
The painting technique of tsukuri @-@ e ( lit . " built painting " ) , used mainly in emaki of the court in the twelfth century , is also used here . It is done in three stages : a first sketch of the scene is made with Indian ink ( probably by a master of the workshop ) , then the color is applied on the entire surface of the paper in a specific order , from large areas in the background to fine details . Finally , the contours are enhanced or revived in ink to emphasize the depth . However , a visible change in style may again be noted , because the pigments are here less opaque than usual , and the more subtle shades are highlighted by fine outlines in ink ; and in addition , the decorative aspect emerges strongly through extensive use of gold dust , and sometimes of silver . According to Mason , the technique seems to be less careful than in the past , as can be seen in elements of the architectural interior ( sliding doors , screens ... ) which lack detail or in the silver powder which is used much less often in general compared to gold .
The cultural changes after the Heian period resulted in a more realistic depiction of figures including movements and gestures . Abandoning the Heian period hikime kagibana style ( lit . " slit eyes , hooked nose " ) , figures were painted individual features and facial expressions that conveyed emotions and moods . More generally , M. Murase notes that the expression of feelings subtly changed compared to the scrolls of the 12th century ; here the rooms ( or the inner space , because it depends on the fusuma ) in the palace are larger and less intimate or private , and nobles come and go naturally and determined . Unlike earlier scrolls such as the Genji Emaki , in which architecture and landscape were used as metaphors for people 's emotions , interpersonal or societal pressures , in these scrolls the people 's feelings are painted directly on the faces or shown through gestures , in addition to being expressed by the placement of characters within the scene . Architectural elements such as pillars , beams or platforms continued to be used to convey moods . Landscapes stand on their own as they are detached from the characters ' emotions and gain a new function as a place to escape from the constraints of court life .
Like most emaki , the composition is based on the fukinuki yatai ( lit . " roof off " ) technique , which consists of a perspective of looking down from above into the inner spaces resulting in a plunging view . Furthermore , diagonals are used to mark depth . Compared to earlier scrolls , in these scrolls , the interior spaces are depicted from a more normal perspective such as through rolled up bamboo blinds ( misu ) or spaces in the walls where sliding panels ( fusuma ) had been removed . The pace that is intentionally slow in tsukuri @-@ e , here seems slightly faster with illustrations depicting a single occurrence in time and temporally related events positioned close to each other in the emaki .
This new decorative approach to paintings of the court ( onna @-@ e ) inspired by the themes of literature is evident in several other works of the Kamakura period , such as uta monogatari ( e.g. The Tales of Ise Emaki ) , tsukuri monogatari ( e.g. Sumiyoshi Monogatari Emaki ) and romances ( e.g. Lord Takafusa 's Love Songs ( 隆房卿艶詞絵巻 , Takafusa Kyō tsuya kotoba emaki ) ) .
= = Historiography = =
The illustrations provide insight into life and festivities at the Heian Palace ; which sometimes consisted of something as simple as games on the lake although those might have been perceived differently at the time of manufacture . Like other picture scrolls on court life such as the Genji Monogatari Emaki or the Pillow Book Emaki ( Makura no Sōshi Emaki ) they provide valuable information on the architectural shinden @-@ zukuri style ( particularly on interiors ) which is characterized by a mixture of Tang and traditional Japanese influences .
= = Extant scrolls = =
It is thought that the emaki originally consisted of 10 – 12 scrolls . The ancestral heritage of the emaki before the Edo period is not known and an investigation conducted during the Meiji period , found that only four scrolls had survived , each 21 @.@ 0 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) high and about 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 4 m ( 15 – 18 ft ) long . The owners and state of preservation of all four scrolls has since changed . The extant parts correspond to about 15 percent of the original diary and are not in sequence . They consist of 24 scenes of varying widths distributed among three scrolls , six single sheets and two hanging scrolls in six different locations : Fujita Art Museum , Gotoh Museum , Tokyo National Museum and three private collections . Each scroll begins with a text section and generally alternates scene descriptions with illustrations , ending with a painting . In two instances a long text section is split in two parts and the Hachisuka scroll has an accumulation of three illustrations unseparated by text , and an accumulation of two unseparated independent text sections .
= = = Hachisuka scroll = = =
Chronologically the oldest scenes of the emaki , combined with some of the later anecdotes in the diary , are contained in the Hachisuka scroll . Named after its former owner , the Hachisuka clan , rulers of the Tokushima Domain in Awa Province , this scroll is privately owned . It consists of eight illustrations and seven text sections on 16 paper sheets . The long third text section is split in two parts and followed by three illustrations . The seventh text section immediately follows the sixth without a painting between the two . The full scroll is 537 @.@ 5 cm ( 211 @.@ 6 in ) long and has been designated as Important Cultural Property . Scenes 1 – 5 correspond to a continuous part of the diary and are the oldest diary entries represented by any of the four extant emaki scrolls . Scenes 6 and 7 correspond to later diary entries and appear in the diary after several of the scenes described in the other three extant scrolls .
= = = = Third day of birth celebration of Atsuhira @-@ shinnō = = = =
The Hachisuka scroll starts with a description of a banquet given by the queen 's majordomo and managed by the governor of Ōmi Province on Kankō 5 , 9th month , 13th day ( October 14 , 1008 ) , the third night of the birth of Atsuhira @-@ shinnō , the later Emperor Go @-@ Ichijō . On that occasion , the mother , Empress Shōshi received presents such as baby clothes and furniture . The illustration associated with this scene shows court nobles on the balconies outside of the principal building in which the queen is located .
= = = = Fifth day of birth celebration of Atsuhira @-@ shinnō = = = =
The second to fifth scenes of the Hachisuka scroll are set in the evening of Kankō 5 , 9th month , 15th day ( October 16 , 1008 ) . On that day , the prime minister and baby 's grandfather , Fujiwara no Michinaga , celebrates the birth . In the second text scene of the emaki , Murasaki Shikibu describes how everybody including servants , minor officials and high nobility was joyful and happy . Tables with rice balls ( mochi ) were placed in the garden , the full moon shone beautifully and torches made the scene as bright as in daylight . There is one illustration following this scene .
The third text is split in two parts , followed by three illustrations . The text contains a detailed description of how the dinner was served to the queen including the names of the maids of honour and their father 's names . The ladies who had not been selected to attend " wept bitterly " . Other people involved in the ceremony included uneme , mohitori , migusiage , tonomori , kanmori no nyokwan and door keepers . According to Murasaki Shikibu so many people were involved that it was hard to get through .
The relatively short fourth scene describes that the maids of honour exit from the queen 's room which had been partitioned off by misu entering the torch @-@ lit garden . It also gives more details and an interpretation of the dress of one of those maids , Lady Oshikibu .
The short fifth passage is a continuation of the previous events and relates an exchange of courtesies between court ladies and a monk who had kept night watch telling religious and other stories . Murasaki Shikibu tells him : You cannot see such a lovely thing every day , to which he replies : Indeed ! indeed ! clapping his hands in joy and neglecting his Buddha . The illustration shows an elderly priest near the left border of the painting pushing open a folding screen beyond which three court ladies are seated . Murasaki Shikibu is seated closest to the monk directly behind the screen .
= = = = Our lady of the chronicle = = = =
This anecdote , the sixth scene of the Hachisuka scroll , occurs at an unspecified date in 1009 . It is part of a description of the lady Saemon no Naishi who , Murasaki Shikibu writes in the diary , hated her . Naishi spread the rumour that Murasaki Shikibu was proud of her Chinese learning ( which in the Heian period was the domain of the male aristocracy ) and gave her the name " Japanese Chronicle Lady " . In the anecdote , Murasaki Shikibu explains she learned Chinese in childhood , that she was taught not to be proud of her learning , keeping it a secret during her life in fear of how others would judge her . The text in the emaki relates how Empress Shōshi requested that Murasaki Shikibu read to her in Chinese and teach her the poetical works of Bai Juyi ( in particular the part known as shingafu ( 新楽府 ) ) in secrecy . Nevertheless , the Emperor and Prime Minister found out about it and presented to the Empress a number of poetical works .
= = = = Gosechi dancers = = = =
This final scene in the Hachisuka scroll is about a scene from the Gosechi , an ancient dance performed by young beautiful girls in the 11th month to celebrate the harvest . The emaki text begins with a description of the appearance and clothing of two of the participating girls and ends with a scene in which the girls throw down their fans as the secretaries of the sixth rank approached them to take away their fans . Murasaki Shikibu considered the dancers graceful but unlike girls . This particular scene is set on Kankō 5 , 11th month , 22nd day ( December 22 , 1008 ) .
= = = = Painting only scenes = = = =
The Hachisuka scroll contains paintings which are not associated with any text sections of the scroll . The fifth painting of the scroll corresponds to a scene described in the second text section of the Hinohara scroll , where Murasaki Shikibu is looking back to her first time at court . The painting shows Murasaki Shikibu inside a room with closed tsumado ( hinged plank door ) and shitomido ( latticed shutters ) . Next to her is an old @-@ fashioned interior light @-@ fixture consisting of a wooden pole with an oil @-@ filled dish and wick on top of it ( tōdai ) .
The final illustration of the Hachisuka scroll has no corresponding text section in the extant emaki fragments . However its content can be matched to a scene from the diary in which Murasaki Shikibu expresses her sorrows as a widow worrying about the future . She relates how she is gazing dreamily at the moon when she is " hopelessly sad " and lonely . Playing the koto ( a kind of horizontal harp ) on a cool evening makes her even more miserable . This section of the diary also contains a short description of her room containing two bookcases , one with books that her husband had placed there and that no one has touched since , the other with " old poems and romances " , likely referring to her own works . This scene is set on an unknown date in Kankō 6 ( 1009 ) . The illustration present in the emaki shows Murasaki Shikibu inside a tatami room playing the koto with a court lady walking outside her room on the balcony ( engawa ) .
= = = Fujita scroll = = =
Formerly in possession of the Akimoto clan ( 秋元家 ) , rulers of the Tatebayashi Domain in Kōzuke Province , the extant Fujita scroll alternates five sections of text and five paintings . Based on this ancestral heritage it is sometimes referred to as former Akimoto scroll . A sixth text only section has been preserved as a 19th @-@ century copy from the original emaki . The extant scroll is 434 @.@ 0 cm ( 170 @.@ 9 in ) long , in possession of the Fujita Art Museum , Osaka and was designated as National Treasure of Japan on June 28 , 1956 . It covers the time from the evening of the 5th day celebration of the birth of the first Imperial Prince , Atsuhira @-@ shinnō , the later Emperor Go @-@ Ichijō , and ends with the furnishing of Michinaga 's residence for the visit of Emperor Ichijō .
= = = = Fifth day of birth celebration of Atsuhira @-@ shinnō = = = =
Set shortly after the fifth scene of the Hachisuka scroll , this scene relates events from the evening of Kankō 5 , 9th month , 15th day ( October 16 , 1008 ) , the day Michinaga celebrated the birth of Atsuhira @-@ shinnō . Some people were casting da others composed poems . Murasaki Shikibu then praises Fujiwara no Kintō 's repartee and skills in the composition of poetry ; however on this evening he did not participate in the exchange of poems . The queen gave gift of robes and baby dresses to the highest ranked ladies ; lined kimonos to those of 4th rank ; and hakama to the lesser sixth ranked ladies .
= = = = A boating party = = = =
The second section is a direct continuation of the previous scene , recounting an outing of young courtiers , dressed in white , going boating on a moonlit night the following day ( Kankō 5 , 9th month , 16th day , or 17 October 1008 in the Gregorian calendar ) . The ladies left behind appeared jealous according to Murasaki Shikibu .
Continuing from the previous scene , confusion occurs among the people in the boats as palanquins of ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting of the Emperor 's court appear near the shelter for conveyances . Michinaga welcomes them happily and distributes gifts among them .
= = = = Birth celebration organized by the Imperial Court = = = =
The Emperor celebrated on Kankō 5 , 9th month , 17th day ( October 18 , 1008 ) , the seventh day of the birth of Atsuhira @-@ shinnō . Presents were exchanged between court nobles and the Emperor . During the evening ceremony , Murasaki Shikibu catches a glance of the queen , remarking that she appeared weary , having lost weight and gaining a pale complexion . Her " hair would be better tied up " writes Murasaki Shikibu ; however she stops the description , realizing the impropriety of her depiction of the " mother of the nation " .
= = = = Preparations for the Imperial visit = = = =
Set some time between Kankō 5 , 10th month , 13th day and the morning of 16th day ( November 13 to 16 , 1008 ) | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
2006 , the unranked Huskies gave No. 3 USC a scare ; quarterback Isaiah Stanback led Washington to the USC 15 but the offense was unable to start a play before the final two seconds ticked off the clock , preserving a 26 – 20 USC victory . The Huskies entered the game 0 – 6 when facing a number @-@ one ranked USC team .
Going into the 2007 contest , Carroll expressed concern about containing the Huskies redshirt freshman quarterback Jake Locker , a dual @-@ threat quarterback who led his team in passing and rushing . The Huskies announced prior to the game that they would be wearing throwback uniforms : instead of their standard purple and gold , the Huskies wore dark blue and gold jerseys with plain , gold helmets that were replicas of those worn by the 1960 team that beat No. 1 Minnesota in the Rose Bowl , still the only time Washington had beaten a top @-@ ranked opponent .
In a day where half of the week 's top @-@ 10 teams were defeated , USC escaped becoming the sixth in a messy , mistake @-@ prone 27 – 24 victory in a wet , windy game in Seattle . Although USC had a 460 – 190 edge in total yards , their errors helped the Huskies significantly : They committed three turnovers and 16 penalties — their most in more than two seasons — for 161 yards , missed a field goal and had a punt blocked . A disappointed Pete Carroll noted " We just couldn 't do more things wrong in the game [ . . . ] I thought Washington was there for it . They were there to take it . All they needed was one more chance . "
USC quarterback John David Booty completed 20 of 37 passes for 236 yards and a touchdown but had two interceptions , one of which was returned 54 yards for a touchdown tying the game at 14 – 14 in the second quarter . The Huskies gained momentum early in the fourth quarter when they came to within 24 – 17 and forced USC to punt ; however , on the return Terrell Thomas stripped the ball from Anthony Russo for a fumble and recovered the ball at the Huskies ' 43 yard line , setting up David Buehler 's 33 @-@ yard field goal with 3 : 01 remaining . The Huskies did not give up , blocked a USC punt with 1 : 15 left and scored on quarterback Jake Locker 's one @-@ yard run to pull to within three with 34 seconds left . On the ensuing onside kick , Thomas was able to recover the ball for USC , ending the game .
Locker displayed the dual passing / running threat Carroll had expressed concern about , but also showed his youth with erratic passing , finishing 12 @-@ for @-@ 27 with 83 yards passing and one interception , plus another 50 yards on 16 carries with two touchdowns . USC did have positive showings in the running game , with Stafon Johnson running for 122 yards and a touchdown and Chauncey Washington also adding 106 yards and a score . In the end , Carroll and the Trojans described the game as less a victory than an escape , a game where USC 's raw athleticism took advantage of Washington 's youth .
The Trojans suffered numerous injuries during the game : starting freshman center Kristofer O 'Dowd hurt his kneecap and guard Chilo Rachal sprained his knee on the same play in the first quarter ; they were replaced by senior center Matt Spanos , who had just been cleared for play after tearing a triceps before the season , and reserve guard Alatini Malu . Starting cornerback Shareece Wright , in his first start after replacing the injured Cary Harris , sustained a pulled hamstring muscle and was replaced by Mozique McCurtis . Tailback Stafon Johnson suffered a foot injury and fellow tailback C.J. Gable dressed but did not play because of a groin injury suffered just before the trip to Washington .
The game drew comparisons to USC 's 33 – 31 loss to Oregon State the previous season . As a result of the close finish , USC lost the No. 1 ranking in the AP Poll , falling to No. 2 with 1 @,@ 591 points and 32 first @-@ place votes to LSU 's 1 @,@ 593 points and 33 first @-@ place votes ; however , the Trojans remained No. 1 in the Coaches Poll , keeping a more substantial lead : 1 @,@ 483 points and 45 first @-@ place votes to LSU 's 1 @,@ 454 points and 14 first @-@ place votes .
= = = Stanford = = =
USC continued Pac @-@ 10 play by hosting the struggling Stanford Cardinal , under first @-@ year coach Jim Harbaugh . In a major upset , USC stumbled at home to the 41 point underdog , losing 24 – 23 .
Harbaugh made headlines prior to the season by claiming 2007 would be Carroll 's last year with USC before departing to the NFL , drawing a terse rebuke from Carroll ; Harbaugh later called the 2007 Trojans one of the best teams in history at the Pac @-@ 10 Media Day , reiterating the position in the week before their game . However , there were no hard feelings between the coaches . The two kept in cordial phone contact and Carroll made light of Harbaugh 's comments several times during the season .
The Stanford starting quarterback , redshirt senior T. C. Ostrander , suffered a seizure on the afternoon of September 30 , one day after their game against Arizona State ; he was released from Stanford Hospital after a few hours , but as a precautionary measure he was held out of the game against USC . The starting quarterback position fell to Tavita Pritchard , a redshirt sophomore with three passes in his college career . Stanford was also without two other key starters : defensive lineman Ekom Udofia ( ankle ) and offensive lineman Allen Smith ( knee ) . On October 3 it was announced that USC running back C.J. Gable , who was averaging a team @-@ best 11 yards a carry , would undergo season @-@ ending abdominal surgery to correct a nagging sports hernia that had limited his ability since the previous season ; because he had only played in the first three games , he would seek a medical redshirt season . Gable 's fellow running back , Stafon Johnson , was also held out of the game due to a foot bruise suffered the previous week .
Stanford was the last team to beat USC at the Coliseum , doing so on September 29 , 2001 under Tyrone Willingham ( now the coach of Washington ) against then @-@ first year coach Carroll . By game week , the line for the game favored the Trojans by 39 @.@ 5 points , and reached 41 points by gametime . The loss ended multiple USC streaks , including a five @-@ game win streak against Stanford and a 35 @-@ game home winning streak . For sportsbooks , the loss to a 41 @-@ point underdog marked the biggest upset in their history .
There were a few positive efforts for the Trojans : Tight end Fred Davis caught five passes for a career @-@ best 152 yards , including a 63 @-@ yard touchdown ; and nose tackle Sedrick Ellis had three sacks . However , there were many more errors and substandard performances : quarterback John David Booty , who broke a bone in the middle finger of his throwing hand in the first half , had four passes intercepted in the second half . The offensive line had been suffering since losing two starters in one play during the previous week 's game at Washington , but the effect was severe against Stanford ; the offensive line gave up four sacks , one more than the Trojans had surrendered all season , and USC gained only 95 yards rushing . Key receiver Patrick Turner dropped several passes , the defense gave up 17 points in the fourth quarter and USC had an extra @-@ point attempt blocked , a point which became a crucial difference . Like their previous game against Washington , USC out @-@ gained Stanford by 224 yards ( 459 to 235 ) but made many crucial turnovers and penalties . In the press conference following the game , Coach Carroll summarized his concerns : " It 's real clear that we have fallen out of line with our philosophy that has guided this program for years ; we 're turning the ball over too much . "
Opinions in the sports press ranged from proclaiming the end of the USC 's era of dominance in college football to calling the loss a major , but not fatal set @-@ back to any hopes for a Trojans run at the national championship . The Trojans fell to No. 10 in the AP Poll ; however , USC only fell to No. 7 in both the Coaches Poll and Harris Poll , both of which are the human components for determining who the BCS chooses for the National Championship Game . As a result , USC remained in outside title contention with upcoming games against consensus @-@ No. 2 California and top @-@ 10 Oregon . The upset landed the Trojans in ESPN.com 's Bottom 10 .
In an interview the following month , Carroll assessed the mistakes that led to the loss as his own :
We really blew it against Stanford . We screwed it up because we played a guy that was hurt . I made a mistake on that . That was me . ... If anything really was a factor , it was my cockiness that there was no way we could lose a game . It didn 't matter — we could keep running our offense , keep working on stuff , and they would never beat us . ... Broken hand ? What was I thinking ? I 'm the one that screwed it up . He 's a warrior . He 's the one telling me " I can play . " That 's what he should be telling me . ... I missed a big one . It cost us a game that really cost us the flavor of this season . We 've been tainted ever since , for obvious reasons . We gave away a game to a team that 's won two or three games . Amazing . But it 's awesome for football , it 's awesome for Stanford and all that . Great for those guys . Sucks to be us in that regard . We screwed it up .
At the end of the regular season , Sports Illustrated chose Stanford 's upset of USC as the second " Biggest Upset of 2007 " after Division I FCS Appalachian State 's upset of No. 5 Michigan .
= = = Arizona = = =
After the previous week 's upset loss to Stanford , the Trojans hosted the Arizona Wildcats , led by head coach Mike Stoops , aiming to correct mistakes and demonstrate that they were still in contention for the Pac @-@ 10 title and to remain an outside candidate for the national title game . Matters were complicated when it was announced that starting quarterback John David Booty would not start due to a broken middle finger on his throwing hand , suffered during the previous week 's loss . As a result , redshirt sophomore Mark Sanchez made his first start for the Trojans ; previously he had only played during garbage time . The Trojans also remained without offensive linemen Chilo Rachal and Kris O 'Dowd , as well as leading rusher Stafon Johnson , who remained idle for a second week after bruising his left foot during the game against Washington . The Trojans entered the game a 21 @-@ point favorite .
The Trojans again showed inconsistency for most of the game before coming alive in the fourth quarter and pulling away to a 20 – 13 victory . USC started out well , going ahead 10 – 0 in the second quarter after running back Chauncey Washington 's 18 @-@ yard touchdown run and David Buehler 's 27 @-@ yard field goal . However , the offense began to sputter ; the Trojans amassed only 12 total yards in the second quarter and 50 in the third . Part of the offense 's problems were turnovers ; Sanchez threw two interceptions in the second quarter , allowing Arizona to tie the game going into halftime . The Wildcats kicked another field goal early in the third quarter to go up 13 – 10 , raising speculation that USC was going to be upset for the second consecutive week . The momentum of the game quickly changed in the fourth quarter after freshman running back Joe McKnight , touted as the next great Trojans tailback but yet to meet expectations , made a 45 @-@ yard punt return that Sanchez followed up on the next play with a 25 @-@ yard touchdown pass to tight end Fred Davis . After a defensive stop , Arizona punter Keenyn Crier kicked an 83 @-@ yard punt to the Trojans one @-@ yard line . The Trojans pushed forward with fullback Stanley Havili before McKnight again made a big play , running 59 yards and setting up what would be a Trojans field goal . The USC defense then forced an Arizona turn @-@ over on downs to preserve the victory . Sanchez recovered from his poor first half performance with a strong performance in the second , where he completed 11 of 15 passes for 74 yards and a touchdown while later making a key 10 @-@ yard scramble on third and seven late in the fourth quarter .
The injuries that had plagued USC throughout the season continued as All @-@ American tackle Sam Baker left the game because of a hamstring strain and freshman guard Zack Heberer , already substituting for an injured Chilo Rachal , suffered a shoulder bruise . On the defense , linebacker Rey Maualuga suffered a hip injury and safety Kevin Ellison broke his nose . An uncommon number of injuries , especially along the offensive line , depleted reserve players and forced Trojans to reach out to the general student population in order to find students with previous lineman experience to help on the scout team 's offensive line ; however , none were officially added to the roster .
In light of the Trojans close victory , USC dropped in both major polls , falling to No. 13 in the AP Poll and No. 9 in the Coaches Poll , tied with previously No. 2 California , which had just lost an upset to Oregon State . The Trojans debuted at No. 14 in the season 's first Bowl Championship Series standings , used to determine which two teams play in the BCS National Championship Game .
= = = Notre Dame = = =
USC visited inter @-@ sectional rival Notre Dame for their 79th annual game for possession of the Jeweled Shillelagh . Pre @-@ season demand for tickets was among the highest in Notre Dame history as USC made its first visit back to Notre Dame Stadium since the notable 2005 " Bush Push " game ; demand remained high although , going into the season , the Fighting Irish were unranked .
Notre Dame had the worst start to their season in program history , opening 0 – 5 ( the previous record was 0 – 3 ) and headed into their game with USC at 1 – 6 . With significant problems at most positions , Notre Dame head coach Charlie Weis made several changes at quarterback : Starting the opener with sophomore Demetrius Jones , he chose to start heralded freshman Jimmy Clausen for games two through seven ; during which time Jones transferred from the program . After Clausen also showed trouble at the position , Weis elected to go with junior Evan Sharpley as the starter for the USC game ; Sharpley had backed up Brady Quinn the previous season . In response to controversy over the length of the grass in Notre Dame Stadium during the 2005 game , where USC kickoff returner Desmond Reed suffered torn right knee ligaments and nerve damage while trying to turn on the field , the Fighting Irish cut the grass significantly shorter . Notre Dame entered the game ranked last in total offense ( 190 @.@ 9 yards a game ) and rushing ( 32 @.@ 1 yards a game ) , and next to last in scoring ( 11 @.@ 4 points ) ; their offensive line had given up 34 sacks .
With starting quarterback John David Booty still recovering from a broken finger on his throwing hand , USC elected to start Mark Sanchez for the second straight week . On the Thursday night before the game , the Trojans charter flight experienced severe turbulence on approach to South Bend Regional Airport during a lightning storm ; their aircraft dropped and threw several passengers ( players , coaches and their spouses ) from their seats and hit their heads on the ceiling during an initial approach that was aborted before the plane circled and landed safely .
Breaking with tradition , the Fighting Irish announced in June that they would be wearing their alternative green jerseys instead of blue against USC ; Weis noted that it was in honor of the 1977 Irish team that switched to green jerseys before defeating the Trojans en route to a national championship ( Weis was a student at Notre Dame at the time ) . Previously , the Irish did not let the public know when they would be wearing their green jerseys .
The Trojans dominated the game , shutting out Notre Dame 38 – 0 , USC 's largest margin of victory in the series . Quarterback Mark Sanchez made significant improvements over the previous week , completing 21 of 38 passes for 235 yards and four touchdowns and no interceptions . There were several highlight plays : Tight end Fred Davis made a one @-@ handed touchdown catch in the first quarter , wide receiver Vidal Hazelton made a 48 @-@ yard touchdown run after evading several Irish defenders , and freshman running back Joe McKnight made a 51 @-@ yard fourth quarter run for his first touchdown . The USC defense stifled the Irish offense : allowing only 165 yards to the Trojans ' 462 yards , making five sacks , and keeping the Irish from rushing for a first down until the fourth quarter . There were several special teams miscues : The Irish blocked a USC punt , the Trojans blocked a 40 @-@ yard field goal attempt and the Irish had a fumbled punt return that was recovered by USC . The Trojans had several key players return from injuries and make significant contributions , including linebacker Brian Cushing and running back Stafon Johnson .
After two weeks of moving down in the rankings , the Trojans moved up to No. 8 in the Coaches Poll , No. 9 in the AP Poll ( tied with Florida ) and No. 12 in the BCS standings .
= = = Oregon = = =
With the Ducks as three @-@ point favorites , the Trojans entered a Pac @-@ 10 game as underdogs for the first time since November 17 , 2001 ; the game was the first between top @-@ 10 teams in the 41 @-@ year history of Oregon 's Autzen Stadium . The match @-@ up was framed as a battle between Oregon 's highly productive offense and USC 's defense .
The Trojans were affected by the massive wildfires affecting Southern California that week ; air quality during outdoor practices in Los Angeles dropped significantly , and Trojans quarterback Mark Sanchez ' father , a fire captain with the Orange County Fire Authority , was on the front line fighting the blazes . With John David Booty still recovering from a broken finger , Sanchez was given the start for the third week in a row . The Trojans were also set to return from injury all @-@ American offensive tackle Sam Baker and guard Chilo Rachal . Despite having won the previous three contests , the Trojans noted concerns about playing in the famously loud and raucous Autzen Stadium .
Before a stadium @-@ record crowd of 59 @,@ 277 , the Ducks defeated the Trojans 24 – 17 in a game decided in the final seconds . The Trojans made key mistakes and did not exploit several opportunities against the Ducks . After Oregon fumbled the opening kickoff , USC failed to score with the Ducks stopping running back Joe McKnight on a fourth @-@ and @-@ one play at the Oregon 12 yard line . Later in the first quarter , an apparent 65 @-@ yard touchdown run by McKnight was nullified by a holding penalty away from the play .
The Trojans trailed 10 – 3 going into halftime , but tied the game in the third quarter on a Sanchez to Patrick Turner touchdown pass . However , on the next possession , fullback Stanley Havili fumbled the ball and Oregon recovered on the USC 16 yard line , leading to an Oregon touchdown . On USC 's next series , Sanchez threw an interception . During the Trojans ' following series , Oregon safety Matthew Harper intercepted a pass and returned it 27 yards to the Oregon 42 . The Ducks took a 24 – 10 lead with 11 : 39 left as running back Jonathan Stewart scored his second touchdown . The Trojans rallied ; Sanchez led an 85 @-@ yard , five @-@ play drive that he capped with a 14 @-@ yard touchdown pass to wide receiver David Ausberry . The USC defense forced an Oregon three @-@ and @-@ out and starting at their 17 ; the Trojans then advanced to Oregon 's 33 with 26 seconds left . However , on second down , Sanchez misread the defensive coverage and threw his second interception of the game to Harper with 11 seconds left in the game . After taking a knee to run out the clock on first down , USC used their final timeout to stop the clock . Unaware of the timeout , Oregon fans stormed the field before the game officially finished , and after being cleared away the Ducks took a second knee and ran out the clock , sealing the victory .
The Trojans defense did slow down the Oregon offense , keeping them 212 yards below their season average , allowing the USC offense to out @-@ gain the Ducks , 378 yards to 339 . The Ducks ' senior quarterback , Dennis Dixon , ran for 76 yards and a touchdown in 17 carries and completed 16 of 25 passes for 157 yards without an interception . However , the Oregon defense ultimately won the game for the Ducks . Sanchez threw for 277 yards and two touchdowns , but also had the two interceptions , including the game @-@ ender . USC Offensive Coordinator Steve Sarkisian 's decisions on several key plays were called into question by fans in the week following the game . Eugene 's newspaper , The Register @-@ Guard , recorded the crowd noise at 127 @.@ 2 decibels , making it the loudest crowd for a college football game ; 1 @.@ 2 decibels louder than the 126 decibels made by 77 @,@ 381 Clemson fans during a game in 2005 .
The game was viewed as marking Oregon 's rise to a national title contender and a break in USC 's dominance of the Pac @-@ 10 conference . The game also marked the first season since 2002 that the Trojans were going into November no longer considered a national title contender . Despite losing the game , the Trojans were still regarded as a legitimate threat in the conference and were projected as a potential at @-@ large team for the BCS bowl games . However , there were voices in the media that believed the loss signaled the " death " of the " Trojan Dynasty " that had reigned in college football since 2002 .
The Trojans fell to No. 13 in the AP Poll , No. 15 in the Coaches Poll , and No. 19 in the BCS standings .
= = = Oregon State = = =
USC celebrated homecoming by hosting the Oregon State Beavers , coached by Mike Riley . In 2006 , the unranked Beavers stunned the No. 3 Trojans in a 33 – 31 upset in Corvallis . The Beavers had not won at USC since 1960 .
Oregon State entered the game with the nation 's best rushing defense , allowing only 54 @.@ 5 yards rushing a game and also recording a nation @-@ leading 34 sacks . The Beaver defense ranked 13th nationally in total defense , surrendering 299 @.@ 9 yards a game . Trojans quarterback John David Booty returned from injury to start ; offensive lineman Sam Baker remained out after re @-@ injuring a hamstring against the Ducks . Oregon State star running back Yvenson Bernard was initially expected to play despite a sprained shoulder , but did not . Former USC linebacker Richard Wood , who was chosen for the College Football Hall of Fame , was honored at halftime .
In a strong defensive performance , the Trojans defeated the Beavers 24 – 3 . The USC defense made nine sacks and intercepted a pass ; they limited Oregon State to 176 total yards and a field goal off a Trojans fumble in the USC red zone . True freshman Everson Griffen had 3 ½ sacks , safety Kevin Ellison added two , end Lawrence Jackson had 1 ½ and nose tackle Sedrick Ellis and linebacker Brian Cushing had one each ; cornerback Terrell Thomas made the interception . The Trojans offense had its second lowest total of the season , gaining 287 yards , but it rushed for 100 yards against the Beavers ' tight rush defense , led by Chauncey Washington who gained 60 yards in 12 carries . Booty , returning from injury , could not find his rhythm but still completed 19 of 33 passes for 157 yards without an interception ; the Trojans converted only five of 16 third downs . Both teams missed field goals in the first quarter , then exchanged field goals going into the second quarter . The Trojans then scored 21 unanswered points in less than eight minutes to close the half . Neither team scored in the second half . USC running back Stafon Johnson was allowed to play a few downs but was kept out for most of the game to allow his foot to heal fully .
The Trojans rose slightly in the polls to No. 12 in the AP Poll , No. 15 in the Coaches Poll , and No. 17 in the BCS standings . The 2007 Holiday Bowl was mentioned as a possible destination for the Trojans . Holiday Bowl executive director Bruce Binkowski said they would be very interested in pitting the Trojans against the Texas Longhorns . The two teams last met in the 2006 Rose Bowl for the BCS National Championship .
= = = California = = =
In the pre @-@ season , the Trojans ' game against California was named as one of the candidates for the 10 most important games of 2007 ; the Trojans national title hopes hinged on proving themselves against a veteran team led by head coach Jeff Tedford in California Memorial Stadium . Prior to the season , Cal star receiver DeSean Jackson , an early Heisman Trophy candidate , called out USC cornerback Terrell Thomas in ESPN The Magazine , stating that he would best the cornerback who contributed to limiting him to two catches in the 2006 match @-@ up . After USC 's loss to Stanford , the game was still referred to as the Pac @-@ 10 game of the year ; however , after Cal 's mid @-@ season losses to Oregon State and UCLA and USC 's loss to Oregon , the game took on less importance .
On a rain @-@ soaked evening in Strawberry Canyon , the Trojans gained a 24 – 17 victory over the No. 24 Golden Bears behind a career @-@ best effort by running back Chauncey Washington . After seeing his early success against the Cal defense , USC began handing the ball almost exclusively to Washington who ran for 220 yards on 29 rushes . Due to the rain and Washington 's success on the ground , Booty only attempted 20 passes for 129 yards in 11 completions with one touchdown and no interceptions ; the Trojans offensive line did not give up a sack . USC returner Ronald Johnson returned four kicks for 102 yards , including one for 41 yards and another for 35 , giving USC favorable field position . Cal running back Justin Forsett had an effective night , running for 164 yards in 31 carries . However , the Trojans defense had another solid effort , holding Cal to 14 points below its scoring average and forcing quarterback Nate Longshore into two interceptions and a sack . Cal 's one @-@ time Heisman Trophy candidate , wide receiver DeSean Jackson , was limited to five receptions for 64 yards and was kept from returning any kicks .
The game turned to the Trojans favor during the fourth quarter , when the Trojans put together a 10 play , 96 @-@ yard drive behind Washington and capped by a three @-@ yard touchdown run by Stafon Johnson . Cal received the ball back with 7 : 38 left , but the Trojans forced turnovers in the Bears ' subsequent two drives ; after Lawrence Jackson recovered a fumbled snap on the first drive , cornerback Terrell Thomas intercepted a Longshore pass at the USC 17 with 2 : 47 to play to seal the victory . As part of its Hall of Fame weekend , Cal wore throwback jerseys based on its 1975 team in honor of All @-@ American quarterback Joe Roth ; it was the third team to wear throwback jerseys in their game against the Trojans . Linebacker Keith Rivers suffered a high ankle sprain .
After the victory and the subsequent bye week , the Trojans again rose slightly in the polls to No. 11 in the AP Poll , No. 11 in the BCS standings , and No. 12 in the Coaches Poll .
= = = Arizona State = = =
In the pre @-@ season , the game against veteran head coach Dennis Erickson 's first squad at ASU was identified as a potential trap game for the Trojans . With No. 2 Oregon 's loss during the bye week , Arizona State rose to No. 9 in the polls and the top of the Pac @-@ 10 standings while USC remained in contention for at least a share of the Pac @-@ 10 title if they could win out .
Scheduled for prime time television on Thanksgiving Day , it was the only major college game shown on the holiday evening time slot . It was Arizona State 's first Thanksgiving Day game and USC 's 20th , though its first since 1938 . The game attracted a number of celebrities , including former USC Heisman @-@ winners Marcus Allen and Matt Leinart , who was joined by Arizona Cardinals teammate Larry Fitzgerald , Heisman @-@ winner Gino Torretta , Bob Davie and Charles Barkley ; it also included a halftime performance by singer Little Richard . In honor of the holiday , the Sun Devils added a turkey leg to the end of Sparty 's pitchfork painted at the center of the field .
Eleven years removed from their last Rose Bowl berth , Arizona State had made a quick turn @-@ around under Erickson , returning to national prominence with a 9 – 1 record . Using an NFL @-@ style offense under junior quarterback Rudy Carpenter , the Sun Devils put extra pressure on their offensive line , allowing in 43 sacks , the most in the Pac @-@ 10 Conference and second most in the nation . In order to relieve Carpenter , who had suffered injuries over the season in his throwing hand , Arizona State planned to also work in the running game behind Keegan Herring and Dimitri Nance . USC entered the game ranked first in the Pac @-@ 10 and third nationally in defense , giving up 267 @.@ 9 yards per game . The Sun Devils had trailed in every Pac @-@ 10 conference game in the season up to that point .
Behind a strong performance by John David Booty , the Trojans defeated the Sun Devils , 44 – 24 , in front of a sold @-@ out Sun Devil Stadium . Under an even passing attack , Booty threw for 26 of 39 passes for 375 yards and four touchdowns with no interceptions . He distributed the ball to eight different receivers , including four separate players for his touchdowns ; Booty also rushed for a touchdown . Tight end Fred Davis made five receptions for 119 yards and a touchdown . David Buehler kicked three field goals . The Trojans defense also had a strong game , making six sacks as the Sun Devils were shut down for most of the second half and held to only 16 yards rushing ; two of the Sun Devil 's scores were from a 98 @-@ yard kick return for a touchdown and a score off a blocked punt in the fourth quarter . Defensive end Lawrence Jackson made four of USC 's sacks , the most by a USC player since 1989 , including one that split Carpenter 's lip and caused him to throw his helmet towards the sideline in frustration ; Jackson also finished with a school @-@ record 5 ½ tackles for losses . Ronald Johnson had another strong game on special teams , returning the opening kickoff 49 yards .
Two days later Oregon lost to UCLA , leaving the Trojans in a tie for first place in the Pac @-@ 10 standings with Arizona State ( winning the tiebreaker ) . USC 's strong victory , along with several upsets during the week , led the Trojans to rise to No. 8 in the AP Poll , No. 8 in the BCS standings , and No. 9 in the Coaches Poll .
= = = UCLA = = =
The Trojans ended the regular season by hosting the UCLA Bruins , led by head coach Karl Dorrell , in the 77th edition of their annual crosstown rivalry game for possession of the Victory Bell . In the 2006 season , the Bruins ' 13 – 9 upset of the then @-@ No. 2 Trojans in the final week of the regular season ended the Trojans ' hopes for reaching the National Championship game . With both teams ranked going into the season ( USC first , UCLA 14th in the AP Poll ) , there was buzz in Los Angeles that both teams might reach their December 1 game undefeated . UCLA made it as high as 11th in both polls before suffering a 44 – 7 upset loss at unranked Utah in week 3 that knocked them out of the top 25 . It was the 36th time that a Rose Bowl berth was on the line for one of the two teams in the game : A USC victory would guarantee them at least a share of the Pac @-@ 10 Conference title and a berth in the 2008 Rose Bowl Game ; UCLA , despite entering the game 6 – 5 ( 5 – 3 in the Pac @-@ 10 ) , also entered the game with a chance at the Pac @-@ 10 title and a Rose Bowl berth if they could defeat the Trojans and Arizona could beat Arizona State in a game later in the day .
During the 2006 contest , UCLA Defensive Coordinator DeWayne Walker had the Bruins apply aggressive pressure to John David Booty , limiting the quarterback 's ability to drive the passing game while holding the Trojans to 55 yards rushing and an average of only 1 @.@ 9 yards per carry . USC entered the 2007 game averaging 186 @.@ 6 yards rushing and 4 @.@ 8 yards per carry , significantly higher than the 128 yards rushing per game in 2006 . UCLA 's season was marked by numerous injures , particularly at quarterback . Original starting quarterback Ben Olson injured his knee early in the season and missed over four games . Backup quarterback Patrick Cowan also suffered a knee injury but returned for two more games before suffering a collapsed lung against Arizona . As a result , the Bruins had resorted to playing walk @-@ on McLeod Bethel @-@ Thompson and converted @-@ wide receiver Osaar Rasshan .
In the week leading up to the game , a dispute between USC and the Coliseum Commission , the public managers of the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum , went public . USC threatened to move to the Rose Bowl ( home of the UCLA Bruins since 1982 ) if an agreement could not be reached . In addition to honoring the outgoing seniors during their final game in the Coliseum , the Trojans also honored late players Drean Rucker and Mario Danelo , who would have both been members of the 2007 senior class . Rucker , a linebacker from Moreno Valley , drowned during the summer before his freshman year with USC ( and was honored during the 2004 season ) and Danelo died from a fatal fall immediately following the 2006 season ; members of both families attended . The stadium also held a moment of silence for the passing of Trojans alumnus and donor Louis Galen . USC entered the game as a 20 point favorite .
The Trojans defense dominated the Bruins in a 24 – 7 victory before a sold @-@ out Coliseum crowd . The Trojans held the Bruins to a season @-@ low 168 yards , sacking quarterback Patrick Cowan four times for 31 yards in losses and held the Bruins to 12 net rushing yards . USC forced four turnovers , recovering three UCLA fumbles and intercepting a pass . The Bruins did not convert any of its 11 third down situations . The Bruins sole score came in a drive in the closing minutes of the first half . USC gained 231 rushing yards and 437 overall . On the ground , running back Joe McKnight rushed for 89 yards and a touchdown , Stafon Johnson ran for 73 yards and senior Chauncey Washington gained 66 yards and scored a touchdown . Booty completed 21 of 36 passes for 206 yards with a touchdown and an interception .
The victory assured USC a share of the Pac @-@ 10 title . Although Arizona State would defeat Arizona later in the night to become co @-@ champions , the Trojans clinched a berth in the Rose Bowl by virtue of their victory over the Sun Devils the previous week . USC extended its streak of Pac @-@ 10 titles to six in a row , having already broken the record the previous season with five . Dorrell was fired by UCLA the following Monday . USC 's victory , coupled with another week of upsets , led the Trojans to rise to No. 6 in the AP Poll , No. 6 in the Coaches Poll , and No. 7 in the BCS standings .
= = = Rose Bowl = = =
The Trojans ended the 2007 season by participating in the 2008 Rose Bowl , held on New Year 's Day in the Rose Bowl stadium in Pasadena , California ; it was the Trojans ' fourth Rose Bowl game and sixth BCS Bowl in six years . Although it traditionally hosts the champions of the Big Ten and Pac @-@ 10 conferences , the 2007 Big Ten Champion , Ohio State , was ranked No. 1 in the final BCS poll and instead participated in the 2008 BCS National Championship Game . The rules governing BCS bowl selections allowed the Rose Bowl to select a BCS " at @-@ large " team from the top 14 teams ranked in the BCS Standings that have at least nine wins . Keeping with its traditional bowl ties , the Rose Bowl selected the No. 13 @-@ ranked Illinois Fighting Illini ( 9 – 3 ) , under third @-@ year head coach Ron Zook .
The Illini entered the Rose Bowl after a Cinderella season where they won nine games , including an upset victory over at @-@ the @-@ time No. 1 Ohio State , after winning a total of four games the previous two seasons . It was Illinois ' first bowl game since winning the 2001 Big Ten Championship and playing in the 2002 Sugar Bowl . The Illini offense was led by sophomore quarterback " Juice " Williams , who in the regular season passed for 13 touchdowns and ran for seven , junior running back Rashard Mendenhall , who averaged 127 yards rushing per game and scored 18 touchdowns , and freshman receiver Arrelious Benn , who caught 49 passes and had 158 yards in 32 carries . For taking Illinois to the Rose Bowl a year after going 2 – 10 , Zook won both national and Big Ten coach of the year honors . The Illini entered the game 13 @.@ 5 point underdogs , the biggest of any of the season 's 32 bowl games . It was USC 's 31st appearance in " The Granddaddy of Them All " , having won in 22 of its previous appearances and leading in both categories by a significant margin .
The Trojans routed the Illini 49 – 17 before a sold @-@ out Rose Bowl crowd . USC set a Rose Bowl @-@ record of 633 offensive yards and tied the record for points scored . John David Booty completed 25 of 37 passes for 255 yards , three touchdowns and one interception . Seven different Trojans rushed the ball , led by running back Joe McKnight who had 125 rushing yards and touchdown ( McKnight totaled 206 yards for the game ) . Tight end Fred Davis led the receivers with seven receptions for 87 yards and a touchdown . Mendenhall led the Illini , rushing 17 times for 155 yards and one touchdown , with 214 yards overall . Williams had 245 yards passing , completing 21 of 35 passes with two interceptions and was sacked five times . The second Trojans touchdown was a trick play thrown by walk @-@ on receiver @-@ quarterback Garrett Green , who caught a ball thrown backward by Booty and then threw a 34 @-@ yard touchdown pass to running back Desmond Reed , who backflipped into the endzone , resulting in an excessive celebration penalty . The fourth quarter included a touchdown by sixth @-@ year senior and one @-@ time starter Hershel Dennis , his first score since 2004 , leading to a bench @-@ clearing celebration that resulted in USC receiving another excessive celebration penalty .
USC 's 32 @-@ point victory was the largest margin of victory in the Rose Bowl since 1984 , when UCLA defeated Illinois 45 – 9 . The lopsided score amplified existing criticism of the Tournament of Roses for scheduling the lower @-@ ranked Fighting Illini as the at @-@ large team . Booty was selected as the Rose Bowl Offensive MVP , and set a Rose Bowl record with seven career touchdowns . USC linebacker Rey Maualuga was selected as the Defensive MVP with three sacks , an interception and a forced fumble . It was USC 's fifth victory in six consecutive appearances in a BCS Bowl .
USC ended the season as No. 2 in the final Coaches ' Poll and No. 3 in the final AP Poll with one first @-@ place vote .
= = After the season = =
= = = Comments = = =
The 2007 USC Trojans entered the season picked as the unanimous No. 1 team , with expectations of playing in the BCS National Title Game . After the loss to 41 @-@ point underdog Stanford the team 's opportunities for national success came into serious question , and following the loss to Oregon there were questions as to whether USC would even win the Pacific @-@ 10 Conference . The Trojans regrouped and salvaged their season , winning a share of the conference and the Rose Bowl , and by the end of the season were said to be playing the best football of anyone in the country . Injuries to key players , particularly quarterback John David Booty 's broken finger during the Stanford game , had a significant impact over the season , leading to questions of how USC would have fared if injuries had not taken their toll .
USC finished the season ranked No. 2 in the Coaches Poll and No. 3 in the AP Poll , trading the respective No. 3 and No. 2 spots with Georgia , another team that finished with a strong 11 – 2 record and a dominating performance in its BCS Bowl game . The teams finished close to each other in the final polls : In the Coaches Poll , USC received 1380 votes to Georgia 's 1370 ; and in the AP Poll Georgia received 1515 to USC 's 1500 . USC received one first @-@ place vote in the final AP Poll . With LSU 's dominating win over Ohio State in the BCS National Championship Game , college football had its first two @-@ loss national champion , and with teams like USC and Georgia locked out of playing LSU or Ohio State , the season served as another example for those advocating for some form of Football Bowl Subdivision playoff .
The Trojans accomplished two feats : USC became the first team to win six straight Pac @-@ 10 titles and became the first team in major college football to achieve six straight 11 @-@ win seasons . In addition , USC also remained tied for the most BCS Bowl appearances at six , all consecutive .
Immediately after the 2007 – 08 bowl season , in early looks at the 2008 season , USC was ranked as the pre @-@ season No. 4 ( Sports Illustrated ) and No. 5 ( ESPN.com ) due to key player departures mitigated by the overall talent level . Sports Illustrated soon revised its ranking to No. 3 after nearly all draft @-@ eligible juniors decided to remain with the program instead of entering the NFL Draft .
= = = NFL Draft = = =
Of all the Trojans ' draft @-@ eligible juniors , only offensive guard Chilo Rachal declared himself available for the 2008 NFL Draft . Twelve USC players , eleven seniors and a junior , were invited to the NFL Scouting Combine , the most of any school in 2008 : the seniors were offensive tackle Sam Baker , quarterback John David Booty , tight end Fred Davis , nose tackle Sedrick Ellis , defensive end Lawrence Jackson , offensive tackle Drew Radovich , linebacker Keith Rivers , center Matt Spanos , cornerback Terrell Thomas , running back Chauncey Washington , linebacker Thomas Williams , and the junior was offensive guard Rachal .
USC did well in the 2007 draft ; ten players were taken overall , the most of any school , and a school @-@ record seven players were selected in the first two rounds , beating the previous record of five ( 1968 and 2006 ) and the most in the first round . The first round selections were Ellis ( seventh , New Orleans Saints ) , Rivers ( ninth , Cincinnati Bengals ) , Baker ( 21st , Atlanta Falcons ) and Jackson ( 28th , Seattle Seahawks ) ; the second round picks were Rachal ( 39th , San Francisco 49ers ) , Davis ( 48th , Washington Redskins ) and Thomas ( 63rd , New York Giants ) ; the fifth round selections were Booty ( 137th , Minnesota Vikings ) and Williams ( 155th , Jacksonville Jaguars ) ; in the seventh round Washington was selected 213th by the Jacksonville Jaguars . Radovich signed as an undrafted free agent with the Minnesota Vikings ; Spanos signed with the Miami Dolphins .
One year later , eleven more players were selected in the 2009 NFL Draft , again leading all universities in the number of players drafted into the NFL that season . The first round selections were Mark Sanchez ( fifth , New York Jets ) , Brian Cushing ( 15th , Houston Texans ) and Clay Matthews ( 26th , Green Bay Packers ) ; the second round picks were Rey Maualuga ( 38th , Cincinnati Bengals ) and Fili Moala ( 56th , Indianapolis Colts ) ; in the third round was Patrick Turner ( 87th , Miami Dolphins ) ; in the fourth round were Kaluka Maiava ( 104th , Cleveland Browns ) and Kyle Moore ( 117th , Tampa Bay Buccaneers ) ; in the fifth round was David Buehler ( 172nd , Dallas Cowboys ) ; and in the sixth round Cary Harris ( 183rd , Buffalo Bills ) and Kevin Ellison ( 189th , San Diego Chargers ) .
During the 2010 NFL Draft , USC had seven more players from the 2007 team drafted into the NFL , though none in the first round . The second round picks were Taylor Mays ( 49th , San Francisco 49ers ) and Charles Brown ( 64th , New Orleans Saints ) ; in the third round were Damien Williams ( 77th , Tennessee Titans ) and Kevin Thomas ( 97th , Indianapolis Colts ) ; in the fourth round were Everson Griffen ( 100th , Minnesota Vikings ) and Joe McKnight ( 112th , New York Jets ) ; and in the sixth round Anthony McCoy ( 185th , Seattle Seahawks ) .
At the 2011 NFL Draft , USC tied for the most players drafted from any university into the NFL that year with nine . Of those , six were on the 2007 team , though none of those particular players were in the first round . Shareece Wright was selected in the third round ( 89th , San Diego Chargers ) ; in the sixth round were Ronald Johnson ( 182nd , San Francisco 49ers ) and Allen Bradford ( 187th , Tampa Bay Buccaneers ) ; and in three consecutive picks in the seventh round were Stanley Havili ( 240th , Philadelphia Eagles ) , David Ausberry ( 241st , Oakland Raiders ) and Malcolm Smith ( 242nd , Seattle Seahawks ) . Jordan Cameron , who had tried to transfer onto the team but forced to wait a year at a junior college before enrolling , was also drafted in the third round ( 102nd , Cleveland Browns ) .
Finally , at the 2012 NFL Draft , Rhett Ellison was taken in the fourth round ( 128th , Minnesota Vikings ) .
As of 2012 , 39 players from the 2007 USC Trojans football team were drafted into the NFL .
= = = Awards = = =
Senior Fred Davis became the first Trojan to win the John Mackey Award , awarded to the nation 's top tight end . Five Trojans were selected to the various 2007 College Football All @-@ America Teams . In addition to Fred Davis , tackle Sam Baker earned his third @-@ straight spot on an All @-@ American team . On the defense , tackle Sedrick Ellis , linebacker Keith Rivers , and safety Taylor Mays all earned All @-@ American honors . Ellis was named the Pacific @-@ 10 Conference Defensive Player of the Year by league coaches , and selected to the All @-@ Conference first team defense along with defensive end Lawrence Jackson , linebackers Rivers and Rey Maualuga , and cornerback Kevin Ellison . The All @-@ Conference first team offense included Davis , Baker , and offensive lineman Chilo Rachal .
The Trojans had nine players invited to participate in the Senior Bowl in Mobile , Alabama : Baker , quarterback John David Booty , Davis , Ellis , Jackson , offensive linemen Drew Radovich , Rivers , cornerback Terrell Thomas and running back Chauncey Washington . All nine players were placed on the North team , which was coached by Lane Kiffin , who had coached for the Trojans between 2001 and 2006 before becoming the head coach of the Oakland Raiders . The nine players sent by USC were the second @-@ most ever invited from one team in a single season , one less than the 10 players by Alabama in 1987 and tied with the nine players sent by Auburn in 1988 , though the earlier selection rules favored the two locally based schools .
= Joe 90 =
Joe 90 is a 1960s British science @-@ fiction television series that follows the adventures of a nine @-@ year @-@ old boy , Joe McClaine , who starts a double life as a schoolchild @-@ turned @-@ superspy after his scientist father invents a device capable of duplicating expert knowledge and experience and transferring it to a different human brain . Equipped with the skills of the foremost academic and military minds , Joe is recruited by the World Intelligence Network ( WIN ) and , as its " Most Special Agent " , pursues the objective of world peace and saving human life . Created by Gerry and Sylvia Anderson and filmed by Century 21 Productions , the 30 @-@ episode series followed Thunderbirds and Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons .
First broadcast in the UK between September 1968 and April 1969 on the ATV network , Joe 90 was the sixth and final of the Andersons ' productions to be made exclusively using the form of marionette puppetry termed " Supermarionation " . Their final puppet series , The Secret Service , used this process only in combination with extensive live @-@ action filming . As in the case of its antecedent , Captain Scarlet , the puppets of Joe 90 are of natural proportions as opposed to the more caricatured design of the characters of Thunderbirds .
Although not as successful as Century 21 's previous efforts , since its inception , Joe 90 has been praised , among other aspects , for the level of characterisation of its smaller puppet cast and the quality of its model sets and special effects . Critics have interpreted Joe 90 's spy @-@ fi theme and the choice of a child character as the protagonist as either a " kids play Bond " concept or an enshrinement of children 's powers of imagination . Points of criticism range from the violence depicted in a number of episodes to the absence of female characters , which is interpreted either as the inevitable result of the series ' composition as a " boy 's own adventure " or as being tantamount to sexism .
As for its earlier productions , Century 21 launched a number of merchandising campaigns based on Joe 90 , which included toy cars and comic strips featuring the continuing adventures of Joe McClaine . Syndicated in the United States in 1969 , re @ | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
-@ broadcast in the UK during the 1990s and released on DVD in most regions in the 2000s , the idea of a live @-@ action film adaptation of Joe 90 has been considered more than once since the 1960s , but without further development .
= = Plot = =
Joe 90 is set in the near future . The timeframe is most commonly stated to be 2012 and 2013 ; various other sources point to an undetermined year in the early 21st century , while the official scriptwriters ' guide states that the year is 1998 . Based on visual evidence , the events of " The Unorthodox Shepherd " occur in 2013 .
Nine @-@ year @-@ old British schoolboy Joe McClaine is the adopted son of Professor Ian " Mac " McClaine , a computer expert . Outwardly , the McClaines are a simple father @-@ and @-@ son pair , who live in an antiquated Elizabethan @-@ style cottage overlooking Culver Bay in Dorset , and are waited on by their housekeeper , Mrs Harris . Yet residing in a secret underground laboratory is Mac 's latest invention , the " BIG RAT " ( Brain Impulse Galvanoscope Record And Transfer ) , a machine capable of recording knowledge and experience from leading experts in various fields and transferring it to another human brain . At the heart of the design is the " Rat Trap " : a spherical , rotating cage in which a subject is seated during the transfer of " brain patterns " .
Sam Loover , a family friend and an agent of World Intelligence Network ( WIN ) , persuades Mac to dedicate the services of Joe and the BIG RAT to the organisation : Joe will become a WIN operative with a difference , the unlimited possibilities offered by the BIG RAT serving as an invaluable tool for completing missions . After requisite knowledge and experience has been transferred , and provided that Joe is wearing customised glasses containing hidden electrodes ( a portable storage device for brain impulses ) , he is able to carry out missions requiring proficiency in – among other disciplines – flying fighter aircraft , spaceflight , performing advanced neurosurgery and piano .
Since a boy would never be suspected of espionage , Joe 's innocence is as useful an asset as the BIG RAT , and he comes to be regarded as WIN 's " Most Special Agent " . Reporting to Shane Weston , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of WIN 's London Headquarters , Joe is also equipped with a special briefcase , which externally appears to be nothing more than a school case but which secretly contains an adapted handgun and transceiver . There is some inconsistency as to why Joe is assigned the codename " 90 " . Contemporary series publicity stated that , in the pilot episode , Joe enlists in WIN as its 90th London @-@ based agent . However , in the episode " Project 90 " , reference is made to the BIG RAT being documented in WIN 's " File Number 90 " , from which Joe 's designation is explicitly stated to originate . The series ends with a clip show episode , " The Birthday " , in which a selection of Joe 's missions are presented as flashbacks at a surprise party on the day that the character turns ten .
Like antecedent series , plot elements of Joe 90 include hi @-@ tech gadgetry , rescue operations , secret organisations and criminal or terrorist threats to world security . An example of the advanced technology demonstrated is Professor McClaine 's " Jet Air Car " : a multiple @-@ configuration land- , sea- and air @-@ based vehicle built prior to the events of the series . The in @-@ joke of " WIN " , the abbreviated form of " World Intelligence Network " , is similar to that of " WASP " , the acronym for the World Aquanaut Security Patrol that appears in Stingray .
In the fictional universe of Joe 90 , the Cold War – significant at the time of the series ' TV debut due to the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968 – has ended , and a world government has been established . WIN is the successor organisation to MI6 , the CIA and the KGB , all of which have been merged in the formation of the global network . Although the pilot sees Joe hi @-@ jacking a Russian jet fighter to expose the secrets of its construction to the West , the storyline is ultimately revealed to be a speculative fiction posited by Weston as an example of the espionage that Joe would have to perform if he were to join WIN . The plot twist , in particular the revelation that Russia and the West are allies in the future , is praised by academic Nicholas J. Cull for its " progressiveness of spirit " , and for exemplifying Anderson 's " [ taking ] an end to the Cold War as a given in his work . " Anderson was motivated by what he perceived as a " duty to the rising generation to avoid perpetuating Cold War stereotypes " , once stating that he " tried very hard not to put [ his ] ten cents into creating World War Three . "
Despite the existence of a global government and intelligence organisation , the nations of Earth are still politically divided into Western and Eastern blocs ; here , Cull argues , Joe 90 is similar to other Anderson series in that it " unashamedly capitalized on the Cold War cult of the secret agent whose skills defend the home from enemies unknown . " The recurring antagonist of WIN and Joe is the non @-@ aligned " Eastern Alliance " , which dominates Asia and appears in the episodes " Attack of the Tiger " and " Mission X @-@ 41 " . Meanwhile , villains in " International Concerto " , " Business Holiday " , " Arctic Adventure " and " The Professional " speak with Slavic accents . " Arctic Adventure " and " Attack of the Tiger " combine the threat from the East with the hazards of nuclear technology : in the former , Joe must recover a stray atomic warhead from the ocean floor while avoiding enemy submarines , while in the latter , he is tasked with destroying an Eastern nuclear device that is about to be launched into Earth orbit . By contrast , an episode that presents the benign aspects of such technology is " Big Fish " , in which Joe labours to remove a defective nuclear submarine from the territorial waters of a Latin American police state .
= = Production = =
Following Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons , Joe 90 was purposely conceived and developed to be a different kind of Supermarionation series , placing the narrative emphasis less on action , advanced technology and visual effects and more on characterisation and plotlines subscribing more to the spy thriller genre than science fiction . Co @-@ creator Gerry Anderson explained , " The show majored on its characters , which I thought were all very good . The puppets had become so lifelike , I now strongly believed that they could carry the action without the usual massive assistance from futuristic hardware . " Explaining his inspiration for the series , Anderson remembered his pre @-@ Supermarionation days when he served as an assistant editor for such films as The Wicked Lady , handling recording tape on a daily basis . While pondering on the blanking and re @-@ use of such tape , Anderson made a connection to the human brain 's electrical activities , explaining , " I read somewhere that the human brain is controlled by electrical impulses and how thoughts are stored electronically . I started toying with the story potential of a process that would allow the recording of brain patterns and transferring them to another brain . I was really likening it to magnetic recording , where material could be stored or transferred to another tape . " When it came to naming the lead character and , from that , the name of the new series , Anderson recalled that on one of his earlier productions , Fireball XL5 , the surname " Ninety " had been an early proposal for Colonel Steve Zodiac , and selected it for the new schoolboy protagonist .
Commissioned by ITC financier Lew Grade in the autumn of 1967 , with pre @-@ production completed in October while the final episodes of Captain Scarlet were still being filmed , principal photography for Joe 90 ran from 13 November 1967 to mid @-@ August 1968 using two puppet stages at the Century 21 Studios on the Slough Trading Estate in Berkshire . The average shooting period for each episode was two weeks , as had been the case with the previous series . The script for the pilot ( titled only in production documentation as " The Most Special Agent " ) was written by Anderson and his wife , Sylvia , as was the custom for every new puppet series that the couple developed in the 1960s . Before the concept of WIN was devised , Joe was to have become the " Most Special Agent " of the CIA . Most of the other episodes were written by Tony Barwick , with Shane Rimmer contributing six scripts . Rimmer was hired to write for Joe 90 while co @-@ writing a book with Barwick , who initially offered him a two @-@ script contract ( they were filmed as the episodes " Splashdown " and " Big Fish " ) . Since he was occupied by post @-@ production on the second Thunderbirds feature film , Thunderbird 6 , and the development of his live @-@ action film , Doppelgänger , Gerry Anderson was unable to fulfil the producer role as he had done for Captain Scarlet , and instead passed the responsibility to Reg Hill and David Lane . Lane recalls that , in his role as producer , he was " responsible for looking at the scripts , the effects , the puppets , the whole thing really " . He found support in Anderson 's long @-@ serving collaborator Desmond Saunders , who directed the pilot and served as production controller for the rest of the series . Other directors for Joe 90 included Leo Eaton , Alan Perry and Ken Turner , all of whom had contributed to Captain Scarlet , and Peter Anderson , who was promoted from his earlier position as assistant director to replace the outgoing Brian Burgess and Robert Lynn .
A Christmas @-@ themed episode , " The Unorthodox Shepherd " , featured location filming to an extent unprecedented for a puppet @-@ based Anderson series . The Secret Service , the Andersons ' next production after Joe 90 , developed the hybridity further with the incorporation of extensive footage of live actors in long shot , intercut with scale puppet sequences .
= = = Design = = =
Keith Wilson and Grenville Nott superseded Bob Bell as heads of the art department and built the interior of Culver Bay Cottage from a design by Mike Trim . Anderson remembered his satisfaction with the cottage set : " The interior , with its beams and lovely soft furnishings , was really beautiful . " The construction of the BIG RAT model , meanwhile , was entrusted to the newly formed incorporated company Century 21 Props ( or Electronics ) , which was responsible for the various gadgets that appeared in the series and was based in Bourne End in Buckinghamshire .
Although mostly occupied with Thunderbird 6 and Doppelgänger , Derek Meddings briefly reprised his role as head of special effects to construct Professor McClaine 's Jet Air Car . The design concept was a disappointment to Anderson , who commented : " The car looked like no other piece of hardware we had had previously but I was wary of canning it as I feared I might be becoming stereotyped . Maybe the whole thing was becoming a bit narrow ; all the ideas were becoming similar . " Stephen La Rivière , writer of Filmed in Supermarionation : A History of the Future , views the Jet Air Car as an update of Supercar , the vehicle that appeared in Anderson 's 1961 series of the same name , but agrees that while the Jet Air Car is the " star vehicle " of Joe 90 , it is visually unappealing in comparison to the " beautiful , sleek design of its predecessor . "
= = = Puppets = = =
The Supermarionation puppets featured in Joe 90 are of the more accurately proportioned kind introduced for Captain Scarlet , and which would also be used for the Andersons ' final puppet series , The Secret Service . Simultaneously , the drive for enhanced realism across all major design aspects which started with the preceding series continued for Joe 90 . Main character puppets from Captain Scarlet were re @-@ used for Joe 90 with the exceptions of the Captain Scarlet and Captain Blue marionettes . Few new puppets were constructed , the only notable exceptions being Professor McClaine ( sculpted by Mary Turner ) , Joe ( sculpted by Tim Cooksey ) , and Mrs Harris .
The Joe puppet was the first child marionette to be made as part of the new generation of Supermarionation puppets introduced for Captain Scarlet , for which the sculpting team were careful to achieve realistic proportions for the body of a nine @-@ year @-@ old boy . The puppets of Sam Loover and Shane Weston had each made several appearances in the previous series , but for their regular role in the new series a variety of alternative heads were created from the " expressionless " templates – including " smilers " , " frowners " and " blinkers " – and the Shane Weston puppet was re @-@ wigged . Many of the recycled " revamp puppets " , used to depict supporting characters for Captain Scarlet , were also duplicated with darker skin colours to portray characters from a range of ethnicities . Further to these requirements , the use of two shooting soundstages necessitated the duplication of all the " expressionless " main character puppets to avoid conflicts over resources between the two filming units . As in the previous series , " under control " puppets , manipulated by levers from below as opposed to wires from a gantry above , feature in Joe 90 .
= = = Music = = =
The opening and ending theme and incidental music of Joe 90 composed by Barry Gray , who was responsible for music on other Anderson series . Episodes of Joe 90 start with either a cold open ( the first Anderson series to do so ) or the main title sequence , which sees Joe sitting in the BIG RAT 's " Rat Trap " and receiving transferred knowledge from the machine . The sequence is accompanied by Gray 's opening theme , which is dominated by the notes of guitarist Vic Flick , known for performing lead guitar in the recording of the " James Bond Theme " for Dr. No ( 1962 ) . In Anderson 's biography , What Made Thunderbirds Go ! , the Joe 90 theme is described as a " dizzying piece of psychedelic pop art that could have been produced only in the late Sixties . " The closing credits are superimposed over images of objects such as Joe 's BIG RAT spectacles , his WIN badge , and also his briefcase , gun , and transceiver ; while the concepts for these images were photographic , the final versions were augmented with airbrush artwork .
In addition to the themes and tracks for the pilot , " The Most Special Agent " , Gray composed incidental music for 20 additional episodes of Joe 90 . Music for the Joe 90 episodes was recorded between 18 January and 27 September 1968 , starting with the titles and the pilot in a session at the London Olympic Sound Studios and ending with one of the final instalments , " See You Down There " at CTS Studios . Scores were also recorded at Gray 's residence in Esher , Surrey .
Gray 's compositions for Joe 90 occasionally required the hiring of guest talent . The piano music featured extensively in the episode " International Concerto " was performed by Robert Docker ( the human hands seen in the close @-@ up shots of Joe 's playing belonged to Gray 's son , Simon ) . " Lone @-@ Handed 90 " includes a recurring harmonica , played by the Canadian musician Tommy Reilly .
A CD of the Joe 90 soundtrack , running to 28 pieces , was released by Silva Screen Records in 2006 . Awarding a rating of 3 @.@ 5 stars out of five , AllRovi reviewer William Ruhlmann comments that the scores are " not great writing " , but adds that Gray 's work was " perfectly adequate , if not inspired . " Previous releases include a 45 rpm gramophone record , Title Theme from the ATV Series Joe 90 , also featuring various incidental music .
= = Voice cast = =
In comparison to Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons , Joe 90 features a smaller cast , voicing just five regular characters . Like Captain Scarlet , the series has been viewed as more " English @-@ sounding " , the Andersons abandoning their stipulation dating from the production of Thunderbirds that the puppet cast be American and thus dispensing with the established format of their series ' principal character being a " square @-@ jawed , fair @-@ skinned male with a Mid @-@ Atlantic accent " . Instead , in a manner similar to the Captain Scarlet , Joe 90 focuses on the strong American supporting characters of Sam Loover and Shane Weston .
Len Jones as Joe McClaine , a nine @-@ year @-@ old adoptee who balances schoolwork with missions as a spy for the World Intelligence Network ( WIN ) , using the aid of knowledge and experience captured by a brilliant invention , the Brain Impulse Galvanoscope Record And Transfer ( BIG RAT ) . For realism , Joe is voiced by child actor Jones rather than an actress as had usually been the case for the representation of younger characters on earlier Supermarionation series . On the subject of female casting , Gerry Anderson recalled , " ... it always sounded rather odd to me . It never sounded like a real little boy ... With Joe 90 , I suggested finding a British kid and making him repeat the lines parrot fashion . That 's what we did with Len Jones . His performance was only adequate , but at least it sounded authentic . "
Rupert Davies as Professor Ian " Mac " McClaine , Joe 's adoptive father and inventor of the BIG RAT . At the time of production , Davies was well known for acting the leading role in the 1960s TV adaptation of the Maigret novels , and was the most distinguished actor yet to contribute to an Anderson series . Experiencing typecasting as a result of his earlier role as the fictional French detective , voice acting provided Davies with the opportunity to broaden the horizons of his career . In Gerry Anderson 's biography , What Made Thunderbirds Go ! , Simon Archer and Marcus Hearn credit Mac 's " warm yet distinguished " English tones as a " perfect counterpoint " to the American voices of the characters of Sam Loover and Shane Weston .
Keith Alexander as Sam Loover , a long @-@ time friend of Mac and Deputy Head of WIN 's London offices , whom Joe affectionately calls " Uncle " . Australian actor Alexander had provided voices for the second Thunderbirds film , Thunderbird 6 , as a replacement for actor Ray Barrett . During the 1960s , he provided the voice for another puppet character , Topo Gigio , on The Ed Sullivan Show in the United States .
David Healy as Shane Weston , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of WIN 's London Headquarters and Deputy Head of the international organisation , who has a penchant for feeble jokes . Healy , an American actor resident in the United Kingdom , had voiced supporting characters in Captain Scarlet , and was often contracted to play transatlantic characters in British television .
Sylvia Anderson as Mrs ( Ada ) Harris , the McClaines ' long @-@ suffering housekeeper , who is unaware that Mac and Joe are members of an intelligence organisation . Anderson , whose voice had first featured in the 1961 series Supercar , was best known for voicing the character of Lady Penelope in Thunderbirds and its two feature films . ( The reason for the choice of the name " Ada Harris " is unclear ; whether it was a coincidence or by deliberate choice , the name is also that of the protagonist of author Paul Gallico 's Mrs. ' Arris novels . )
Supporting characters were voiced by Alexander , Healy and Anderson as well as earlier Anderson contributors Gary Files , Martin King , Jeremy Wilkin , Shane Rimmer and ( for one episode , " Viva Cordova " ) Liz Morgan . Rimmer and Morgan , however , are not credited in the closing titles . Files recalls that he felt honoured to be asked to rejoin the Andersons for another production following Captain Scarlet , and that he was " tickled pink " to be performing with Davies , adding , " I hated the way that so many so @-@ called producers wouldn 't meet his eye . He was Maigret forever , you see , in their eyes . " Morgan , meanwhile , explains how she was contracted for her single voice role in Joe 90 : " They needed a voice , they called around and everyone else was out shopping . So they called me in . "
= = Broadcasting = =
In the United Kingdom , the starts of the regional broadcasts were staggered , with Joe 90 premiering on ATV Midlands and Tyne Tees in late September 1968 and moving on to LWT , Southern and Anglia shortly after . The series reached the Harlech and Channel regions in November and finally Granada on Christmas Day , although the first episode to air was the Christmas @-@ themed " The Unorthodox Shepherd " rather than the pilot , " The Most Special Agent " . Granada was one of several regions to broadcast the series under the alternative title The Adventures of Joe 90 . Although the series was re @-@ run several times in various regions during the 1970s , it was not transmitted in the Yorkshire region until 1981 , when it was secured by ITV for a syndicated run . In the United States , Joe 90 was broadcast in first @-@ run syndication in 1969 .
Joe 90 was later purchased for early @-@ morning network transmissions on BBC1 in 1994 . Rights holder PolyGram cleared the programme for broadcast on the condition that the " zooming " Joe 90 logo in the title sequence be replaced with a new static version to distinguish it from the logo for the American G.I. Joe toy brand , which , PolyGram believed , appeared too similar . The videotapes used for broadcast were 16 mm transfers of the 35 mm film and were edited for timeslot constraints , with the cold open re @-@ arranged where applicable so that the titles now opened each episode , and the closing credits minimised to permit a BBC Children 's presenter to read out viewer birthday cards . A separate 1994 run on Nickelodeon made none of these alterations to the 1960s material . With Thunderbirds and Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons , the series commenced a run on the UK Sci Fi Channel in 2009 .
For Joe 90 's original run , in some regions the end of the title sequence incorporated a zoom @-@ in shot of Joe 's WIN glasses accompanied by a voice @-@ over provided by actor Tim Turner , stating , " These are Joe 90 's special glasses . Without them , he 's a boy . Wearing them , he 's an expert . " This short speech , intended to warn child viewers not to put themselves at risk by imitating Joe 's exploits , has been erroneously attributed to Keith Alexander on the Joe 90 Region 2 DVD box set , on which it is a special feature .
= = Reception = =
In an episode guide to the Anderson TV series , science @-@ fiction writer John Peel questions Mac 's ethics in " experimenting on " Joe to further the development of the BIG RAT . On the subject of Joe as a secret agent he remarks , jokingly , " Presumably there are no child labour laws in the future ! " La Rivière 's attention is drawn to one of Mac 's lines at the end of the pilot , in a scene that he considers " amusing " ; the professor 's admonition " Don 't come crying to me if you get hurt ! " represents his preparedness to " abnegate all parental responsibility " towards his adoptive son . Observing the series ' subscription to " wider themes in Cold War culture " , Cull likens the BIG RAT 's powers to brainwashing , but concludes that it is a fundamentally " benign " technology . The more violent style introduced in Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons is sometimes evident in Joe 90 : in " Hi @-@ jacked " , Joe kills an enemy with a grenade , while in " Project 90 " , Professor McClaine is menaced by a drill poised to pulverise his head . On the subject of violence , episode director Desmond Saunders comments : " There was an unpleasant side to it which I never really understood . There was something about it that was very strange and sinister . "
On the other hand , producer David Lane praises the series for its increased humour following the dark tone of Captain Scarlet and sees Joe 90 as much more family @-@ orientated in comparison to its forerunner , summing up the series as " a great little programme . " Anthony Clark of the British Film Institute commends Joe 90 for more effective characterisation than Captain Scarlet , and also compliments the quality of its scripts and Barry Gray 's musical score . La Rivière underlines a connection between the child protagonist and the theme of espionage , writing , " The premise that drives Joe 90 taps into the fantasy indulged by most boys that they , even at nine years old , can be James Bond . " Writer John R. Cook agrees with La Rivière 's points on audience self @-@ identification , describes the series as a " wish @-@ fulfilment fantasy " and suggests that the character of Joe is a mirror image of the target child viewer . Comparisons have been made to later franchises with child protagonists who are in fact operatives for intelligence agencies , such as Robert Rodriguez 's Spy Kids films , and Anthony Horowitz 's Alex Rider novels .
La Rivière noted the intimacy of the series and the predominantly male voice cast and characters , suggesting that Joe 90 is " very much a Boy 's Own adventure . " Out of the 30 episodes , only ten feature appearances from female characters , a fact which La Rivière attributes to the increased demands on Century 21 for its feature film productions , Thunderbird 6 and Doppelgänger . Peel suggests that the female absence leaves Joe 90 , with many other Anderson productions , inferior to previous Supermarionation effort Thunderbirds , in which the character of Lady Penelope has a primary role in several episodes . Grouping Joe 90 with the earlier Supercar and the subsequent The Secret Service , Peel concludes , " It is hardly coincidental that these tend to be the least @-@ loved of [ Anderson 's ] series ; he had , after all , ignored half of his potential audience . " For Peel , this return of the " standard Anderson sexism " is only one aspect of deterioration between Joe 90 and previous productions . Peel challenges La Rivière 's asserted " kids play Bond " theme , writing that , " being a somewhat nerdy kid with glasses and brain implants was not really thrilling . "
Peel 's view was contested by Anderson 's and Cull 's belief that the series , with its bespectacled main character of Joe McClaine , can increase the self @-@ confidence of young viewers who wear glasses : " Suddenly they were proud because they had something in common with Joe 90 . " Since the series ' first appearance , the epithet " Joe 90 " has become a popular term of endearment for both children and adults with glasses reminiscent of Joe 's ( such as snooker player Dennis Taylor ) . During UK repeats in the 1990s , similarities were drawn between Joe and then @-@ Prime Minister John Major , also known for wearing large spectacles . Jeff Evans , writer of The Penguin TV Companion , criticises the plot element of the glasses , writing , " Joe simply dons a pair of scientific glasses , making him look like the class swot than a secret agent . "
Cook reads further into the concept of child empowerment in Joe 90 , writing that the series creates a " technological utopia " around youth , remarking , " Through the character of Joe , his brain hardwired at the start of each episode into the BIG RAT supercomputer , the young are shown to be literally at one with technology . " He adds that the instant access to brain patterns that the BIG RAT affords to Joe may be interpreted as heralding the development of the Internet over a decade after Joe 90 was produced . With his intellectual horizons broadened , Joe becomes the manifestation of homo superior , yet his youthfulness grants him the power to change the fraught political world in ways that no adult could due to the limitations of their imagination . In this respect , Cook holds up Joe 90 as a precursor to the 1970s television series The Tomorrow People , which also concerned ideas of human transcendence in children . This idea , Cook says , was evident in the title of Joe 90 itself : " no longer is he a nine @-@ year @-@ old boy but instead his status and capacities have been multiplied tenfold to transform him into agent ' Joe 90 ' , his name an appealing futuristic echo of the then distant year of 1990 . "
Ultimately , Joe 90 has proven to be less successful than previous series made by Anderson . In the Anderson @-@ related book , Supermarionation Classics , the model work and scripts are praised , but it is conceded that the series " failed to arouse more than a passing interest with some Anderson fans . " Stephen Hulse refers to Joe 90 as " clearly the most child @-@ oriented of the latter Anderson Supermarionation series " and " technically accomplished " , but " one of the Anderson stable 's lesser series " . However , its spy @-@ fi theme led on to the final Supermarionation series , The Secret Service , which too features an unconventional secret agent ( a vicar , Father Stanley Unwin ) and an intelligence organisation with a contracted name ( BISHOP , an acronym for " British Intelligence Service Headquarters , Operation Priest " ) .
= = Adaptations = =
In 1981 , a compilation film of the Joe 90 episodes " The Most Special Agent " , " Splashdown " , " Attack of the Tiger " and " Arctic Adventure " , titled The Amazing Adventures of Joe 90 , was created under the supervision of Robert Mandell of ITC Entertainment 's New York offices . Intended to boost American syndication sales , The Amazing Adventures of Joe 90 is one of a number of composite films of Gerry Anderson productions , which were released both to stations and on home video under the promotional banner of " Super Space Theater " . Material for " The Most Special Agent " was re @-@ edited to remove the framing sequences set at Culver Bay Cottage and WIN Headquarters London , with the result that Joe 's fictitious mission to steal the Russian prototype fighter appears to be a real assignment for the nine @-@ year @-@ old WIN agent . Despite each of the episodes in this compilation receiving a U certificate from the British Board of Film Classification ( BBFC ) , The Amazing Adventures of Joe 90 was rated PG .
From the 1980s , the distribution rights to the ITC productions belonged to PolyGram Television . Subsequent sales were made to Carlton International in the late 1990s and finally Granada International which , through a merger with Carlton International in 2004 , now forms ITV Global Entertainment , a division of ITV plc . During the 1990s , the possibility of a live @-@ action film adaptation of Joe 90 was mooted by PolyGram . The idea re @-@ emerged in the 2000s , when in 2003 the magazine Variety reported that a film version was in the planning stages , to be produced by Disney . However , to date , the film proposal remains to be developed . In 2005 , Anderson said of negotiations with Granada , " We have regular meetings and although they are very polite and very nice , nothing ever happens . "
When I Love the ' 70s , ' 80s and ' 90s , three British pop culture nostalgia programmes , were broadcast on BBC Two in 2001 , a set of Joe 90 @-@ themed " trailers " were filmed to precede instalments of the last of these series . In each of the three previews , the character of Joe is depicted entering the BIG RAT 's " Rat Trap " to receive the brain pattern of a 1990s household name , from Oasis bandmember Liam Gallagher ( representing 1990 ) to comedian Vic Reeves ( 1991 ) to the character of Garth ( portrayed by Dana Carvey ) from the 1992 film , Wayne 's World . On leaving the " Rat Trap " , Joe has assumed the identity of each BIG RAT subject and acts and speaks using their mannerisms . Edited versions of the trailers missing the BBC Two voiceovers and logos are included as special feature material on the Region 2 release of the Joe 90 DVD box set .
= = Merchandise = =
Authentic 1960s associated media for Joe 90 included a Century 21 Toys range comprising friction @-@ drive and battery @-@ operated versions of Professor McClaine 's Jet Air Car and Sam Loover 's futuristic saloon . Also available were Joe 's WIN briefcase ( complete with replica gadgets and pistol ) and his WIN badge ( reading " Most Special Agent " ) . Joe 90 was also given its own weekly comic , Joe 90 Top Secret , which ran for 34 issues and narrated the TV episodes in strip form , while also including strips based on the TV series The Champions and Land of the Giants . In September 1969 , Joe 90 Top Secret merged with the established Anderson tie @-@ in TV21 ( previously titled TV Century 21 ) , which then came to be known as TV21 and Joe 90 . After a further 36 issues , Joe 90 strips were dropped from the comic and the new title discontinued in favour of the original TV21 .
The 1990s were marked by a considerable interest in old TV series from the 1960s and 70s – Joe 90 was one of those that was among the repeats and was also the subject of a strip series in the Funday Times section of The Sunday Times . Strips from Joe 90 Top Secret were reprinted in a new publication , Joe 90 , which was launched to tie in with the 1994 BBC re @-@ runs but which also , after just seven issues , merged into a related comic , on this occasion Fleetway 's Thunderbirds . Other Joe 90 print media include 1968 and 1969 Joe 90 annuals from Century 21 Publishing and two short paperback novels , Joe 90 and the Raiders ( by Tod Sullivan ) and Joe 90 in Revenge ( by Howard Elson ) , published by May Fair Books .
= = = VHS and DVD = = =
In the United Kingdom , the earliest home releases of Joe 90 in the 1980s were controlled by " Channel 5 " , later re @-@ branded as " PolyGram Video " . Released in an eight @-@ volume series and re @-@ packaged in 1992 , the set included " The Most Special Agent " , " Splashdown " , " Attack of the Tiger " and " Arctic Adventure " in their re @-@ edited forms from the 1981 compilation film The Amazing Adventures of Joe 90 , which itself received three video releases both in PAL and NTSC format between 1981 and 1986 . The 1980s and 90s VHS releases used 16 mm prints , which were of a quality poorer than that of the original film .
In September 2002 , a DVD box set of all 30 Joe 90 episodes , sourced from a digital remaster of 35 mm film prints , was released in Region 2 by Carlton . The five component discs were also released individually at intervals between September 2002 and January 2003 , and the episodes were also marketed in a new five @-@ volume VHS package . A North American set from A & E debuted in July 2003 before a Region 4 version appeared in October . A French @-@ language release of Joe 90 – Agent Très Spécial ( English : Joe 90 – Very Special Agent ) hit the Canadian market in 2004 . With these DVD releases , the component episodes of The Amazing Adventures of Joe 90 were made commercially available in their unedited form for the first time .
= Grand Duchess Tatiana Nikolaevna of Russia =
Grand Duchess Tatiana Nikolaevna of Russia ( Tatiana Nikolaevna Romanova ) ( Russian : Великая Княжна Татьяна Николаевна ) ( 10 June ( 11th starting in 1900 ) 1897 – 17 July 1918 ) ( starting in 1900 , Tatiana 's birthday was celebrated on 11 June new style ) was the second daughter of Tsar Nicholas II , the last monarch of Russia , and of Tsarina Alexandra . She was born at the Peterhof , Saint Petersburg .
She was better known than her three sisters during her lifetime and headed Red Cross committees during World War I. Like her older sister Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna of Russia , she nursed wounded soldiers in a military hospital from 1914 to 1917 , until the family was arrested following the first Russian Revolution of 1917 .
Her murder by revolutionaries on 17 July 1918 resulted in her being named as a passion bearer by the Russian Orthodox Church . She was a younger sister of Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna of Russia and an elder sister of Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna of Russia , Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia and Tsarevich Alexei of Russia . All sisters were falsely rumored to have survived the assassination and dozens of imposters claimed to be surviving Romanovs . Author Michael Occleshaw speculated that a woman named Larissa Tudor might have been Tatiana ; however , all of the Romanovs , including Olga , Tatiana , Maria and Anastasia , were murdered by the Bolshevik assassination squad .
= = Early life and characteristics = =
Grand Duchess Tatiana 's siblings were Grand Duchesses Olga , Maria , Anastasia , and Tsarevich Alexei of Russia . All of the children were close to one another and to their parents up until the end of their lives .
Tatiana was described as tall and slender , with dark auburn hair and dark blue @-@ gray eyes , fine , chiseled features , and a refined , elegant bearing befitting the daughter of an Emperor . She was considered the most beautiful of the four grand duchesses by many courtiers . Of all her sisters , Tatiana most closely resembled their mother .
Tatiana 's title is most precisely translated as " Grand Princess , " meaning that Tatiana , as an " imperial highness " , was higher in rank than other princesses in Europe , who were " royal highnesses . " " Grand Duchess " became the most widely used translation of the title into English from Russian . However , her friends , family and the household servants generally called her by her first name and patronym , Tatiana Nikolaevna or by the Russian nicknames " Tanya , " " Tatya , " " Tatianochka , " or " Tanushka . "
Like the other Romanov children , Tatiana was raised with some austerity . She and her sisters slept on camp beds without pillows , took cold baths in the morning , and were expected to keep themselves occupied with embroidery or knitting projects if they had a spare moment . Their work was given as gifts or sold at charity bazaars . According to one story , Tatiana , accustomed to being addressed only by her name and patronymic , was so disconcerted when she was addressed as " Your Imperial Highness " by lady @-@ in @-@ waiting Baroness Sophie Buxhoeveden when she was heading a committee meeting that she kicked the woman under the table and hissed " Are you crazy to speak to me like that ? "
Tatiana and her older sister , Olga , were known in the household as " The Big Pair . " According to a 29 May 1897 diary entry written by her father 's distant cousin , Grand Duke Konstantin Konstantinovich of Russia , she was given the name " Tatiana " as an homage to the heroine in Alexander Pushkin 's novel in verse Eugene Onegin . Her father liked the idea of having daughters named Olga and Tatiana , like the sisters in the famous poem . Like their two younger sisters , the two older girls shared a bedroom and were very close to one another from early childhood . In the spring of 1901 , Olga had typhoid fever and was confined to the nursery for several weeks away from her younger sisters . When she began to recover , Tatiana was permitted to see her older sister for five minutes but didn 't recognize her . When her governess , Margaretta Eagar , told her after the visit that the sickly child she had been conversing so gently with was Olga , four @-@ year @-@ old Tatiana began to cry bitterly and protested that the pale , thin child couldn 't be her adored older sister . Eagar had difficulty persuading Tatiana that Olga would recover . French tutor Pierre Gilliard wrote that the two sisters were " passionately devoted to one another . "
Tatiana was practical and had a natural talent for leadership . Her sisters gave her the nickname " The Governess " and sent her as their group representative when they wanted their parents to grant a favor . Though she was eighteen months Tatiana 's senior , Olga had no objection when Tatiana decided to take charge of a situation . She was also closer to her mother than any of her sisters and was considered by many who knew her to be the Tsarina 's favorite daughter . Tatiana was the conduit of all her mother 's decisions . " It was not that her sisters loved their mother any less , " recalled her French tutor Pierre Gilliard , " but Tatiana knew how to surround her with unwearying attentions and never gave way to her own capricious impulses . " Alexandra wrote Nicholas on 13 March 1916 that Tatiana was the only one of their four daughters who " grasped it " when she explained her way of looking at things .
Gilliard wrote that Tatiana was reserved and " well balanced " but less open and spontaneous than Olga . She was also less talented than Olga , but worked harder and was more dedicated to seeing projects through to completion than her elder sister . Colonel Eugene Kobylinsky , the family 's guard at Tsarskoye Selo and Tobolsk , felt Tatiana " had no liking for art . Maybe it would have been better for her had she been a man . " Others felt Tatiana 's artistic talents were better expressed in handiwork and in her talent for choosing attractive fashions and creating elegant hair styles . Her mother 's friend Anna Vyrubova later wrote that Tatiana had a great talent for making clothing , embroidery and crochet and that she dressed her mother 's long hair as well as any professional hair stylist .
= = Relationship with Grigori Rasputin = =
Tatiana , like all her family , doted on the long @-@ awaited heir Tsarevich Alexei , or " Baby " , who suffered frequent attacks of hemophilia and nearly died several times . Tatiana and her three sisters , like their mother , were all potential carriers of the hemophilia gene ; the Tsarina was a granddaughter of Queen Victoria , from whom the trait was inherited . Tatiana 's younger sister Maria reportedly hemorrhaged in December 1914 during an operation to remove her tonsils , according to her paternal aunt Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia , who was interviewed later in her life . The doctor performing the operation was so unnerved that he had to be ordered to continue by their mother , Tsarina Alexandra . Olga Alexandrovna said she believed all four of her nieces bled more than was normal and believed they were carriers of the hemophilia gene like their mother . Symptomatic carriers of the gene , while not hemophiliacs themselves , can have symptoms of hemophilia including a lower than normal blood clotting factor that can lead to heavy bleeding .
The Tsarina relied on the counsel of Grigori Rasputin , a Russian peasant and wandering starets or " holy man " , and credited his prayers with saving the ailing Tsarevich on numerous occasions . Tatiana and her siblings were also taught to view Rasputin as " Our Friend " and to share confidences with him . In the autumn of 1907 , Tatiana 's aunt Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia was escorted to the nursery by the Tsar to meet Rasputin . Tatiana and her sisters and brother were all wearing their long white nightgowns . The children appeared to be friendly with Rasputin and comfortable in his company . Rasputin 's friendship with the children was also evident in some of the messages he sent to them . In February 1909 , Rasputin sent the imperial children a telegram , advising them to " Love the whole of God 's nature , the whole of His creation in particular this earth . The Mother of God was always occupied with flowers and needlework . " Eleven @-@ year @-@ old Tatiana wrote a letter asking Rasputin to visit her and telling him how hard it was to see her mother ill . " But you know because you know everything , " she wrote .
However , one of the girls ' governesses , Sofia Ivanovna Tyutcheva , was horrified that Rasputin was permitted access to the nursery when the four girls were in their nightgowns ; she wanted him barred . Rasputin 's contacts with the children were , by all accounts , innocent in nature , but Nicholas did ask Rasputin to avoid going to the nurseries in the future . Young Tatiana was aware of the tension in the nursery and afraid of her mother 's reaction to Tyutcheva 's actions . " I am so afr ( aid ) that S.I. can speak ... about our friend something bad , " the twelve @-@ year @-@ old Tatiana wrote to her mother on 8 March 1910 . " I hope our nurse will be nice to our friend now . " Alexandra eventually had Tyutcheva fired .
Tyutcheva took her book to other members of the family . Nicholas 's sister Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia was horrified by Tyutcheva 's story . She wrote in her diary on 15 March 1910 that she could not understand the family 's regard for Rasputin as " almost a saint " when she viewed him as only a " khlyst " . Tyutcheva told Grand Duchess Xenia that the starets visited when Olga and Tatiana were getting ready for bed and sat there talking with them and " caressing " them . The girls hid his presence from their governess and were afraid to talk to her about Rasputin . Maria Ivanovna Vishnyakova , another nurse for the royal children , was at first a devotee of Rasputin , but later was disillusioned by him . She claimed that she was raped by Rasputin in the spring of 1910 . The empress refused to believe her , Vishnyakova told investigators , and said everything Rasputin did was holy . Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna was told that Vishnyakova 's claim had been immediately investigated , but " they caught the young woman in bed with a Cossack of the Imperial Guard . " Vishnyakova was dismissed from her post in 1913 .
It was whispered in society that Rasputin had seduced not only the Tsarina but also the four grand duchesses . Rasputin had released ardent , though completely innocent in nature , letters written by the Tsarina and the four grand duchesses to him . They circulated throughout society , fueling more rumors . Pornographic cartoons circulated that depicted Rasputin having relations with the empress , with her four daughters and Anna Vyrubova nude in the background . Nicholas ordered Rasputin to leave St. Petersburg for a time , much to Alexandra 's displeasure , and Rasputin went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land . Despite the rumors , the imperial family 's association with Rasputin continued until Rasputin was murdered in 1916 . " Our Friend is so contented with our girlies , says they have gone through heavy ' courses ' for their age and their souls have much developed , " Alexandra wrote to Nicholas on 6 December 1916 . Tatiana was rumored to have been present at Rasputin 's murder on 17 December 1916 , " disguised as a lieutenant of the Chevaliers @-@ Gardes , so that she could revenge herself on Rasputin who had tried to violate her " . It was also rumored that Rasputin was castrated in front of Tatiana , wrote Maurice Paléologue , the French ambassador to Russia , in his memoirs . Paléologue was skeptical at the time about the truth of the wild rumors and attributed them to the hatred of Rasputin held by people in St. Petersburg . In his memoirs , A.A. Mordvinov reported that all four grand duchesses appeared " cold and visibly terribly upset " by Rasputin 's death and sat " huddled up closely together " on a sofa in one of their bedrooms on the night they received the news . Mordvinov reported that the young women were in a gloomy mood and seemed to sense the political upheaval that was about to be unleashed . Tatiana attended Rasputin 's funeral on 21 December 1916 , and Rasputin was buried with an icon signed on its reverse side by Tatiana , her mother and sisters .
Tatiana later kept a notebook in which she recorded Rasputin 's sayings : " Love is Light and it has no end . Love is great suffering . It cannot eat , it cannot sleep . It is mixed with sin in equal parts . And yet it is better to love . In love one can be mistaken , and through suffering he expiates for his mistakes . If love is strong — the lovers happy . Nature herself and the Lord give them happiness . One must ask the Lord that he teach to love the luminous , bright , so that love be not torment , but joy . Love pure , Love luminous is the Sun . The Sun makes us warm , and Love caresses . All is in Love , and even a bullet cannot strike Love down . "
Tatiana , like her mother , was deeply religious and read her Bible frequently . She also studied theology and struggled with the meaning of " good and evil , sorrow and forgiveness , and man 's destiny on earth " . She decided that " One has to struggle much because the return for good is evil , and evil reigns . " A.A. Mosolov , a court official , felt that Tatiana 's reserved nature gave her a " difficult " character , but one with more spiritual depth than her sister Olga . Her English tutor , Sydney Gibbes , who later became a Russian Orthodox priest , disagreed and felt that religion for Tatiana was a duty rather than something she felt in her heart .
= = Young adulthood and World War I = =
As a young teenager , Tatiana was assigned a regiment of soldiers , the Vosnesensky ( Ascenscion ) Hussars and given the rank of honorary colonel . She and Olga , who was also given her own regiment , would go out and inspect the soldiers regularly , an occasion they greatly enjoyed . When she was nearly fourteen , an ill Tatiana begged her mother to permit her to get out of bed in time to go to a review so she could watch a soldier she was infatuated with . " I would like so much to go the review of the second division as I am also the second daughter and Olga was at the first so now it is my turn , " she wrote to Alexandra on 20 April 1911 . " ... Yes , Mama , and at the second division I will see whom I must see ... you know whom ... "
While she enjoyed the company of the soldiers she met , the young Tatiana also sometimes found their behavior shocking . A group of officers aboard the imperial yacht gave her older sister Olga a portrait of Michelangelo 's nude David , cut out from a newspaper , as a present for her name day on 11 July 1911 . " Olga laughed at it long and hard , " the indignant fourteen @-@ year @-@ old Tatiana wrote to her aunt Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia . " And not one of the officers wishes to confess that he has done it . Such swine , aren 't they ? " The fourteen @-@ year @-@ old found her distant cousin Prince Ioann Konstantinovich of Russia 's engagement to Helen of Serbia " touching " but found the thought of Helen kissing him hilarious . " How funny if they might have children , can ( she ) be kissing him ? " Tatiana wrote Olga Alexandrovna on 14 July 1911 . " What foul , fie ! "
That fall , the fourteen @-@ year @-@ old Tatiana experienced her first brush with violence when she witnessed the assassination of the government minister Pyotr Stolypin during a performance at the Kiev Opera House . Tatiana and her older sister Olga had followed their father back to his opera box and witnessed the shooting . Her father later wrote to his mother , Dowager Empress Maria , on 10 September 1911 , that the event had upset both girls . Tatiana sobbed and both of them had trouble sleeping that night .
A few years later , when World War I broke out , Tatiana became a Red Cross nurse with her mother and Olga . They cared for wounded soldiers in a private hospital on the grounds of Tsarskoye Selo . According to Vyrubova , " Tatiana was almost as skillful and devoted as her mother , and complained only that on account of her youth she was spared some of the more trying cases . " Valentina Ivanovna Chebotareva , who worked with her at the hospital , described in her journal how she planned to boil silk while Tatiana was otherwise occupied , fearing that Tatiana would be too tired to help her . But Tatiana guessed what Chebotareva was doing . " Why can you breathe carbolic acid and I can 't ? " she asked Chebotareva and insisted on helping her with the work . Tatiana was strongly patriotic and apologized in a 29 October 1914 letter for saying something negative about the Germans in her mother 's presence . She explained that she forgot her mother had been born in Germany because she thought of Alexandra as only Russian . The Tsarina responded that she did feel completely Russian and Tatiana had not hurt her feelings with her sharp words , but Alexandra was hurt by the actions of her former countrymen and by the gossip she heard about her own German connections .
On 15 August 1915 , Tatiana wrote her mother another letter expressing her desire to help her bear the burdens brought on by the war : " I simply can 't tell you how awfully sorry I am for you , my beloved ones . I am so sorry I can in no way help you or be useful . In such moments I am sorry I 'm not a man . " As Tatiana grew into adulthood , she undertook more public appearances than her sisters and headed committees . Vyrubova recalled that she became better known to the public than her three sisters because of her attention to duty and her ability to engage those she met . In their memoirs , both her mother 's friend , Vyrubova , and lady in waiting Lili Dehn recalled that Tatiana , the most social of the sisters , longed for friends her own age but her social life was restricted by her rank and her mother 's distaste for society . She also had a more introspective side , known only to her closest friends and family . " With her , as with her mother , shyness and reserve were accounted as pride , but , once you knew her and had gained her affection , this reserve disappeared and the real Tatiana became apparent , " Dehn recalled . " She was a poetical creature , always yearning for the ideal , and dreaming of great friendships which might be hers . "
Chebotareva , who grew to love " sweet " Tatiana almost like a daughter , described how the shy grand duchess once reached out to hold her hand when Tatiana was nervous about walking in front of a large group of nurses . " I am so terribly embarrassed and frightened – I do not know whom I greeted and whom not , " Tatiana told Chebotareva . Tatiana 's informality also impressed Chebotareva 's son , Gregory . Tatiana once called Chebotareva at her home on the telephone and spoke first to her sixteen @-@ year @-@ old son . Gregory was annoyed when the grand duchess referred to him by his diminutive name , " Grisha . " Not realizing who she was , the affronted Gregory asked the grand duchess to identify herself and she replied , " Tatiana Nikolaevna . " When he asked her again , still not believing he was talking to a Romanov , Tatiana again failed to claim the imperial title of Grand Duchess and replied that she was " Sister Romanova the Second . "
On another occasion during the war , when the lady in waiting who usually picked them up from the hospital was detained and sent a carriage without an attendant , Tatiana and her sister Olga decided to go shopping for the first time . They ordered the carriage to stop near a group of shops and went into one of the stores , where they were unrecognized because of their nurses ' uniforms . They came back out without buying anything when they realized they did not have money with them and wouldn 't have known how to use it even if they did . The next day they asked Chebotareva how to use money .
= = Romances with soldiers = =
Tatiana fell in love on at least one occasion . In an article in the December 2004 edition of the magazine Royalty Digest : A Journal of Record Peter de Malama wrote that his cousin , Dmitri Yakovlevich Malama , an officer in the Imperial Russian Cavalry , met Tatiana when he was wounded in 1914 and a romance later developed between Tatiana and the young man when he was appointed an equerry to the court of the Tsar at Tsarskoye Selo . Dmitri Malama gave Tatiana a French bulldog she named " Ortipo " in September 1914 . " Forgive me about the little dog , " Tatiana wrote to her mother on 30 September 1914 . " To say the truth , when he asked should I like to have it if he gave it to me , I at once said yes . You remember , I always wanted to have one , and only afterwards when we came home I thought that suddenly you might not like me having one . But I really was so pleased at the idea that I forgot about everything . " The dog died , but Malama gave her a replacement puppy . Tatiana took it with her to Yekaterinburg , where it died with the rest of the family . Malama paid the imperial family a visit some eighteen months after he gave Tatiana the first dog . " My little Malama came for an hour yesterday evening , " wrote Alexandra to Nicholas on 17 March 1916 . " ... Looks flourishing more of a man now , an adorable boy still . I must say a perfect son in law he w ( ou ) ld have been – why are foreign P ( rin ) ces not as nice ! " Malama was killed in August 1919 while commanding a unit of the White Russians fighting the civil war against the Bolsheviks in the Ukraine , according to Peter de Malama .
Tatiana was also fond of an officer named Vladimir Kiknadze , whom she cared for when he was wounded | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Voyages ... " was mostly negative . For example , the Wisconsin State Journal described it as " hands down the worst series finale ever " . The episode featured a holodeck simulation on the USS Enterprise ( NCC @-@ 1701 @-@ D ) from Star Trek : The Next Generation during the events of the episode " The Pegasus " and the return of Commander William Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) and Counselor Deanna Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) . It was written by Berman and Braga , who responded to negative criticism of the episode by saying " You have to remember that under normal circumstances most people probably would have thought this was a very cool episode because it has a great concept driving it " . Berman later said that " I would have never done it if I had known how people were going to react . "
Iain Miller of The Independent on Sunday criticized the appearance of the two The Next Generation characters in the finale , saying that " It was like watching a once great sprinter now gone to fat falling flat on their face while running for a bus . " The review also compared the use of the holodeck in the episode as the Star Trek equal of the ninth season of Dallas , which was revealed to be a dream of Pam Ewing in the finale . Thomas Connor of The Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the finale half a star in his review , saying that the death of Charles " Trip " Tucker III was " the most anticlimactic and dramatically pointless death in the history of the franchise " .
The Boston Herald described the episode as one of the best ways to disappoint fans during 2005 , saying that it " turned out to be an inappropriate ode to Star Trek : The Next Generation . " A preview of the episode in the Daily Herald by Ted Cox suggested that " it could never figure out if it was meant to appeal to devoted trekkies or a general audience . In alienating both , it appealed to neither . "
= = = Awards = = =
Episodes from the fourth season of Enterprise received three nominations for the 2005 Emmy Awards . The hairdesign / stylist team were nominated for Outstanding Hairstyling For a Series for their work in the episode " In A Mirror , Darkly " but lost to the team on Deadwood . Vince Deadrick , Jr was nominated for Outstanding Stunt Coordination for his work in the episodes " Borderland " and " Cold Station 12 " but was beaten by Matt Taylor for 24 . The third nomination was not for a specific episode , but for the overall season with the makeup team nominated for Outstanding Prosthetic Makeup For a Series , Miniseries , Movie Or a Special . The award went to HBO 's The Life and Death of Peter Sellers . The series was nominated for Best Network Television Series at the 31st Saturn Awards , but the award went to Lost .
The second part of " Storm Front " was awarded the Outstanding Visual Effects for a Broadcast Series at the 2005 Visual Effects Society awards . Ronald D. Moore received the award on behalf of the production team . The dogfight over New York City seen in that episode was also nominated for Outstanding Created Environment in a Live Action Broadcast Program , but lost to the opening sequence of the television series Spartacus .
= = Media information = =
Following the end of the series , the fourth season was released on DVD before the end of 2005 . It was also included in a complete set containing all four seasons of the series .
= 1936 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1936 Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 12 , 1936 , and lasted until December 6 , 1936 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin .
The 1936 season was fairly active , with 20 tropical cyclones including 3 tropical depressions . Seven storms became hurricanes , of which one became a major hurricane . In addition , the season was unusual in the fact that no storms moved across large portions of the Caribbean Sea . Seven storms , including three hurricanes , struck the United States . The season also set many records for the earliest date for a numbered storm , though all were surpassed by the extreme activity of the 2005 season .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
On June 9 , a tropical cyclone with atmospheric pressure below 988 millibars ( 29 @.@ 18 inHg ) made landfall on the Pacific coast of Guatemala . It moved northeastward across Central America , but dissipated before reaching the western Caribbean Sea on June 12 . The storm quickly re @-@ organized , and again developed into a tropical storm on June 12 . It moved north @-@ northeastward , resulting in light winds as it paralleled the eastern coasts of Belize and the Yucatán Peninsula . After reaching the Gulf of Mexico with peak winds of 45 miles per hour ( 72 km / h ) , the storm turned to the northeast , then to the east . On June 15 , the tropical storm made landfall about 20 miles ( 32 km ) to the south of Fort Myers , Florida , and after crossing the state it passed over Miami before entering the Atlantic Ocean . It weakened as it accelerated northeastward through the Bahamas , and on June 17 the system dissipated to the north of Bermuda .
While crossing Central America , the storm produced heavy rainfall .. In southern Florida , winds from the storm ranged from 30 miles per hour ( 48 km / h ) to a peak of 39 miles per hour ( 63 km / h ) in Miami . The storm produced heavy rainfall in southern Florida , ranging from 8 to 15 inches ( 200 to 380 mm ) . The rainfall caused flooding of highways and lowlands , drowned several livestock , and some damage . The storm caused three indirect deaths when a Coast Guard airplane crashed in Tampa Bay while in search of small boats .
= = = Tropical Storm Two = = =
An area of disturbed weather was first detected near the Yucatán Peninsula on June 18 . It tracked west @-@ northwestward , and developed into a tropical storm the following day . The storm continued to the west @-@ northwest until June 21 , when the storm turned to the west @-@ southwest . Having remained a minimal tropical storm for all of its lifetime , the 40 @-@ mph ( 70 @-@ km / h ) storm struck northeast Mexico on June 21 , and dissipated the next day . The storm caused higher than normal tides along the Texas coastline , and no damage or deaths were reported .
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
A small tropical storm developed on June 26 while located 125 miles ( 201 km ) east of Brownsville , Texas . It moved northwestward and rapidly strengthened almost immediately after formation ( similar to Humberto of 2007 ) , attaining hurricane status with peak winds of 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) by early on June 27 . Later on June 27 , the hurricane made landfall near Port Aransas with a pressure of 987 millibars ( 29 @.@ 15 inHg ) . The storm rapidly weakened over land , and dissipated on June 28 near San Antonio , Texas . A small craft warning was issued for the Corpus Christi area on the morning of the storm making landfall , and the National Weather Bureau issued a Hurricane Warning just 45 minutes prior to the hurricane striking land .
Upon making landfall , the storm caused a 3 @.@ 8 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 @-@ m ) storm tide , and many small boats were capsized or driven ashore . The hurricane produced wind gusts of up to 90 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) in Ingleside and up to 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) in Port Aransas , destroying cooling towers at a local oil refinery and damaging a few houses . Along its path , the storm produced heavy rainfall , though specifics are unknown . Severe crop damage was reported in San Patricio and Nueces Counties . In all , the hurricane caused $ 550 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1936 USD , $ 8 million 2006 USD ) , primarily to oil refinery property , though no deaths or injuries were reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Four = = =
On July 26 , a small tropical storm formed near the western tip of Cuba from a tropical disturbance . It moved quickly northwestward , then turned northward , reaching a peak intensity of 45 miles per hour ( 72 km / h ) . On July 27 , the storm accelerated northeastward and made landfall on southeastern Louisiana with a pressure of 1003 mbar . The storm rapidly weakened over land and dissipated late on the 27th . The Weather Bureau office issued a storm warning for the Louisiana coastline , advising those potentially affected to prepare for strong winds and rising tides . However , the storm caused no serious damage , and no casualties are associated with the storm .
= = = Hurricane Five = = =
A tropical storm was first observed over the southern Bahamas on July 27 . It tracked to the west @-@ northwest , and made landfall a short distance south of Homestead , Florida , with winds of 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) . After crossing the state , it intensified over the eastern Gulf of Mexico and became a hurricane on July 30 . The hurricane continued to strengthen , and on July 31 hit the western Florida Panhandle near Camp Walton with peak winds of 105 miles per hour ( 169 km / h ) . It weakened rapidly over land , and dissipated over western Alabama on August 1 .
In south Florida , the storm caused a storm tide of 5 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) when it made landfall , causing flooding of up to 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) in coastal areas . Though winds reached 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) , damage was minimal there . In Valparaiso in the Florida Panhandle , the hurricane produced wind gusts of up to 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) , along with a storm tide of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . Damage from the storm was relatively minor , totaling to $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 1936 USD , $ 3 @.@ 24 million 2013 USD ) . The hurricane indirectly killed four people when a boat capsized in the Gulf of Mexico .
= = = Tropical Storm Six = = =
The sixth tropical storm of the season was first spotted on August 4 while located 155 miles ( 249 km ) east @-@ northeast of Barbuda . It tracked northwestward , and reached a peak intensity of 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) on August 5 . It retained that intensity throughout its lifetime ( although it is possible it remained a tropical depression but data was conflicting ) , which was followed by a turn to the northeast on August 8 . On August 9 , the storm passed 160 miles ( 260 km ) to the west of Bermuda , and early on August 10 the storm became extratropical over the open Atlantic Ocean . The extratropical storm continued northeastward until dissipating late on August 10 while 280 miles ( 450 km ) south of the eastern tip of Nova Scotia . The storm never affected land .
= = = Tropical Storm Seven = = =
A weak tropical storm formed on August 7 in the eastern Gulf of Mexico west @-@ northwest of the Dry Tortugas . The system moved northwest towards the northwest Gulf of Mexico through August 9 while maintaining its peak of 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) . It is possible it weakened to a tropical depression at times , but there is no data supporting or denying such . The storm then began to curve more to the west @-@ southwest on August 10 while located just south @-@ southwest of Port Eads , Louisiana , while maintaining intensity . The storm continued moving southwest through August 11 , weakening to a tropical depression shortly before making landfall near Tampico on August 12 . The system weakened quickly after moving inland , and dissipated shortly afterwards .
Advisories were issued early on August 12 from the U.S. Weather Bureau in New Orleans for the system as it neared Mexico shortly before making landfall , but little damage and no deaths were reported in Mexico .
= = = Hurricane Eight = = =
A tropical disturbance was detected in the western to northwest Caribbean Sea near Cancún on August 15 . The system moved northwest into the southwest Gulf of Mexico as a tropical storm on August 16 while slowly strengthening . The system reached hurricane intensity as a Category 1 on August 17 , and reached its peak of 75 miles per hour ( 121 km / h ) shortly afterwards . The hurricane began to move west @-@ southwest late on August 17 and through August 18 , eventually making landfall near Tampico , Tamaulipas , on August 19 as a minimal hurricane or strong tropical storm . The system quickly weakened just after moving inland and dissipated on the same day .
The hurricane brought heavy rains to mainland Mexico , while the highest winds recorded at Tampico were 30 miles per hour ( 48 km / h ) on August 19 as the center passed nearby just to the north . Storm warnings were issued on August 17 and 18 as the system initially approached the upper Gulf Coast of Louisiana and Texas , but the system 's west @-@ southwest turn prevented a direct United States landfall .
= = = Tropical Storm Nine = = =
A weak tropical storm formed on August 20 near the eastern Bahamas . Moving slowly west @-@ northwest through August 21 , the system strengthened to its peak of 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) later on August 21 , and made landfall on August 22 near Daytona Beach at its peak intensity . The system maintained tropical storm intensity inland while slowly weakening and moving westward , and the storm eventually weakened to a depression on August 23 while entering the eastern Florida Panhandle , and the system dissipated shortly afterwards near as it drifted over eastern Mississippi . The storm caused heavy rains across northern and central Florida , and winds of 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) were recorded near Titusville . Overall damage was minimal .
= = = Hurricane Ten = = =
This Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane was first detected in the eastern tropical Atlantic on August 25 . Moving northwest on August 29 , the system continued to strengthen , eventually reaching a peak of 110 miles per hour ( 180 km / h ) as a Category 2 hurricane in the central North Atlantic on September 1 . The hurricane then began to curve northeast late on September 1 while maintaining intensity , eventually weakening to a 90 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) Category 1 hurricane on September 5 . The system became extratropical on September 6 , and the system dissipated while nearing the British Isles . As the system never affected land , no damage or casualties were reported .
= = = Hurricane Eleven = = =
A tropical storm was detected on August 28 in the far western Caribbean Sea . The system moved steadily west @-@ northwest , making landfall shortly afterwards on the Yucatán Peninsula as a 45 miles per hour ( 72 km / h ) tropical storm . The system weakened slightly to a 40 @-@ mph ( 65 @-@ km / h ) tropical storm as it steadily crossed the Yucatán , entering the Bay of Campeche late on August 28 . The system then began to slow down on August 29 while reintensifying , peaking as an 80 @-@ mph ( 130 @-@ km / h ) Category 1 shortly afterwards . The hurricane then began to move to the west @-@ southwest , making a final landfall near Tuxpan as a 75 @-@ mph ( 120 @-@ km / h ) minimal hurricane on August 30 . The system quickly weakened to a tropical storm shortly after moving inland , and the weakening storm dissipated shortly afterwards .
Although advisories were issued for Mexico on August 29 and early on August 30 from the U.S. Weather Bureau in New Orleans , little overall damage was reported in mainland Mexico .
= = = Tropical Storm Twelve = = =
On September 7 , a ship reported southwest winds at a location about 405 miles ( 652 km ) northeast of Antigua , indicating the presence of a tropical cyclone . The storm tracked to the west @-@ northwest without strengthening , and the following day no circulation was reported . It is estimated the storm weakened to a tropical depression and dissipated on September 8 while located about 235 miles ( 378 km ) north @-@ northeast of Saint Martin , although it may have remained a tropical depression throughout its short lifespan . The storm never affected land .
= = = Hurricane Thirteen = = =
A tropical storm was first observed by a ship on September 8 while located about 750 miles ( 1 @,@ 210 km ) east of Barbados . The storm moved northwestward , and slowly intensified to attain hurricane status on September 10 about 425 miles ( 684 km ) northeast of Barbados . The hurricane continued to slowly strengthen as it decelerated its forward motion , and on September 15 it reached its peak intensity of 120 miles per hour ( 190 km / h ) while located 375 miles ( 604 km ) south @-@ southwest of Bermuda . By the morning of September 15 , the hurricane had winds exceeding 25 miles per hour ( 40 km / h ) in a diameter of about 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) , among the largest tropical cyclones on record . It slowly weakened as it approached the East Coast of the United States , and early on September 17 local weather bureaus began issuing storm warnings from Beaufort , North Carolina , to the Virginia capes . Late on September 18 , the hurricane passed within 45 miles ( 72 km ) of the Outer Banks before it accelerated and turned to the northeast . It remained close to the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England coastline , and passed near Nantucket before turning to the east @-@ northeast . The hurricane remained south of Atlantic Canada by a short distance , and became extratropical on September 21 while located about 480 miles ( 770 km ) east of Cape Race , Newfoundland . The extratropical storm decelerated as it turned northeastward , and the system dissipated on September 25 .
In North Carolina , the hurricane produced winds of up to 90 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) in Manteo . Described as one of the worst hurricanes in record in Hatteras , the storm resulted in $ 25 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1936 USD , $ 360 @,@ 000 2006 USD ) to roads and bridges and $ 30 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1936 USD , $ 440 @,@ 000 2006 USD ) to buildings and piers . Very high tides were reported along the Outer Banks , with Nags Head losing about 35 feet ( 11 m ) of beach . The hurricane destroyed the highway bridge along the Currituck Sound , and resulted in heavy crop damage in northeastern North Carolina . The hurricane was also considered among the worst hurricanes on record in the Norfolk , Virginia , area . Winds of up to 84 miles per hour ( 135 km / h ) at Cape Henry destroyed windows , roofs , and some entire buildings , resulting in around $ 500 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1936 USD , $ 7 @.@ 3 million 2006 USD ) . The hurricane produced a storm tide of 9 @.@ 3 feet ( 2 @.@ 8 m ) in Sewell 's Point , Virginia , the second highest on record at that location . Two locations along the James River experienced record crest levels of over 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) . Rough seas washed several boats ashore , and shipping was cancelled in and out of Norfolk . The hurricane resulted in cancelled train service and increased traffic . The hurricane was indirectly responsible for two casualties . The first fatality occurred when debris from the hurricane struck a person in the head and later died . Another person drowned in the Elizabeth River in an effort to recover a rowboat blown adrift . Though hurricane warnings were posted for the northeast United States and hurricane @-@ force winds occurred there , damage , if any , is unknown .
= = = Tropical Storm Fourteen = = =
A tropical storm moved northward into Acapulco in the middle of September . Its large area of disturbed weather organized in the Bay of Campeche and developed into a tropical storm on September 10 a short distance off the coast of Tabasco . The storm initially moved westward , then turned to the north . It remained a minimal tropical storm for its entire lifetime , and after turning to the north west it made landfall near Brownsville , Texas , on September 13 with winds of 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) . The system weakened over Texas , and dissipated over northern Coahuila on September 14 . Winds were generally minor from the storm , and tides were not much above normal . The storm resulted in heavy rainfall totaling 30 @.@ 00 inches ( 762 mm ) at Broome , Texas , between September 15 and 17 . Anticipating further intensification , one bulletin from the local weather bureau recommended citizens on offshore islands to evacuate inland .
= = = Hurricane Fifteen = = =
A tropical storm was first observed about 140 miles ( 230 km ) north of Anguilla on September 19 . The storm moved northwestward and quickly attained hurricane status on September 20 . After turning to the northeast , the hurricane reached a peak intensity of 105 miles per hour ( 169 km / h ) on September 21 while located about 500 miles ( 800 km ) southwest of Bermuda . It turned to the north and slowly weakened . A cold front turned the hurricane to the northeast , and the system became extratropical on September 25 a short time before making landfall on southern Nova Scotia . Hours after hitting land , the extratropical remnant was absorbed by the approaching cold front . Impact , if any , is unknown .
= = = Tropical Depression = = =
A tropical depression formed in the western Atlantic Ocean on September 25 . It moved west @-@ northwestward , making landfall on eastern Florida before entering the Gulf of Mexico on September 28 . The depression turned to the northwest , and struck land near Apalachicola as a minimal system . It dissipated over land on October 1 . The minimum central pressure in the depression was 1006 mbar . The depression produced winds of up to 35 miles per hour ( 56 km / h ) in Tarpon Springs . Effects were minimal .
= = = Tropical Storm Sixteen = = =
An area of disturbed weather persisted across the northwestern Caribbean Sea in early October . It tracked northwestward over the Yucatán Peninsula , and subsequent to the development of a low @-@ level circulation the system organized into a tropical storm on October 9 while located about 60 miles ( 97 km ) northwest of the capital of Campeche . After moving northward , the storm turned sharply southward , and made landfall in northern Tabasco as a minimal tropical storm on October 10 . The system quickly weakened over land , and dissipated over Chiapas on October 11 . The system dropped heavy rainfall across southeastern Mexico , though damage , if any , is unknown .
= = = Tropical Storm Seventeen = = =
Toward the end of November , a cold front was moving eastward across the central Atlantic Ocean . A broad low formed on November 28 , but it was not evident by two days later . Another low formed on December 2 to the west @-@ southwest of the Canary Islands , which was an occluded low . It moved to the west @-@ northwest and became more tropical , finally transitioning into a tropical storm by December 4 . The transition to a tropical cyclone was determined on ships reporting gale @-@ force winds near the center , although it is possible the system was a subtropical cyclone instead . On December 6 , the storm turned to the west @-@ southwest and reached its peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . An approaching cold front caused the storm to become extratropical early on December 7 . After reaching a position to the northeast of the Lesser Antilles , the extratropical storm turned to the northwest on December 10 , later turning to the northeast on December 14 . A larger extratropical low absorbed the storm on December 16 .
= = Accumulated Cyclone Energy Rating ( ACE ) = =
The table below shows the ACE for each storm in the season . Broadly speaking , the ACE is a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the duration of its lifetime ; thus , hurricanes that lasted a long time ( such as Thirteen ) have higher ACEs . Despite the high number of storms , most were relatively short @-@ lived and weak , and the ACE only suggested a near @-@ normal season . The ACE rating is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 35 knots ( 40 mph ; 65 km / h ) or tropical storm strength .
= Tintin and the Picaros =
Tintin and the Picaros ( French : Tintin et les Picaros ) is the twenty @-@ third volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . The final instalment in the series to be completed by Hergé , in Belgium it was serialized in Tintin magazine from September 1975 to January 1976 before being published in a collected volume by Casterman in 1976 . The narrative follows the young reporter Tintin , his dog Snowy and his friends Captain Haddock and Professor Calculus as they travel to the ( fictional ) South American nation of San Theodoros to rescue their friend Bianca Castafiore , who has been imprisoned by the government of General Tapioca . Once there , they become involved in the anti @-@ government revolutionary activities of Tintin 's old friend General Alcazar .
Hergé began work on Tintin and the Picaros eight years after completing the previous volume in the series , Flight 714 , creating it with the aid of his team of artists at Studios Hergé . The setting and plot was inspired by Hergé 's interest in Latin American revolutionaries , particularly those active in the Cuban Revolution . The book reflected changes to the appearance and behaviour of several key characters in the series ; Tintin himself for instance no longer wears his trademark plus fours , instead wearing bell @-@ bottoms . The volume was published to a poor reception and has continued to receive negative reviews from later commentators on Hergé 's work . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with Tintin and Alph @-@ Art , a story that he never completed , and the series as a whole became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . The story was adapted for an episode of the 1991 animated series The Adventures of Tintin by Ellipse and Nelvana .
= = Synopsis = =
Tintin and his dog Snowy visit their friends Captain Haddock and Professor Calculus at Marlinspike Hall . There , they learn that Bianca Castafiore , her maid Irma , pianist Igor Wagner and the detectives Thomson and Thompson have been imprisoned in San Theodoros for allegedly attempting to overthrow the military government of General Tapioca . Tapioca 's government have further alleged that the plot was masterminded by Tintin , Haddock , and Calculus themselves . Tapioca invites the trio to visit San Theodores , promising them safe passage , but Tintin deems it to be a trap , leaving Haddock and Calculus to go alone . Once there , the Captain and Professor are taken to a rural villa , where they are closely monitored by the security services .
Tintin joins his friends a few days later , where he points out to Haddock and Calculus that their villa is bugged . He recognises one of the staff as Pablo , a man who had saved his life in The Broken Ear . From Pablo , Tintin learns that the entire scenario is a plot organised by Colonel Sponsz , a figure in the Bordurian military who is assisting Tapioca 's government in order to gain revenge against Tintin for the events of The Calculus Affair .
With Pablo 's assistance , Tintin , Snowy , Haddock , and Calculus escape from their guards and seek refuge with General Alcazar and his small band of anti @-@ Tapioca guerrillas , the Picaros , who are hiding in the San Theodoran jungle . After realising that Pablo is a double agent working for Tapioca , they escape an attempt on their lives and then shelter for a time with the Arumbaya , an indigenous community who live within the forest . Here , Tintin is reunited with his old acquaintance , the explorer Ridgewell , who is living with the Arumbaya . Leaving the Arumbaya settlement , they eventually arrive at the Picaros ' encampment , where they meet Alcazar 's wife , Peggy .
Alcazar realises that the Picaros will not be able to launch a successful coup against Tapioca while they remain drunkards ( owing to frequent parachute drops of whisky from Tapioca 's forces ) , and to combat this problem Calculus provides them with tablets which render the taste of alcohol disgusting ( and which he has been secretly testing on Haddock , Tintin , Ridgewell and the Arumbayas in the course of the story ) . Soon afterward , Jolyon Wagg and his troupe of carnival performers , the " Jolly Follies " , arrive at the camp , having lost their way to Tapiocapolis where they mean to take part in the carnival . At Tintin 's suggestion , the Picaros disguise themselves in the Follies ' costumes and enter Tapiocapolis during the carnival . There , they storm the presidential palace and seize control ; Alcazar becomes president , with Tapioca and Sponsz being banished from the country and sent back to Borduria . Thomson and Thompson are rescued from a firing squad while Castafiore and her assistants are released from prison .
In the final panel of the book , as Tintin , Haddock and Calculus 's flight back home departs from the newly named Alcazaropolis , it flies over a slum that was seen earlier when they flew into the country . In a stroke of political commentary , the upheaval of the government has caused virtually no change to the slum or the lives of its inhabitants .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Hergé began Tintin and the Picaros eight years after completing his previous Adventure of Tintin , Flight 714 . It would prove to be the only book that he completed during the final fifteen years of his life . He decided to develop the story around a group of Latin American revolutionaries , having had this idea since the early 1960s , prior to embarking on The Castafiore Emerald . In particular , he had been inspired by the activities of Fidel Castro 's 26th of July Movement when they were launching a guerrilla war from the Sierra Maestra during the Cuban Revolution against President Fulgencio Batista . Specifically , Hergé was interested in Castro 's statement that he would not cut his beard until the revolution had succeeded . Adopting this idea of the revolutionaries ' facial hair , he initially planned to refer to Alcazar 's group as the Bigotudos , a reference to the Spanish word bigotudos , meaning " moustached " . As such , the story 's initial working title was Tintin et los Bigotudos , before Hergé later settled on Tintin et les Picaros .
Hergé 's depiction of a band of Latin American revolutionaries was also influenced by the French leftist activist Régis Debray 's accounts of his time spent fighting in the Bolivian Andes alongside the Argentine Marxist – Leninist revolutionary Che Guevara . Hergé 's depiction of Bordurian support for Tapioca 's government was a reference to the Soviet Union 's support for various Latin American regimes , most notably that of Castro 's Cuba , with San Theodoros being depicted as having been governed under the ideological system of Borduria 's political leader , Kurvi @-@ Tasch . Similarly , Hergé included a reference to Alcazar being backed by the International Banana Company in order to reflect the influence of Western multinational corporations in Latin America .
Hergé 's depiction of the city of Tapiocapolis was visually based on the city of Belo Horizonte in Brazil . His depiction of a public sculpture in the city was inspired by the work of sculptor Marcel Arnould , while the paintings that he designed for the Tapiocapolis hotel in which Tintin and Haddock stay are based on the work of Serge Poliakoff .
Hergé incorporated many characters from previous Adventures into Tintin and the Picaros ; these include Pablo , Ridgewell , and the Arumbaya tribe from The Broken Ear , as well as Colonel Sponz from The Calculus Affair . The character of General Tapioca , who had been mentioned in previous Adventures but never depicted , was also introduced . Hergé also introduced a new character , Peggy Alcazar , whom he had based upon the American secretary to a Ku Klux Klan spokesman whom Hergé observed in a television documentary . In his preparatory notes for the story , Hergé had considered introducing Peggy as the daughter of arms dealer Basil Bazaroff – the satirical depiction of the old times real @-@ life arms dealer Basil Zaharoff , who had appeared in The Broken Ear . He also introduced the Jolly Follies into the story , a group who were based on three separate touring party groups that Hergé had encountered . He had initially considered a number of alternative names for the troupe , including the Turlupins , Turlurans , and Boutentrins .
For this Adventure , Hergé decided to update his depiction of Tintin 's clothes , having been influenced in doing so by the depiction of the character in the 1969 animated film Tintin and the Temple of the Sun . As such , in Tintin in the Picaros , the young reporter is depicted wearing a motorcycle helmet emblazoned with a CND symbol , while he also wears new flared brown trousers rather than the plus @-@ fours that he had worn in previous instalments . Later commenting on the inclusion of the CND peace symbol , Hergé stated that for Tintin , " That 's normal . Tintin is a pacifist , he was always anti @-@ war . " Hergé also changed the behaviour of several characters within the story , for instance by depicting Tintin practising yoga and Nestor the butler both eavesdropping and drinking Haddock 's whisky . Another new development that Hergé added to the story was through revealing that Haddock 's first name is Archibald for the first time .
Hergé 's depiction of the San Theodoran carnival was drawn largely from images of the Nice Carnival . Among the revelers , he included those dressed in the costumes of various different cartoon and film characters , such as Mickey Mouse , Donald Duck , Asterix , Snoopy , Groucho Marx , and Zorro . Hergé also included a band known as the Coconuts into the carnival scene ; these were not developed by Hergé himself but were rather the creations of his friend and colleague Bob de Moor , who had devised them for his own comic series , Barelli . The street that they were marching down , Calle 22 de Mayo , was named after Hergé 's own birthday , 22 May .
= = = Publication = = =
Tintin et les Picaros began serialisation in both Belgium and France in Tintin @-@ l 'Hebdoptmiste magazine in September 1975 . It was then published in a collected volume by Casterman in 1976 . For this publication , a page was removed from the story so that it would fit the standard 62 @-@ page book format . The page in question was located between pages 22 and 23 of the published book , and featured Sponz attempting to smash a glass , but accidentally breaking a statue of Bordurian political leader Kurvi @-@ Tasch instead . A launch party was held at the Hilton Hotel in Brussels .
Upon publication , it proved a commercial success with one and a half million copies soon sold . It was nevertheless critically panned at the time . Various contemporary critics condemned what they deemed to be the political apathy of the story ; as they pointed out , Hergé 's depiction of regime change in San Theodores does not bring about any improvement for the nation 's populace , with the critics from Belgium 's Hebdo 76 and France 's Révolution thereby characterising it as a reactionary work . On this front , Tintin in the Picaros was defended by the French philosopher Michel Serres , who stated that " The criticism that has been leveled at Picaros is astonishing . There is no talk of revolution ; the people are in the favelas , and they stay there . It is only a government overthrow . A general , aided by several assassins , takes the place of a general protected by his own bodyguards . This is why it is only repetition ; it is just a movement reduced to this . And that is the chloroform ; it is what we see everywhere . You can give as many modern examples of the Alcazar @-@ Tapioca rivalry , or of double identities , as you want . " In June 1977 , Hergé travelled to Britain for Methuen 's launch of the story 's English translation , where he spent two weeks giving interviews and attending book signings .
= = Critical analysis = =
Harry Thompson felt that Hergé 's use of various characters from earlier stories lent Tintin and the Picaros " the air of a finale " . Hergé biographer Benoît Peeters felt that in this story , the characters were " more passive than in the earlier adventures , submitting to events more than setting them off " , with this being particularly evident for the character of Tintin . Michael Farr stated that " Tintin has changed " , as is evidenced by the change in his clothing , however he felt that " such image modernising only succeeds in dating the adventure " , adding that " to alter Tintin 's appearance at the end of his career was not only superfluous but a mistake " . Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier stated that in this story , Alcazar was " a deflated version of what he used to be " , noting that by the end of the story he had become " a prisoner in his own palace . A sad , yet somehow appropriate , ending . " Farr suggested that the changes to the characters represented " an element of dismantling of the characters and their traits " , something that he believed had also been present in the previous two adventures , Flight 714 and The Castafiore Emerald . In his psychoanalytical study of The Adventures of Tintin , the literary critic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès expressed the view that , as with The Red Sea Sharks , Tintin and the Picaros served as " a kind of retrospective " due to the return of various characters . He also suggested that the carnival revelers in San Theodores evoked the figures from the previous stories : " Scots , Africans , Chinese , Indians , cowboys , bullfighters , and , of course , the inevitable parrot " . The Lofficiers saw the adventure as a partial sequel to The Broken Ear , which was also set in San Theodoros and which contained many of the same characters .
Thompson considered Tintin and the Picaros to be " Hergé 's most overtly political book for many years " but felt that , unlike Hergé 's earlier political works , " no campaigning element " is present . Peeters agreed , noting that Tintin in the Picaros is " a far cry from the denunciation of a political system found in Tintin in the Land of the Soviets , and also from the almost militantly anti @-@ Japanese tone of The Blue Lotus . " He thought that in this story , " a sense of disillusionment has taken over " , for it is " quite clear that [ Alcazar 's seizure of power ] is no real revolution but a palace coup " . Farr noted that this story showed that " the idealist of 1930s is by 1970s a realist " , in that while " totalitarianism ... and the manipulation of the multinational concerns ... are still condemned ... Tintin accepts he can do little to change them " .
The Lofficiers were ultimately highly critical of Tintin and the Picaros , awarding it two out of five , and describing it as " just sad " . Specifically , they felt that the " undefinable magic of the Hergé line " was " sometimes missing " from the story , believing that this had been caused by too much of the work having been turned over to his assistants in the Studios Hergé . Further , they felt that the " characters seem tired : Tintin is totally reactive — even on the book cover , it is Haddock who takes the lead . " Thompson echoed similar views , believing that " life has not been breathed into the characters as normal " and that there was " something indefinable absent " from the drawings , " enjoyment , perhaps " . He added that while it contained " many fine vignettes " , " over all it is a lacklustre story , missing the sparkle of a genuine Tintin adventure " . Peeters thought that " the comedy here seems mechanical " and " neither the characters , nor the plot , nor the drawings ring true " .
The literary critic Tom McCarthy believed that Tintin and the Picaros reflected a number of themes found throughout The Adventures of Tintin . For instance , he believed that the theme of eavesdropping was exhibited in the scene in which Nestor the butler listens in on Tintin and Haddock 's argument . He also expressed the view that Tintin , Haddock , and Calculus ' imprisonment in their Los Dopicos hotel reflected the " uneasy host @-@ guest relationship " theme .
McCarthy believed that the inclusion of the CND symbol on Tintin 's motorcycle helmet at the start of the story was a sign that Hergé 's left @-@ wing tendency had won out over the right @-@ wing perspectives which dominated his early work . He also placed emphasis on the fact that no executions were held during Alcazar 's revolution , adding that " its blood ... will fail it : it will be anaemic " , thus being a reference to Hergé 's anaemia . Further , he suggested that the loss of the ability to drink alcohol served as a symbolic castration .
Apostolidès expressed the view that many of the characters in Tintin and the Picaros could be divided into pairs . He considered Calculus and Alcazar to be one such pair , noting that they are " both masters of power and control , the former in science and the latter in politics " . He also placed Castafiore and Peggy together as a pair , noting that they each embody " love , both maternal and romantic " . Haddock and Wagg were also paired together , both being " driven to succeed , but the former is happy with playing out his success in private lie , whereas the latter tries to aggrandize himself everywhere " . Finally , he paired together Ridgewell and Tintin , noting that while in The Broken Ear they had a father @-@ son style relationship , at this point they have become equals .
= = Adaptations = =
In 1991 , a collaboration between the French studio Ellipse and the Canadian animation company Nelvana adapted 21 of the stories into a series of episodes , each 42 minutes long . Tintin and the Picaros was one of the stories included in the television series . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , the series has been praised for being " generally faithful " , with compositions having been actually directly taken from the panels in the original comic book .
= Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) =
" Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna from her fifth studio album Loud ( 2010 ) . It features guest vocals from American rapper Eminem , who wrote the song alongside Skylar Grey and the producer Alex da Kid . It is the sequel to the 2010 hit single " Love the Way You Lie " , which appears on Eminem 's seventh studio album Recovery . It received positive reviews from critics and was performed for at the American Music Awards of 2010 on November 21 , 2010 , as part of a medley with " What 's My Name ? " and " Only Girl ( In the World ) " .
= = Background = =
Following the release and commercial success of " Love the Way You Lie " in 2010 , Eminem wanted to record an alternative version with Rihanna as the lead vocalist , viewing aspects of a relationship from a female perspective , unlike the original , which featured Eminem as lead vocalist and was from a male perspective . In an interview for MTV , Rihanna initially stated she was against recording a sequel : " When I first heard the idea about doing a part two , I was just completely against it . I just felt like you couldn 't beat the ' original ' . There 's no way you can outdo that , so why compete with it ? " . She said when she first heard the original demo of the song in the studio with Eminem , sung by American singer @-@ songwriter Skylar Grey , her reservations about recording it went away . While the demo was only accompanied by a piano , Rihanna and her team added drums and later vocals from Eminem .
" Love the Way You Lie " and " Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " were based on a demo written and recorded in late 2009 by Grey . Grey told PopEater " I wrote the demo initially for myself because I thought , ‘ Oh , I have this big song , and now I have a little bit of a launching pad to put out my own stuff . " Grey continued to discuss how the song was ultimately included on Loud , saying " As soon as Rihanna and her team heard my demo , they were like , ‘ Oh we want it for Rihanna ’ s album , ’ so I had to make the decision if I was going to let them have it or not . But I did and so it was on Rihanna ’ s album , too . " The demo track by Grey is on her extended play The Buried Sessions of Skylar Grey , which was released on January 17 , 2012 .
= = Composition = =
The piano and drums version , which features Eminem , appears as the final song on the standard edition of Loud , while the piano version , which excludes Eminem 's part in the song , appears as a bonus track on the iTunes edition of Loud . " Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " is a mid @-@ tempo song , which incorporates the musical genres of hip hop and R & B. According to sheet music published at Musicnotes , the song is written in common time with a moderate tempo of 89 beats per minute and is written in the key of G minor . Rihanna 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of F3 to the high note of D5 . Emily Mackay of NME commented about the vocals provided by Rihanna and Eminem in the song , stating that " There ’ s great contrast in Part II of ‘ Love The Way You Lie ’ . With the balance of vocals neatly flipped and extra cavernous beats ramping up the drama , it wallows ever @-@ deeper in the tortured relationship sketched out in Part I. Eminem at points is practically screaming with rage , and sounding , frankly , mental . The contrast with Rihanna ’ s smoothly pitched pain ( “ Maybe I ’ m a masochist / Try to run but I don ’ t wanna never leave ” ) is delicious . "
= = Critical reception = =
Jon Pareles of The New York Times said that “ Loud works the pop gizmos as neatly as any album this year , maintaining the Rihanna brand . But the album has a hermetic , cool calculation until it gets to ' Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) , ' her take on the tortured hit she shared with Eminem . ' It ’ s sick that all these battles are what keeps me satisfied , ' she sings . A lone piano humanizes her first vocals , and she rides the ascending power ballad to a pained resolve ; then Eminem delivers new verses in a spiraling rage . It ’ s purely theatrical , but it ’ s also , for a moment , raw . Christopher Richards of The Washington Post said that " With ' Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) , ' the maniac @-@ mouthed rapper is limited to just one verse , giving Rihanna the space to take ownership of the proceedings . Will the real Rihanna please stand up ? She does -- and she sounds as remote as ever . " James Skinner of BBC Online viewed ' Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) ' as being even better than the original . He said , " Eminem ’ s verse exuding the kind of volatile , simmering menace that got everyone so excited about him in the first place . But it is Rihanna ’ s vocal – at once commanding , soulful and vulnerable – that anchors the song , and Loud itself , elevating it from a hit @-@ and @-@ miss collection into something oddly arresting . "
Steve Jones of USA Today gave a mixed review of the collaboration , commenting , " Eminem puts in a cameo on ' Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) ' , which extends , but doesn 't really add , to their earlier hit about a tortured relationship from his Recovery album . " Chicago Sun @-@ Times writer Thomas Conner gave a negative review of the song , stating , " She collaborated with Eminem this summer on the controversial ' " Love the Way You Lie " ' , a song and hotly debated video conflating wild passion with crazed assault . She returns to this on " Loud " with " Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " , an extension of the melody and the arson metaphor , in which Eminem reappears with more histrionic rapping about hating her , loving her , hitting her and hugging her . It 's an unnecessary sequel that further muddies the issue : Is this a social statement , or merely an artistic expression about some truly troubled and confused people . "
= = Chart performance = =
Both the original and the piano version of " Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " were not made available to purchase individually in the majority of iTunes stores , and could only be bought along with the iTunes edition of the album . However , the song may be purchased separately as part of the album INdependent omen Volume II . It debuted on Canadian Hot 100 for the week of December 4 , 2010 , at number 19 and stayed on the chart for eight weeks . In South Korea , it peaked at number four on the International Chart . The song also debuted and peaked at number 160 on the UK Singles Chart due to strong digital sales upon the release of Loud .
= = Live performances = =
Rihanna performed a shortened version of the song as part of a medley with " What 's My Name ? " and " Only Girl ( In the World ) " at the American Music Awards of 2010 on November 21 , 2010 . Rihanna opened the performance singing an acappella version of " Love The Way You Lie ( Part II ) " . She was sitting on a stylized tree hovering above a field of sable @-@ colored blades of grass . Once she had finished the first frame of the song , she plummeted from the tree to the ground . She reemerged from the fog revealing a changed costume now consisting of a black @-@ and @-@ white bra top and shorts singing " What 's My Name ? " . The performance featured an accompaniment of background dancers . Rihanna then ended the performance after transitioning into " Only Girl " , which featured drummers and a background of fire for the finale .
Rihanna and Eminem performed the song together for the first time at the 53rd Grammy Awards on February 13 , 2011 as part of a medley with " I Need a Doctor " performed by Eminem , Dr. Dre , Skylar Grey and Adam Levine from Maroon 5 , who provided background vocals . The performance started with Rihanna singing on a B @-@ stage in the middle of the audience , accompanied by Adam Levine on the keys . Eminem then appeared on the main stage to perform his part of the song , whilst Rihanna made her way from the B @-@ stage to join him . The song then transitioned into " I Need a Doctor " , where Dr. Dre emerged to join up with Skylar Grey for her debut performance . The song is also included in the encore section of Rihanna 's Loud Tour , along with " Umbrella " . Rihanna performed " Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " at Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend on May 24 , 2012 , as the eighth song on the set list .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Personnel adapted from the liner notes of Loud .
= = Charts = =
= M @-@ 60 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 60 is an east – west state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . It runs from the Niles area at a junction with US Highway 12 ( US 12 ) to the Jackson area where it ends at Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) . The trunkline passes through a mix of farm fields and woodlands , crosses or runs along several rivers and connects several small towns of the southern area of the state . The westernmost segment runs along divided highway while the easternmost section is a full freeway bypass of Jackson .
M @-@ 60 was originally designed in 1919 with the rest of the state highway system in Michigan . It ran roughly along its current route connecting downtown Niles to downtown Jackson . In the mid @-@ 1920s , the western end was extended to New Buffalo ; since then several bypasses of the smaller towns along the highway were added . One of these bypasses resulted in the creation of an alternate route ( Alternate M @-@ 60 , Alt . M @-@ 60 ) through Concord ; that route has since been decommissioned . When Niles was bypassed in the 1950s , a business loop ( Business M @-@ 60 , Bus . M @-@ 60 ) was created through town . After the western end was truncated to its current location , that business loop was converted to a business spur | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
by directors who were all new to Doctor Who . Filming started in late July 2009 and lasted for approximately nine months and was filmed mostly in Wales with the exception of " The Vampires of Venice " and " Vincent and the Doctor " , which had scenes filmed abroad in Trogir , Croatia . There were design changes from the previous series including a new logo , title sequence , variation of the theme music , interior and exterior of the TARDIS , and version of the Doctor 's sonic screwdriver .
The series premiere was watched by 10 @.@ 085 million viewers , the highest watched premiere since " Rose " of the first series , and also broke records on BBC America in the United States and BBC 's online iPlayer . Though overnight ratings had declined compared to other series , one writer calculated that viewership had not changed significantly when time @-@ shifted ratings were taken into account . The series received generally positive reviews , with praise going to Moffat 's story arc as well as the acting of Smith , Gillan and Darvill . However , many reviewers noted that Amy lacked character development and the series did not contain as much heart and emotion as previously in the show . The series gained many awards and nominations ; " Vincent and the Doctor " and the two @-@ part finale were both nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation ( Short Form ) with the award going to the latter . Smith also became the first actor portraying the Doctor to be nominated for a BAFTA award , though he did not win . The series was accompanied with a soundtrack as well as tie @-@ in books and video games ; four of the latter were released episodically on the BBC 's website and advertised as additional episodes of the series .
= = Episodes = =
" The Eleventh Hour " , at 65 minutes , was the longest opening episode to date since the return of the series in 2005 .
The two part story " The Hungry Earth " / " Cold Blood " saw the return of the Silurians for the first time since Warriors of the Deep in 1984 .
= = = Supplemental episodes = = =
Two additional scenes were specially filmed for " The Complete Fifth Series " boxset which reveal what occurred between selected regular episodes . The first installment is set between " The Eleventh Hour " and " The Beast Below " , while the second is set between " Flesh and Stone " and " The Vampires of Venice " .
= = Casting = =
The series introduced a new incarnation of the Doctor , the Eleventh , played by Matt Smith . This followed the departure of David Tennant as the Tenth Doctor , who left the role to help ease the transition from Davies to Moffat 's showrunning . Smith 's agent had called him and suggested that he try out for the role . Moffat was looking to cast a middle @-@ aged actor , who was " young enough to run but old enough to look wise " . However , Smith , who was only 26 when cast , was the third person to audition and the production team knew " [ they ] had their man " . The producers were cautious about casting Smith because they felt that a 26 @-@ year @-@ old actor could not play the Doctor adequately ; BBC Head of Drama and executive producer Piers Wenger shared the sentiment , but noted that Smith was capable enough to play the role . Moffat also stated that Smith did not appear to be youthful at all . Smith 's casting in the role was revealed during an episode of Doctor Who 's companion show Doctor Who Confidential , during which he described the role as " a wonderful privilege and challenge that I hope I will thrive on " .
Karen Gillan was cast as Amy Pond , the Doctor 's companion . Andy Pryor , the casting director , suggested Gillan to Moffat after her performance in the fourth series episode " The Fires of Pompeii " , in which she played a soothsayer , but Moffat originally thought she was " short and dumpy " . Later , however , he stated that she was " exactly right for the role " though she portrayed the character differently from how he originally wrote . Gillan auditioned for the role in both her natural Scottish accent and an English one , and it was not until after she was cast that it was decided Amy would be Scottish . Gillan commented that she felt the Scottish accent better suited the character . For the first and last episodes , a young version of Amy , known as " Amelia " , was played by Gillan 's real @-@ life 10 @-@ year @-@ old cousin Caitlin Blackwood . Though the two actresses had not met until the set of the show , Gillan recommended Blackwood for the role , although Blackwood still had to undergo rigorous auditions first . Blackwood and Gillan did get to act together in " The Big Bang " , which Gillan initially found " weird " , though the two actresses became used to it quickly .
Alex Kingston , who played the character River Song in the fourth series episodes " Silence in the Library " and " Forest of the Dead " , reprised her role in the two @-@ part stories " The Time of Angels " / " Flesh and Stone " and " The Pandorica Opens " / " The Big Bang " . Kingston did not expect the return , but Moffat always intended for River to return to the series . Arthur Darvill appeared in seven episodes as Rory Williams , Amy Pond 's fiancé , and was also a companion in six of those episodes . Darvill had previously worked with Smith on a play entitled Swimming with Sharks . For his audition , Darvill received two scenes from the first episode and one from the sixth , but beyond the fact Rory was Amy 's boyfriend he was not informed of details of the character . Moffat stated that what stood out about Darvill 's audition was " just how funny " he was . Darvill felt " privileged " to be part of the show , and was pleased with Rory 's storyline .
Notable guest stars included James Corden , Annette Crosbie , Tony Curran , Iain Glen , Daisy Haggard , Terrence Hardiman , Toby Jones , Helen McCrory , Neve McIntosh , Ian McNeice , Stephen Moore , Bill Nighy , Sophie Okonedo , Bill Paterson , Meera Syal , and Nina Wadia .
= = = Costumes = = =
During the first episode , the Eleventh Doctor still wears his previous incarnation 's costume , but costume designer Ray Holman stated that the costume was broken down and distressed . Over the course of the first episode , he would find his own identity and pick out his defining costume . Smith tried on a wide variety of things to find a look he would feel comfortable and confident in and would identify his Doctor . Smith brought in braces and a tweed jacket ; Holman believed that the tweed jacket was " a bit old for him " but showed that he was a " professor and student at the same time " and gave him " that quality that the Doctor 's still learning , but also has some authority " . Smith suggested a bow tie , which Holman and others did not approve of , but once he had put it on they decided they had the costume . Smith stated he was inspired by the Second Doctor 's costume after watching The Tomb of the Cybermen . Other influences included the " element of a professor " and " big , dusty boots like Indiana Jones " . The men 's clothing store Topman reported that their bow tie sales had risen 94 % for the month of April 2010 , connected to when the series began airing .
Gillan had substantial input into Amy 's costume , as well as her hair and make @-@ up . In the first episode , Holman stated that Amy 's identity was not clear and she wore her own clothes later on . Gillan thought that Amy had inner confidence to wear clothes that showed " a bit of skin from time to time " . She tried on many things , but when it came to short skirts she " just thought it was right " and showed that Amy was " comfortable and confident about her look " . She believed that the skirts reflected what young women typically wear at her age . Executive producer Piers Wenger also noted that Amy 's 1970s flying jacket , which she wears " quite a lot " , reflected Gillan was a " born adventurer " and Amy developed a love for travel and adventure .
= = Production = =
= = = Crew and series numbering = = =
Doctor Who was renewed for a fifth series in September 2007 . Russell T Davies was succeeded by Steven Moffat as executive producer and head writer , and Julie Gardner was replaced as executive producer by Piers Wenger , who had previously replaced Gardner as Head of Drama for BBC Wales . Beth Willis also serves as an executive producer , and the series is produced by Tracie Simpson and Peter Bennett . However , Murray Gold stayed on as composer for the new series .
When Doctor Who was relaunched in 2005 , the new series was marketed as series 1 , although it had been on BBC television for 26 years from 1963 to 1989 . When this series was confirmed by the BBC in September 2007 , it was referred to as " series 5 " , following on from series 4 in 2008 . In August 2009 Doctor Who Magazine announced that this series was to be produced and marketed as " Series One " . The January 2010 edition featured an interview with Moffat , in which he called Series One " exciting " , Series Thirty @-@ One " awe @-@ inspiring " and Series Five " boring and a lie " . In the same issue , he jokingly referred to the season as " series Fnarg " , an ongoing joke in subsequent issues . The March edition , referring to it as Series Thirty @-@ One , confirmed production codes in the range 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 13 . However , BBC Programme listings , the BBC iPlayer and DVDs refer to it as " Series 5 " .
= = = Writing = = =
With the changes to the show , Moffat wanted to reassure the audience that " nothing has really been lost " and it was the same show and the same character of the Doctor . The story arc of the cracks in the universe was inspired by a crack in the wall of Moffat 's son 's bedroom . Moffat wanted to make sure the show appealed to even young children ; if they could not follow the plot , there would be " big pictures " to entertain them . Moffat believed that Doctor Who was fundamentally for children but it was something everybody loved , comparing it to Star Wars and Toy Story . He considered the " most popular form of entertainment " to be a children 's story . Of the series , he said they " pushed the fairytale side of it " as Doctor Who " now has to be the most fantastical of the fantasy shows " to be more vibrant and " bonkers " than any other fantastical show .
In an interview in 2013 , Moffat stated that he had worked out a rough idea for how his first series as the showrunner would work in the event that David Tennant had decided to stay in the show as the Tenth Doctor ; this would have entailed a similar premise to the beginning of " The Eleventh Hour " as broadcast ;
Moffat wrote six episodes for the series . The rest were penned by guest writers , as Moffat believed that Doctor Who benefited from different voices . However , he stated that the concepts of the episodes were mostly supplied by him , as he had a " pretty good idea " of what would happen in each episode slot . Moffat knew all of the guest writers " to some degree " and called meeting with them " quite joyous " . However , Matthew Graham , co @-@ creator of Life on Mars and writer of the second series episode " Fear Her " , was not able to write an episode as he was slated to because he did not believe he would have enough time . Moffat later contacted him and asked him to write a two @-@ part episode for the next series , which became " The Rebel Flesh " / " The Almost People " .
With the first episode , Moffat intended to introduce the Eleventh Doctor and have him establish his new identity while the second was intended to show the Doctor 's need for a companion and Amy 's importance to him . For the third episode , he asked Mark Gatiss to write an episode concerning " Churchill versus the Daleks " . Moffat wanted to incorporate the popular Daleks into the new series and was also considering redesigning them . Gatiss and Moffat as well as the production team worked together to create Daleks that were big and more colourful , similar to the Daleks found in the films of the 60s .
For the fourth and fifth episode , Moffat planned a two @-@ part sequel to his 2007 episode " Blink " , which featured the Weeping Angels . These two episodes , " The Time of Angels " and " Flesh and Stone " , were intended to be a more action @-@ oriented than " Blink " , and also showed the Angels had a plan rather than scavenging . He also decided to flesh out the Angels as villains themselves and show more of what they can do . " Flesh and Stone " ends with Amy attempting to seduce the Doctor ; Moffat believed this was consistent with the character that had been built up from the first episode .
Toby Whithouse originally planned to write a different episode , but Moffat and Wenger thought it was too similar to other episodes in the series and Whithouse wrote " The Vampires of Venice " instead , while his original episode was pushed to the next series . Whithouse was asked to write " a big bold romantic episode " that would be a " good jumping off point " for new viewers to Doctor Who . Moffat figured that in the middle of the series a viewer could " start watching it again " and that it should be " something romantic and funny " . For the next episode , Moffat asked comedy writer Simon Nye to write a story that challenged the relationship between Amy and the Doctor . The episode , titled " Amy 's Choice " , was intended to be Amy 's decision between excitement with the Doctor or life with Rory . The scene in which Rory dies in the false reality was intended to be when Amy realised her feelings for him . Nye wanted to stress that Amy really did love Rory and he was not " just a cypher boyfriend or fiancé " .
Moffat contacted Chris Chibnall to write a two @-@ part episode involving the Silurians , villains who had not appeared in the show for over 25 years . As the Silurians were not as well known as other monsters , Moffat instructed Chibnall to reintroduce them . The Silurians featured were intended to be a different branch than those previously seen and bore a different design , which used expensive facial prosthetics and eliminated their third eye . Richard Curtis , who had previously worked with Moffat in the 1999 Comic Relief special Doctor Who and the Curse of Fatal Death , was contacted by Moffat to return the favour and write an episode , which became " Vincent and the Doctor " . Curtis had the idea of an episode about van Gogh for " a long while " and was interested in the fact that van Gogh never knew he was famous . Gillan noted that there was a different approach and style to the episode , and it was more character @-@ driven .
Neil Gaiman had written an episode , but it was pushed to the next series due to budget constraints and was replaced with " The Lodger " instead . " The Lodger " was adapted from a comic strip of the same name writer Gareth Roberts had done for Doctor Who Magazine , although he said most of it started " from scratch " The story was inspired by wishing to see the Doctor in normal , every @-@ day human circumstances , as well as Roberts ' enjoyment of stories set on Earth rather than in space . Roberts was interested in doing a television version of the story , but he never mentioned it . However , Moffat was a fan of the comic story and immediately asked to adapt it into an episode when he became showrunner .
Aspects of the finale came to Moffat as he was planning the story arc for the series , though he left room to improvise as the story developed . " The Big Bang " ends with the wedding of Amy and Rory . Moffat stated that he had always intended for them to get married " from the off " . The finale also left many questions that would be answered with the next series , concerning the identity of River Song and " The Silence " which appeared to cause the TARDIS to explode .
= = = Design changes = = =
The series introduced a new logo , which was announced in October 2009 . According to the BBC , it is the eleventh version of the logo to front the show . Moffat stated that the insignia of " DW " in the shape of the TARDIS was " something really new " . The logo was incorporated in a new title sequence , which was not revealed to an audience outside of the BBC until first transmission of " The Eleventh Hour " ; prior press screenings and previews had used a variation of the previous sequence . Moffat wanted a new version of the theme tune , and composer Murray Gold wanted it to " sound a bit reckless " . The new variation , composed by Gold , incorporated a new melody played by electronic trumpets and a faster tempo . The new theme angered some fans , with the BBC receiving 70 complaints as of 18 April 2010 . In response , a Doctor Who spokesman stated ,
" The arranger has made alterations to the music four times since 2005 , so change is nothing new . It is important for the regeneration of the show to keep revisiting the score while always retaining the haunting and ground @-@ breaking essence of the original . "
A new TARDIS prop was used , featuring the St John Ambulance logo that had been used in the early days of the show as well as in the Peter Cushing films of the early 60s , of which Moffat was a fan . Moffat said it was one thing he " really wanted to do " and it was for " no other reason than that [ he ] thought it was prettier " and he wanted the St. John Ambulance sticker on the front . It is also a brighter blue like Cushing 's TARDIS .
A new set of the interior of the TARDIS was also designed , which Moffat estimated was three times bigger than the previous set . Moffat did not decide to create the new interior specifically for the new Doctor , but the brief to the set designer was to create a design that would suit Smith 's Doctor . Though he loved the old set , Moffat thought it was time for a new one to " surprise people " , and believed that the spirit of a new era was to change everything . Piers Wenger said that it took " quite a long time to get the design right " and they were careful not to make it too futuristic @-@ looking , as " futuristic " meant nothing to the Doctor . The set was designed by Edward Thomas . The previous TARDIS interior was shown at the beginning of " The Eleventh Hour " ; the Time Rotor on console had to be rebuilt due to the explosion special effects that were used in The End of Time . In " The Eleventh Hour " , the sonic screwdriver is destroyed , and a new version , featuring a green light and metal claws , was created . Smith liked to keep the prop with him at all times " twirling it around and flicking it " which resulted in him breaking four of them . The noise made by the screwdriver was added in post @-@ production using a synthesizer . Moffat described the changes as starting with a " clean slate " which made sense after the previous cast and crew had left .
= = = Filming = = =
All of the directors of the series were new to Doctor Who . Moffat commented that he wanted to " shake things up " and it was " never too early to get rid of the safety net . " Adam Smith directed the first episode as well as the fourth and fifth . Andrew Gunn , Ashley Way , Jonny Campbell , Toby Haynes , and Catherine Morshead each directed two episodes .
Filming of the series lasted approximately nine months . Production blocks were arranged as follows :
When rehearsing episodes four and five , the first episodes to be produced , director Adam Smith suggested that Smith and Gillan " have an adventure " where they could experience something exciting and laugh and scream . He took them to a " real white knuckle ride " on a boat in Cardiff Bay . Filming began on 20 July 2009 on Southerndown beach , Vale of Glamorgan in scenes for " The Time of Angels " and " Flesh and Stone " . Moffat wrote that typically with television the first day of filming " will probably be something fairly inconsequential and involve a minor character getting shot , or a close up of a hand or something " which differed from the " iconic " scene involving the Doctor , Amy , River Song and the TARDIS . Forest scenes in " Flesh and Stone " were filmed at Puzzlewood in the Forest of Dean over nine nights in July 2009 .
Episodes two and three made up the second production block . Scenes in " The Beast Below " were filmed in an orangery at Margam Country Park , Port Talbot during a night shoot on 22 September 2009 . Half of a scene in " The Pandorica Opens " featuring Liz 10 ( Sophie Okonedo ) from " The Beast Below " was filmed there as well . Scenes for Amy and Rory 's town of Leadworth in the first episode , " The Eleventh Hour " , were filmed in the village of Llandaff in Cardiff over various dates in the autumn of 2009 : 29 September , 5 – 7 October , and 20 November .
The fourth production block , consisting of " The Hungry Earth " and " Cold Blood " , was filmed in October and November 2009 with location filming done in Llanwynno , Wales . Scenes for " Cold Blood " were also filmed at the Plantasia botanical garden in Swansea on 13 November 2009 as well as in Cardiff 's Temple of Peace and other locations and unusual sets for the Silurian city . " The Vampires of Venice " and " Vincent and the Doctor " were filmed mainly in the town of Trogir in Croatia , which was used as Venice and Paris respectively . However , a small crew did go to Venice to take wide shots of coastal buildings ; the episode was not filmed there because it would take too long to cover up the modern shops in present @-@ day Venice . Scenes in " The Vampires of Venice " were also filmed at Atlantic College , Caerphilly Castle , Castell Coch , the Town Hall of Trogir , and Llancaich Fawr Manor .
The grounds for the estate at Margam Country Park was then used for the placement of " Foamhenge " , a lightweight replica of Stonehenge for " The Pandorica Opens " . Several other scenes from " The Pandorica Opens " and " The Big Bang " were also filmed there during the first few days of February 2010 . The Pandorica chamber was filmed on set in the Upper Boat Studios , the largest set ever built there . Additional scenes in " The Big Bang " were filmed in Brangwyn Hall and Miskin Manor . " Amy 's Choice " was partially filmed in Skenfrith , Wales to represent " Upper Leadworth " .
= = Promotion = =
The first trailer for the fifth series was shown on television and released online shortly after the broadcast of the second part of The End of Time on 1 January 2010 . On 17 February , a new promotional image was released . A second teaser trailer was released on 20 February , a 3D version of which was shown in cinemas with Alice in Wonderland . Moffat officially confirmed the start date of 3 April on BBC Breakfast on 19 March . Also on 19 March , a trailer shown at the press screening of episode one was released online . BBC America , who would show the series in the United States , released an extended trailer on 21 March . Promotional touring for the series began on 29 March and ended the two days later , with Smith and Gillan presenting their first episode in Belfast , Inverness , Sunderland , Salford , and Northampton . Touring in New York City took place on 14 April , where the first episode was screened in the Paley Center for Media and the Village East Movie Theatre .
= = Broadcast = =
The fifth series of Doctor Who debuted on BBC One on 3 April 2010 with " The Eleventh Hour " , an extended 65 @-@ minute episode . It concluded with " The Big Bang " on 26 June . The sixth episode , " The Vampires of Venice " , was broadcast at 6 : 00 p.m. ( BST ) , the earliest start time for an episode of Doctor Who since its return in 2005 .
= = = International broadcast = = =
The series was shown in Australia on the ABC 's iview service , launching at midnight on 16 April 2010 before airing on ABC1 on 18 April 2010 . It began airing in the United States on 17 April 2010 on BBC America and in Canada on the same date on Space . This was the first airing of a full series of Doctor Who on BBC America first , with the first four series premiering on the Sci Fi Channel , with only reruns on BBC America . The gap between UK and US airing was also shortened considerably . In New Zealand , the series began airing on Prime from 2 May 2010 .
= = = DVD and Blu @-@ ray releases = = =
On 7 June 2010 , the first volume of Series 5 was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray format in Region 2 , containing the episodes " The Eleventh Hour " , " The Beast Below " and " Victory of the Daleks " . The second volume of the series was released on 5 July on DVD and Blu @-@ ray , containing the episodes " The Time of Angels " , " Flesh and Stone " and " The Vampires of Venice " . " Amy 's Choice " , " The Hungry Earth " , and " Cold Blood " followed on the third volume , which was released in DVD and Blu @-@ ray on 2 August 2010 . The fourth and final volume , containing " Vincent and the Doctor " , " The Lodger " , " The Pandorica Opens " and " The Big Bang " was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on 6 September .
A complete collection of the series ' episodes was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in Region 2 on 8 November 2010 . It was released in Region 1 the following day on 9 November . In Region 4 , the boxset was released on 2 December 2010 . The boxset contained the two " Meanwhile in the TARDIS " additional scenes , profiles of various enemies in " The Monster Files " , cut down versions of Doctor Who Confidential , out @-@ takes , in @-@ vision commentaries , video diaries , and trailers and promos for the series . The commentaries were a departure from the previous releases , as it only had six instead of a full thirteen .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Final consolidated viewing figures showed that the premiere , " The Eleventh Hour " , was watched by 10 @.@ 085 million viewers , the highest @-@ watched premiere since " Rose " and the eighth highest figure for an episode of Doctor Who since it was revived in 2005 . In the US , the first episode set a record for BBC America , with an average of 1 @.@ 2 million viewers and 0 @.@ 9 million in the adults aged 25 – 54 demographic . Within one week of broadcast , " The Eleventh Hour " received 1 @.@ 27 million hits on BBC 's online iPlayer service , the record for most requests in a week . It went on to become the most requested episode of 2010 with 2 @.@ 2 million views ; Doctor Who was also named the most watched programme of the year on the service .
" The Hungry Earth " received the lowest overnight ratings since the series had returned in 2005 with 4 @.@ 4 million viewers but in terms of final consolidated ratings , " The Lodger " received the lowest of the series . The episodes were also given an Appreciation Index , a measure of how much the audience enjoyed the programme . The BBC considers a score 85 or above " excellent " ; " Victory of the Daleks " and " Amy 's Choice " were the only ones to come below that , with 84 . " The Time of Angels " and " The Lodger " both scored 87 , which was subsequently beaten by " The Pandorica Opens " ( 88 ) . The finale , " The Big Bang " , scored 89 , the highest for the series and for the four main channels on the day it was broadcast .
Based on overnight ratings , the series was reported as averaging six million viewers , a drop of 1 @.@ 2 million from the previous series . However , managers at the BBC claimed that overall viewing numbers had not declined as more people watched it online or after recording it . Stephen Bray of Den of Geek decided to " put things straight " and figured that , with final ratings taken into account of the first eleven episodes of the series ( the final two ratings not having been released when the article was published ) , the series averaged 7 @.@ 8 million viewers , beating the average of all the episodes of the second series ( 7 @.@ 5 million ) , the third series ( 7 @.@ 7 million ) and the first eleven episodes of the fourth series ( 7 @.@ 7 million ) .
= = = Reviews = = =
Series 5 has received generally positive reviews from critics . Matt Wales of IGN gave the entire series a " great " rating of 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , saying that it " mightn 't have been perfect " but rebooted the show " with a burst of creative energy " and " got bold , exciting , witty , smart , home @-@ grown event television back on the small screen " . He praised Smith for " [ dazzling ] with a performance that painted the Doctor as thoroughly alien " and the " effortless " character development of the Doctor , but was more critical of the character of Amy Pond . He thought that she was " thoroughly watchable " with Gillan 's acting abilities and chemistry with Smith , but criticised the character for being " frequently painted in largely two @-@ dimensional strokes that made for a brash , sometimes irritating turn " and the series as a whole for lacking " heart to ground the elaborate sci @-@ fi trimmings " . Of the story , he praised Moffat 's " beautifully conceived " story arc and the complexities of the narrative .
Zap2it 's Sam McPherson gave the series an A and thought it was the show 's strongest series since its revival in 2005 . He praised Smith and Gillan , though he noted that Amy did not have much character development , and considered Darvill " might just be one of the best actors on television currently " . However , he noted that most of the episodes took place on Earth or spaceships , and wished to see the Doctor , Amy and Rory " branch out more in the future " . Dave Golder of SFX gave the series four out of five stars , noting that it looked " very promising " though " there was a tentative , slightly awkward feel to the series " , similar to the first series . He also labelled Smith as " magnificent " and Gillan as " lovely , although so far Amy 's character has been so dictated by the requirements of the arc plot that it 's difficult to feel that we 've really got to know her yet " .
In a review of the first six episodes , Dan Martin of The Guardian thought that they were strong and it was " generally funnier [ and ] appears to have rewritten the rule that said Doctor Who had to out @-@ epic itself every year " . However , he was critical of the lack of emotion that had previously inhibited the show , and did not yet empathise with Amy . When reviewing the first eleven episodes , Martin noted that the series had been put at a high expectation due to the quality of Moffat 's previous Doctor Who episodes , which may have caused disappointment to those who expected " dark , adult versions of Who every week " as Moffat took more of a fairy @-@ tale approach and his dialogue was " less soapy and more spiky " than that of Davies . Revisiting previous issues , he noted that there was less emotion but " when someone did die ... it ploughed heavy into the heart " and Amy was " a revelation " , though she sometimes " felt a little one @-@ note " .
Gem Wheeler of Den of Geek gave the series five out of five stars , particularly praising Smith 's Doctor . Wheeler noted that Amy " seemed a little underwritten at first , but the series finale helped to fill in the apparent gaps in her personality " and also praised Darvill . Slice of SciFi reviewer Michael Hickerson praised Moffat 's " fascinating " story arc which made the series seem more consistent , as it gave the audience answers as it went along and also explored its impact on the characters . He called it " the best season of the new series " though " there has yet to be a perfect season of the show . This one just comes closer than a lot of others " . However , Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph , while optimistic that it would " go from strength to strength next year " , called the series " something of a curate 's egg , and perhaps not quite as strong as previous years overall " . Radio Times 's Patrick Mulkern praised Moffat for " [ rebooting ] the series with an ambitious game @-@ plan , a delightful fairy @-@ tale vibe adults can enjoy too , and [ finding ] stars in Matt Smith , Karen Gillan and Arthur Darvill " . However , while he praised Moffat 's other episodes , he considered " The Beast Below " a " turkey " .
The A.V. Club ranked Doctor Who the 25th best show of 2010 , saying that it " lacked a truly weak episode " and highlighting " The Time of Angels " / " Flesh and Stone " , " Vincent and the Doctor " , and " The Lodger " as the best episodes . Digital Spy ranked the programme the third best of 2010 , commenting that it " gave us some terrific episodes — the beautifully tragic ' Vincent and the Doctor ' , the wonderfully @-@ paced opener and the well @-@ imagined finale ... but also the multi @-@ colored monstrosity ' Victory of the Daleks ' . Overall , a decent enough start for the new team , but with such a strong pedigree , we couldn 't help but feel a little underwhelmed . "
= = = Criticism = = =
After the broadcast of " The Eleventh Hour " , which introduced Amy as a kissogram in a skimpy policewoman outfit who watched the Doctor undress and change into his new costume , it was reported that several viewers had criticised the character and her occupation online and that it was " not fitting for a family show " . Wenger defended the character , saying that , " The whole kissogram thing played into Steven 's desire for the companion to be feisty and outspoken and a bit of a number . Amy is probably the wildest companion that the Doctor has travelled with , but she isn 't promiscuous . " Gillan also defended her character , claiming that girls Amy 's age often wore short skirts and Amy was a " strong female " and a " normal girl with normal impulses " . The BBC received 43 complaints over the scene in " Flesh and Stone " in which Amy attempts to seduce the Doctor . A member of pressure group Mediawatch @-@ uk also commented that the scene seemed " slightly out of place in a children 's programme " .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
" Vincent and the Doctor " and " The Pandorica Opens " / " The Big Bang " were nominated for the 2011 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation ( Short Form ) , with the award going to the latter . This was the fifth Hugo Award for Doctor Who and the fourth for Moffat , after " The Empty Child " / " The Doctor Dances " , " The Girl in the Fireplace " , and " Blink " . " Vincent and the Doctor " was nominated for the Bradbury Award for Outstanding Dramatic Presentation at the 2010 Nebula Awards , but it lost to the film Inception . The Mill , Doctor Who 's computer @-@ generated effects team , won a Royal Television Society Craft and Design Award for their work on " The Pandorica Opens " .
In Canada 's Constellation Awards , Doctor Who 's fifth series received six nominations . Smith and Tony Curran ( Vincent van Gogh ) were both nominated for Best Male Performance in a 2010 Science Fiction Television Episode , while Gillan was nominated for Best Female Performance for " Amy 's Choice " . Doctor Who was nominated for Best Science Fiction Television Series but lost to Stargate : Universe . Moffat and Curtis were both nominated for Best Overall 2010 Science Fiction Film or Television Script for " The Eleventh Hour " and " Vincent and the Doctor " respectively . Gold was the only winner , nominated for his music in the Best Technical Accomplishment in a 2010 Science Fiction Film or Television Production category .
Smith was nominated for Leading Actor in the television division of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts awards , becoming the first actor portraying the Doctor to gain a BAFTA nomination . He lost to Daniel Rigby for his work in the television film Eric and Ernie . At the BAFTA Cymru awards , Mark Hutchinson won the " Lighting " category for his work on " The Eleventh Hour " , while Barbara Southcott was nominated for " Make Up & Hair " for " Vampires of Venice " and William Oswald was nominated for the " Editing : Fiction " category for " The Time of Angels " .
= = Soundtrack = =
A two @-@ disc soundtrack containing 63 tracks of the score from this series ( from " The Eleventh Hour " to " The Big Bang " ) , as composed by Murray Gold , was released on 8 November | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
I received the news . I don 't feel I deserve it but I 'm very thrilled that so many women are coming through in sport broadcasting now . " Also in July , she received an honorary degree from the University of Brighton , which was presented to her at her home after she became too ill to attend the ceremony . Shortly before that she was honoured with an award for courage at the 1999 Pride of Britain Awards .
Rollason became involved in charity work , raising £ 5 million for a cancer wing at North Middlesex Hospital , which was named in her honour . She died on 9 August 1999 at the age of 43 , in Brentwood , Essex . On 17 August , a service of thanksgiving was held for Rollason at a church near her home , and attended by friends and colleagues . Later that month , the BBC aired Helen Rollason : The Bravest Fight , a 30 @-@ minute documentary presented by Peter Sissons in which friends and colleagues paid tribute to her . Her autobiography , Life 's Too Short , was published posthumously in 2000 .
= = Legacy = =
As the first female presenter of Grandstand , Helen Rollason was a pioneer of British sports broadcasting , an industry that was predominantly male at the time , and she established a precedent that allowed others to follow . Sue Barker , Hazel Irvine , Gail McKenna , Shelley Webb and Gabby Yorath all followed in Rollason 's footsteps to become noted UK sports presenters , with Yorath joining ITV as their first female sports presenter in the late 1990s , where she co @-@ hosted the football show On the Ball and was a contributor to The Premiership . Yorath paid tribute to Rollason shortly after her death , saying she would be " an icon for young girls who want to go into that field because she showed what could be done . She was a great example to everyone . "
On 4 November 1999 , the BBC announced the establishment of a Helen Rollason Award , to be given at the BBC Sports Personality of the Year ceremony in recognition of " outstanding achievement in the face of adversity " . Its first recipient was retired National Hunt trainer Jenny Pitman , who was herself diagnosed with cancer , and was presented with the award at that year 's ceremony on 12 December . Other Helen Rollason Award recipients include yachtswoman Ellen MacArthur in 2001 for her courage in becoming the fastest woman to circumnavigate the globe , footballer Geoff Thomas in 2005 for raising in excess of £ 150 @,@ 000 for the Leukaemia Research charity by cycling , following his own battle with the disease , and in 2014 , the competitors of the inaugural Invictus Games , a multi @-@ sport event for sick and injured service personnel , which made its debut that year .
The Sunday Times created the Helen Rollason Award for Inspiration as part of their Sportswomen of the Year Awards . Jenny Pitman was its first recipient in 1999 . Others to receive the award include student Joanna Gardiner in 2007 for her work with Football for Peace , a charity that provides football coaching to children from Jewish and Palestinian communities in Israel , Claire Lomas in 2012 who , having been paralysed following a riding accident completed that year 's London Marathon with the aid of a robotic suit , and Mel Woodards in 2014 , chair of the Somerset @-@ based Milton Nomads junior football club who established a local football league for children .
The Helen Rollason Cancer Charity was established in her name in 1999 . The charity funds and operates three cancer support centres – in Essex , Hertfordshire and London . Lord Coe , who had known Rollason since her days in radio broadcasting , is the charity 's patron . The first Helen Rollason Cancer Care Centre was opened in Chelmsford , Essex in April 2002 @.@ in 2011 , a new research centre named after Rollason and offering treatment for patients as part of clinical trials of new cancer therapies was opened at Chelmsford 's Broomfield Hospital .
In April 2006 , Brentwood Borough Council announced that a new housing development would include a road named Rollason Way in her memory . Additionally , eleven apartment blocks within the development would be named after people associated with Rollason or winners of the BBC Sports Personality of the Year . The building names on Rollason Way include Adlington House , Boardman Place , Radcliffe House , Christie Court , Redgrave Court , Botham House , Faldo Court , Whitbread Place , Torvill Court , and MacArthur Place .
= = Publications = =
Rollason , Helen ( 2000 ) . Life 's Too Short . Hodder & Stoughton . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 34076 @-@ 772 @-@ 6 .
= Beyond Good & Evil ( video game ) =
Beyond Good & Evil is a 2003 action @-@ adventure video game developed and published by Ubisoft for the PlayStation 2 , Microsoft Windows , Xbox and GameCube platforms . A full HD re @-@ mastered version of the game was released on Xbox Live Arcade in March 2011 and on PlayStation Network in June 2011 . The story follows the adventures of Jade , an investigative reporter and martial artist , who works with a resistance movement to reveal a planet @-@ wide alien conspiracy . The player controls Jade and allies , solving puzzles , fighting enemies , and obtaining photographic evidence .
Michel Ancel , creator of the Rayman series , envisioned the game as the first part of a trilogy . Beyond Good & Evil was a commercial failure , but was critically acclaimed , receiving a nomination for " Game of the Year " at the 2004 Game Developers Choice Awards . A sequel , Beyond Good & Evil 2 , is currently in development .
= = Gameplay = =
Beyond Good & Evil is an action @-@ adventure game with elements of puzzle @-@ solving and stealth @-@ based games . The player controls the protagonist , Jade , from a third @-@ person perspective . Jade can run , move stealthily , jump over obstacles and pits , climb ladders , push or bash doors and objects , and flatten herself against walls . As Jade , the player investigates a number of installations in search of the truth about a war with an alien threat .
In the game 's interior spaces , the player solves puzzles and makes their way past enemies in order to reach areas containing photographic evidence . Jade 's main tools are her Jō combat staff ( a melee weapon ) , discs for attacking at range , and a camera . Jade 's health , represented by hearts , decreases when hit by enemy attacks . It can be restored using fictional food items and can be increased beyond the maximum with " PA @-@ 1s " that , when held by Jade or her companions , increases their life gauge by one heart . If Jade 's health is depleted , the game will restart at the last checkpoint . Certain stealth segments later in the game automatically kill Jade if she is detected .
At times , it is only possible to advance in the game with the help of other characters . These characters are computer @-@ controlled , and players direct them via contextual commands . For example , the player can order them to perform a " super attack " , either pounding the ground to bounce enemies into the air , allowing the player to hit them from long distances , or knocking them off balance , making them vulnerable to attack . These allies possess a health bar and are incapacitated if it is depleted . Jade can share some of her items , such as PA @-@ 1s , with these characters .
In addition to obtaining evidence and completing assignments , Jade 's camera can take pictures of animal species in exchange for currency , and scan objects to reveal more information about the environment . When the " Gyrodisk Glove " is obtained , Jade can attack enemies or activate devices from a distance by using the camera interface . There are also various minigames and sub @-@ missions offered by NPCs scattered throughout the world .
A hovercraft is used to travel around the world , and also used for racing and in other minigames . Later , the spaceship Beluga is acquired . The hovercraft can dock with the spaceship . Both vehicles require upgrades in order to reach new areas and progress through the game . Upgrades are purchased using pearls that are collected throughout the game , by completing missions , exploring areas , filling in the animal directory or by trading credits for them . The vehicles have a boost ability , and can be repaired using a " Repair Pod " if damaged by enemies .
The main city serves as a hub , giving the player access to the various areas that must be explored in order to expose the conspiracy . Jade can earn credits by defeating enemies , taking pictures , or completing assignments , which can be used to purchase additional items for both Jade and her vehicles .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Beyond Good & Evil takes place in the year 2435 on the mining planet of Hillys , located in a remote section of the galaxy . The architecture of the city around which the game takes place is rustic European in style . The world itself combines modern elements , such as email and credit cards , with those of science fiction and fantasy , such as spaceships and anthropomorphic animals coexisting with humans . As the game begins , Hillys is under siege by aliens called the " DomZ " , who abduct beings and either drain their life force for power or implant them with spores to convert them into slaves . Prior to the opening of the game , a military dictatorship called the " Alpha Sections " has come to power on Hillys , promising to defend the populace . However , the Alpha Sections seem unable to stop the DomZ despite its public assurances . An underground resistance movement , the IRIS Network , fights the Alpha Sections , believing it to be in league with the DomZ .
Beyond Good & Evil 's main protagonist , Jade ( voiced by Jodi Forrest ) , is a young photojournalist . She resides in an island lighthouse that doubles as a home for children orphaned by DomZ attacks . Pey 'j ( voiced by David Gasman ) , a boar @-@ like creature , is Jade 's " uncle " and guardian figure . Double H , a heavily built human IRIS operative , assists Jade during missions . He wears a military @-@ issue suit of armor at all times . Secundo , an artificial intelligence built into Jade 's storage unit , the " Synthetic @-@ Atomic @-@ Compressor " ( SAC ) , offers advice and " digitizes " items . The main antagonists are the DomZ High Priest , who is the chief architect of the invasion , and Alpha Sections leader General Kehck , who uses propaganda to gain the Hillyans ' trust , even as he abducts citizens to sustain the DomZ .
= = = Story = = =
Jade and Pey 'j are care @-@ taking the children of Hillys orphaned by the DomZ . When Jade runs out of money to run the shield that protects them , she finds a photography job , cataloguing all the species on Hillys for a science museum . She is recruited by the IRIS Network , which suspects that the Alpha Sections are behind planet @-@ wide disappearances . Jade 's first target of investigation is an Alpha Sections factory . She discovers evidence of human trafficking orchestrated by the DomZ under the Alpha Sections ' authority . Along the way she rescues Double H , who was kidnapped and tortured by the DomZ . Pey 'j is abducted by the DomZ and taken to a slaughterhouse that is to be launched to a lunar base . After failing to extract Pey 'j from the slaughterhouse in time , Jade learns that Pey 'j was , in fact , the secret chief of the IRIS Network .
Jade learns that the Alpha Sections are being possessed and manipulated by the DomZ . Using Beluga , the ship Pey 'j used to travel to Hillys , Jade and Double H go to the DomZ lunar base . There , Jade finds Pey 'j dead , but a strange power inside her brings back his soul , reviving him . After rescuing Pey 'j , transmitting her final report , and sparking a revolution , Jade confronts the DomZ High Priest . She learns that her human form is the latest container to hide a power stolen from the DomZ centuries ago in the hope that the High Priest , who must have spirit energy to survive , would starve to death . The High Priest managed to find a substitute energy in the souls of all those kidnapped from Hillys . Using the stolen power within her , Jade is able to destroy the DomZ High Priest , though nearly losing control of her soul in the process , and then revive and rescue those that have been abducted . In a post @-@ credits scene back on Hillys , a DomZ spore grows on Pey 'j's hand .
= = Development = =
Beyond Good & Evil was developed by Michel Ancel , the creator of the Rayman video game , at Ubisoft 's Montpellier studios in France . The game was developed under the codename " Project BG & E " , with production lasting more than three years . A group of 30 employees comprised the development team . Ubisoft 's chief executive officer , Yves Guillemot , fully supported the project and frequently met with the team . After years working on Rayman , Ancel wanted to move on to something different . He recalled that the goal of Beyond Good & Evil was to " pack a whole universe onto a single CD — mountains , planets , towns . The idea was to make the player feel like an explorer , with a sense of absolute freedom . "
A second goal behind Beyond Good & Evil 's design was to create a meaningful story amid player freedom . Ancel said that the linear nature of the gameplay was necessary to convey the story ; player freedom was an experience between parts of the plot . He also strove to create a rhythm similar to a movie to engage and delight players . The game drew on many influences and inspirations , including the Miyazaki universe , politics and the media , and the aftermath of the September 11 attacks . In creating the lead character , Ancel 's wife reportedly inspired the designer , who wanted to portray a persona with whom players could identify .
Beyond Good & Evil was first shown publicly at the 2002 Electronic Entertainment Expo , where it received a negative reception . Originally more " artistically ambitious " and resembling games like Ico , the game was substantially changed in order to make it more commercially appealing . Jade , originally a teenage girl , was redesigned to be more powerful and befitting of her job . The game was also shortened by removing long periods of exploration , due to Ancel 's dislike of this aspect of gameplay in The Legend of Zelda : The Wind Waker . The development team was " demoralized " by the changes , with Ancel commenting that the finished game resembled a sequel more than a reworking . Prior to release , playable previews of the game were offered in movie theaters .
= = = Audio = = =
The soundtrack of Beyond Good & Evil was composed by Christophe Héral , who was hired by Ancel because of his background in film . Hubert Chevillard , a director with whom Ancel had worked in the past , had also worked with Héral on a television special , The Pantin Pirouette , and referred him to Ancel . Héral was assisted by Laetitia Pansanel , who orchestrated the pieces , and his brother Patrice Héral , who performed some of the sound effects and singing .
The soundtrack incorporates a wide variety of languages and instruments from around the world . Mainly Bulgarian lyrics were chosen for the song " Propaganda " , which plays in the game 's Akuda Bar , to allude to the Soviet propaganda of the Cold War . It uses a recording of a telephone conversation by Héral with a female Bulgarian friend to represent the government 's control of the media . It also incorporates Arabic string instruments and Indian percussion . A song called " Funky Mullah " was originally planned for the Akuda Bar , but it was replaced by " Propaganda " because Héral decided that its muezzin vocals , recorded on September 8 , 2001 , would have been in bad taste in the wake of the September 11 attacks . " Fun and Mini @-@ games " , a song that plays during hovercraft races and other minigames , includes Spanish lyrics . The lyrics for DomZ music were created from a fictional language with prominent rolling " r " sounds . The crashing metal sound effects of " Metal Gear DomZ " , the music played during a boss fight , were recorded from the son of Héral 's neighbor playing with scrap metal . The voices in the city of Hillys were also recorded by Héral himself . The music has never been published as an album , though it has been released in its entirety as a free download by Ubisoft . The soundtrack is featured in the Video Games Live international concert tour .
= = = HD edition = = =
A full HD re @-@ mastered version of the game was released on Xbox Live Arcade in March 2011 and on PlayStation Network in June 2011 . It features improved character models and textures , as well as a modified soundtrack . Achievements , trophies and online leaderboards were also added .
Ubisoft released Beyond Good & Evil HD Collection in Europe on September 21 , 2012 . The collection includes Beyond Good & Evil HD , Outland and From Dust .
= = Reception = =
Prior to its release , Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine and PlayStation Magazine praised the game 's showing at the 2003 Electronic Entertainment Expo and described it as one of the best titles on display .
Beyond Good & Evil received generally positive reviews from critics . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the Xbox version 88 @.@ 61 % and 87 / 100 , the GameCube version 88 @.@ 14 % and 87 / 100 , the PlayStation 2 version 87 @.@ 09 % and 86 / 100 , the Xbox 360 version 85 @.@ 08 % and 84 / 100 , the PlayStation 3 version 84 @.@ 42 % and 83 / 100 and the PC version 83 @.@ 22 % and 83 / 100 .
The game 's graphics were generally well received . In reviewing the GameCube version , Game Informer wrote that " Every moment of Beyond Good & Evil looks as good as a traditional RPG cutscene " and that the game 's effects and character animations were " amazing . " On the other hand , Jon Hicks of PC Format wrote that while some effects were excellent , the game 's otherwise unspectacular graphics were unwelcome reminders of the game 's console roots . 1UP.com and Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine cited glitches such as frame rate as irksome , because the game did not appear to tax the console 's hardware .
Edge commended the game for its storytelling and design , but criticized its plot as unable to " match Jade 's initial appeal , " becoming " fairly mundane " without " the darkness and moral ambiguity suggested by the title , " with Jade 's everyman appeal undermined by the revelation of her " mysterious hidden identity . " Dan Toose of SMH called the game 's setting " dark , baroque and earthy , a far cry from the squeaky @-@ clean action of the Final Fantasy games , " and described the game as " a very European take on the role @-@ playing genre " and " one of the best adventure games in years . " Star Dingo of GamePro commented that the game was a " jack of all trades , master of none " that " never really lives up to its title , " adding that its vision could have been more focused . Among complaints were control issues and a lack of gameplay depth . Game Informer 's Lisa Mason wrote that the game 's controls were serviceable , but simplistic , and that she wished she could do more with the character . PC Gamer 's Kevin Rice found most of the gameplay and its exploration refreshing , but called hovercraft races " not much fun " and felt combat was the game 's weakest element . Edge called the gameplay interaction " hollowed out , " as an unintended consequence of Ancel 's attempt to streamline the game .
Beyond Good & Evil was not a commercial success . The game saw poor sales upon its release in the 2003 Christmas and holiday season . Retailers quickly decreased the price by up to 80 percent . Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine staff attributed the poor sales of the game — among many other 2003 releases — to an over @-@ saturated market , and labeled Beyond Good & Evil as a commercial " disappointment " . In retrospect , Ancel noted that consumers at the time were interested in established franchises and technologically impressive games . Coupled with the number of " big titles " available , he stated that the market was a poor environment for Beyond Good & Evil and that it would take time to be appreciated . The Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine staff further commented that the lack of marketing from Ubisoft and the game 's odd premise naturally reserved it to obscurity . Part of the disappointing sales stemmed from Ubisoft not knowing how to market the title , something that Ubisoft North America CEO Laurent Detoc labeled as one of his worst business decisions . At the time , Ubisoft 's marketing efforts were more focused on the release of Prince of Persia : The Sands of Time . Ubisoft 's former North American vice @-@ president of publishing , Jay Cohen , and its European managing director , Alaine Corre , attributed the commercial failure of the game to a lack of marketing . " The game play was there , the technical excellence was there but perhaps the target audience was not there , " Corre told the BBC . Corre later commented that the Xbox 360 release " did extremely well " , but considered this success " too late " to make a difference in the game 's poor sales . The game was intended to be the first part of a trilogy , but its poor sales placed those plans on hold at the time .
= = = Awards and legacy = = =
Beyond Good & Evil was nominated for and won many gaming awards . The International Game Developers Association nominated the title for three honors at the 2004 Game Developers Choice Awards : " Game of the Year " , " Original Game Character of the Year " ( Jade ) and " Excellence in Game Design " . Ubisoft titles garnered six of eleven awards at the 2004 IMAGINA Festival in France , with Beyond Good & Evil winning " Best Writer " and " Game of the Year Team Award . " The Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences nominated the game for " Outstanding Achievement in Character or Story Development " at the 2004 Interactive Achievement Awards . In IGN 's " The Best of 2003 " , the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) version won " Best Adventure Game , " while the GameCube version received " Best Story . " Beyond Good & Evil 's audio was also recognized . The game was nominated for the " Audio of the Year " , " Music of the Year " , " Best Interactive Score " , and " Best Sound Design " awards at the second annual Game Audio Network Guild awards . It was similarly nominated for the " Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Composition " and " Outstanding Achievement in Sound Design " awards at the 2004 Interactive Achievement Awards .
In 2007 , Beyond Good & Evil was named 22nd @-@ best Xbox game and 12th @-@ best GameCube game of all time by IGN . Game Informer listed the title 12th on its " Top 25 GameCube Games " list . In another list , " Top 200 Games of all Time " , Game Informer placed the PS2 , Xbox , and GameCube versions of Beyond Good & Evil as the 200th best . The Official Nintendo Magazine ranked it as the 91st @-@ best Nintendo game , while Nintendo Power ranked it 29th . Nintendo Power placed the GameCube version as the 11th @-@ best GameCube game of all time in its 20th anniversary issue . Destructoid ranked the GameCube , PlayStation 2 , and Xbox versions as the 6th @-@ best game of the decade . In 2010 , IGN listed it at # 34 in their " Top 100 PlayStation 2 Games " . GamesRadar placed it as the 70th best game of all time .
= = = Sequel = = =
Ancel stated his desire to produce a sequel to the game . Ubisoft announced at the Ubidays 2008 opening conference that there would be a second game . A sequel , tentatively titled Beyond Good & Evil 2 , is currently in development , although the project was temporarily halted to focus on Rayman Origins . The game is being developed for the PlayStation 4 , Xbox One , Wii U , and PC .
= Naomi Watts =
Naomi Ellen Watts ( born 28 September 1968 ) is a British actress and film producer . She made her screen debut in the Australian drama film For Love Alone ( 1986 ) and then appeared in the Australian television series Hey Dad .. ! ( 1990 ) , Brides of Christ ( 1991 ) and Home and Away ( 1991 ) and alongside Nicole Kidman and Thandie Newton in the coming @-@ of @-@ age comedy @-@ drama film Flirting ( 1991 ) . After moving to America , Watts appeared in films , including Tank Girl ( 1995 ) , Children of the Corn IV : The Gathering ( 1996 ) and Dangerous Beauty ( 1998 ) and had the lead role in the television series Sleepwalkers ( 1997 – 1998 ) .
After years as a struggling actress , Watts came to attention in David Lynch 's psychological thriller Mulholland Drive ( 2001 ) . The following year she enjoyed box @-@ office success with The Ring ( 2002 ) , the remake of a successful Japanese horror film . She then received nominations at the Academy Awards and the Screen Actors ' Guild Awards in the Best Actress categories for her portrayal of Cristina Peck in Alejandro González Iñárritu 's neo @-@ noir 21 Grams ( 2003 ) . Her subsequent films include David O. Russell 's comedy I Heart Huckabees ( 2004 ) , the 2005 remake of King Kong , the crime @-@ thriller Eastern Promises ( 2007 ) and the Tom Tykwer @-@ directed thriller The International ( 2009 ) . Since then , Watts has portrayed Valerie Plame Wilson in the biographical drama Fair Game ( 2010 ) and Helen Gandy in Clint Eastwood 's biographical drama J. Edgar ( 2011 ) . For her leading role as Maria Bennett in the disaster film The Impossible ( 2012 ) , she received second nominations for the Academy Award and Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actress and a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress .
In 2002 , Watts was included in People magazine 's 50 Most Beautiful People . In 2006 , she became a goodwill ambassador for Joint United Nations Programme on HIV / AIDS , which helps to raise awareness of AIDS @-@ related issues . She has participated in several fundraisers for the cause , and she is presented as an inaugural member of AIDS Red Ribbon Awards .
= = Early life = =
Watts was born 28 September 1968 , in Shoreham , Kent , England . She is the daughter of Myfanwy ( " Miv " ) Edwards ( née Roberts ) , an antiques dealer and costume and set designer , and Peter Watts ( 1946 – 1976 ) , a road manager and sound engineer who worked with Pink Floyd . Miv was born in England but lived in Australia between the ages of one and seven . Her maternal grandfather was Welsh and her maternal grandmother was Australian .
Watts ' parents divorced when she was four years old . After the divorce , Watts and her elder brother , Ben Watts , moved several times across South East England with their mother . Peter Watts left Pink Floyd in 1974 , and he and Myfanwy were later reconciled . Two years later , in August 1976 , he was found dead in a flat in Notting Hill , of an apparent heroin overdose .
Following his death , Watts ' mother moved the family to Llanfawr Farm in Llangefni and Llanfairpwllgwyngyll , towns on the island of Anglesey in North Wales , where they lived with Watts ' maternal grandparents , Nikki and Hugh Roberts , for three years . During this time , Watts attended a Welsh language school , Ysgol Gyfun Llangefni , where she carried out her studies . She later said of her time in Wales : " We took Welsh lessons in a school in the middle of nowhere while everyone else was taking English . Wherever we moved , I would adapt and pick up the regional accent . It 's obviously significant now , me being an actress . Anyway , there was quite a lot of sadness in my childhood , but no lack of love . " In 1978 , her mother remarried ( though she would later be divorced again ) and Watts and her brother then moved to Suffolk where she attended Thomas Mills High School . Watts has stated that she wanted to become an actress after seeing her mother performing on stage and from the time she watched the 1980 film Fame .
In 1982 , when Watts was 14 , she moved to Sydney , New South Wales in Australia with her mother , brother and stepfather . Myfanwy established a career in the burgeoning film business , working as a stylist for television commercials , then turning to costume design , ultimately working for the soap opera Return to Eden . After emigrating , Watts was enrolled in acting lessons by her mother ; she auditioned for numerous television advertisements , where she met and befriended actress Nicole Kidman . Watts obtained her first role in the 1986 drama film , For Love Alone , based on the novel of the same name by Christina Stead , and produced by Margaret Fink .
In Australia , Watts attended Mosman High School and North Sydney Girls High School . She failed to graduate from school , afterwards working as a papergirl , a negative cutter and managing a Delicacies store in Sydney 's affluent North Shore .
She decided to become a model when she was 18 . She signed with a models agency that sent her to Japan , but after several failed auditions , she returned to Sydney . There , she was hired to work in advertising for a department store , that exposed her to the attention of Follow Me , a magazine which hired her as an assistant fashion editor . A casual invitation to participate in a drama workshop inspired Watts to quit her job and to pursue her acting ambitions .
Regarding her nationality , Watts has stated : " I consider myself British and have very happy memories of the UK . I spent the first 14 years of my life in England and Wales and never wanted to leave . When I was in Australia I went back to England a lot . " She also has expressed her ties to Australia , declaring : " I consider myself very connected to Australia , in fact when people say where is home , I say Australia , because those are my most powerful memories . "
= = Career = =
= = = 1986 – 2000 : Early work and struggling career = = =
Watts ' career began in television , where she made brief appearances in commercials . The 1986 film For Love Alone , set in the 1930s and based on Christina Stead 's 1945 best @-@ selling novel of the same name , marked her debut in film . She then appeared in two episodes of the fourth season of the Australian sitcom Hey Dad .. ! in 1990 . After a five @-@ year absence from films , Watts met director John Duigan during the 1989 premiere of her friend Nicole Kidman 's film Dead Calm and he invited her to take a supporting role in his 1991 indie film Flirting . She starred opposite future Hollywood up @-@ and @-@ comers Kidman and Thandie Newton . The film received critical acclaim and was featured on Roger Ebert 's list of the 10 best films of 1992 . Also in 1991 , she took the part of Frances Heffernan , a girl who struggles to find friends behind the walls of a Sydney Catholic school , in the award winning mini @-@ series Brides of Christ and had a recurring role in the soap opera Home and Away as the handicapped Julie Gibson . Watts was then offered a role in the drama series A Country Practice but turned it down , not wanting to " get stuck on a soap for two or three years " , a decision she later called " naïve " .
Watts then took a year off to travel , visiting Los Angeles and being introduced to agents through Kidman . Encouraged , Watts decided to move to America , to pursue her career further . In 1993 she had a small role in the John Goodman film Matinee and temporarily returned to Australia to star in three Australian films : another of Duigan 's pictures , Wide Sargasso Sea ; the drama The Custodian ; and had her first leading role in the film Gross Misconduct , as a student who accuses one of her teachers ( played by Jimmy Smits ) of raping her . Watts then moved back to America for good but the difficulty of finding agents , producers and directors willing to hire her during that period frustrated her initial efforts . Though her financial situation never led her to taking a job out of the film industry , she experienced problems like being unable to pay the rent of her apartment and losing her medical insurance . " At first , everything was fantastic and doors were opened to me . But some people who I met through Nicole [ Kidman ] , who had been all over me , had difficulty remembering my name when we next met . There were a lot of promises , but nothing actually came off . I ran out of money and became quite lonely , but Nic gave me company and encouragement to carry on . "
She then won a supporting role in the futuristic 1995 film Tank Girl , winning the role of " Jet Girl " after nine auditions . While the film was met with mixed reviews , it flopped at the box office , although it has gone on to become something of a cult classic . Throughout the rest of the decade , she took mostly supporting roles in films and occasionally considered leaving the business , but : " there were always little bites . Whenever I felt I was at the end of my rope , something would come up . Something bad . But for me it was ' work begets work ' ; that was my motto . " In 1996 , she starred alongside Joe Mantegna , Kelly Lynch and J.T. Walsh in George Hickenlooper 's action @-@ thriller Persons Unknown ; alongside James Earl Jones , Kevin Kilner and Ellen Burstyn in the period drama Timepiece ; in Bermuda Triangle , a TV pilot that was not picked up for a full series , where she played a former documentary filmmaker who disappears in the Bermuda Triangle ; and as the lead role in Children of the Corn IV : The Gathering , in which children in a small town become possessed under the command of a wrongfully murdered child preacher .
In 1997 , she starred in the Australian ensemble romantic drama Under the Lighthouse Dancing and also played the lead role in the short @-@ lived television series Sleepwalkers . In 1998 , she starred alongside Neil Patrick Harris and Debbie Reynolds in the TV film The Christmas Wish , played the supporting role of Giulia De Lezze in Dangerous Beauty , and provided some voice work for Babe : Pig in the City . She said in an interview in 2012 , " That really should not be on my résumé ! I think that was early on in the day , when I was trying to beef up my résumé . I came in and did a couple days ' work of voiceovers and we had to suck on [ helium ] and then do a little mouse voice . But I was one in a hundred , so I 'm sure you would never be able to identify my voice . I probably couldn 't either ! " In 1999 , she played Alice in the romantic comedy Strange Planet and the Texan student Holly Maddux in The Hunt for the Unicorn Killer , which was based on the real life effort to capture Ira Einhorn , who was charged with Maddux 's murder . In 2000 , while David Lynch was expanding the rejected pilot of Mulholland Drive into a feature film , Watts starred alongside Derek Jacobi , Jack Davenport and Iain Glen in the BBC TV film The Wyvern Mystery , an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Sheridan Le Fanu that was broadcast in March of that year .
Much of her early career is filled with near misses in casting , as she was up for significant roles in films such as 1997 's The Postman and The Devil 's Advocate and 2000 's Meet the Parents , which eventually went to other actresses . In an interview in 2012 , Watts said , " I came to New York and auditioned at least five times for Meet the Parents . I think the director liked me but the studio didn 't . I heard every piece of feedback you could imagine , and in this case , it was ' not sexy enough ' . " Watts recalled her early career in an interview in 2002 , saying , " It is a tough town . I think my spirit has taken a beating . The most painful thing has been the endless auditions . Knowing that you have something to offer , but not being able to show it , is so frustrating . As an unknown , you get treated badly . I auditioned and waited for things I did not have any belief in , but I needed the work and had to accept horrendous pieces of shit . " Watts studied the Meisner Technique .
= = = 2001 – 02 : Breakthrough with Mulholland Drive = = =
In 1999 , director David Lynch began casting for his psychological thriller Mulholland Drive . He interviewed Watts after looking at her headshot , without having seen any of her previous work , and offered her the lead role . Lynch later said about his selection of Watts , " I saw someone that I felt had a tremendous talent , and I saw someone who had a beautiful soul , an intelligence — possibilities for a lot of different roles , so it was a beautiful full package . " Conceived as a pilot for a television series , Lynch shot a large portion of it in February 1999 , planning to keep it open @-@ ended for a potential series . However , the pilot was rejected . Watts recalled thinking at the time , " just my dumb luck , that I 'm in the only David Lynch programme that never sees the light of day . " Instead , Lynch filmed an ending in October 2000 , turning it into a feature film which was picked up for distribution .
The film , which also starred Laura Harring and Justin Theroux , was highly acclaimed by critics and would become Watts ' breakthrough . She was praised by critics , including Peter Bradshaw from The Guardian , who said , " Watts 's face metamorphoses miraculously from fresh @-@ faced beauty to a frenzied , teary scowl of ugliness . " and Emanuel Levy , who wrote , " ... Naomi Watts , in a brilliant performance , a young , wide @-@ eyed and grotesquely cheerful blonde , full of high hopes to make it big in Hollywood . " The film premiered at the 2001 Cannes Film Festival and received a large number of awards and nominations , including the Best Actress Award for Watts from the National Society of Film Critics and a nomination for Best Actress from the American Film Institute . The surrealist film following the story of the aspiring actress Betty Elms , played by Watts , attracted controversy with its strong lesbian theme .
Also in 2001 , she starred in two short films , Never Date an Actress and Ellie Parker , and the horror film The Shaft , director Dick Maas ' remake of his 1983 film De Lift . In 2002 , she starred in one of the biggest box office hits of that year , The Ring , the English language remake of the Japanese horror film Ringu . Directed by Gore Verbinski , the film , which also starred Martin Henderson and Brian Cox , received favourable reviews and grossed around US $ 129 million domestically ( equivalent to US $ 169 @.@ 7 million in 2016 ) . Watts portrayed Rachel Keller , a journalist investigating the strange deaths of her niece and other teenagers after watching a mysterious videotape , and receiving a phone call announcing their deaths in seven days . Her performance was praised by critics , including Paul Clinton of CNN.com , who stated that she " is excellent in this leading role , which proves that her stellar performance in Mulholland Drive was not a fluke . She strikes a perfect balance between scepticism and the slow realisation of the truth in regard to the deadly power of the videotape . " That year , she also starred in Rabbits , a series of short films directed by David Lynch ; alongside several other famous British actors in the black comedy Plots with a View ; and with Tim Daly in the western The Outsider .
= = = 2003 – 07 : Steady success = = =
The following year , she took the part of Julia Cook in Gregor Jordan 's Australian film Ned Kelly opposite Heath Ledger , Orlando Bloom and Geoffrey Rush ; as well as starring in the Merchant @-@ Ivory film Le Divorce , portraying Roxeanne de Persand , a poet who is abandoned by her husband Charles @-@ Henri de Persand at the time she is pregnant . Roxeanne and her sister Isabel ( Kate Hudson ) dispute the ownership of a painting by Georges de La Tour with the family of Henri 's lover . Entertainment Weekly gave the film a " C " rating and lamented Watts ' performance : " I 'm disappointed to report that Hudson and Watts have no chemistry as sisters , perhaps because Watts never seems like the expatriate artiste she 's supposed to be playing " .
Conversely , her performance opposite Sean Penn and Benicio del Toro in director Alejandro González Iñárritu 's 2003 drama 21 Grams earned Watts an Academy Award nomination as Best Actress later that year . In the story , told in a non @-@ lineal manner , she portrayed Cristina Peck , a grief @-@ stricken woman living a suburban life after the killing of her husband and two children by Jack Jordan ( Benicio del Toro ) , who started a relationship with the critically ill academic mathematician Paul Rivers ( Sean Penn ) . She said of the nomination , " It 's far beyond what I ever dreamed for – that would have been too far fetched " . She also was nominated for Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role , as well as many other nominations and acclaim . The New York Times praised her : " Because Ms. Watts reinvents herself with each performance , it 's easy to forget how brilliant she is . She has a boldness that comes from a lack of overemphasis , something actresses sometimes do to keep up with Mr. Penn " . The San Francisco Chronicle wrote : " Watts is riveting , but she 's much better in scenes of extreme emotion than in those requiring subtlety . "
She then starred alongside Mark Ruffalo in the 2004 independent film We Don 't Live Here Anymore . The film is a drama which was based on the short stories We Don 't Live Here Anymore and Adultery by Andre Dubus , and depicts the crisis of two married couples . She reunited with Sean Penn in The Assassination of Richard Nixon , which was set in 1974 . She played Marie Andersen Bicke , the wife of the would @-@ be presidential assassin Samuel Byck ( Penn ) . Finally in 2004 , she teamed up with Jude Law and Dustin Hoffman in David O. Russell 's ensemble comedy I Heart Huckabees . Watts next starred and co @-@ produced with director / screenwriter Scott Coffey her film , the semi @-@ autobiographical drama Ellie Parker ( 2005 ) , which depicted the struggle of an Australian actress in Hollywood . The film began as a short film that was screened at the Sundance Film Festival in 2001 and was expanded into a feature @-@ length production over the next four years . Film critic Roger Ebert praised Watts ' performance : " The character is played by Watts with courage , fearless observation and a gift for timing that is so uncanny it can make points all by itself . "
Watts returned in the lead role in the sequel to The Ring , The Ring Two . The film received several negative reviews , but was a major success at the box office , with an over US $ 161 million worldwide gross ( equivalent to US $ 195 @.@ 1 million in 2016 ) and Watts was once again praised for her performance . Her third film of the year was Marc Forster 's psychological thriller Stay . Written by David Benioff , it also starred Ewan McGregor , Ryan Gosling and Bob Hoskins . Watts then starred in the 2005 remake of King Kong as Ann Darrow . Watts was the first choice for the role , portrayed by Fay Wray in the original film , with no other actors considered . In preparation for her role , Watts met with Wray , who was to make a cameo appearance and say the final line of dialogue , but she died during pre @-@ production at the age of 96 . King Kong proved to be Watts ' most commercially successful film yet . Helmed by The Lord of the Rings director Peter Jackson , the film won high praise and grossed US $ 550 million worldwide ( equivalent to US $ 666 @.@ 4 million in 2016 ) . The Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer praised her performance : " The third act becomes a star @-@ crossed , " Beauty and the Beast " parable far more operatic and tragic than anything the original filmmakers could have imagined , exquisitely pantomimed by Watts with a poignancy and passion that rates Oscar consideration . "
Her next film was The Painted Veil with Edward Norton and Liev Schreiber . Watts played Kitty Garstin , the daughter of a lawyer , who marries Walter Fane ( Norton ) for his reputation as a physician and bacteriologist . The film centres on the relationship of the couple at the time they move to China , where Fane is stationed to study infectious diseases . Comparing her portrayal with Greta Garbo 's in the original movie , The San Francisco Chronicle wrote " Watts makes the role work on her own terms – her Kitty is more desperate , more foolish , more miserable and more driven ... and her spiritual journey is greater . For her only other film of that year , she provided the voice of a small role , Suzie Rabbit , in David Lynch 's psychological thriller Inland Empire . Also that year , she was announced as the new face of the jewellers David Yurman and completed a photoshoot which was featured in the 2007 Pirelli Calendar .
She later appeared in David Cronenberg 's crime thriller Eastern Promises with Viggo Mortensen , which premiered at the 2007 Toronto International Film Festival , to critical acclaim . As the movie , Watts also generated positive feedback among critics ; Slate magazine remarked in its review that she " brings a wounded radiance to the overcurious midwife Anna . Though it 's a bit of a one @-@ note role , it 's a note she 's long specialised in , a kind of flustered moral aggrievement " . Eastern Promises grossed US $ 56 million worldwide , ( equivalent to US $ 67 @.@ 9 million in 2016 ) .
She appeared with Tim Roth in Michael Haneke 's Funny Games ( 2007 ) , a remake of Haneke 's 1997 film of the same name that opened at the London Film Festival . The director said that he agreed to make the film on condition that he be allowed to cast Watts , according to UK 's The Daily Telegraph . In the picture , she portrayed Ann Farber , who with her husband and son are held hostage by a pair of sociopathic teenagers . Watts also served as a producer , as this charge was for her " one way to spice up the deal and be involved in all the creative decisions " . The movie generated mixed reviews and received a limited theatrical release in the United States , grossing $ 7 million , on a $ 15 million budget . Newsweek felt that Watts " h | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Cape Lookout and Cape Hatteras as a Category 2 hurricane , becoming the first U.S. landfalling cyclone of that intensity since Hurricane Ike in 2008 . Arthur also became the earliest known hurricane to strike the North Carolina coastline on record. doing so on July 4 . In October , Fay became the first hurricane to make landfall on Bermuda since Emily in 1987 . With Gonzalo striking the island only four days later , 2014 became the first season on record in which more than one hurricane struck Bermuda . Four hurricanes and two tropical storms made landfall during the season and caused 21 deaths and at least $ 233 million in damage . Hurricane Cristobal also caused fatalities , though it did not strike land . The Atlantic hurricane season officially ended on November 30 , 2014 .
Tropical cyclogenesis began in early July , with the development of Hurricane Arthur on July 1 , ahead of the long @-@ term climatological average of July 9 . Early on July 3 , the system intensified into a hurricane , preceding the climatological average of August 10 . Later that month , a tropical depression developed over the eastern Atlantic , but dissipated after only two days . There were also two tropical cyclones in August , with the development of hurricanes Bertha and Cristobal . Despite being the climatological peak of hurricane season , only two additional systems originated in September - Tropical Storm Dolly and Hurricane Edouard . In October , three storms developed , including hurricane Fay and Gonzalo and Tropical Storm Hanna . The most intense tropical cyclone – Hurricane Gonzalo – peaked with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) on October 16 which is a Category 4 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . It was the first Category 4 hurricane since Hurricane Ophelia in 2011 . The final tropical cyclone of the season was Hanna , which dissipated on October 28 .
The season 's activity was reflected with an Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) rating of 67 , which was well below the 1981 – 2010 median of 92 . The ACE value in October was higher than August and September combined , which has not occurred since 1963 . Broadly speaking , ACE is a measure of the power of a tropical or subtropical storm multiplied by the length of time it existed . Therefore , a storm with a longer duration or stronger intensity , such as Gonzalo , will have high values of ACE . It is only calculated for full advisories on specific tropical and subtropical systems reaching or exceeding wind speeds of 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) . Accordingly , tropical depressions are not included here . After the storm has dissipated , typically after the end of the season , the NHC reexamines the data , and produces a final report on each storm . These revisions can lead to a revised ACE total either upward or downward compared to the operational value .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane Arthur = = =
On June 25 , a piece of low @-@ level energy formed within a convective complex over the northwestern Gulf of Mexico . After crossing Georgia and South Carolina , it became absorbed by a weak frontal boundary that drifted south @-@ southeastward . An area of low pressure developed off the Southeast United States by June 28 , eventually leading to the formation of a tropical depression by 00 : 00 UTC on July 1 . Amid a generally favorable environment , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Arthur at 12 : 00 UTC that same day and further to a Category 1 hurricane by 00 : 00 UTC on July 3 . An approaching mid @-@ level trough directed the storm north @-@ northeastward as it continued to intensify , and Arthur reached its peak as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) at 00 : 00 UTC on July 4 . A few hours later , it moved ashore just west of Cape Lookout , North Carolina , becoming the earliest landfalling hurricane on record in the state . Following landfall , Arthur accelerated northeast across the western Atlantic while encountering an increasingly unfavorable environment , weakening to a tropical storm at 06 : 00 UTC on July 5 and transitioning into an extratropical cyclone six hours later . The post @-@ tropical low eventually dissipated east of Labrador late on July 9 .
As a developing tropical cyclone , Arthur produced minor rainfall across the northwestern Bahamas . In Florida , a dozen swimmers required rescuing as a result of strong rip currents . Maximum sustained winds peaked at 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) , with a peak gust of 101 mph ( 163 km / h ) , at Cape Lookout , and Oregon Inlet recorded a peak storm surge of 4 @.@ 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) . At its height , Arthur knocked out power to 44 @,@ 000 people in North Carolina , triggering Duke Energy to deploy over 500 personnel to restore electricity . Widespread rainfall totals of 6 – 8 in ( 150 – 200 mm ) led to the inundation of numerous buildings in Manteo . As the storm passed offshore New England , sustained winds of 47 mph ( 63 km / h ) and gusts up to 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) were observed . Observed rainfall totals over a half foot required the issuance of a flash flood emergency for New Bedford , Massachusetts , while several roads were shut down in surrounding locations . After transitioning into an extratropical cyclone , Arthur knocked out power to more than 290 @,@ 000 individuals across the Maritimes , with damage to the electrical grid considered the worst since Hurricane Juan in Nova Scotia . One person died after his oxygen support was cut off during a power outage . Hurricane @-@ force gusts were observed in Nova Scotia , with tropical storm @-@ force winds observed as far away as Quebec . Overall , Arthur caused at least $ 22 @.@ 7 million in damage .
= = = Tropical Depression Two = = =
A tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa on July 17 . Steered westward , a small area of low pressure developed in association with the wave two days later . Convection steadily increased and organized , leading to the formation of a tropical depression by 12 : 00 UTC on July 21 . The depression failed to intensify into a tropical storm amid an exceptionally dry and stable environment and instead degenerated into a trough by 18 : 00 UTC on July 23 while located east of the Lesser Antilles .
= = = Hurricane Bertha = = =
On August 1 , a tropical wave developed into Tropical Storm Bertha while roughly 345 mi ( 555 km ) east @-@ southeast of Barbados . A mostly disorganized cyclone , Bertha quickly moved across the Lesser Antilles , clipping the northern end of Martinique , later that day . During its trek across the eastern Caribbean Sea , its circulation became severely disrupted and it may have degenerated into a tropical wave . On August 3 , it traversed the Mona Passage and moved over the Southeastern Bahamas where conditions favored development . Despite an overall ragged appearance on satellite imagery , data from Hurricane Hunters indicated it intensified to a hurricane on August 4 ; it acquired peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) that day . Turning north , and later northeast , Bertha soon weakened as it began to merge with an approaching trough to the west . This merger ultimately took place on August 6 , at which time Bertha was declared extratropical well to the south of Nova Scotia .
As a tropical cyclone , Bertha 's impact was relatively minor . In the Lesser Antilles , widespread power outages occurred along its path but no major damage or loss of life took place . Enhanced swells and rip currents associated with the hurricane resulted in three fatalities and dozens of rescues along the East Coast of the United States . After becoming an extratropical system , it had significant effects in Western Europe , with the United Kingdom being particularly hard hit . Unseasonably heavy rains triggered widespread flooding which shut down roads and prompted evacuations . One fatality took place offshore after a man suffered a fatal head injury on his yacht amid rough seas . On mainland Europe , a small tornado outbreak resulted in scattered structural damage in Belgium , France , and Germany .
= = = Hurricane Cristobal = = =
A tropical wave and attendant region of convection developed into a tropical depression at 18 : 00 UTC on August 23 while located near Mayaguana in the Bahamas ; twelve hours later , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Cristobal . The newly formed cyclone turned northward following formation , directed toward a break in a subtropical ridge . With persistent moderate wind shear and nearby dry air , Cristobal only steadily intensified and was upgrading to a Category 1 hurricane at 00 : 00 UTC on August 26 despite a partially exposed circulation and disorganized cloud pattern . As the hurricane turned east @-@ northeastward the following day , its cloud pattern became much more symmetric and an eye became evident , yielding peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Thereafter , a frontal boundary wrapped around the storm 's circulation , transitioning the system into an extratropical cyclone by 12 : 00 UTC on August 29 . The post @-@ tropical low maintained hurricane @-@ force winds while accelerating across the North Atlantic , finally merging with a second extratropical low north of Iceland by September 2 .
The precursor of Cristobal and the storm itself dropped heavy precipitation on Puerto Rico , with 13 @.@ 21 in ( 336 mm ) of rain observed in the municipality of Tibes , bring drought relief to the island . The storm downed many trees and power lines and left more than 23 @,@ 500 people without power and 8 @,@ 720 without water . In Dominican Republic , large amounts of rainfall left several communities isolated , flooded at least 800 homes , and killed two people . Thousands of people were evacuated from their homes . In Haiti , mudslides and flooding rendered 640 families homeless and destroyed or severely damaged at least 34 homes . Two people who went missing were later presumed to have drowned . In the Turks and Caicos Islands , the storm produced over 10 in ( 250 mm ) of precipitation on various islands . The international airport on Providenciales briefly closed due to flooding , where one drowning death occurred . Portions of North Caicos were inundated with up to 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) of water . Along the East Coast of the United States , rip currents resulted in one death each in Maryland and New Jersey .
= = = Tropical Storm Dolly = = =
An area of low pressure interacted with an atmospheric kelvin wave , leading to the formation of a tropical depression in the Bay of Campeche at 18 : 00 UTC on August 31 . Six hours later , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Dolly . Steered generally westward by a mid @-@ level ridge to its north , the cyclone struggled with strong wind shear and reached peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) at 12 : 00 UTC on September 2 . At 04 : 00 UTC the next day , Dolly moved ashore just south of Tampico , Mexico , with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Following landfall , the mountainous terrain of eastern Mexico quickly caused the cyclone to degenerate into a remnant low at 12 : 00 UTC on September 3 . The post @-@ tropical low continued westward prior to dissipating the next day .
Heavy rains from the storm triggered flooding that temporarily isolated three communities in Tampico . One fatality was attributed to the storm . The hardest hit area was Cabo Rojo where 210 homes were affected , 80 of which sustained damage . Total losses to the road network in Tamaulipas reached 80 million pesos ( US $ 6 million ) , while structural damage amounted to 7 million pesos ( US $ 500 @,@ 000 ) . In Texas , more than 2 in ( 51 mm ) of rain fell in Brownsville , causing street flooding . Two Mexican fishing vessels ran aground in the Port of Brownsville and a third on South Padre Island . The United States Coast Guard attributed the mishaps to the sudden influx of numerous ships .
= = = Hurricane Edouard = = =
A tropical wave accompanied by a broad area of low pressure exited the western coast of Africa on September 6 , acquiring sufficient organization to be declared a tropical depression by 12 : 00 UTC on September 11 . Twelve hours later , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Edouard . The newly formed cyclone moved northwest , steered around a subtropical ridge to its northeast . The storm intensified in a generally favorable environment and became a hurricane by 12 : 00 UTC on September 14 . With a well @-@ defined eye surrounded by intense eyewall convection , Edouard further strengthened into a major hurricane early on September 16 , attaining peak winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) at 12 : 00 UTC , the first major hurricane in the Atlantic since Hurricane Sandy in 2012 . The cyclone abruptly weakened thereafter as it curved northeastward in advance of an upper @-@ level trough , falling below hurricane intensity by 00 : 00 UTC on September 19 and degenerating into a remnant low eighteen hours later . The remnant low moved generally southward , merging with a frontal boundary well south @-@ southwest of the Azores on September 21 .
Though Edouard remained well away from land throughout its existence , large swells and dangerous rip currents affected much of the East Coast of the United States . Rip current warnings were issued on September 17 for Duval , Flagler , Nassau , and St. Johns counties in Florida and Camden and Glynn counties in Georgia . Waves in the area were forecast to reach 3 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) . On September 17 , two men drowned off the coast of Ocean City , Maryland , due to strong rip currents . The Bermuda Weather Service noted the hurricane as a " potential threat " ; however , Edouard remained several hundred miles away from the islands .
On September 16 , several unmanned drones designed by NOAA were launched by Hurricane Hunter aircraft while investigating Edouard . This marked the first time that drones were used in such a manner by NOAA . Unlike the manned aircraft , the drones were able to fly to the lower @-@ levels of hurricanes and investigate the more dangerous areas near the surface . Additionally , a NASA @-@ operated Global Hawk flew into the storm , equipped with two experimental instruments : the Scanning High @-@ resolution Interferometer Sounder ( S @-@ HIS ) and Cloud Physics Lidar ( CPL ) . The S @-@ HIS provided measurements of temperature and relative humidity while the CPL was for studying aerosols and the structure of cloud layers within hurricanes .
= = = Hurricane Fay = = =
A low @-@ level disturbance was designated as Subtropical Storm Fay at 06 : 00 UTC on October 10 while located about 615 mi ( 990 km ) south Bermuda . Directed north @-@ northwestward around a mid @-@ level ridge across the central Atlantic , the system became dislocated from a cold @-@ core low , allowing for a subsequent transition into a fully tropical storm by early on October 11 . Fay continued to strengthen in spite of excessively strong wind shear as it accelerated north @-@ northeast , becoming a hurricane as it approached Bermuda the next morning . With an asymmetric cloud pattern , the hurricane reached peak winds of 80 mph ( 140 km / h ) and made landfall on the island at 08 : 10 UTC on October 12 . An approaching shortwave further turned the system to the east @-@ northeast while also acting to increase wind shear , causing Fay to begin weakening . It fell below hurricane intensity on October 12 and degenerated into an open trough by 06 : 00 UTC on October 13 .
A few tropical cyclone warnings and watches were issued in anticipation of Fay 's impact on Bermuda . Public schools were closed in advance of the storm . Despite its modest strength , Fay produced relatively extensive damage on Bermuda . Winds gusting over 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) clogged roadways with downed trees and power poles , and left a majority of the island 's electricity customers without power . The terminal building at L.F. Wade International Airport was severely flooded after the storm compromised its roof and sprinkler system . Immediately after the storm , 200 Bermuda Regiment soldiers were called to clear debris and assist in initial damage repairs . Cleanup efforts overlapped with preparations for the approach of the stronger Hurricane Gonzalo . There were concerns that debris from Fay could become airborne during Gonzalo and exacerbate future destruction . Overall , it is estimated that the hurricane left at least $ 3 @.@ 8 million in damage .
= = = Hurricane Gonzalo = = =
A tropical depression formed about 390 mi ( 630 km ) east of the Leeward Islands by 00 : 00 UTC on October 12 from a tropical wave that emerged off Africa on October 4 . Twelve hours later , it intensified into Tropical Storm Gonzalo . Steered west and eventually west @-@ northwest , the cyclone rapidly intensified amid favorable atmospheric dynamics , becoming a minimal hurricane by 12 : 00 UTC on October 13 . After curving northwest and emerging into the southwestern Atlantic , Gonzalo continued its period of rapid intensification , becoming a major hurricane by 18 : 00 UTC on October 14 and a Category 4 hurricane six hours later . The hurricane underwent an eyewall replacement cycle the next day , but ultimately attained peak winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 940 mbar ( 28 inHg ) by 12 : 00 UTC on October 16 . Late that afternoon , the effects of a second eyewall replacement cycle , cooler waters , and increased shear caused the storm to begin a steady weakening trend as it accelerated north @-@ northeast ahead of an approaching trough . Gonzalo weakened below major hurricane intensity by 00 : 00 UTC on October 18 and made landfall on Bermuda with winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) six hours later . The cyclone continued north @-@ northeast , transitioning into an extratropical cyclone by 18 : 00 UTC on October 19 while located roughly 460 mi ( 740 km ) northeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . The extratropical cyclone turned east @-@ northeast and was absorbed by a cold front early on October 20 .
Widespread impact was observed across the northeastern Caribbean Sea as Gonzalo moved through the region . Sustained winds of 67 mph ( 103 km / h ) , with gusts to 88 mph ( 142 km / h ) , were observed on Antigua , where downed trees blocked roads and damaged houses . Numerous fishing boats were destroyed and the island was subject to a widespread power outage . On Saint Martin , 37 docked boats were destroyed and the airport recorded sustained winds of 55 mph ( 88 km / h ) with gusts to 94 mph ( 151 km / h ) . As Gonzalo made landfall on Bermuda , L.F. Wade International Airport recorded sustained winds of 93 mph ( 150 km / h ) and gusts up to 113 mph ( 181 km / h ) ; an elevated observing station at St. Davids reported a peak gust of 144 mph ( 232 km / h ) . At the height of the storm about 86 % of electricity customers on the island lost power . Multiple buildings suffered roof damage , and downed trees and power lines prevented travel across the island . On Bermuda alone , the storm left at least $ 200 million in damage . After transitioning into an extratropical cyclone , Gonzalo delivered strong winds to Newfoundland , with gusts peaking at 66 mph ( 106 km / h ) at Cape Pine . Approximately 100 households lost power , while heavy rain caused localized urban flooding in St. Johns . Upon reaching the United Kingdom on October 21 , heavy rain and strong winds , with gusts reaching 70 mph ( 100 km / h ) in Wales , downed trees and disrupted transportation . Three indirect deaths in the United Kingdom were attributed to the remnants of Gonzalo . The system later contributed to torrential rains over the Balkans , which resulted in severe flooding in Greece and Bulgaria .
= = = Tropical Storm Hanna = = =
On October 19 , the remnants of Tropical Storm Trudy emerged over the Bay of Campeche after losing its low @-@ level circulation over the mountainous terrain of Mexico . Moving slowly eastward , the system redeveloped a new surface circulation on October 21 , becoming a tropical depression the next day about 175 mi ( 280 km ) west of Campeche , Mexico . A reconnaissance aircraft flight measured a central pressure of 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) upon its formation , the lowest in relation to the depression . Increasing wind shear and dry air intrusion soon caused the depression to degrade into a remnant low early on October 23 before moving inland over the southwestern Yucatán Peninsula . After crossing the southern Yucatán and northern Belize , the low emerged over the northwestern Caribbean Sea on October 24 . Hostile conditions from a nearby frontal boundary ultimately caused the system to degrade into a trough and become entangled within the front .
Subsequent weakening of the frontal system on October 26 allowed the depression 's remnants to become better defined as they moved southeast and later southward . The system regained a closed circulation by 12 : 00 UTC that day as it began turning west . Following the development of deep convection the system regenerated into a tropical depression around 00 : 00 UTC on October 27 roughly 80 mi ( 130 km ) east of the Nicaragua – Honduras border . ASCAT scatterometer data shortly thereafter resulted in the depression being upgraded to Tropical Storm Hanna at 06 : 00 UTC . Just ten hours later Hanna made landfall over extreme northeastern Nicaragua and quickly weakened back to a depression . The system degraded to a remnant low early on October 28 before turning northwestward and emerging over the Gulf of Honduras . Some signs of redevelopment appeared throughout the day , but the remnants of Hanna soon moved inland over Belize early on October 29 . The system finally dissipated over northwest Guatemala on the following day . Hanna and its remnants contributed to an ongoing flood in Nicaragua that was responsible for 28 fatalities , many cattle deaths , and a significant loss in grain .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used to name storms that formed in the North Atlantic in 2014 . This is the same list used in the 2008 season , except for Gonzalo , Isaias , and Paulette , which replaced Gustav , Ike , and Paloma , respectively . The name Gonzalo was used for the first time in 2014 . There were no names retired this year ; thus , the same list will be used again in the 2020 season .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all the storms that have formed during the 2014 Atlantic hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , areas affected , damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but were still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical , a wave , or a low , and all the damage figures are in 2014 USD .
= It 's a SpongeBob Christmas ! =
" It 's a SpongeBob Christmas ! " is the 23rd episode of the eighth season , and the 175th episode overall , of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants . It originally aired on CBS in the United States on November 23 , 2012 , and on Nickelodeon on December 6 . In the special , Plankton tries to convince SpongeBob to transform everybody in Bikini Bottom into jerks by feeding them his special jerktonium @-@ laced fruitcakes in order to get his Christmas wish — the Krabby Patty secret formula .
The episode was produced in stop motion animation at Screen Novelties , and was directed by Mark Caballero and Seamus Walsh , two of the founders of the company . The animation style was inspired by those of the classic Rankin / Bass television specials . Written by Luke Brookshier , Marc Ceccarelli , Derek Iversen , and Mr. Lawrence , " It 's a SpongeBob Christmas ! " was based on Tom Kenny and Andy Paley 's 2009 song " Don 't Be a Jerk ( It 's Christmas ) " , which was also featured in the episode . John Goodman guest starred as the voice of Santa Claus . On November 6 , 2012 , the soundtrack album and the DVD for the episode were released simultaneously .
Upon premiere , " It 's a SpongeBob Christmas ! " attracted nearly five million viewers and met positive critical reception . It received four nominations at the 40th Annie Awards including Best Animated Television Production for Children ( with Dan Driscoll winning the Character Animation in an Animated Television or other Broadcast Venue Production category ) . It was also nominated for Best Sound Editing in Television at the 60th Golden Reel Awards .
= = Plot summary = =
= = = Patchy the Pirate 's Subplot = = =
The special opens with Patchy the Pirate Driving a Mail truck through a snowy mountain area ( and parodying the role of S. D. Kluger from Santa Claus is Comin ' to Town ) with the intention of delivering his letter to Santa himself personally . He stops to wish the viewers a Merry Christmas , and explains that he wanted to make sure Santa Claus got his letter this year , so he has given the mailman the day off ( or so he claims ; in actuality , it is revealed that he stole the truck and the mailman is tied up in the back of the truck ) . His parrot , Potty , however , doubts that Patchy knows the way to the North Pole . As they debate which Christmas song contains the directions in its lyrics , the truck suddenly runs over a ( literal ) fork in the road , which gets stuck in one of the tires and causes the truck to spin out of control . As this happens , Patchy suggests they show the viewers what SpongeBob is up to this Christmas .
The mail truck then drives off a cliff , and crashes at the bottom of a canyon , but Patchy and Potty ( and the mailman , still bound and gagged ) manage to survive . Unfortunately , the Truck has a flat tire caused by the fork , preventing Patchy from being able to drive it any further , and he and Potty get lost in the woods and start a campfire . Out of a sense of hunger within over twenty minutes , Patchy hallucinates and imagines Potty as a platter of buffalo wings and nearly eats him , only to snap out of it . Potty then also hallucinates and imagines Patchy 's head as a Suet cake topped with birdseed and pecks on him .
In the special 's epilogue , Patchy and Potty find out that they 're at the North Pole , believing they finally made it to Santa 's workshop . Patchy goes inside to read his letter , which says that all he wants for Christmas is meet his hero , SpongeBob SquarePants . However , it is revealed to the viewers that Patchy is hallucinating and has actually wandered into a cave inhabited by a hungry polar bear who starts chasing him ( and presumably nearly eats him ) . Nearby , the real Santa puts Patchy on the naughty list for kidnapping the mailman , and stealing the mail truck in the first place earlier , and Potty agrees with him . The Patchy segments then end as they wish the viewers a merry Christmas .
These Segments are cut from special on CBS airings .
= = = Main Plot = = =
It is Christmas in Bikini Bottom and Plankton is miserable and angry for committing so many naughty deeds , that he always gets puts on Santa 's naughty list , making him unable to receive his Christmas wish — the Krusty Krab 's Krabby Patty secret formula . However , he discovers Jerktonium , a dangerous chemical element which serves as a trap for the citizens of Bikini Bottom and is capable of turning anyone into a jerk . He cooks it into fruitcakes that he intends to feed to all the Bikini Bottomites and turn them into jerks . In order to test it , Plankton gives SpongeBob a slice , but nothing seems to work on SpongeBob , who is immune to Jerktonium because of the combination of his tiny brain and his very big heart . Increasingly infuriated that his plan has seemingly failed completely to suffice , Plankton gives his fruitcake dispenser to SpongeBob , who promptly distributes the fruitcakes to all of Bikini Bottom and transforms all the residents into jerks . After realizing that the element works only on other people in Bikini Bottom instead and that SpongeBob is so full of Christmas spirit that he is immune to jerktonium , Plankton is forced to send out an evil wind @-@ up robot version of SpongeBob — to commit troublesome deeds to frame the real SpongeBob .
The next day , SpongeBob begins to notice that everyone in town is behaving like jerks . SpongeBob and Sandy discover the antidote for Jerktonium to cure the residents in Bikini Bottom is a song called " Don 't Be a Jerk ( It 's Christmas ! ) . " SpongeBob sings it , bringing back the residents ' Christmas spirit . Unfortunately , it is too late when Santa arrives and states that everyone is on his naughty list , except for Plankton , who is the only nice person there is , which has earned him the Krabby Patty formula . SpongeBob tries to convince Santa that this is all a mistake , but Santa refuses to believe him and states that he is in trouble for wreaking havoc in Bikini Bottom . The wind @-@ up robot comes to eliminate Santa and destroy more of Christmas , but SpongeBob fights the robot with the fruitcake dispenser and finally destroys it , clearing his name . Santa thanks SpongeBob for saving him , which shows that SpongeBob is good , but then he finds the robot 's wind @-@ up key by reading " If found , please return to the Chum Bucket , " revealing that Plankton was behind all the chaos , and punishes Plankton by giving him , yet again , a stocking of coal . Santa then leaves Bikini Bottom , only for Patrick Star to capture him in a butterfly net and throw him off @-@ course .
= = Production = =
= = = Development , writing , and voice casting = = =
Luke Brookshier , Marc Ceccarelli , Derek Iversen , and Mr. Lawrence served as the episode 's writers , with Brookshier and Ceccarelli serving as storyboard directors . " It 's a SpongeBob Christmas ! " was based on the 2009 Christmas song " Don 't Be a Jerk ( It 's Christmas ) " written by SpongeBob 's voice actor Tom Kenny and his writing partner Andy Paley . They wrote it as " ... just sort of a little sample calling card of what we were thinking about . " The story of the song was conceived with the help of one of the episode 's writers Mr. Lawrence . Kenny explained , " ... Eventually somebody at Nickelodeon found it [ the song ] on their desk and decided to make it into a holiday special . " The network let Kenny and Paley write three more songs for the upcoming special episode ( Nickelodeon eventually decided to release a soundtrack album , which became It 's a SpongeBob Christmas ! Album , containing the songs to coincide with the episode ) .
" It 's a SpongeBob Christmas ! " was the first full @-@ length episode of the series to be produced in stop motion animation . Mark Caballero , Seamus Walsh , and Christopher Finnegan animated it at Screen Novelties , while Caballero and Walsh served as the directors . Screen Novelties was chosen by the show 's executives to execute the animation because they had already worked with them before in other several smaller projects . These include the revamping of the opening title sequence of the show for 2009 's SpongeBob 's Truth or Square . Walsh explained , " They dug one of our shorts that we 'd done a while back , which was called Graveyard Jamboree with Mysterious Mose , and wanted to have us apply our sensibilities to SpongeBob ... We come from the same planet as far as our sense of humor and comic sensibilities are concerned . But we also wanted to make sure that it felt like a SpongeBob episode . "
All the main SpongeBob SquarePants cast members lent their voices to the episode . Series executive producer Paul Tibbitt also had a minor speaking role as the voice of Potty the Parrot . In addition to the regular cast , American actor John Goodman guest starred in the episode as the voice of Santa Claus .
= = = Animation and filming = = =
The animators cited the classic television specials Rudolph the Red @-@ Nosed Reindeer and Santa Claus Is Comin ' to Town by Rankin / Bass Productions as inspirations for the episode 's animation styles . Caballero said , " Well , we are heavily immersed in that particular Arthur Rankin and Jules Bass style . They are big heroes of ours ... So we tapped into that knowledge for sure . We definitely use modern tricks , though . We shot everything with digital cameras directly to the hard drives of our iMacs . "
Production on the episode officially began in October 2011 at Los Angeles , California , after several months of research and development . The animators worked closely with executive producer Paul Tibbitt , creator Stephen Hillenburg , and creative director Vincent Waller to ensure the cartoon characters were properly translated into three @-@ dimensional puppets . Hillenburg and Tibbitt provided hands @-@ on feedback on the production on a weekly basis . " They 'd check out the weeklies and go back and forth with us on the various gags [ ... ] It was really a pleasurable experience when they came to visit , because we come from the same planet . It all felt very easy and natural , " Walsh said .
About 30 people — whom Walsh described " ... seemed to be thrilled to work on the show " — worked on the making of the episode over at Screen Novelties . Walsh described the initial stage of production as " a very busy period for all of us ... We came in at about 8 : 30 in the morning and didn 't leave until midnight some days . But it all zipped by pretty quickly . " He said that they " felt pretty lucky because usually executives involved with productions look at the stop @-@ motion process as annoying , but on this special , they were very jazzed and gung @-@ go about it . " To keep the production crew in the Christmas spirit , six months worth of Christmas music was played , which included 83 versions of The Nutcracker suite . According to Finnegan , it took about five months to shoot .
= = = = Set construction = = = =
Caballero and Walsh had conflicts on making sure the stop motion version of Bikini Bottom will resemble the 2D world of the series . Caballero said that " We didn 't want to make exact sculptural copies of the cartoon drawings and layouts , just because it might 've ended up feeling too ' perfect ' or something . So we chose to re @-@ appropriate real world objects as much as possible . " Art director Kelly Mazurowski focused on " digging through salvage yards " , picking the right materials to be used in the set . Caballero described this process as " ' puppetizing ' the world of Bikini Bottom . "
Six sets were constructed on which 60 pounds of baking soda were used as snow ( the crew tried to use real snow but it melted ) , 42 pounds of glitter were used to cover the background , and 20 boxes of breakfast cereal were used to cover the coral rocks . Over 38 different types of foam were used to make the set pieces and the characters ' bodies and heads . To render SpongeBob 's pineapple house , palm fronds from a tree in a school yard were used . Other props and materials used were an actual starfish , three Christmas trees ( for the Patchy the Pirate 's Winter Wonderland scenes ) , six boxes of puff cereal ( to create the fruitcake inside SpongeBob 's mouth ) , 21 pounds of googly eyes ( for rivets , texture pieces , knobs , etc . ) , 22 pounds of woodchips ( to create Sandy 's treedome floor ) , and 24 bunches of craft flowers ( to create the parade float ) .
= = = = Character design = = = =
According to Caballero , SpongeBob was the most challenging character to translate to stop motion . It was so " ... just because of the sheer number of parts that needed to be made . We wanted to retain as much of that squashy @-@ stretchy goofiness as possible , so he had dozens of replacement parts , like arms , noses , even various sizes of cheeks and freckles . Of course , as the main character , you really want to make sure he will charm the audience , which brings a special kind of pressure . " Walsh said , " The most important thing is to capture the spirit of the character , not necessarily a literal copy of the 2D . Puppets have their own kind of energy and you have to be careful about what to include and what to leave out . " On the other hand , Patchy the Pirate became the easiest character to make " because he has the most humanoid proportions . "
= = Release = =
= = = Broadcast = = =
A sneak @-@ peek trailer for the episode was released in June 2012 . On November 23 , 2012 , " It 's a SpongeBob Christmas ! " officially aired on CBS . It also premiered in the United Kingdom and Ireland on December 2 , 2012 . On December 6 , 2012 , " It 's a SpongeBob Christmas ! " aired on Nickelodeon in the United States , twelve years after the original airing of the first SpongeBob SquarePants Christmas special " Christmas Who ? " . According to Caballero , the decision to make the episode a CBS prime time special " came along later " and the crew " were stoked when we heard the news . " He said it may be because " most of the classic Christmas specials like Rudolph [ the Red @-@ Nosed Reindeer ] , Frosty [ the Snowman ] and A Charlie Brown Christmas air on that channel . To be included in that line up was far out ! "
= = = Home media and other releases = = =
" It 's a SpongeBob Christmas ! " was released on a DVD compilation of the same name on October 30 , 2012 in Canada and on November 6 , 2012 in the United States . The DVD features exclusive content including behind @-@ the @-@ scenes making of the special and interviews with the cast and crew , a pre @-@ color animatic , and yule log . The initial announcement of the DVD release stated that it would contain three Christmas specials from T.U.F.F. Puppy , Fanboy & Chum Chum , and The Fairly OddParents as bonus features ; however , these were dropped from the actual release . A Blu @-@ ray release was also announced , but was cancelled a week afterwards for unknown reasons ; however , on July 22 , 2013 , Paramount Home Media Distribution announced that the Blu @-@ ray would be released on October 15 , 2013 . " It 's a SpongeBob Christmas ! " was released for digital download on October 31 , 2012 featuring over 30 minutes of exclusive behind the scenes footage , a sing along version of " Don 't Be a Jerk ( It 's Christmas ) , " and more . On March 12 , 2013 , " It 's a SpongeBob Christmas ! " and other season 8 episodes were released on The Complete Eighth Season DVD .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original airing on CBS on November 23 , the episode was viewed by an estimated 3 @.@ 626 million households and received a 0 @.@ 9 Nielsen rating and a 3 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . On December 8 , Saturday , the airing of the episode on Nickelodeon drew 4 @.@ 8 million viewers making the special win its time period across all television and posted strong , double @-@ digit gains over last year with Kids 2 @-@ 11 ( 7 @.@ 8 / 2 @.@ 6 million , + 30 % ) , Kids 6 @-@ 11 ( 7 @.@ 7 / 1 @.@ 5 million , + 45 % ) , Teens 9 @-@ 14 ( 5 @.@ 7 / 1 @.@ 2 million , + 84 % ) and Adults 18 @-@ 49 ( 1 @.@ 2 / 1 @.@ 3 million , + 33 % ) . Nickelodeon closed the week as the most @-@ watched net in total day with kids 2 @-@ 11 ( 2 @.@ 8 / 936 @,@ 000 ) and total viewers ( 1 @.@ 8 million ) . In the United Kingdom 273 @,@ 000 viewers watched the episode and 78 @,@ 000 viewers watched the timeshift broadcast . The broadcast in Canada received 835 @,@ 000 viewers , the 23rd highest of the week on all Canadian television . In Spain the premiere on December 20 , 2012 received 618 @,@ 000 viewers making it the 44th highest broadcast for that day .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The special episode received positive reviews from media critics . In his review for the Los Angeles Times , Robert Lloyd wrote , " I felt I 'd been somewhere , watching this . When it ended , I was not ready to leave . " David Hinckley of the New York Daily News wrote , " It 's enough to make you want to dream of a yellow Christmas . " Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club called the episode " cute , and goofy and doesn 't have a mean bone in its body . " Mark Frauenfelder of Boing Boing said that " ... they [ the animators ] perfectly captured the look and feel of those delightful old stop motion specials . " Judge Dawn Hunt of DVD Verdict called the episode " a sweet holiday treat , punctuated by musical numbers that 'll leave you smiling . " He added " If you 're looking for a new holiday viewing , ' It 's a SpongeBob Christmas ! ' is definitely worthy of consideration . " Paul Mavis of DVD Talk applauded the episode but has doubts if it will become the classic that will be watched every season . Director Walsh said that " Hopefully this will become a new tradition . "
In her review for the About.com , Nancy Basile 's review was mixed to positive and gave the episode a score of four out of five . She wrote , " ... though I disagree with a few of the animator 's choices , this Christmas special is a treat . " Basile criticized its characters especially the use of foam to create the characters and the way Santa Claus was depicted saying " ... he looks like a pig with liver spots . " The animators responded to this comment about their interpretation of Santa Claus , saying " We definitely wanted to keep an element of strangeness , almost scary aspects in the story . " Caballero explained that the idea of making Santa Claus look tired and strange came when they saw a drawing of him by Marc Ceccarelli or Luke Brookshier . Caballero said , " We thought that was a great idea . So we came up with our own little back story where Bikini Bottom is the last stop for Santa . He 's tired , he wants to get home , take his shoes off ... We honed in on the old descriptions of Santa being a jolly old elf . We pictured him as humanoid , but not necessarily directly human . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Merchandise = =
A book based on the episode was released on September 10 , 2013 . The book was published by Random House .
= Tropical Storm Jerry ( 2001 ) =
Tropical Storm Jerry was a short @-@ lived tropical storm that formed in the latter half of the 2001 Atlantic hurricane season . Forming as a tropical depression from a tropical wave on October 6 near Barbados , Jerry intensified into a tropical storm early the following day on October 7 while initially located under an environment of weak vertical wind shear . After reaching its peak of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , Jerry passed just south of Barbados late on October 7 and through the Windward Islands on October 8 . Shortly after entering the eastern Caribbean Sea , moderate upper @-@ level wind shear affected Jerry 's upper @-@ level outflow , and the cyclone weakened to a depression shortly afterwards . Deterioration in organization continued , and Jerry dissipated while moving rapidly westward well south of Puerto Rico . Jerry caused minimal effects in the Lesser Antilles .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moving westward off the African coast on October 1 , 2001 entered the tropical Atlantic . The wave 's organization changed little until October 4 as it moved westward , when curved banding features began to increase . However , little improvement in the wave 's organization occurred until October 6 after continuing to move westward for two days , when an area of low pressure was identified by the National Hurricane Center . Afterward , the cloudiness became more concentrated , and the system organized into a tropical depression by noon on October 6 , shortly after the first advisory from the NHC was issued at 11 a.m. AST .
Located 620 mi ( 1 @,@ 000 km ) east @-@ southeast of Barbados , the twelfth depression of the season moved just north of due west , steered quickly at 20 to 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) by a ridge of high pressure in the lower to middle troposphere . At 5 p.m. AST later on October 6 , the NHC noted that the depression was nearing tropical storm strength . Shortly after , a burst of heavy convective thunderstorms developed over the ill @-@ defined low @-@ level center , and as organization improved , the system was upgraded to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) Tropical Storm Jerry around midnight on October 7 . Located within an environment of weak vertical wind shear , Jerry strengthened further , with its maximum sustained winds reaching their estimated peak of around 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) as Jerry approached the Windward Islands later on October 7 . Jerry passed just south of Barbados at its peak intensity , followed by a slowing of forward speed and jog to the northwest as Jerry entered the Windward Islands early on October 8 . Reconnaissance aircraft also indicated a possible reformation of the center , as data indicated multiple low @-@ level rotations on a northeast to southwest axis .
As Jerry entered the eastern Caribbean Sea early on October 8 after bypassing St. Vincent , its forward speed increased to 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) , and reconnaissance aircraft observations indicated a broad circulation with several small rotations but an ill @-@ defined low @-@ level center . Later , satellite observations indicated that the storm was poorly organized , with an elongated cloud mass and displaced secondary center to the northwest . Moderate vertical wind shear from the northwest developed , disrupting Jerry 's upper @-@ level outflow . Jerry continued to deteriorate , and later on October 8 , aircraft data indicated the system had weakened into a broad area of low pressure with scattered squalls mainly to the east of the remnant center . Jerry then dissipated shortly afterward approximately 230 miles south of Puerto Rico , with the remnants moving westward .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Due to the tropical cyclone 's short life , overall track errors in model guidance were not significant , and most models accurately indicated Jerry 's westward to west @-@ northwest course into the Caribbean Sea . Most models and official forecasts did not anticipate Jerry 's dissipation , and numerous models indicated the system would reach hurricane status within two to three days under favorable conditions . Prior to Jerry 's formation , a tropical storm watch was issued for Barbados at 5 p.m. EDT on October 6 because of forecasts that indicated the depression could intensify to tropical storm intensity . As the depression intensified to tropical storm status and moved closer to the Windward Islands , a tropical storm watch was issued for Tobago by the government of the island nation and for nearby Grenada by the Trinidad and Tobago Meteorological Service at 5 a.m. EDT on October 7 . A tropical storm warning was issued for Barbados at 8 a.m. EDT .
Jerry caused minimal damage as it moved through the Windward Islands and Lesser Antilles . A station at Martinique reported sustained one @-@ minute winds of 44 mph ( 72 km / h ) on October 8 . The outer bands of Jerry delivered light rainfall to Grenada on October 8 , but no damage was reported . Some downpours and high winds were reported . No ships reported tropical storm @-@ force winds , though Barbados reported a minimum pressure of 1007 mb .
= Cannibal ( EP ) =
Cannibal is the debut extended play ( EP ) by American recording artist Kesha , released on November 19 , 2010 . The EP is a follow @-@ up companion to her debut album , Animal . Originally , the record was thought to be released as a deluxe edition of Animal , but was instead sold and released as both an EP and a deluxe edition of Animal . Kesha worked with a variety of producers and writers such as executive producer Dr. Luke , Benny Blanco , Ammo , Max Martin , Bangladesh and others . Musically , the songs on Cannibal are of the dance @-@ pop genre , with some songs incorporating elements of electro and electropop in their production and beats . Throughout the album , the use of Auto @-@ Tune and vocoders is prominent . Lyrically , the songs on Cannibal speak of ignoring judgement or hate and experiences based on love and heartbreak .
Cannibal received generally positive reviews from music critics . However , a common complaint amongst critics was the overuse of Auto @-@ Tune , while the album 's production was generally highlighted . The album 's lyrics generally polarized music critics ; some praised her boldness , while others criticized them as being too raunchy . In the United States , the EP reached a peak of fifteen selling 74 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release . In Canada , the album achieved similar success reaching a peak of fourteen on the chart . Cannibal was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 copies .
Two singles were released from the album . The lead single , " We R Who We R " , was a worldwide success , reaching number one in the United States , the United Kingdom and Australia , and charting within the top ten in numerous other countries . In the United States , the song became the seventeenth song in the Billboard Hot 100 's history to debut at number one . The album 's second single , " Blow " , was released on February 8 , 2011 . The song accomplished top ten positions in multiple countries including Australia , New Zealand and the United States .
= = Background and development = =
Originally believed to only be a re @-@ release of her debut album Animal , Cannibal was instead released both as a deluxe edition of Animal as well as a standalone extended play ( EP ) . The EP has been classified as a follow up " nine @-@ song companion " record to Animal . Cannibal was originally intended to contain anywhere between four and eight tracks with the final outcome instead consisting of eight tracks , and a remix of her debut album 's title track , for a total of nine tracks .
Partial recording of the album took place during September 2010 , at Conway Studios with Dr. Luke again as the executive producer . Kesha recorded the abundance of Cannibal over a two @-@ week span with a variety of producers ; the short recording period was due to her only being available for a limited amount of time due to prior commitments . During an interview with Billboard conducted by Chris Willman , one of the potential songs for the album was used as an example of how Luke and Kesha collaborated to create a song for this record : " There 's an unfinished chorus on this new track , in which Gottwald is singing through such distorted Auto @-@ Tune , it 's impossible to tell what he 's saying @-@ which is deliberate , so he won 't unduly influence Ke $ ha when she comes up with her own lyrics . "
Like her debut album , Kesha worked with some previous producers and writers that worked with her on her first album , such as : Dr. Luke , Ammo , Benny Blanco and Max Martin . Unlike her debut album though , Kesha enlisted the help of producer Bangladesh . She explained the reason for enlisting his help was that she wanted to " add a tougher edge to her music " . She said that the message she wanted to put out through this album was to create " good , positive , [ danceable ] music " . She elaborated , " I feel like I ’ m creating this hopefully very youthful and irreverent movement of the kids , of like adolescence . I feel like the parents don ’ t get it , but the kids get it . And they deserve to have more good , positive music . ”
= = Composition = =
Musically , the songs on Cannibal are of the dance @-@ pop genre , while some of its songs incorporate elements of electro and electropop in its production and beats . Throughout the album , the use of Auto @-@ Tune and vocoders are prominent . The album 's title track , " Cannibal " , makes use of synth and dance driven backings while Kesha sings about maneater tendencies and makes a reference to serial @-@ killer , Jeffrey Dahmer . Present throughout the song are snippets of Kesha yodeling . " Blow " shows a darker side of Kesha with lyrics like : " We get what we want / We do what you don 't . " The song is more dominantly an electro infused track that uses a synth beat backing . Vocally the song uses snippets of Kesha 's yodeling , combined with heavy use of auto @-@ tune . " Sleazy " changes pace from Kesha 's normally persistent " talk @-@ singing " vocal style , to a more rap driven style . She raps over a thundering bass line and ticking beat backing , while the song speaks of wealthy men hitting on Kesha , trying to buy her attention . The song has been cited for drawing influence from multiple songs including ; Gwen Stefani 's " Hollaback Girl " for its " swagga " , Jennifer Lopez 's " Love Don 't Cost a Thing " for its " attitude " , as well as combining " a touch of Lil Wayne 's " Milli " .
" C U Next Tuesday " is a dance @-@ pop song that talks about " lost and unrequited love " " The Harold Song " has been cited as the album 's power ballad that features a more stripped down vocal style portraying a vulnerable side of Kesha . " Grow a Pear " is an electropop song with lyrical content that has been compared to Katy Perry 's , " Ur So Gay " . The album 's lead single , " We R Who We R " , is a dance @-@ pop song that uses a synth @-@ heavy backing . The song incorporates elements of trance pop and electropop it both its production , and beats . Lyrically , the song has been described as a pride anthem , with Kesha noting the songs lyrics were to be taken as " a celebration of any sort of quirks or eccentricities . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Cannibal received generally positive reviews from music critics upon its release . The album holds a score 73 out of 100 based on 11 critical reviews , according to the music review aggregator Metacritic . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic was positive in the review of Cannibal . Erlewine was somewhat critical of the choice to release the EP noting that the only real reason for the release was that Animal had been " squeezed dry of hits " . Although critical of the re @-@ release , Thomas ' consensus of the album was positive , writing : " aided by the tight focus of an eight @-@ track EP , Cannibal ’ s brevity trumping the scattershot Animal -- but what makes them stick is Kesha , a pop star lacking pop star looks and a pop star voice . She ’ s all ravenous id , spitting at strangers and backstabbing friends , humiliating hotties , and laughing at the wreckage in her wake . She is who she is and she offers no apologies . " Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly commented on Kesha 's writing of the album noting that her " herky @-@ jerky rhymes still sound like they came from the bathroom wall of a reform @-@ school kindergarten " , not citing that as a negative but instead noting that the album had a " sulfurous end @-@ of @-@ days whiff about it " . Greenblatt ended her review of the album giving it a rating of " B + " and called " Sleazy " and " Blow " the standout tracks on the album . Will Hermes from Rolling Stone noted that Kesha 's main pop competitor was Lady Gaga writing , " This EP proves Kesha would kick Gaga 's ass in a freestyle battle " praising her rhyming and production by Dr. Luke calling Kesha the " snap queen of clubland . " Chad Grischow from IGN met the album with a positive review , giving the album a score of 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 . Grischow was critical of the production of the album and overuse of Auto @-@ Tune writing that there was " so much overdubbing and autotune used that most of the songs may as well be sung by a spunky robot " . He also noted that when Kesha 's vocals were stripped down she could actually sing , highlighting the ballads " The Harold Song " and " C U Next Tuesday " in the album 's review . Grischow ended his review writing , " Cannibal proves to be too mired in mindless lyrics and excessive vocal effects to have any lasting appeal . "
Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine met the album with a mixed to positive review . Cinquemani wrote that Kesha was able to pull off authentic and unapologetic lyrics with ease , noting that this was something her pop @-@ peers could not do . A complaint on the review was that the album was too similar to Animal , noting that she failed to " branch out in any significant way " and the overuse of processed vocals . Cinquemani ended the review praising the " Animal ( Billboard Remix ) " for its " promise of something deeper , something beyond Dr. Luke 's latest recycled formula . " Gary Graff from Billboard wrote " Kesha sinks her teeth into some fresh flavors on Cannibal , which will certainly enhance her ' Animal ' attraction . " Spin magazine 's Barry Walters reviewed Cannibal with a mixed outcome giving the album five out of a possible ten stars . Walters criticized the album as a whole stating that it was full of contradictions , noting that on " We R Who We R " " she sends out pride vibes to bullied gays , " while on " Grow a Pear " , " she emasculates a potential boyfriend . " The production of the album was stated as a positive , praising Dr. Luke for his consistent club @-@ pop hooks and ability to " render the hypocrisy [ of the album ] nearly irrelevant . " Mesfin Fekadu from The Boston Globe was mixed in his review of the album . Fekadu criticized the album 's lyrical depth and use of auto @-@ tune writing that the album was " filled with vapid lyrics and battles any T @-@ Pain album for most use of the auto @-@ tune . " Kesha 's mother , Pebe , was also targeted in the review criticizing her for helping write the album 's title track , " Cannibal " which was called " disturbing " and " sad " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
In the United States , Cannibal debuted on the Billboard 200 chart on the week of December 2 , 2010 at number fifteen . The EP sold 74 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release . The following week the album dropped twenty @-@ six positions to position forty @-@ one selling an additional 26 @,@ 200 copies . After being present on the chart for two months the album surpassed 250 @,@ 000 copies in sales . In June 2011 , the album received gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 5 | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
00 @,@ 000 units . In Canada , Cannibal entered and peaked at number fourteen on the Canadian Albums Chart .
= = Singles = =
" We R Who We R " was released as the EP 's lead single on October 22 , 2010 . Kesha said she was affected by the recent teenage suicides , in particular the suicide of Tyler Clementi , a young man who committed suicide after being outed as gay by his roommate . She elaborated , " I was really affected [ .. ] having been subject to very public hatred [ myself ] . I have absolutely no idea how these kids felt . What I 'm going through is nothing compared to what they had to go through . Just know things do get better and you need to celebrate who you are . " With the release , Kesha stated that she hoped that the song would become an anthem for " weirdos " , and said , " Every weird thing about you is beautiful and makes life interesting . Hopefully the song really captures that emotion of celebrating who you are . " " We R Who We R " debuted at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , selling over 280 @,@ 000 digital copies . With this feat , the song became the seventeenth song in the history of the chart to debut at number one . The song also reached number one in Australia , the United Kingdom and number two in Canada , while charting within the top ten in numerous other countries .
" Blow " was released as the second single , and impacted U.S. radio on February 8 , 2011 . Critical reception of the song was generally mixed and positive . The song 's hook and opening were generally praised but the song 's chorus was met with mixed reaction , some critics praised the song for its party anthem vibe , while others called it uninspiring . Commercially , " Blow " reached the top ten in the United States and Australia , becoming her sixth straight top ten hit in both countries as a solo artist . The song also reached the top ten in New Zealand , and the top twenty in Canada .
= = = Other charted songs = = =
" Sleazy " was made available on November 2 , 2010 as part of an iTunes exclusive countdown to the release of Cannibal . In Canada , the song entered the Canadian Hot 100 chart on the issue date entitled November 20 , 2010 at forty @-@ six . In the same week , " Sleazy " entered the Billboard Hot 100 chart at fifty @-@ one . The title track , " Cannibal " , was the next offering and was made available on November 9 , 2010 . In Canada , " Cannibal " entered the Canadian Hot 100 chart on the issue date entitled November 27 , 2010 at sixty @-@ two . In the same week , " Cannibal " entered the Billboard Hot 100 chart at seventy @-@ seven .
= = Promotion = =
To promote the album , Kesha made several performances worldwide . Her first televised appearance was in Australia , where she performed " We R Who We R " for the time on the Australian X Factor on November 14 , 2010 . Following the performance , Kesha performed the song at the American Music Awards on November 21 , 2010 , in the United States . Kesha opened the performance with " Take it Off " before transitioning into " We R Who We R " . " Blow " and " Animal " were performed live on May 22 , 2011 , at the Billboard Music Awards . The performance opened with " Animal " as Kesha sang suspended over the stage in a structure shaped like a diamond . Midway through the performance she dropped backwards into her crowd of background dancers then transitioned into " Blow " . The performance featured glitter cannons and the dancers wore orange unicorn heads .
The album received further promotion from her first headlining world concert tour , entitled the Get Sleazy Tour , which began on February 15 , 2011 , in Portland , Oregon .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ A signifies a remix producer
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Cannibal , Dynamite Cop Music / Where Da Kasz at BMI .
= = Charts and certification = =
= = = Charts = = =
= = Release history = =
= Harry Murray =
Henry William " Harry " Murray , VC , CMG , DSO & Bar , DCM ( 1 December 1880 – 7 January 1966 ) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest decoration for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " that can be awarded to members of the British and Commonwealth armed forces . Decorated several times throughout his service in the First World War , Murray rose from the rank of private to lieutenant colonel in three and a half years . He is often described as the most highly decorated infantry soldier of the British Empire during the First World War .
Born in Tasmania , Murray worked as a farmer , courier and timber cutter before enlisting in September 1914 . Assigned to a machine gun crew , he served during the Gallipoli Campaign , where he was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal before the withdrawal from the peninsula . He was later transferred along with the rest of his battalion to France for service on the Western Front , where he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order during the Battle of the Somme . In February 1917 , Murray commanded a company during the battalion 's attack on the German position of Stormy Trench . During the engagement , the company was able to capture the position and repulse three fierce counter @-@ attacks , with Murray often leading bayonet and bombing charges himself . For his actions during the battle , Murray was awarded the Victoria Cross . Soon after his Victoria Cross action , he was promoted to major and earned a Bar to his Distinguished Service Order during an attack on the Hindenburg Line near Bullecourt . Promoted to lieutenant colonel in early 1918 , he assumed command of the 4th Machine Gun Battalion , where he would remain until the end of the war .
Returning to Australia in 1920 , Murray eventually settled in Queensland , where he purchased the grazing farm that would be his home for the remainder of his life . Re @-@ enlisting for service in the Second World War , he was appointed as commanding officer of the 26th ( Militia ) Battalion . Taking his discharge in 1944 , Murray returned to his farm and died in 1966 at the age of 85 .
= = Early life = =
Murray was born at Clairville , near Evandale , Tasmania , on 1 December 1880 , the eighth of nine children of Edward Kennedy Murray , a farmer , and his wife Clarissa , née Littler . Descended from convicts on his father 's side , Murray was baptised on 23 November 1885 , and attended Evandale State School . When he was fourteen years of age , his parents withdrew him from school to work on the family farm . However , his mother continued his education , placing emphasis on English . The family later moved to Northcote , near St. Leonards , where Edward Murray died in 1904 . Harry Murray joined the Launceston Volunteer Artillery Corps in 1902 , serving until 1908 , when he migrated to Western Australia where his two older brothers had previously settled .
Murray initially worked on his brother 's wheat farm , before becoming a courier for a mining company at Kookynie , transporting gold and mail by either bicycle or on horseback . He travelled the same track on a fortnightly basis , gaining a reputation for being a crack shot with a .32 carbine that he carried . At the time of his enlistment in 1914 , Murray was working near Manjimup , in the south west of Western Australia , employing timber cutters for the railways .
= = First World War = =
= = = Enlistment and training = = =
Murray enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) in Perth on 30 September 1914 . He declined the offer of a commission , and was posted as a private to A Company of the newly formed 16th Battalion , 4th Brigade . Appointed to one of the unit 's two machine gun crews , he was sent to Blackboy Hill Camp for training , where he became the gun No. 2 , whose job it was to feed ammunition belts through the gun ; Percy Black was No. 1 and the pair soon became firm friends .
On 21 November , the battalion entrained for Fremantle , boarding troopships headed for Melbourne ; it was there that the four battalions combined to form the 4th Brigade under the command of Colonel John Monash . After completing their basic training in Victoria , the brigade left Port Melbourne aboard Troopship A40 , Ceramic on 26 December . After a brief stop at Albany , Western Australia , they arrived in Egypt in early February 1915 . The brigade marched from Alexandria to Heliopolis as part of the New Zealand and Australian Division of Major General Alexander Godley .
= = = Gallipoli = = =
The Allied commanders planned to defeat Turkey and force a supply route through to Russia via the Bosporus and the Black Sea . As such they planned a land invasion on the Gallipoli Peninsula . On the afternoon of 25 April 1915 , Murray 's 16th Battalion landed at Ari Burnu , Gallipoli . Setting their machine gun on Pope 's Hill , Black and Murray fired their gun throughout the afternoon and into the night . The following day , the battalion 's two machine gun crews sniped at the Turkish soldiers on Russell 's Top , and Murray and his gunner continued fighting during the counterattack on 26 – 27 April , despite being wounded .
Promoted to lance corporal on 12 May , Murray was evacuated to Egypt eighteen days later , due to a gunshot wound to his right knee . His knee soon stiffened and he was posted to a hospital ship set to return to Australia . Murray , however , had other ideas and made his way to the wharf at Alexandria where he boarded a transport bound for Gallipoli . Arriving at the peninsula on 3 July , both Murray and Black received the Distinguished Conduct Medal for their actions between 9 – 31 May , during which time they tirelessly manned their machine gun , " inflict [ ing ] serious losses upon the enemy " . Murray was again wounded on 8 August when the machine gun section of the 4th Brigade covered the withdrawal after the attack on Hill 971 . On 13 August , he was promoted to sergeant , commissioned as a second lieutenant and transferred to the 13th Battalion .
Murray was again evacuated to Egypt on 26 September due to dysentery . After nearly six weeks in the 2nd Australian General Hospital at Ghezireh , he rejoined the 13th Battalion at Gallipoli on 7 December , before leaving for the last time in the Allied evacuation later that month .
Returning to Egypt , the AIF expanded and was reorganised ; the 13th Battalion was split and provided experienced soldiers for the 45th Battalion , while the 4th Brigade was combined with the 12th and 13th Brigades to form the 4th Australian Division . Murray was promoted to lieutenant on 20 January 1916 , and then to captain on 1 March .
= = = Western Front : June 1916 to April 1917 = = =
On 1 June 1916 , the 13th Battalion embarked at Alexandria for Marseilles , France , before being deployed to the Western Front . In mid @-@ June , the battalion moved into trenches at Bois Grenier near Armentières , and on 13 July they relocated to Bailleul , in time for the Battle of the Somme .
On 29 August , Murray commanded A Company — which consisted of fewer than one hundred men — in a successful attack that captured Mouquet Farm under heavy fire . His men repelled four German counterattacks before he ordered them to withdraw . He remained in command until the next morning , when he fainted from loss of blood from two wounds he had sustained during the action . Murray was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his service during the action , an event that was published in a supplement of the London Gazette dated 14 November 1916 . He was later evacuated to England aboard the hospital ship Asturias , and admitted to the 4th General Hospital , London , where he was to share a ward with Albert Jacka and Percy Black , who were recovering from wounds received at Poziéres and Mouquet Farm respectively . After nearly six weeks of recuperation , he returned to the 13th Battalion in France on 19 October .
Following a period of patrols and trench raids , the 13th was relieved by the 5th Battalion on 6 December , and marched back to Ribemont , where Murray was granted leave to England . On 4 January 1917 , he was Mentioned in Despatches . The battalion returned to the front in February , relieving the 15th Battalion at Gueudecourt . On 4 February , the battalion 's commanding officer received the order to attack Stormy Trench ; it was during this action that Murray would earn his Victoria Cross .
On the night of 4 – 5 February 1917 , the 13th Battalion — with Murray commanding A Company — attacked the German position at Stormy Trench . Preceded by a heavy artillery barrage , A Company seized the right of the position after overcoming stiff resistance , consolidating their gains by setting up a makeshift barricade . The Germans counterattacked , prompting Murray to send an SOS signal to the artillery officer , calling for more support . Although repulsed , the Germans counterattacked twice more . On the third attack , Murray organised a twenty @-@ man grenade bombing party and led them in a charge against their attackers , pushing them back to their original start line . On another occasion when the company lost some ground , Murray rallied his men and retook it . Between midnight and 03 : 00 , the company maintained spasmodic bombing , repelling further assaults with the aid of artillery support . By 20 : 00 on 5 February , the 16th Battalion relieved Murray 's company , which had only 48 survivors from the 140 who had begun the attack .
The full citation for Murray 's Victoria Cross appeared in a supplement to the London Gazette on 10 March 1917 , reading :
War Office , 10th March , 1917
His Majesty the KING has been graciously pleased to approve of the award of the Victoria Cross to the undermentioned Officer and Non @-@ Commissioned Officer : –
Capt. Henry William Murray , D.S.O. , Aus. infy .
For most conspicuous bravery when in command of the right flank company in attack . He led his company to the assault with great skill and courage , and the position was quickly captured . Fighting of a very severe nature followed , and three heavy counter @-@ attacks were beaten back , these successes being due to Captain Murray 's wonderful work .
Throughout the night his company suffered heavy casualties through concentrated enemy shell fire , and on one occasion gave ground for a short way . This gallant officer rallied his command and saved the situation by sheer valour .
He made his presence felt throughout the line , encouraging his men , heading bombing parties , leading bayonet charges , and carrying wounded to places of safety .
His magnificent example inspired his men throughout .
In April 1917 , the battalion relocated to Bullecourt in preparation for an attack on the Hindenburg Line . On the night of 11 April , seven battalions of the 4th Australian Division assembled for the advance , which was launched at 04 : 30 . Murray 's company seized a section of German trench , but were quickly isolated . By 07 : 00 , ammunition was running low and casualties were high . Murray sent for artillery support , but conflicting messages meant that it was not provided , so the Australians were forced to withdraw . During the action , the 4th Division lost 2 @,@ 339 of the 3 @,@ 000 men that it had committed , with 1170 captured as prisoners of war . Among the dead was Percy Black , who had been killed while trying to find a gap in the barbwire surrounding the German trenches . Murray was awarded a Bar to his Distinguished Service Order for his efforts during the battle , and was promoted to temporary major . He was later informed by General Birdwood that had the attack at Bullecourt been successful , he would have instead been awarded a Bar to his Victoria Cross .
= = = Western Front : April 1917 to repatriation , March 1920 = = =
After Bullecourt , the 4th Brigade withdrew to Ribemont , where reinforcements brought it up to strength . During this period , Murray oversaw musketry training before being granted convalescent leave to London in May . While in the capital , he was decorated with his Victoria Cross and Distinguished Service Order by King George V in Hyde Park on 2 June 1917 . Promoted major on 12 July , he rejoined his battalion later in the month , and during the 4th Brigade 's advance to the Hindenburg Line over subsequent months , was involved in actions at Messines , Ploegstreert Wood , Menin Road , Polygon Wood , Broodseinde , Poelcappelle and Passchendaele . For his actions at Passchendaele , Murray garnered a mention in Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig 's dispatch of 7 November 1917 .
Following Passchendaele , the 4th Brigade spent three months in reserve . Murray became second in command of the 13th Battalion , frequently assuming temporary command of the unit while the commanding officer was absent . Granted leave to Paris from 12 January to 2 February 1918 , he was promoted to temporary lieutenant colonel on 15 March and assumed command of the 4th Machine Gun Battalion . Commanding the unit during the German Spring Offensive , Murray 's rank was confirmed on 24 May .
On 25 June , Murray attended a conference at 4th Divisional Headquarters to discuss a proposed attack on Hamel . Having submitted a plan for the use of machine guns in the battle , five extra sections were attached to Murray 's battalion . The battle commenced on 4 July , and over the period of two days , the 4th Machine Gun Battalion fired 373 @,@ 000 rounds of small arms ammunition , suffering 33 casualties . On 3 August , he attended another divisional conference regarding the planned attack near Amiens scheduled for 8 August . Lieutenant General John Monash 's instructions called for several of the 4th Machine Gun Battalion 's companies to be moved forward by Mark V tanks , accompanying different units during the battle . At the end of the three @-@ day action , German General Erich Ludendorff described the Allied success as " the black day of the German Army in this war " .
From 23 September to 3 October 1918 , Murray was seconded to the Headquarters of the United States II Corps as a liaison officer with the 27th Division . The 27th Division , along with the 30th Division , had been attached to Lieutenant General Monash 's Corps for the assault on the Bellicourt Tunnel of the Hindenburg Line . During his service with the Americans , Murray was recommended for the United States ' Distinguished Service Medal by the commander of the 27th , Major General John F. O 'Ryan . The Distinguished Service Medal is the highest non @-@ valorous military and civilian decoration of the United States military , and in General O 'Ryan 's recommendation he stated that Murray 's " ... knowledge , activity and fearlessness ... assisted materially in the control of the attacking forces " .
The battle alongside the Americans was Murray 's last of the war , as the Australians were placed in reserve in early October before the signing of the Armistice on 11 November 1918 . On 3 January 1919 , Murray was awarded the French Croix de guerre for his service as commander of the 4th Machine Gun Battalion from 23 March to 24 April and 2 – 7 August 1918 . On 30 May 1919 , he was awarded a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George for his command of the 4th Machine Gun Battalion , the recommendation of which particularly citing his success during attacks on the Hindenburg Line . Murray 's final honour came on 11 July 1919 , when he was Mentioned in Despatches for the fourth time , having received his third mention on 31 December 1918 .
From June to September 1919 , Murray — along with fellow Australian Victoria Cross recipient William Donovan Joynt — led parties of AIF members on a tour of the farming districts of Britain and Denmark to study agricultural methods under the education schemes . After touring through France and Belgium , he left England on 19 November 1919 aboard the Orient Line transport , Ormonde , along with Generals Birdwood and Monash . A month later , a large crowd celebrated the arrival of the two generals and Murray at Victoria Quay in Fremantle . Attempting to evade further fanfare , Murray quietly travelled to northern Tasmania and then to his sister 's house in Launceston . He was discharged from the AIF on 9 March 1920 .
= = Later life = =
After his discharge , Murray moved north , buying a grazing property in south @-@ eastern Queensland . On 13 October 1921 , he married estate agent Constance Sophia Cameron at Bollon . The marriage was an unhappy one , and the pair separated in 1925 when Murray went to New Zealand . On 11 November 1927 , with Constance Murray as petitioner , a decree nisi with costs against Henry Murray was granted on the grounds of desertion . Nine days later , at the Auckland Registrar 's Office , Murray married Ellen Perdon " Nell " Cameron ; Constance 's niece . The couple returned to Queensland , and in April 1928 Murray bought Glenlyon station , Richmond , a 74 @,@ 000 acre ( 29 @,@ 947 ha ) grazing property , where he lived for the rest of his life .
The Murrays had two children . Their son Douglas , born in 1930 , was named after Lieutenant Colonel Douglas Grey Marks , the commanding officer of the 13th Battalion from 1917 to 1918 . In 1934 , Nell gave birth to their second child , a girl named Clementine . Between 1929 and 1939 , Murray wrote fifteen articles for Reveille , the magazine of the New South Wales branch of the Returned Sailors and Soldiers Imperial League of Australia ( RSL ) , detailing several of his experiences during the First World War , and praising several of his comrades .
On 21 July 1939 , with the Second World War looming , Murray volunteered for military service and was appointed as commanding officer of the 26th ( Militia ) Battalion , 11th Brigade , based in Townsville ; he was mobilised for full @-@ time service on 21 October 1941 . Murray 's second @-@ in @-@ command of the unit during this time was Major Edgar Towner , who had additionally been decorated with the Victoria Cross in 1918 . The 26th became an Australian Imperial Force unit in 1942 , and in August Murray was removed from his post by General Sir Thomas Blamey , Commander in Chief Australian Military Forces , on the grounds of his advancing age . He was instead appointed to command the 23rd Queensland Regiment , Volunteer Defence Corps , which he led until his retirement from active duty on 8 February 1944 .
With the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 , wool prices soared and Murray earned a large income from wool sales , allowing him to regularly travel across Australia . Taking a trip to Brisbane in 1954 , he met Queen Elizabeth II during her Royal Tour of Australia . Despite rarely attending Anzac Day services or functions for Victoria Cross recipients , Murray and his wife travelled to London in 1956 to commemorate the centenary of the Victoria Cross . Following the ceremonies , the Murrays spent five weeks on a motor tour of England and Scotland , before visiting Switzerland and France . However , Murray refused to revisit the battlefields .
On 6 January 1966 , Nell was driving the family car with Harry as a passenger ; they were going to the south coast of Queensland for a holiday . A tyre blew out and the car rolled on the Leichhardt Highway near Condamine . Murray was taken to Miles District Hospital with broken ribs . He had suffered heart trouble for some time , and the shock of the accident is believed to have caused his death the following day . Murray was interred at Mount Thompson Crematorium with full military honours after a funeral service at St. Andrew 's Presbyterian Church , Brisbane .
On 24 February 2006 in Evandale , Tasmania , Governor @-@ General Michael Jeffery unveiled a statue of Murray by sculptor Peter Corlett . This tribute was facilitated by a small group of volunteers who raised A $ 85 @,@ 000 in two years . The Henry Murray ward at Hollywood Private Hospital has been named in his honour .
= St Mary 's Church , Acton =
St Mary 's Church is an active Anglican parish church located in Monk 's Lane , Acton , a village to the west of Nantwich , Cheshire , England . Since 1967 it has been designated a Grade I listed building . A church has been present on this site since before the time of the Domesday Survey . The tower is the oldest in Cheshire , although it had to be largely rebuilt after it fell in 1757 . One unusual feature of the interior of the church is that the old stone seating around its sides has been retained . In the south aisle are some ancient carved stones dating back to the Norman era . The architectural historian Alec Clifton @-@ Taylor includes the church in his list of ' best ' English parish churches . In the churchyard is a tall 17th @-@ century sundial . The church is an active Anglican parish church in the diocese of Chester , the archdeaconry of Macclesfield and the deanery of Nantwich . Its benefice is united with those of St David , Wettenhall , St Oswald , Worleston , and St Bartholomew , Church Minshull .
= = History = =
The presence of a church with two priests on the site is recorded in the Domesday Book . The church and its lands were given by the second Baron of Wich Malbank to Combermere Abbey early in the 12th century . Following the dissolution of the monasteries , the advowson was granted to Richard Wilbraham and it then passed to the Lords Tollemache .
The tower was built about 1180 , which makes it the oldest tower in Cheshire . When it was built it was over 100 feet ( 30 m ) high but its top collapsed in a storm in March 1757 damaging the roof of the church and the clerestory . It was rebuilt but only to a height of 80 feet ( 24 m ) . The north aisle was built in the last quarter of the 14th century in Decorated style and the south aisle and chancel were built early in the 15th century . The internal fittings of the church were damaged in the Civil War . There were restorations in the 17th and 18th centuries . In 1897 – 98 the Lancaster architects Austin and Paley carried out a further restoration . This included reflooring and reroofing the church , removing the plaster ceilings , rebuilding the north wall of the north aisle and the clerestory , installing heating apparatus , and adding a new pulpit , porches , and doors .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
The church is built in red sandstone with a lead roof . The tower is within the body of the church with arches leading into the nave and the side aisles . These arches , together with the thin lancet windows and the flat buttresses , date from the 13th century . The authors of the Buildings of England series state that this early date is rare for towers in Cheshire . The upper parts of the tower , built after the collapse of 1757 , are by William Baker in early Gothic Revival style . The nave has four bays , with north and south aisles of six bays . The chancel has three bays with a vestry on its north side . The piers of the arcade date from the 13th century while the capitals are from the 19th @-@ century restoration . The authors of the Buildings of England series state that the body of the church is mostly Perpendicular in style . At the east end of the north aisle is the Mainwaring chapel , which was originally a Lady Chapel ; at the north side of the tower is the Dorfold chantry . Old stone seating remains around the sides of the church , which is unusual .
= = = Fittings and furniture = = =
In the Mainwaring chapel is the canopied wall tomb of Sir William Mainwaring of Baddiley and Peover who died in 1399 . His effigy is in alabaster , it is recumbent and dressed in plate armour as a knight . His head rests on a helm bearing an ass 's head and around his neck is a gold collar of esses . The rest of the monument is in red sandstone . At the east end of the south aisle is a marble tomb commemorating Sir Richard Wilbraham ( 1578 – 1643 ) , his son Sir Thomas Wilbraham ( 1601 – 1660 ) and their wives . It includes the recumbent effigies in marble of Sir Thomas and his wife , Elizabeth . At the east end of the south aisle is an ancient piscina which is in good condition . In the chancel is another piscina and a sedilia , both of which are damaged . The screen in the Dorfold chapel is dated 1685 while that dividing the chancel from the nave is from a later date . The communion rail is also dated 1685 . The brass chandelier dates from the 18th century . Stained glass in the east window and in windows of the south aisle is by Kempe and is dated between 1885 and 1888 . The reredos includes the Ten Commandments to the north of the altar and the Lord 's Prayer and the Creed to the south . The carved oak pulpion a stone base and the oak eagle lectern date from the 19th century .
The font has a Norman bowl with lead lining set on a 19th @-@ century base . It consists of a round bowl carved with figures , and simple ornamentation . For many years it had been in the garden of nearby Dorfold Hall before being reinstated in the church . At the east end of the south aisle are carved stones , some in sandstone , others in limestone . The style of the limestone stones suggests a date at the end of the 11th century and that of the sandstone stones around 1100 . They are considered to be among the most significant pieces of Romanesque sculpture in the country . There is a ring of six bells . Five of these were cast by Rudhall of Gloucester in the 18th century and the sixth by John Taylor & Co in 1893 . The parish registers begin in 1653 and the churchwardens ' accounts in 1755 . The two @-@ manual organ was made by Alex Young and Sons of Manchester in 1897 , and was renovated in 1939 , and again in 1997 .
= = External features = =
In the churchyard is a tall sandstone sundial over 12 feet ( 4 m ) high . It was originally a medieval cross which was made into a sundial in the late 17th century . The remaining parts of the cross consist of an octagonal shaft on three ashlar steps . On top of this has been added a square moulded cap surmounted by a ball finial . On each face of the head is a dial , and the head is surmounted by a globe on a short stem . It is a scheduled monument and is designated as a Grade II listed building . Also listed Grade II is the red sandstone churchyard boundary wall which is probably an 1897 restoration of an earlier wall . The churchyard contains the war graves of five Commonwealth service personnel ; two of World War I and three of World War II .
A. N. Hornby ( 1847 – 1925 ) who played for Lancashire and England is buried here . He was the first man ( of only two ) to captain his country in both cricket and rugby , but is also remembered as the England cricket captain whose side lost the Test match which gave rise to the Ashes , at home against the Australians in 1882 . Additionally , he played football for Blackburn Rovers . He was immortalised in one of the best known of all cricket poems , At Lord 's by Francis Thompson which contains the following lines :
It is little I repair to the matches of the Southron folk ,
Though my own red roses there may blow ;
It is little I repair to the matches of the Southron folk ,
Though the red roses crest the caps , I know .
For the field is full of shades as I near a shadowy coast ,
And a ghostly batsman plays to the bowling of a ghost ,
And I look through my tears on a soundless @-@ clapping host
As the run stealers flicker to and fro ,
To and fro :
O my Hornby and my Barlow long ago !
= = Current activities = =
St Mary 's continues to be active as an Anglican parish church . It is the most active member of the Cross Country Group of Parish Churches which comprises St Mary 's , St Bartholomew 's , Church Minshull , St Oswald 's , Worleston and St David 's , Wettenhall . The churches share a vicar and three licensed readers . The vicar is Revd Peter Lillicrap . St Mary 's holds two or three services each Sunday and a service of Holy Communion each Wednesday . The group of churches is also involved with community activities including Praise & Play for pre @-@ school children and their carers , the Holy Disorder youth club and the 1st Darnhall Guides and Brownies . The church is open for visits and private prayers on Wednesday mornings .
= Michelle Obama =
Michelle LaVaughn Robinson Obama ( born January 17 , 1964 ) is an American lawyer and writer . She is married to the 44th and current President of the United States , Barack Obama , and is the first African @-@ American First Lady of the United States . Raised on the South Side of Chicago , Illinois , Obama is a graduate of Princeton University and Harvard Law School , and spent the early part of her legal career working at the law firm Sidley Austin , where she met her husband . Subsequently , she worked as the Associate Dean of Student Services at the University of Chicago and the Vice President for Community and External Affairs of the University of Chicago Medical Center . Married in 1992 , the couple have two daughters together .
Throughout 2007 and 2008 , Obama campaigned for her husband 's presidential bid , delivering a keynote address at the 2008 Democratic National Convention , and speaking at the 2012 Democratic National Convention . She also spoke during the 2016 Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia , where she delivered a speech in support of Hillary Clinton .
As First Lady , she has become a fashion icon , a role model for women , and an advocate for poverty awareness , nutrition , physical activity , and healthy eating .
= = Family and education = =
= = = Early life and ancestry = = =
Michelle LaVaughn Robinson was born on January 17 , 1964 , in DeYoung , Illinois , to Fraser Robinson III , a city water plant employee and Democratic precinct captain , and Marian Shields Robinson , a secretary at Spiegel 's catalog store . Her mother was a full @-@ time homemaker until Michelle entered high school .
The Robinson and Shields families trace their roots to pre @-@ Civil War African Americans in the American South . On her father 's side , she is descended from the Gullah people of South Carolina 's Low Country region . Her paternal great @-@ great grandfather , Jim Robinson , was a slave on Friendfield Plantation in South Carolina , the state where some of her paternal family still reside . Her grandfather Fraser Robinson , Jr. built his own house in South Carolina . He and his wife LaVaughn ( née Johnson ) returned to the Low Country after retirement .
Among her maternal ancestors was her great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ grandmother , Melvinia Shields , a slave on Henry Walls Shields ' 200 @-@ acre farm in Clayton County , Georgia . Melvinia 's first son , Dolphus T. Shields , was biracial and born into slavery about 1860 . Based on DNA and other evidence , in 2012 researchers said his father was likely 20 @-@ year @-@ old Charles Marion Shields , son of her master . Melvinia did not talk to relatives about Dolphus ' father . Dolphus Shields moved to Birmingham , Alabama after the Civil War , and some of his children migrated to Cleveland , Ohio and Chicago .
All four of her grandparents had multiracial ancestors , reflecting the complex history of the U.S. , but her extended family said that people did not talk about the era of slavery when they were growing up . Her distant ancestry includes Irish and other European roots . In addition , a paternal first cousin once @-@ removed is the African @-@ American Jewish Rabbi Capers Funnye , son of her grandfather 's sister .
Robinson grew up in a two @-@ story bungalow on Euclid Avenue in Chicago 's South Shore community area . Her parents rented a small apartment on the second floor from her great @-@ aunt , who lived downstairs . She was raised in what she describes as a " conventional " home , with " the mother at home , the father works , you have dinner around the table . " Her elementary school was down the street . They enjoyed playing games such as Monopoly , reading , and frequently saw extended family on both sides . She played piano , learning from her great @-@ aunt who was a piano teacher . The Robinsons attended services at nearby South Shore Methodist Church . They used to vacation in a rustic cabin in White Cloud , Michigan . She and her 21 @-@ month older brother , Craig , skipped the second grade .
Her father suffered from multiple sclerosis which had a profound emotional effect on her as she was growing up . She was determined to stay out of trouble and be a good student , which was what her father wanted for her . By sixth grade , Michelle joined a gifted class at Bryn Mawr Elementary School ( later renamed Bouchet Academy ) . She attended Whitney Young High School , Chicago 's first magnet high school , established as a selective enrollment school , where she was a classmate of Jesse Jackson 's daughter Santita . The round @-@ trip commute from the Robinsons ' South Side home to the Near West Side , where the school was located , took three hours . She recalled being fearful of how others would perceive her , but disregarded any negativity around her and used it " to fuel me , to keep me going . " She recalled experiencing gender discrimination growing up , saying , for example , that rather than asking her for her opinion on a given subject , people commonly tended to ask what her older brother thought . She was on the honor roll for four years , took advanced placement classes , was a member of the National Honor Society , and served as student council treasurer . She graduated in 1981 as the salutatorian of her class .
= = = Education and early career = = =
She was inspired to follow her brother to Princeton University , where he graduated in 1983 , after which he went on to become a basketball coach at Oregon State University and Brown University . She recalls that some of her teachers in high school tried to dissuade her from applying , that she had been told she was " setting my sights too high " . She believed that her brother 's alumni status may have helped her during the admission process , but she was resolved to demonstrate her own worthiness . She acknowledges that she was overwhelmed when first arriving in first year , attributing this to the fact that neither of her parents had graduated from college , and that she had never spent time on a college campus . The mother of a white roommate reportedly unsuccessfully tried to get her daughter moved because of Michelle 's race . She recalls her time at Princeton being the first time she was made more aware of her ethnicity and that despite the willingness of her classmates and teachers to want to understand her , she still felt " like a visitor on campus . " " I remember being shocked , " she says , " by college students who drove BMWs . I didn 't even know parents who drove BMWs . "
While at Princeton , she got involved with the Third World Center ( now known as the Carl A. Fields Center ) , an academic and cultural group that supported minority students , running their day care center , which also included after school tutoring . She challenged the teaching methodology for French because she felt that it should be more conversational . As part of her requirements for graduation , she wrote a thesis titled Princeton @-@ Educated Blacks and the Black Community . She researched her thesis by sending a questionnaire to African American graduates , requesting they specify when and how comfortable they were with their race prior to their enrollment at Princeton and how they felt about it when they were a student and since then . Of the 400 she sent her survey to , only a small number , fewer than 90 , responded and her findings did not support her hope that the black alumni would still identity with the African American community , even though they had attended an elite university with all of the advantages that accrues to its graduates . She majored in sociology and minored in African American studies , graduating cum laude with a Bachelor of Arts in 1985 .
Robinson went on to earn her Juris Doctor ( J.D. ) degree from Harvard Law School in 1988 . By the time she applied for Harvard Law , biographer Bond wrote , her confidence had grown ; " This time around , there was no doubt in her mind that she had earned her place " . Her faculty mentor at Harvard Law was Charles Ogletree , who has said that she had answered the question that had plagued her throughout Princeton by the time she arrived at Harvard Law , of whether she would remain the product of her parents or keep the identity she had acquired at Princeton , believing that she concluded she could be " both brilliant and black . " At Harvard she participated in demonstrations advocating the hiring of professors who were members of minorities and worked for the Harvard Legal Aid Bureau , assisting low @-@ income tenants with housing cases . She is the third First Lady with a postgraduate degree , after her two immediate predecessors , Hillary Rodham Clinton and Laura Bush . She would later say her education gave her opportunities beyond what she had ever imagined . In July 2008 , she accepted the invitation to become an honorary member of the 100 @-@ year @-@ old black sorority Alpha Kappa Alpha , which had no active undergraduate chapter at Princeton when she attended .
= = = Family life = = =
Obama 's father Fraser C. Robinson III died from complications from his illness in March 1991 . She would later say that although he was the " hole in my heart " and " loss in my scar " , the memory of her father has motivated her each day since . Her friend Suzanne Alele died from cancer around this time as well , Obama later telling Katie Couric that the loss made her think of her contributions toward society and how well she was influencing the world from her law firm . This was seen as a turning point for Michelle .
Michelle met Barack Obama when they were among the few African Americans at their law firm , Sidley Austin ( she has sometimes said only two , although others have pointed out there were others in different departments ) , and she was assigned to mentor him while he was a summer associate . Their relationship started with a business lunch and then a community organization meeting where he first impressed her . Before meeting Obama , Michelle had previously told her mother that she would focus solely on her career . The couple 's first date was to the Spike Lee movie Do the Right Thing . Barack Obama opined that he and Michelle had an " opposites attract " scenario in their interest for each other initially since Michelle had stability through her two @-@ parent home while he was " adventurous " . They married in October 1992 , and have two daughters , Malia Ann ( born 1998 ) and Natasha ( known as Sasha , born 2001 ) . After his election to the U.S. Senate , the Obama family continued to live on Chicago 's South Side , choosing to remain there rather than moving to Washington , D.C. Throughout her husband 's 2008 campaign for US President , she made a " commitment to be away overnight only once a week – to campaign only two days a week and be home by the end of the second day " for their two daughters .
She once requested that her then @-@ fiancé meet her prospective boss , Valerie Jarrett , when considering her first career move ; Jarrett is now one of her husband 's closest advisors . The marital relationship has had its ebbs and flows ; the combination of an evolving family life and beginning political career led to many arguments about balancing work and family . Barack Obama wrote in his second book , The Audacity of Hope : Thoughts on Reclaiming the American Dream , that " Tired and stressed , we had little time for conversation , much less romance . " However , despite their family obligations and careers , they continued to attempt to schedule date nights while they lived in Chicago .
The Obamas ' daughters attended the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools , a private school . As a member of the school 's board , Michelle fought to maintain diversity in the school when other board members connected with the University of Chicago tried to reserve more slots for children of the university faculty . This resulted in a plan to expand the school . Malia and Sasha now attend Sidwell Friends School in Washington , after also considering Georgetown Day School . Michelle stated in an interview on The Ellen DeGeneres Show that they do not intend to have any more children . The Obamas have received advice from past first ladies Laura Bush , Rosalynn Carter and Hillary Rodham Clinton about raising children in the White House . Marian Robinson , Michelle 's mother , has moved into the White House to assist with child care .
= = = Religion = = =
Obama is a Protestant Christian . She was raised Methodist and joined the Trinity United Church of Christ , where she and Barack Obama married , performed by Rev. Jeremiah Wright . On May 31 , 2008 , Barack and Michelle Obama announced that they had withdrawn their membership in Trinity United Church of Christ stating that " Our relations with Trinity have been strained by the divisive statements of Reverend Wright , which sharply conflict with our own views . "
The Obama family has attended several different Protestant churches since moving to Washington D.C. in 2009 , including Shiloh Baptist Church and St. John 's Episcopal Church . At the 49th African Methodist Episcopal Church 's general conference , Michelle Obama encouraged the attendees to advocate for political awareness , saying , " To anyone who says that church is no place to talk about these issues , you tell them there is no place better – no place better , because ultimately , these are not just political issues – they are moral issues , they 're issues that have to do with human dignity and human potential , and the future we want for our kids and our grandkids . "
= = Career = =
Following law school , she was an associate at the Chicago office of the law firm Sidley & Austin , where she first met her future husband . At the firm , she worked on marketing and intellectual property . She continues to hold her law license , but as she no longer needs it for her work , it has been on a voluntary inactive status since 1993 .
In 1991 , she held public sector positions in the Chicago city government as an Assistant to the Mayor , and as Assistant Commissioner of Planning and Development . In 1993 , she became Executive Director for the Chicago office of Public Allies , a non @-@ profit organization encouraging young people to work on social issues in nonprofit groups and government agencies . She worked there nearly four years and set fundraising records for the organization that still stood 12 years after she left .
In 1996 , Obama served as the Associate Dean of Student Services at the University of Chicago , where she developed the University 's Community Service Center . In 2002 , she began working for the University of Chicago Hospitals , first as executive director for community affairs and , beginning May 2005 , as Vice President for Community and External Affairs . She continued to hold the University of Chicago Hospitals position during the primary campaign , but cut back to part @-@ time in order to spend time with her daughters as well as work for her husband 's election ; she subsequently took a leave of absence from her job . According to the couple 's 2006 income tax return , her salary was $ 273 @,@ 618 from the University of Chicago Hospitals , while her husband had a salary of $ 157 @,@ 082 from the United States Senate . The Obamas ' total income , however , was $ 991 @,@ 296 , which included $ 51 @,@ 200 she earned as a member of the board of directors of TreeHouse Foods , and investments and royalties from his books . Obama reflected that she had never been happier in her life prior to working " to build Public Allies " .
Obama served as a salaried board member of TreeHouse Foods , Inc . ( NYSE : THS ) , a major Wal @-@ Mart supplier with which she cut ties immediately after her husband made comments critical of Wal @-@ Mart at an AFL @-@ CIO forum in Trenton , New Jersey , on May 14 , 2007 . She also served on the board of directors of the Chicago Council on Global Affairs .
= = Early campaigns = =
During an interview in 1996 , Michelle Obama acknowledged that there was a " strong possibility " her husband would begin a political career , but said she was " wary " of the process due to it meaning that their lives would become " an open book " while she was private .
Although she has campaigned on her husband 's behalf since early in his political career by handshaking and fund @-@ raising , she did not relish the activity at first . When she campaigned during her husband 's 2000 run for United States House of Representatives , her boss at the University of Chicago asked if there was any single thing about campaigning that she enjoyed ; after some thought , she replied that visiting so many living rooms had given her some new decorating ideas . She reportedly turned down requests by the campaign for her to attend fundraisers . Obama was against her husband 's run for the congressional seat and after his defeat would have preferred her husband tending to the financial needs of the family in what she deemed a more practical way .
At first , Obama had reservations about her husband 's presidential campaign , due to fears about a possible negative effect on their daughters . She says that she negotiated an agreement in which her husband was to give up smoking in exchange for her support of his decision to run . About her role in her husband 's presidential campaign she has said : " My job is not a senior adviser . " During the campaign , she has discussed race and education by using motherhood as a framework .
In May 2007 , three months after her husband declared his presidential candidacy , Obama reduced her professional responsibilities by 80 percent to support his presidential campaign . Early in the campaign , she had limited involvement in which she traveled to political events only two days a week and rarely traveled overnight ; by early February 2008 her participation had increased significantly , attending thirty @-@ three events in eight days . She made several campaign appearances with Oprah Winfrey . She wrote her own stump speeches for her husband 's presidential campaign and generally spoke without notes .
Throughout the campaign , some media often labeled Michelle Obama as an " Angry Black Woman , " and some web sites attempted to propagate this image , prompting her to respond : " Barack and I have been in the public eye for many years now , and we 've developed a thick skin along the way . When you 're out campaigning , there will always be criticism . I just take it in stride , and at the end of the day , I know that it comes with the territory . " By the time of the 2008 Democratic National Convention in August , media outlets observed that her presence on the campaign trail had grown softer than at the start of the race , focusing on soliciting concerns and empathizing with the audience rather than throwing down challenges to them , and giving interviews to shows like The View and publications like Ladies ' Home Journal rather than appearing on news programs . The change was even reflected in her fashion choices , wearing more informal clothes in place of her previous designer pieces . The View appearance was partly intended to help soften her public image , and it was widely covered in the press .
The presidential campaign was Obama 's first exposure to the national political scene ; even before the field of Democratic candidates was narrowed to two , she was considered the least famous of the candidates ' spouses . Early in the campaign , she told anecdotes about the Obama family life ; however , as the press began to emphasize her sarcasm , she toned it down . The New York Times op @-@ ed columnist Maureen Dowd wrote :
I wince a bit when Michelle Obama chides her husband as a mere mortal – a comic routine that rests on the presumption that we see him as a god ... But it may not be smart politics to mock him in a way that turns him from the glam JFK into the mundane Gerald Ford , toasting his own English muffin . If all Senator Obama is peddling is the Camelot mystique , why debunk this mystique ?
On the first night of the 2008 Democratic National Convention , Craig Robinson introduced his younger sister . She delivered her speech , during which she sought to portray herself and her family as the embodiment of the American Dream . Obama said both she and her husband believed " that you work hard for what you want in life , that your word is your bond , and you do what you say you 're going to do , that you treat people with dignity and respect , even if you don 't know them , and even if you don 't agree with them . " She also emphasized loving her country , in response to criticism for her previous statements about feeling proud of her country for the first time , where the original statement was seen as a gaffe . That keynote address was largely well received and drew mostly positive reviews . A Rasmussen Reports poll found that her favorability among Americans reached 55 % .
On an October 6 , 2008 broadcast , Larry King asked Obama if the American electorate was past the Bradley effect . She stated that her husband 's achievement of the nomination was a fairly strong indicator that it was . The same night she also was interviewed by Jon Stewart on The Daily Show where she deflected criticism of her husband and his campaign . On Fox News ' America 's Pulse , E. D. Hill referred to the fist bump shared by the Obamas on the night that he clinched the Democratic presidential nomination as a " terrorist fist jab " ; Hill was taken off air and the show itself was cancelled .
= = First Lady of the United States = =
During her early months as First Lady , Obama visited homeless shelters and soup kitchens . She also sent representatives to schools and advocated public service .
Obama advocated for her husband 's policy priorities by promoting bills that support it . She hosted a White House reception for women 's rights advocates in celebration of the enactment of the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 Pay equity law . She supported the economic stimulus bill in visits to the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development and United States Department of Education . Some observers looked favorably upon her legislative activities , while others said that she should be less involved in politics . According to her representatives , she intends to visit all United States Cabinet @-@ level agencies in order to get acquainted with Washington .
On June 5 , 2009 , the White House announced that Michelle Obama was replacing her current chief of staff , Jackie Norris , with Susan Sher , a longtime friend and adviser . Norris became a senior adviser to the Corporation for National and Community Service . Another key aide , Spelman College alumna Kristen Jarvis , served from 2008 until 2015 , when she left to become chief of staff to the Ford Foundation president Darren Walker .
In 2009 Michelle Obama was named Barbara Walters ' Most Fascinating Person of the year .
Some initiatives of First Lady Michelle Obama include advocating on behalf of military families , helping working women balance career and family , encouraging national service , and promoting the arts and arts education . Obama has made supporting military families and spouses a personal mission and has been increasingly bonding with military families . According to her aides , stories of the sacrifice these families make move her to tears . In April 2012 , Obama and husband were awarded the Jerald Washington Memorial Founders ' Award by the National Coalition for Homeless Veterans ( NCHV ) .The award is the highest honor given to homeless veteran advocates . Obama was again honored with the award in May 2015 , accepting with Jill Biden .
In November 2013 , a Politico article by Michelle Cottle accusing Obama of being a " feminist nightmare " for not using her position and education to advocate for women 's issues was sharply criticized across the political spectrum . Cottle quoted Linda Hirshman saying of Obama 's trendy styles , promotion of gardening and healthy eating , and support of military families that " She essentially became the English lady of the manor , Tory Party , circa 1830s . " A prominent critic of Cottle was MSNBC host Melissa Harris @-@ Perry , who rhetorically asked " Are you serious ? " Supporters of Obama note that the First Lady has been one of the only people in the administration to address obesity , through promoting good eating habits , which is one of the leading US public health crises .
In May 2014 , Obama joined the campaign to bring back school girls who had been kidnapped in Nigeria . The First Lady tweeted a picture of herself holding a poster with the # bringbackourgirls campaign hashtag .
Over the course of the Obama presidency , particularly during the second term , Michelle Obama was subject to speculation over whether she would run for the presidency herself , similarly to predecessor Hillary Clinton . A potential Michelle Obama candidacy was supported by both Samuel L. Jackson and James Clyburn . On April 6 , 2009 , CNN did a poll on whether she should run for the presidency in 2020 , 83 % of responders being opposed to the idea . A May 2015 Rasmussen poll found Obama had 22 % of support to Clinton 's 56 % of winning the Democratic nomination , higher than that of potential candidates Elizabeth Warren , Martin O 'Malley and Bernie Sanders . Alternatively , another poll from that month found 71 % of Americans believed that Obama should not run for the presidency , only 14 % approving . On January 14 , 2016 , during a town @-@ hall meeting , President Obama was asked if the First Lady could be talked into running . He responded , " There are three things that are certain in life : death , taxes , and Michelle is not running for president . That I can tell you . " On March 16 , 2016 , while speaking in Austin , Texas , Obama denied that she would ever run for the office , citing a desire to " impact as many people as possible in an unbiased way . "
= = = Let 's Move ! = = =
Obama 's predecessors Hillary Clinton and Laura Bush supported the organic movement by instructing the White House kitchens to buy organic food , and Obama extended their efforts toward healthy eating by planting the White House Kitchen Garden , an organic garden , the first White House vegetable garden since Eleanor Roosevelt served as First Lady , and installing bee hives , on the South Lawn of the White House . The garden supplied organic produce and honey to the First Family and for state dinners and other official gatherings .
In January 2010 , Obama undertook her first lead role in an administration @-@ wide initiative , which she named " Let 's Move ! , " to make progress in reversing the 21st century trend of childhood obesity . On February 9 , 2010 , the First Lady announced Let 's Move ! and President Barack Obama created the Task Force on Childhood Obesity to review all current programs and create a national plan towards change . Michelle Obama stated that her goal was to make this effort her legacy : " I want to leave something behind that we can say , ' Because of this time that this person spent here , this thing has changed . ' And my hope is that that 's going to be in the area of childhood obesity . " Her 2012 book American Grown : The Story of the White House Kitchen Garden and Gardens Across America is based on her experiences with the garden and promotes healthy eating . Her call for action on healthy eating has been echoed by the United States Department of Defense , which has been facing an ever expanding problem of recruit obesity .
Several Republicans have critiqued or lampooned Obama 's initiative . In October 2014 , senator Rand Paul linked to Michelle Obama 's Twitter account when announcing on the website that he was going to Dunkin ' Donuts . In January 2016 , Republican Governor of New Jersey and presidential candidate Chris Christie condemned the First Lady 's involvement with healthy eating while on the campaign trail in Iowa , arguing that she was using the government to exercise her views on eating . Obama had previously cited Christie as an example of an adult who struggled with obesity , a demographic she sought to diminish by targeting children since Let 's Move ! was " working with kids when they 're young , so that they don 't have these direct challenges when they get older . " In February , Senator Ted Cruz indicated that Obama 's health policies would end under his administration , promising that french fries would return to cafeterias if his wife was First Lady .
= = = LGBT rights = = =
In the 2008 US presidential election , Obama boasted , to gay Democrat groups , of her husband 's record on LGBT rights : his support of the Illinois Human Rights Act , the Illinois gender violence act , the Employment Non @-@ Discrimination Act , repealing Don 't Ask Don 't Tell , and full repeal of the Defense of Marriage Act , civil unions ; along with hate crimes protection for sexual orientation and gender identity and renewed effort to fight HIV and AIDS . They have both been opponents of constitutional amendments banning same @-@ sex marriage in the federal , California , and Florida constitutions . She said that the US Supreme Court delivered justice in the Lawrence v. Texas case and drew a connection between the struggles for gay rights and civil rights by stating " We are all only here because of those who marched and bled and died , from Selma to Stonewall , in the pursuit of a more perfect union . "
After the repeal of Don 't Ask Don 't Tell on September 20 , 2011 , Obama included openly gay service members in her national military families initiative . On May 9 , 2012 , Barack and Michelle Obama came out publicly in favor of same @-@ sex marriage . Prior to this , Michelle Obama had never stated her position on same @-@ sex marriage publicly . Senior White House officials said that Michelle Obama and Senior Adviser Valerie Jarrett had been the two most consistent advocates for same @-@ sex marriage in Barack Obama 's life . Michelle went on to say that " This is an important issue for millions of Americans , and for Barack and me , it really comes down to the values of fairness and equality we want to pass down to our girls . These are basic values that kids learn at a very young age and that we encourage them to apply in all areas of their lives . And in a country where we teach our children that everyone is equal under the law , discriminating against same @-@ sex couples just isn 't right . It 's as simple as that . " At the 2012 DNC Michelle said , " Barack knows the American Dream because he 's lived it ... and he wants everyone in this country to have that same opportunity , no matter who we are , or where we 're from , or what we look like , or who we love . "
= = = 2012 presidential election = = =
Obama campaigned for her husband 's re @-@ election in 2012 . Beginning in 2011 , Obama became more politically active than she had been since the 2008 election , though avoided discussions about the re @-@ election bid . By the time of the election cycle , she had developed a more open public image , some viewing her as the most popular member of the Obama administration , as her poll numbers having never dropped below 60 % since entering the White House and an Obama senior campaign official even dubbed her " the most popular political figure in America " . The positive assessment was reasoned to have contributed to her active role in the re @-@ election campaign , but it was noted that the challenge for the Obama campaign was using her without tarnishing her popularity . Obama was viewed as a polarizing figure , having both " sharp enmity and deep loyalty " from Americans , but she was also seen as having improved her image since the time of the last election when her husband initially ran for the presidency . It was commented by Isabel Wilkinson of The Daily Beast that her style changed over the course of the campaign to sensitive and economical .
Obama expressed confidence in her husband 's debating skills prior to the first debate of the election cycle , though his performance would later be criticized as appearing detached and for looking down when addressing Romney , leading to a consensus that the latter won the debate . After her speech at the 2012 Democratic National Convention , Obama was found through a CBS News / New York Times poll conducted in September to have a 61 % favorably rating with registered voters , the highest favorability she had sustained since April 2009 . Obama aimed to humanize her husband with relating stories about him , attempting to appeal to female voters in swing states . It was commented by Paul Harris of The Guardian that the same tactic was being used by Ann Romney , wife of 2012 Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney . Polls in October showed their husbands tied at 47 % for the female vote . However , Michelle Obama 's favorability ratings remained higher than Ann Romney 's at 69 % to 52 % . Despite Obama 's higher poll numbers , comparisons between Obama and Romney were consistently made by the media until the election , regardless of Michelle Cottle of Newsweek writing , " nobody votes for first lady . "
= = = Domestic travels = = =
In May 2009 , Obama delivered the commencement speech at a graduating ceremony at UC Merced in Merced County , California , the address being praised afterward by students who found her relatable . Kevin Fagan of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote that there was chemistry between Obama and the students .
In August 2013 , Obama attended the 50th anniversary ceremony for the March on Washington at the Lincoln Memorial . Positive attention was brought to Obama 's attire , a black sleeveless dress with red flowers , designed by Tracy Reese . Reese reacted by releasing a public statement that he was honored the First Lady " would choose to wear one of our designs during the celebration of such a deeply significant historical moment " .
In March 2015 , Obama traveled to Selma , Alabama , with her family to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the Selma to Montgomery marches . Obama publicly stated her daughter Sasha would have been exposed to the same violence as that of protesters during the Selma marches had she been alive . After President Obama 's remarks there , the Obamas joined original marchers in crossing the Edmund Pettus Bridge .
In July 2015 , Obama journeyed to Coachella Valley while coming to Los Angeles for that year 's Special Olympics World Games .
In October 2015 , Obama was joined by Jill Biden and Prince Harry in visiting a military base in Fort Belvoir , Virginia , an attempt on the prince 's part to raise awareness to programs supporting harmed service members . In December 2015 , Obama traveled with her husband to San Bernardino , California , to meet with families of the victims of a terrorist attack that occurred two weeks earlier .
= = = Foreign trips = = =
On April 1 , 2009 , Obama met with Queen Elizabeth II in Buckingham Palace , Obama embracing her before attending an event with world leaders . Obama praised her , though the hug generated controversy for being out of protocol when greeting Elizabeth .
In April 2010 , Obama traveled to Mexico , her first solo visit to a nation . In Mexico , Obama spoke to students , encouraging them to take responsibility for their futures . Referring to the underprivileged children , Obama argued that " potential can be found in some of the most unlikely places " , citing herself and her husband as examples .
Obama traveled to Africa for the second official trip in June 2011 , touring Johannesburg , Cape Town and Botswana and meeting with Graca Machel . Obama was also involved with community events in the foreign countries . It was commented by White House staff that her trip to Africa would advance the foreign policy of her husband .
In March 2014 , Obama visited China along with her two daughters Malia and Sasha , and her mother Marian Robinson . She met with Peng Liyuan , the wife of Chinese President Xi Jinping , visited historic and cultural sites , as well as a university and two high schools . Deputy National Security Adviser Ben Rhodes said that the visit and intent in Obama journeying there was to symbolize " the relationship between the United States and China is not just between leaders , it 's a relationship between peoples " .
In January 2015 , Obama traveled to Saudi Arabia alongside her husband , following the death of King Abdullah . She received criticism for not covering her head in a nation where women are forbidden from publicly not doing so , though Obama was defended for being a foreigner and thus not having to submit to Saudi Arabia 's customs , even being praised in some corners . Obama was neither greeted nor acknowledged by King Salman during the encounter .
In June 2015 , Obama undertook a weeklong trip to London and three Italian cities . In London , she spoke with students about international education for adolescent girls and met with both British Prime Minister David Cameron and Prince Harry . She was joined by her two daughters and mother . In November , she spent a week in Qatar , her first official visit to the Middle East . She continued advancing her initiative for international education for women by speaking at the 2015 World Innovation Summit for Education for the " Let Girls Learn " initiative in Doha , Qatar and touring a school in Amman , Jordan , where she met with female students . During the Qatar trip , Obama had intended to visit Jordan as well , but the trip was canceled due to weather conditions . In Jordan , Obama had intended to visit an Amman school , which had been constructed with assistance from U.S. funds .
In March 2016 , Obama accompanied her husband and children to Cuba in a trip that was seen by the administration as having the possibility of positively impacting relations between the country and America . Later that month , the First Couple and their daughters traveled to Argentina , meeting with Argentine President Mauricio Macri .
= = = Midterm elections = | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
leaving out political issues such as legitimacy and public representation . They were mainly focused on reshuffling of public offices and economic resources . By 1921 , the country was divided into two camps . The first supporting the reforms was composed of the elder son of the ruler and the heir apparent , Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa ( 1872 – 1942 ) , the British political agent , Major C. K. Daly ( 1920 – 26 ) and the Shia , who at time composed about half of population . The opposing faction was composed of the ruler , Isa ibn Ali Al Khalifa , his younger son Abdulla , the Khalids and tribesmen of Sunni origin .
The heavily taxed Shia were desperate to get rid of the tribal regime and together with Major Daly claimed to be victims of corruption , mismanagement as well as " atrocities and oppression " . The opposing faction rejected the reforms on the basis that equity and standardization of law would remove their advantages such as exemption from taxes and sovereignty over estates . A series of pro and anti reform petitions were submitted by the two factions to different British officials including the Foreign Office . However , the situation remained unchanged for two years as the British were hesitating .
= = = = Role of the Khalids = = = =
Khalid bin Ali , the Al Khawalid ancestor , was the governor of Riffa and ruled over Sitra and Nabih Saleh islands , and his elder son Ibrahim controlled Jabalah Habashi . The Khalids were known for being hard on the Shia . In 1923 , the events took a new turn . Wanting to end the calls for reform , the Khalids and Al Dawasir tribe used armed tactics to intimidate reform supporters . The former 's paramilitary forces numbered 100 , about 20 percent of the total Al Khalifa manpower , while the latter had about 400 men .
Al Dawasir attacked Shia villages of Barbar and A 'ali , while the Khalids attacked Sitra island . The attacks resulted in the killing of 12 villagers , burning of several houses and raping of women . The violence settled after Colonel Knox , the British acting Political Resident arrived in Bahrain in two gunships . Knox forced Isa bin Ali to abdicate in favor of his elder son , Hamad . The Khalids had agreed to reduce taxes on residents of Sitra following the visit . However , as soon as Knox left , taxes were increased again , and Shia residents continued to be subjected to forced labor . The situation prompted some 500 Shia to hold a protest in front of the British Agency demanding a solution to the situation and equal taxation of citizens ( taxes were only imposed on the Shia ) .
Writing for the Journal of Arabian Studies , Justin Gengler argues that the reason behind the involvement of the Khalids was probably their father 's ambition to hold a senior position if they succeeded in stopping reforms and placing Abdulla bin Isa as ruler . Gengler added :
When in 1869 the British selected Shaikh ʿĪsā bin ʿAlī as the next ruler of Bahrain ... Shaikh Khālid , was obliged to accept the governorship of Rifā ... [ he ] could hope to gain immensely if the final defeat of the reforms were accompanied ... thereby rectifying the historical accident by which he was sidelined from power more than fifty years earlier .
The petitions and political crisis continued to the reign of Hamad ( 1923 – 42 ) who — encouraged by the British — began it by setting up a criminal court to try those involved in the violence including his first cousins , the Khalids . The ruler was put in a dilemma between his tribal alignment and public law , and so he exiled his cousins , but paid their expenses . The Khalids , however , held a deep grudge against residents of Sitra who witnessed against them , and in 1924 attacked the island before their exile , killing several Shia men , women and children . The attackers were sentenced to death following major Shia protests and a lengthy second trial , but managed to escape before the sentence was carried out . Their father was confined to Manama . The trials marked the first time in Bahrain 's history that members of the ruling family were convicted .
= = = 1924 – 99 = = =
Gradually , the Khalids were pardoned and allowed back to Bahrain after the leaders of the Shia community in Sitra were persuaded that the Khalids would not attack their villages again . Ibrahim bin Khalid , the eldest of the Khalids , who was exiled to Zubara ( Qatar ) for 10 years , was convicted in 1929 of being responsible for a failed assassination attempt on the ruler , his first cousin , in 1926 . Instead of getting tried , the ruler appointed Ibrahim at his Sakhir Palace . His brother Salman , originally exiled for 10 years , was allowed back in 1928 , while Abdulla was probably not exiled as he was an infant when the 1923 and 1924 incidents occurred .
Still , the Khalids were kept outside the inner decision @-@ making circle until the reign of Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa ( 1999 – present ) . They were also kept away from government positions when Charles Belgrave was the adviser of the ruler ( 1926 – 57 ) as " the colonial administration [ did ] not see fit to re @-@ empower the most militant opponents of [ the administrative reforms ] , " Gengler explained . Other factors that kept the Khalids away from power was their relative lack of efficiency to head the new specialized offices and their self @-@ isolation due to " lingering enmity toward the British as well as to some in the ruling branch of the Āl Khalīfa " . They however had personal links with the center of power as two rulers , Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa I ( 1942 – 61 ) and his son Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa ( 1961 – 99 ) had married from them : Latifa bint Ibrahim bin Khalid and Hessa bint Salman bin Ibrahim bin Khalid respectively . The latter is the mother of the current King of Bahrain , Hamad bin Isa .
The first return of the Khalids to government was in 1967 , when Abdulla bin Khalid was appointed as Minister of Municipalities and Rural Affairs . In 1973 , he was given the Ministry of Justice and Islamic Affairs which he kept until a cabinet reshuffle in November 2002 . During the 1970s , Abdulla opposed the constitutional reforms that paved the road to the short @-@ lived 1973 – 5 parliament . He was also critical of the ruling family , highlighting their " rampant economic exploitation " and " expropriat [ ion ] [ of Shia farmers ] properties " . Abdulla 's older brother , Salman was also critical of the ruling family . Salman and his sons however did not head top positions during the reign of Isa bin Salman , either due to refusing such positions or to not being offered them as a result of Salman 's criticism of the family . Salman was particularly noted to hate the British and parts of the ruling family .
= = Return to power = =
Following the sudden death of his father in March 1999 , Hamad bin Isa became the ruler of Bahrain . The new leader 's mother , Hessa belonged to the Al Khawalid branch . During the early years of his reign , Hamad initiated a series of reforms including releasing of political prisoners and allowing exiles to return . However , by 2007 he had retracted from " many of his earlier reforms " . The Khawalid brothers ( Khalid and Khalifa , sons of Ahmed bin Salman bin Khalid ) had strong relations with the king , that date to 1965 . According to The Wall Street Journal ( WSJ ) , Hamad , then 15 years old , was the heir apparent , when Khalid bin Ahmed , then 21 years old was named the vizier ( head ) of Crown Prince 's Court . Abdulhadi Khalaf dismissed this statement as " too fanciful " . In 1968 , Hamad tasked Khalid 's younger brother , Khalifa — who is said to have bicycled with Hamad during college years — with helping build the Bahrain Defence Force . During the 1973 Arab – Israeli War , Khalifa was promoted to the position of Chief @-@ of @-@ Staff of the army . In his 1994 book First Light : Modern Bahrain and Its Heritage , Hamad introduced Khalifa as " my brother and colleague " .
It was during Hamad 's reign ( 1999 – present ) that Al Khawalid had regained their influence in the inner decision @-@ making circle . " Shaikh Hamad ... oversaw and ... has continued to oversee their empowerment , " Gengler wrote . They occupied leading positions and led important institutions , including the National Security Agency ( NSA ) , the Judiciary and Central Informatics Organization . Abdulla bin Khalid , the youngest son of Khalid bin Ali , headed the " supreme committee " tasked with drafting the National Action Charter of Bahrain between 1999 and 2000 . In 2002 , he was removed from his position as Minister of Justice and Islamic Affairs which he headed since the 1970s and instead placed as Minister of Islamic Affairs and second Deputy Prime Minister . In 2006 , he lost his cabinet positions and headed the Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs . Abdulla is a senior member of House of Khalifa , being one of only three to have the title His Highness .
Khalid bin Ahmed became the Royal Court Minister in 1999 . In a 2007 leaked Wikileaks cable , the U.S. ambassador noted that King Hamad " [ did ] little to reign in Shaikh Khalid " and instead allowed him to " call the shots " and " crack down hard on the demonstrators " . It also named Khalid as " one of the key hard @-@ liners " . The same cable quoted Mansoor al @-@ Jamri , the editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Al @-@ Wasat newspaper , as calling Khalid the " de facto PM " . Michael Field mentioned that Khalid was very powerful and " control [ led ] access to the King " .
Khalid 's younger brother , Khlifa , became the Defence Minister and Commander in Chief of the army . He was later promoted to Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces and given the rank of Field Marshal ( al @-@ Mushīr ; Arabic : المشير ) by which he is widely known . The defense budget rose from US $ 406 million in 2001 to US $ 883 million in 2011 . The ~ 118 % increase is unmatched by any country in the region except for the war @-@ torn Iraq . Bahraini writer Abbas Al @-@ Murshed cited a 2008 royal order that prevented the Parliament from questioning al @-@ Mushīr about the military budget as a sign for the growing influence of the Khawalid brothers .
Frederic Wehrey wrote that the Khawalid brothers were now even stronger than the Prime Minister ( PM ) . Nabeel Rajab said that the two were now the de facto rulers of Bahrain . Bahrain Mirror said the Khawalid brothers were so strong that they represented a " new royal family " . The same source referred to Khalid bin Ahmed as the " Minister King " . The Khawalid brothers , their grand uncle Abdulla bin Khalid and his son Khalid are also members of the Royal Family Council .
Other notable Al Khawalid who occupied leading positions include Mohamed bin Khalifa bin Ahmed , the CEO of National Oil and Gas Authority and director of Central Bank of Bahrain , Mohamed bin Abdulla bin Khalid , the Chairman of the Supreme Council of Health and Minister of State for Defense Affairs , his brother Khalid , the Deputy PM and the chairman of Bahrain Mumtalakat Holding Company , Al Khalifa Housing Committee and Seef Mall . The latter is said to be Al Khawalid candidate for succeeding the PM . Their nephew Khalid bin Ali is the current Minister of Justice who lived most of his life in Egypt where he was born to an Egyptian mother before returning to Bahrain in 1999 . From decedents of Ibrahim bin Khalid , notable Al Khawalid include Khalifa bin Abdulla bin Mohamed , the Secretary General of Supreme Defence Council and previously head of NSA ( 2008 – 11 ) .
Khalifa 's brother , Hamad , is the chairman of Bahrain Telecommunications Company ; their cousin , Ibrahim bin Khalid , is the General Director of Ruling Family Council ; and finally , Salman bin Ibrahim bin Hamad bin Abdulla is the current President of the Asian Football Federation . From sons of Ateyatalla Al Khalifa , Abdulaziz , a security adviser in Prime Minister ’ s Court became the head of NSA ( 2002 – 5 ) , Mohamed became the president of Central Statistics Bureau and Royal Court until 2010 , Ahmed became Minister of Cabinet Affairs and Director of Central Statistics Bureau until 2011 , and Salman became head of Bahrain Defence Force Hospital , later head of King Hamad University Hospital and member of Supreme Council of Health .
= = = Internal rift = = =
Following their return to leading positions , the Khawalid brothers became " engaged in a huge battle for control of the family " , said Kristian Coates @-@ Ulrichsen of London 's Chatham House . Foreign observers such as Emile Nakhleh as well as palace insiders expressed their concern that the Khawalid brothers might go as far as shifting the royal succession line towards themselves . Unnamed U.S. officials downplayed the likelihood of such a change . The division in the ruling family became very clear when an anonymous non @-@ Al Khawalid " senior royal " made an interview with the Wall Street Journal , saying " surrounding the king are all powerful Khawalids . "
King of Bahrain and several Al Khawalids declined to comment on the story . However , one of the king 's top advisers said to be close to Al Khawalid told the Wall Street Journal that it was exaggerated and it was probably no more than competition for succession of the elderly PM . " This is healthy debate , not a blood vendetta from fairy tales , " he added . An investigation committee was reportedly formed to identify the sources that leaked out the information to the WSJ .
On one hand the Khawalid brothers faction , led by Khalid bin Ahmed , represent the " hard @-@ liners " , while on the other hand , the Crown Prince ( CP ) Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa is seen as leader of the " moderates " , the Los Angeles Times ( LAT ) reported . According to Jane Kinninmont of Chatham House , the " king is not seen as leaning towards any particular ideology , but as the ruler he is the key person whom the other factions seek to influence " . It was previously thought that the PM , Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa was the head of the first camp ; however in recent years with the rise of the Khawalid brothers , this picture " now appears over @-@ simplistic , " Kinninmont added . The Economist Intelligence Unit mentioned that the royal family was now split into three factions , one led by the CP , one led by the PM and one led by the Khawalid brothers . Khalil al @-@ Marzooq of Al Wefaq supported the aforementioned statement and named Khalid bin Ahmed as head of the third faction .
Before the 2011 uprising , the Khawalid brothers had tense relations with the PM and both sides hated each other . Bahrain Mirror reported that the PM has expressed his hate for the Khawalid brothers several times to the audience of his council and refused to cooperate with ministers under their influence such as Ahmed bin Ateyatalla . However , following the start of the uprising , their relations are reported to have been improved . Brothers Khalid and Khalifa , and the PM are said to form an " anti @-@ reform troika " . The latter , however , is considered to be " more politically flexible " .
= = = Al Bandar report = = =
In 2006 , Salah Al Bandar , then an adviser to the Cabinet Affairs Ministry distributed a 240 – page scandalous report , revealing an alleged Khawalid @-@ led political conspiracy aiming to disenfranchise and marginalize the Shia majority , and to minimize the influence of " reformers in the ruling family " . One of the strategies of the alleged conspiracy was to naturalize Sunnis in order to re @-@ shift the demographic balance . Other strategies included stroking sectarianism in the media , use of GONGOs and rigging the parliamentary election . The report named Ahmed bin Ateyatalla as head of the conspiracy by leading an " underground network " that aims " to override the legal legitimacy , falsify popular will and vilify civil organizations " . The latter was described as being an " influential hardliner " and a " protégé " of Khalid bin Ahmed .
A total of US $ 2 @.@ 65 million was reportedly dispersed to various contributors . The report said the origins of the conspiracy stemmed from a secret study by an Iraqi academic in 2005 that recommended marginalizing the Shia to the government . Al Bandar was deported and his report banned from any mention in the media and Parliament . Ateyatalla denied the allegations and called them " an Iran @-@ backed effort to destabilize Bahrain " . The government however charged Al Bandar in absentia with " possessing stolen government documents " . Kinninmont said the charge " only added to perceptions that the documents were credible " . She added that the claim gained more credence in 2008 when the government published new demographic data which showed that over 70 @,@ 000 were naturalized in the previous seven years . The Los Angeles Times said Al Bandar report was the first evidence " of government support for Sunni extremists " .
= = Bahraini uprising = =
= = = Context = = =
Inspired by popular uprisings in Tunisia and Egypt , protesters in Bahrain took to the streets in a " Day of Rage " on 14 February 2011 . Security forces responded by firing tear gas , rubber bullets , sound bombs and birdshot into the crowd of protesters , killing one of them . The next day another protester was killed and thousands of demonstrators occupied Pearl Roundabout in the capital Manama . On 17 February , authorities launched a pre @-@ dawn raid on protesters makeshift camp in Pearl Roundabout , which left four protesters dead and more than 300 injured .
The following day , army forces stationed in the Pearl Roundabout fired live ammunition on hundreds of protesters who tried to re @-@ occupy the site . At least 120 protesters were hurt and one was fatally wounded , bringing the number of deaths to seven . The CP offered dialogue with opposition parties . On 19 February , tens of thousands of protesters re @-@ occupied Pearl Roundabout after the army was ordered to withdraw . In March , martial law was declared and Saudi troops were called in . Despite the hard crackdown and official ban , the protests continued .
= = = Role of the Khawalid brothers = = =
The divisions within the royal family of Al Khalifa came to public during the uprising . The king with his elder son and heir apparent , Salman were responding positively to U.S. pressure to compromise with the opposition , while the Khawalid brothers preferred crackdown . In February and March 2011 , the CP was authorized by his father to lead " semi @-@ secret " negotiations with the opposition in which he offered them " historic concessions , including a bigger share in parliament . " According to Bahrain Mirror , the CP move surprised the Khawalid brothers and aimed among other things to limit their influence . During this period , Ahmed bin Ateyatalla lost his position as Minister of Cabinet Affairs in a limited cabinet reshuffle aimed to satisfy the opposition which has repeatedly accused him of discriminating against Shia . The cabinet reshuffle also introduced Majeed Al Alawi , an adviser to the CP as Minister of Housing .
According to sources interviewed by the WSJ , the Khawalid brothers rejected the CP deal , which led to a " confrontation between the crown prince and the Royal Court Minister at a family meeting " . According to same sources , Khalid bin Ahmed then went to Saudi Arabia and convinced their king to oppose the deal secured by the CP . After that , the sources mention , the Khawalid brothers @-@ led security forces attacked protesters and the talks fell apart . A source close to the Khawalid brothers dismissed the aforementioned narrative and blamed the failure of talks on the opposition rejection of the CP deal . Ali Salman , the head of Al Wefaq main opposition party said they had accepted the CP initiative , but " 12 hours later , GCC troops came in and severed the dialogue . " According to the WSJ , the Khawalid brothers also effectively blocked any direct dialogue between the CP and the opposition beyond the failed February – March 2011 talks .
On 15 March , the king announced a three @-@ month " State of National Safety " , granting al @-@ Mushīr , Khalifa bin Ahmed wide @-@ ranging powers including the authority " to issue regulations governing all manner of conduct " . The aforementioned Royal Decree also authorized al @-@ Mushīr " to oversee the implementation of this decree by all the agencies of the Government of Bahrain " . He led the operation to clear Pearl Roundabout of protesters in the early hours of 16 March . Eight people had died that day , five by gunshot , one by birdshot and two police reportedly run over by an SUV .
Al @-@ Mushīr frequently appeared on local and regional media . In one interview he called protesters " traitors " . In another , he echoed Muammar Gaddafi by accusing protesters of using drugs . " [ Protesters were ] given pills which affected their minds and made them do unusual things , " Al @-@ Mushīr said . He also had a warning for protesters : " I say to those who did not get the message , ' If you return we will come back , stronger this time ' . " He said that the Bahraini uprising was " by all measures a conspiracy involving Iran with the support of the United States " . He also said that the uprising which he called a " coup plot " was supported by more than a dozed of U.S.- and an unnamed Gulf country @-@ funded NGOs .
In later days , Bahrain was engulfed in the Khawalid brothers @-@ led @-@ crackdown with almost daily clashes between security forces and opposition activists . The crackdown was the widest against the opposition in Bahrain 's modern history ; dozens of protesters were killed , some due to torture in police custody . Thousands of Shia were expelled from their jobs and dozens of their mosques were demolished . Al @-@ Mushīr also ppresided over the Court of National Safety , a military court that convicted more than 500 defendants , including all opposition leaders outside Al Wefaq ( i.e. Bahrain Thirteen ) . " The different style of the crackdown reflected a different leadership calling the shots , " said Kinninmont . The Independent reported that continued crackdown and the Saudi @-@ led intervention has increased the influence of al @-@ Mushīr , which it named " the leading hardliner within the royal family " . Professor Michael Hudson said that the " crackdown mark [ ed ] the victory of the hard @-@ liners within the royal establishment " .
The NSA , then led by a member of Al Khawalid branch , Khalifa bin Abdulla Al Khalifa , played an important role in crackdown . It was found by the Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry ( BICI ) that the NSA had executed hundreds of arbitrary arrests during which they used " unnecessary excessive force " , " terror @-@ inspiring behaviour " and damaged properties . The BICI also found that NSA had subjected detainees to systematic torture which led to the death of four detainees , among them journalists Karim Fakhrawi and Zakariya al @-@ Ashiri . Following the release of the BICI report , Khalifa bin Abdulla was removed from his position and given the positions of king adviser and Secretary General of the Supreme Defense Council . According to Kinninmont , " he is believed still to be closely involved with the agency " .
Martial law was lifted on 1 June and was followed by a call from the king to a national dialogue . The failure of the dialogue had only served to deepen the divide between the Al Khalifa branches , Ulrichsen wrote . According to Kinninmont and WSJ sources , the CP was sidelined as his allies were removed from their influential positions and his " de facto parallel cabinet " ( known as the Economic Development Board ) was stripped from its powers . Wehrey writes that the king himself " has been similarly overshadowed " . The Khawalid brothers influence had increased even more after the uprising . Ateyatalla , who had lost his cabinet position during the early days of the uprising was now appointed Minister of Follow Up at the Royal Court . In January 2012 , the Khawalid brothers wanted to initiate talks , however they soon abandoned the idea after opposition from " pro @-@ government Sunni radicals " .
The CP finally called for a renewed dialogue in December , yet his speech " contained generous nods to the Khawalid [ brothers ' ] influence " . The new dialogue began in February 2013 , however the CP did not participate , despite opposition calls for him . Al @-@ Mushīr 's spokesman tweeted that participants in the talks were " donkeys " and warned that any concession would amount to a " coup " . The appointment of CP as Deputy PM in March raised some hopes ; it was welcomec by al @-@ Jamri and a " moderate " government adviser . " This is an important step that could represent the starting point for meaningful reform later on , " al @-@ Jamri said . The Economist Intelligence Unit mentioned that this placed the CP as first candidate to succeed the PM . However , the CP remained " utterly sidelined , " Gengler said . Christopher Davidson cautioned that the move can be used as a public relations stunt . " [ W ] hether this is a meaningful political concession remains to be seen , " he added .
= = Ideology and political allies = =
= = = Anti @-@ West conservatives = = =
According to Freedom House , the Khawalid brothers represent and promote " an ideological orientation that sees Bahrain as the target of Iranian @-@ and Western @-@ backed conspiracies to empower Bahraini Shiites at the expense of the ruling family and other Gulf Sunnis " . The U.S. toppling of Sunni leaders in Afghanistan ( Taliban ) and Iraq ( Saddam Hussein ) , and its relative military inaction towards nuclear @-@ ambitious Iran have only deepened the Khawalid brothers ideology , which is already rich with the experience of the 1920s British @-@ driven administrative reforms that came at their expense .
In an interview with al @-@ Rai Kuwaiti newspaper , Al @-@ Mushīr considered the Arab Spring movements in Tunisia , Egypt , Yemen , Bahrain and Libya to be a " Western conspiracy " . He only acknowledged the Syrian civil war as true popular revolution and hinted that GCC troops may get involved there . " If Iran 's mercenaries are not defeated in Syria , they will come to us in the Gulf , " he added . In a March 2012 interview , al @-@ Mushīr accused the U.S. of secretly supporting the Bahraini opposition and " sow [ ing ] discord among the Gulf states " . He protested the U.S. halting their supply of crowd @-@ control weapons by denying U.S. aircraft basing access . The move was described by Wehrey as " effectively overruling the king " .
The Khawalid brothers were classified by the WSJ as " anti @-@ American hard @-@ liners " . The Independent said the " ultraconservative " Khawalid had close tries with Saudi Arabia , " vehemently opposed to any concessions " to the opposition and " pushed an increasingly sectarian and conservative agenda " . " Bahrain ’ s chief allies in London and Washington are beginning to fear that the normally pro @-@ West monarchy is being usurped by a group with virulently anti @-@ American and anti @-@ British views , " the London @-@ based newspaper added .
Al @-@ Monitor mentioned that brothers Khalid and Khalifa bin Ahmed were allied with Sunni Islamists groups including Al Asalah ( Salafist ) , Al @-@ Menbar Islamic Society ( Muslim Brotherhood ) and the National Unity Assembly ( Independent ) . Saeed al @-@ Shehabi of the London @-@ based Bahrain Freedom Movement said the UK preferred to deal with moderates instead of the Khawalid brothers . " But the Khawalid [ brothers ] get their support from Saudi Arabia which has left the British in a sort of limbo , " he added . According to LAT , the Khawalid brothers faction " believes in suppressing Shiite aspirations , even if it means supporting Sunni groups propelled by the same ideologies that inspire Osama bin Laden " . The Los Angeles @-@ based newspaper added that Akhbar Al Khaleej , a pro @-@ government newspaper " refers to Bin Laden as a ' sheik , ' a title of honor " .
A newspaper controlled by the Khawalid brothers published the name and image of a U.S. diplomat after he had given doughnuts to protesters outside the U.S. embassy in Manama . The newspaper portrayed him as an Israeli @-@ Irani intelligence agent , forcing the embassy to send him home " out of safety fears " . The same newspaper criticized the U.S. alleged support to protesters by featuring a series of articles on the President of the United States titled " Ayatollah Obama and Bahrain " . Gengler identified the aforementioned paper as Al @-@ Watan and added that the writer of " Ayatollah Obama " series was praised by al @-@ Mushīr and promoted to Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief a year later .
The Khawalid brothers rising influence and divisions within House of Khalifa prompted two former U.S. officials to say that " it may not be viable to continue to base thousands of U.S. service members and their families there " and the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace called the U.S. to " prepare plans for the gradual relocation of the Fifth Fleet 's assets and functions " . On the other hand , Simon Henderson wrote that relocating the fifth fleet would only serve to embolden the Khawalid brothers . " The Khawalid [ brothers ] faction in Manama may even relish that prospect as a means of clarifying the royal family 's predicament and justifying the hardline path , " he added .
= = = Sectarianism = = =
In 1995 , one year after the start of the Shia @-@ led 1990s uprising in Bahrain , Khalid bin Ahmed publicly distributed a " politically charged poem " that contained " racist and hateful views " of the Shia . One verse of the poem called for " spill [ ing ] their bloods until they all die " , another called for " remov [ ing ] them from every sensitive position " . Khalaf said the poem was " part of the tribal @-@ cum @-@ ethnic @-@ cum @-@ political mobilization and counter mobilization " . According to Michael Field , Khalid " [ h ] as reputation for being very hard on the Shias " . Freedom House mentioned that the Khawalid brothers " espouse a decidedly anti @-@ Shiite agenda , conceiving of the community as a veritable fifth column to be dealt with in the framework of security , rather than through political bargaining " . The sectarian violence and rise of Shia powers in Iraq have only strengthened this belief . This view of Shia as a security problem led the Khawalid brothers to consider any economic and political reforms as invalid . Instead they thought that these reforms would only lead the Shia to demand even more .
" [ B ] y this view , the state [ is ] trapped in a veritable catch @-@ 22 , wherein the very attempt to purchase political stability in fact serves only to open the door to increased instability , " Gengler wrote . The Khawalid brothers have allegedly undertaken preemptive measures to limit the Shia majority influence via excluding them from sensitive positions ( sovereign ministries , police and army ) , naturalizing Sunnis to re @-@ balance the demographics , gerrymandering electoral districts and mobilizing the Sunni public opinion against the Shia . The first evidence of these policies was presented by al @-@ Jamri in 1998 , later in 2006 they were further exposed by Al Bandar report . " While the exclusion of the Shiite minority from the public sphere has been accomplished in Saudi Arabia through instrumentalization of Wahhabi ideology and institutions , the exclusion of a majority within Bahrain will likely be much more difficult to sustain , " Diwan said .
Wehrey wrote that during the Bahraini uprising , the Khawalid brothers — aided by their Sunni allies , the Muslim Brotherhood and Salafists — made good use of sectarianism to delegitimize the Shia opposition and prevent any " broad @-@ based , grassroots movement " from forming . He added that they employed the state @-@ controlled and Khawalid @-@ funded newspaper , Al @-@ Watan to portrait " Al Wefaq as a proxy of Hezbollah and Iran " . The opposition said that sectarian groups were mainly supported by Khalid bin Ahmed , who they considered " particularly potent and harmful " . A Congressional Research Service report mentioned that the Khawalid brothers " are considered disparaging of and implacably opposed to compromise with the Shiites " .
= = Analysis = =
Gengler argued that King Hamad 's empowerment of the Khawalid brothers was not because he was unaware of their anti @-@ reform ideology and actions , nor was it due to him being a wolf in sheep 's clothing . Instead Gengler wrote that King Hamad probably wanted to counter the influence of his uncle , the strong un @-@ elected PM , Khalifa bin Salman who was an " effective co @-@ ruler " between 1971 and 1999 . Gengler concludes that the rise of the Khawalid brothers " owes therefore to a combination of personal relationships , shared background in the military , and political expediency " . Other explanations Gengler offered include that " [ King Hamad ] simply never took an interest in ruling " and instead occupied himself with " recreation and hobbies " or that he had begun the security approach in parallel with reforms as a " precautionary measure " in case they failed .
Bahrain Mirror mentioned that the king has delegated " [ a ] uthority and affairs of the state " to the Khawalid brothers " to fully manage them as they wish " . Gwynne Dyer wrote that as long as Al Khalawid remained in power " there will be no compromise , even though more than 80 Shia protesters have already been killed " . Writing for Bahrain Mirror , Bahraini researcher Yousif Makki argued that the role of the Khawalid brothers was amplified and that they did not constitute a faction of their own . Instead Makki said they were within the faction led by the PM .
On the other hand , Bahraini writer Abbas Busafwan argued that the Khawalid brothers are the king 's crew and allegations made against them , including Al Bandar report are no more than the king 's own projects . He argued that the early reforms initiated by the king ( known as " the reform project " ) only aim was " re @-@ concentrating power in his hand , away from the PM , and not for the creation of a popular partnership and a democratic life " . Busafwan added that Khalid bin Ahmed and Ahmed bin Ateyatalla were responsible for the formation and implementation of what he called the " Hamad strategy " . He did not conciser the CP a moderate , instead he said the CP was " unable to form a balance with the powerful Al @-@ Khawaled " .
= Robert White ( West Virginia senator ) =
Robert White ( May 28 , 1876 – August 15 , 1935 ) was an American lawyer and Democratic politician in the U.S. state of West Virginia . White served four consecutive terms as the Prosecuting Attorney for Hampshire County ( 1912 – 1928 ) , and served one term in the West Virginia Senate ( 1930 – 1934 ) representing the state 's Fifteenth Senatorial District in the 40th and 41st Sessions of the West Virginia Legislature . During the 1933 legislative year , White served as the floor leader for the Democratic Party members of the West Virginia Senate .
White was born in Romney , West Virginia in 1876 to Hampshire County Clerk of Court Christian Streit White ( 1839 – 1917 ) and his second wife Catharine Steele White ( 1837 – 1869 ) and was the grandson of Hampshire County Clerk of Court John Baker White ( 1794 – 1862 ) . White was educated at Potomac Academy and began his career in public service at the age of 16 as Deputy Clerk of Court in his father 's law office . He studied jurisprudence at the West Virginia University College of Law graduating in 1899 .
He began practicing law in Romney and was elected Prosecuting Attorney of Hampshire County in 1912 . White was elected to the position four times , and served terms from 1912 to 1928 . In addition , he served as the Commissioner of School Lands and as one of the Chancery Commissioners for Hampshire County . White was elected to represent the Fifteenth Senatorial District in the West Virginia Senate in 1930 and served in the senate until 1934 . In 1933 , White was chairman of the senate 's Judiciary Committee and he was also appointed to two special committees : one on economy and efficiency to study state and municipal government spending , and another to investigate the road commission 's awarding of a contract for gasoline , oil , and grease to the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey over the Elk Refining Company .
Following a prolonged illness , White died in Romney in 1935 at the age of 59 .
= = Early life and education = =
Robert White was born on May 28 , 1876 in Romney , West Virginia . He was the second child of Hampshire County Clerk of Court Christian Streit White ( 1839 – 1917 ) and his second wife Catharine Steele White ( 1837 – 1869 ) , and the third eldest of his father 's five children . White was a grandson of Hampshire County Clerk of Court John Baker White ( 1794 – 1862 ) and a great @-@ grandson of the prominent Virginia judge Robert White ( 1759 – 1831 ) . His uncle Robert White ( 1833 @-@ 1915 ) served as Attorney General of West Virginia and his brother John Baker White ( 1868 – 1944 ) was a military officer and later served as a Charleston city councilman and president of the West Virginia Board of Control .
White received his early education in the public schools of Romney , and attended Romney 's Potomac Academy . At the age of 16 , he began his career in public service serving as the Deputy Clerk of Court in the office of his father , Christian Streit White , who was then serving as Clerk of Court for Hampshire County . In 1894 , White graduated from Potomac Academy at the age of 18 . Two years later , he began studying jurisprudence at the West Virginia University College of Law in Morgantown . He graduated from the West Virginia University College of Law in 1899 , earning a Bachelor of Laws degree . White cast his first vote for Democratic Party presidential nominee William Jennings Bryan in the United States presidential election of 1900 .
= = Law career = =
Following his graduation in 1899 from West Virginia University , White returned to Romney and established a law practice . In 1903 , he became associated with his father Christian Streit White in a law practice , following the conclusion of his father 's term as Hampshire County Clerk of Court . White continued to practice law with his father until 1912 , when he was elected to his first term as prosecuting attorney for Hampshire County .
= = Political career = =
Before the age of 21 , White represented Hampshire County as a delegate to a West Virginia Democratic Party state convention .
In 1912 , he was first elected to serve as the prosecuting attorney for Hampshire County and was re @-@ elected to the position four times , serving four , four @-@ year terms from 1912 to 1928 . While serving in this position , White was a strong proponent of the Good Roads Movement and under his leadership , the first concrete bridge was constructed in Hampshire County by the County Court .
Between 1917 and 1922 , in addition to serving as the county 's prosecuting attorney , White served as the commissioner of school lands and as one of the chancery commissioners for Hampshire County , along with Joshua Soule Zimmerman and James Sloan Kuykendall .
= = = West Virginia Senate = = =
In 1930 , White was elected to serve in the West Virginia Senate representing the state 's Fifteenth Senatorial District . He served in the 40th and 41st Sessions of the West Virginia Legislature and completed his term in 1934 . During the 1932 legislative year , the West Virginia Senate was led by the Republican Party majority . The following legislative year in 1933 , White served as the floor leader for the West Virginia Senate 's Democratic Party members . The West Virginia Senate 's majority had shifted to the Democrats in 1933 , and in January 1933 , White was selected by A. G. Mathews , President of the West Virginia Senate , as chairman of the senate 's Judiciary Committee . In this position , White introduced twelve bills in 1933 to correct errors and omissions in existing statutes . Also in the 1933 legislative year , White served as a member on the Finance ; Roads and Navigation ; Counties , Municipal Corporations ; Rules ; Medicine and Sanitation ; Education ; Privileges and Elections ; and Redistricting committees . In the same year White was also appointed as a member on two special senate committees .
On January 19 , 1933 , White sponsored a resolution for the creation of a special committee on economy and efficiency to study state and municipal government spending . The committee was charged with making investigations , developing recommendations , and drafting bills to empower its recommendations . It was further permitted to summon witnesses , examine records , and to investigate all state and local government organizations to recommend further mechanisms to affect efficiency and economy . White was appointed to the committee , which consisted of the speaker of the House of Delegates , the president of the West Virginia Senate , and two members from each house .
In February 1933 , White was one of four senate Democrats appointed to serve on a special committee to investigate the road commission 's awarding of a contract for gasoline , oil , and grease to the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey over the Elk Refining Company of Charleston . The committee 's creation and investigation was in response to the Elk Refining Company 's protest of the commission 's decision , and the company 's advertisement in which it claimed that its contract bid was $ 10 @,@ 387 @.@ 50 lower than that of Standard Oil . The committee not only investigated the commission 's decision , but also examined the Elk Refining Company 's advertisement . White questioned the advertisement 's merit and commented that the committee was " entitled to know what the motive behind this advertisement was . " " If there isn 't anything to investigate we shouldn 't be here investigating , " he concluded .
On February 28 , 1933 , White was a member of a subcommittee which drafted a bill calling for a special state referendum on the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution . Under the plan , which was submitted by White , West Virginia would register its official stand on the proposed Twenty @-@ first Amendment to end Prohibition in the United States at the federal level . The referendum was to choose a slate of 20 " wet " and 20 " dry " candidates for delegates to a state convention , which would present its final vote on the national repeal of Prohibition .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Marriage and issue = = =
White married Mabel Glasscock Fitch , the only child and daughter of E. H. Fitch and his wife Laura Glasscock Fitch , on January 7 , 1903 in Washington , D.C .. Fitch was a native of Vanceburg , Kentucky and she attended Marshall College while her family resided in Huntington . She completed her education in Washington , D.C. White and his wife Mabel had five children :
John Baker White ( born February 11 , 1904 )
Mabel Glasgow White Cornwell ( born February 18 , 1906 ) , married James Leighton Cornwell on August 25 , 1926 in Hampshire County
Elizabeth Steele White ( born April 23 , 1908 )
Roberta Huston White McFarland ( born June 18 , 1912 ) , married Dr. William Franklin McFarland on June 13 , 1936 in New Cumberland
Robert White , Jr .
White 's wife Mabel was an active member of the Presbyterian Church . While a passenger on a Baltimore and Ohio Railroad South Branch line train , Mabel took ill and died at the Wappocomo home of Garrett Williams Parsons on July 5 , 1915 . She was interred at Indian Mound Cemetery in Romney .
= = Later life and death = =
White never remarried following his wife 's death in 1915 . In addition to White 's church activities , he served as a master of the Masonic Lodge , and was affiliated with the Odd Fellows . Beginning in 1934 , White endured 18 months of illness , and on August 14 , 1935 , his physician Dr. R. W. Dailey reported to the Cumberland Evening Times that he was in critical condition and was unlikely to recover . White succumbed to his illness and died at his residence in Romney on August 15 , 1935 at the age of 59 as a result of arteriosclerosis . Myocarditis also contributed to his prolonged illness but was not the cause of his death . White was interred with Masonic rites on Saturday afternoon , August 17 , 1935 at Indian Mound Cemetery in Romney . A number of state officials attended his funeral .
= Spirit Fruit Society =
The Spirit Fruit Society was a communitarian group in the United States that was organized after a period of repeated business depressions during the 1890s . The society had its beginnings in Lisbon , Ohio and , over the years of its existence moved to Ingleside , Illinois and , finally , to California . Plagued by rumor , suspicion , and attacks in the press during its early years , the group remained active until 1930 . Although it never numbered more than a handful of adherents , the Spirit Fruit Society existed longer and more successfully than any other American utopian group .
The name is derived from the group 's belief that mankind 's spiritual state is that of a bud or blossom on a plant and that man 's soul has not yet developed into a fruit from a blossom . The goal of the society was to bring the soul to fruition . As the society 's founder , Jacob Beilhart , said in documents for incorporation of the society , " ... as yet , man is an underdeveloped ' plant ' which has not manifested the final fruit , which he is to produce . " The essential philosophy of the group was based upon a belief in self @-@ renunciation , hard work , tolerance , and peace .
= = Jacob L. Beilhart , founder = =
The Spirit Fruit Society was started by Jacob Beilhart ( 4 March 1867 – 24 November 1908 ) , who was born in Columbiana County , Ohio , to a Lutheran father and a Mennonite mother . Beilhart was raised in the Lutheran church and his early home environment was strictly religious .
When he was 18 , Beilhart moved to Kansas , where he met and married Olive Louema Blow , whose family belonged to the Seventh @-@ day Adventist church , which Beilhart then joined . Jacob and Louema traveled to California to attend the Adventist College at Healdsburg . Jacob received a preacher 's license and the couple returned to Kansas where he began preaching . After two years , however , faced with the prospect of being sent to work in other areas of the country , Beilhart left preaching , maintaining that he wanted to do something " besides talk " . Beilhart felt a strong need to help the sick so he enrolled in a nursing program at the Battle Creek Sanitarium , which was run by Dr. John Harvey Kellogg .
Beilhart became friends with C. W. Post , who had been a patient at the sanitarium . Post 's health improved dramatically while under the care of a Christian Science " faith healer " , Mrs. Elizabeth K. Gregory . In 1892 , Post started La Vita Inn , a sanitorium of his own , and hired Beilhart as an associate . The two men took instruction in Christian Science while Beilhart worked at the inn and helped develop Post 's cereal drink , Postum . Post and Beilhart rejected much of the Christian Science doctrine , but embraced the religion 's view that illness was an illusion and could be overcome by mental suggestion and self @-@ sacrifice .
During his time in Kansas , Beilhart obsessively investigated a variety of beliefs , including Christian Science , Divine Science , Spiritualism , and Theosophy . He found , however , that none of these religions held his interest . In time , he came to the realization that he would not adhere to any one denomination , but develop a faith of his own by combining aspects of several different religions .
= = Philosophy = =
Beilhart rejected materialism and disavowed personal property . He held that jealousy , doubt , and the fear of losing the love of another caused much of the disease people experienced . He felt that rejecting personal possessions was a means of attaining the Fruit of the Universal Spirit .
Members of the Spirit Fruit Society lived according to the following basic principles : seek happiness through selflessness ; follow one 's conscience ; take responsibility for one 's actions — and develop an awareness of the consequences of one 's actions on others ; and accept whatever happens . Beilhart believed very strongly in the individual 's right to guide his own actions , and not be dictated to by others . While there was no mention of any kind of organization or hierarchy in any documents , as the leader , Beilhart likely made important decisions concerning the group . There is no record of any kind of internal conflict between members .
Newspapers of the time reported that the society promoted free love , but the society promoted free love only in the sense that consenting adults had a right to change partners and even to have more than one partner at a time . Rather than promiscuousness , though , the society promoted tolerance , including tolerance of homosexuality . The Spirit Fruit Society , unlike most other communitarian groups of that time , did not seek to convert or recruit others to the group . Members were permitted to come and go as they pleased . The goal of the commune was not to convert or to expand membership in the society — it was simply to live as the adherents wished to live .
Very little exists in the way of firsthand accounts of life within the society . In an effort to dispel some of the misconceptions and rumors about the society , Beilhart wrote extensively for newspapers to explain the workings of the group .
The members worked together and shared all property . If a member of the society needed money for some purpose , they were free to take it from a community supply . Women of the society worked in the house sewing , setting type for newsletters , and general housework , while the men worked the farm . One of the founding principles of the society was that of the " free gift " . It dictated that , if anyone wanted something that they had to give — printed materials in particular — they had only to ask and it would be given to them without charge . After reading or seeing the society in practice , those people were free to contribute if they wished , but it was stressed that this was a " free gift " and not payment . In order to rise from their lower , selfish nature into an unselfish , spiritual nature , the society taught , everyone should obey the law of their being and subdue passions and impulses that control them by nature . The society believed in business and societal laws , but they felt that man would rise above those laws when they gained full control of their lower nature . They maintained , however , that they should still be obedient to those laws .
= = History = =
= = = Lisbon , Ohio , the beginning = = =
In 1896 , Beilhart returned to Ohio and settled in Lisbon , close to where he was reared . Paramount among the reasons for his return was the confession of Louema Beilhart that her two children were not his , but C. W. Post 's . She soon left Lisbon for her home in La Cygne , Kansas . In 1899 , Beilhart decided to create an intentional community to practice his newly developed beliefs and to demonstrate this practice to others . In the aftermath of the Civil War , a number of communitarian groups were started around the United States . The rise in activism was further promoted by the effects of the depression at end of the 19th century . By this time , however , McKinley prosperity had developed and , in any case , Beilhart never displayed a particular interest in politics or economics . At this time he started two newspapers , Spirit Fruit and Spirit Voice , which were widely distributed and supported by donations . The Spirit Fruit Society was officially incorporated as a religious organization in 1901 . The stated goal in the incorporation documents was to " teach mankind how to apply the truths taught by Jesus Christ . " Beilhart made no attempt to solicit members for his commune and sometimes rejected applicants when he felt they were not fit candidates . As a result , the commune only attracted about a dozen residents , mostly from outside the area .
The group did not beg or in any way disturb their neighbors . Beilhart preached in Chicago and elsewhere , but was not known to proselytize strongly . While the group typically kept to themselves , their mysterious nature led to misconceptions and suspicion in the press . Specifically , the birth of Beilhart 's niece , Evelyn , was cause for concern as her mother , Mary Beilhart ( Jacob 's sister ) , was not married to the child 's father , Ralph E. Galbreath ( cousin of Ohio State Librarian Charles Burleigh Galbreath and State Senator Asher A. Galbreath ) . Dubbed the " Love Child " , this birth prompted newspapers to characterize the group as a free @-@ love society of promiscuity . The arrival of " Blessed " Katherine Herbeson , a teenager from Chicago , also gave concern . It was reported in the press that " Blessed " was either held against her will or brainwashed by the society . Her father and brother came and ' rescued ' her and she was forced to leave the society against her wishes . Additional negative publicity occurred when Beilhart objected to his wife 's petition for alimony .
In 1904 , numerous newspaper articles and editorials were written , mostly in Chicago , about the society . Those articles were often sensationalist and tended to put the society in a bad light . The views of the society , particularly those against marriage and promoting free love , were not accepted well in the small Ohio village of Lisbon . In fact , a local newspaper reprinted a warning that had been distributed in the community : " Wanted – Fifty good women , over twenty and under fifty years of age ; also fifty good honest @-@ hearted men with families , to meet upon the Square when called upon , and go to the Spirit Fruit farm and tell them to take their departure at once or take the consequences , as tar is cheap and feathers plentiful . "
In June 1904 , Beilhart invited the public to an ' open house ' where he attempted to explain the motives and beliefs of the society . Over 400 people attended the gathering ; Among them , it has been claimed , were Clarence Darrow and Elbert Hubbard but this has not been documented , although Beilhart is known to have visited Hubbard in East Aurora and Darrow was a frequent visitor to the society during the Chicago and Ingleside years . In the end , the society 's rejection of marriage on the grounds that it made a ' slave of the woman ' , and the misinterpretations of their views on free @-@ love were too much for the people of Lisbon to accept . In late 1904 , the group left Lisbon for Chicago , in the hope that their progressive ideas might be better tolerated there .
= = = Ingleside , Illinois , and the death of Beilhart = = =
In 1905 , Beilhart purchased 90 acres ( 36 ha ) near Ingleside , Illinois , along Wooster Lake , a tract known as the Dalziel Farm . About a dozen established members of the Spirit Fruit Society moved with Beilhart to Illinois , along with a few new members . Over the next two years the society built a spacious house and later a large barn entirely by hand . They were better received by their Illinois neighbors than they had been in Lisbon . On the property by the lake , the society 's members hand @-@ built a concrete @-@ block home that they called the " Spirit Fruit Temple " . The 2 ½ -story residence had 32 rooms , a full basement , and modern ( for the time ) conveniences . The dining room accommodated up to 100 people . The society continued to live peacefully in Ingleside for several years . They provided for themselves from what came to be known as the " Spirit Fruit Farm " , opened the farm and temple to visitors , and produced their newsletter . Beilhart continued to speak to groups in Chicago promoting the ideals of the society .
In November 1908 , Beilhart became ill from acute appendicitis . Despite attention from a surgeon who performed an appendectomy , Beilhart developed peritonitis and died three days later . In keeping with the society 's beliefs in simplicity , Beilhart was buried in a plain coffin in an unmarked grave overlooking Wooster Lake . None of the buildings remain , having been covered by a housing development , although Beilhart 's grave remains in a brush @-@ obscured corner of the tract .
The loss of a charismatic and dominant leader often precipitates the decline of such groups , but the Spirit Fruit Society persevered . This made the society unique among other groups of this time . Though the commune continued after his death , their two publications , Spirit Voice and Spirit Fruit , ceased to be produced . Virginia Moore was chosen president of the society upon Beilhart 's death , and the community stayed together and carried on its activities as before . In 1911 , the society put an advertisement in the local papers seeking to sell their lakefront property and ' temple ' . Virginia Moore stated that the Illinois climate was not suitable for their activities and the decision had been made to move to California , . In the winter of 1914 – 1915 , the society moved west .
= = = California and the end = = =
In 1915 , the society purchased 80 acres ( 32 ha ) of land in Soquel , California , which they named " Hilltop Ranch " . At this point , only 12 of the society 's members remained . They included Mary Beilhart 's two ' illegitimate ' children born in Ohio , now 11 and 15 years old . Just as in Ohio and Illinois , the group made no efforts at recruiting new members , although three new members did join during this time .
The primary focus of the society at this time was simple subsistence . To continue as a group , they had to focus all of their energies on producing food . This was problematic because many of the members were becoming old and several suffered illnesses . Since the beginning , Beilhart and the other members had not actively sought out new members , believing that a small group was more viable . This proved to be their undoing as there were no younger members to sustain the farm . The original members , who had stayed with the group since its inception , began to leave and by 1928 , only six were left . Financial strains forced them to relinquish the ranch and move to a house in the village of Soquel .
The group finally disbanded in 1930 when Virginia Moore died of cancer . After her death , the remaining members of the Spirit Fruit Society dispersed to various homes of friends and family . Despite the small membership , the society had been in existence for almost 30 years – 20 years beyond the death of its founder .
= = Success of the society = =
Throughout its existence , the society never claimed more than a couple dozen members . They never actively recruited new members nor proselytized in the communities . Like many such organizations , they were often persecuted by the press and were the subject of dubious reports . Despite this , and , more significantly , despite the loss of their spiritual leader , Beilhart , the society continued to exist longer than most other communes at that time .
Though rooted in Christianity yet exhibiting traits of communalism , the members of the society were not bound by either set of beliefs or values . Murphy suggests that this is one of the reasons for the society 's longevity - that , rather than be confined by one belief system , the members could easily adapt to , and solve , everyday issues arising within the community as well as threats from outside .
= Battle of Towton =
The Battle of Towton was fought during the English Wars of the Roses on 29 March 1461 , near the village of Towton in Yorkshire . It brought about a change of monarchs in England , with the victor , the Yorkist Edward , Duke of York — who became King Edward IV ( 1461 – 1483 ) having displaced the Lancastrian King Henry VI ( 1422 – 1461 ) as king , and thus drove the head of the Lancastrians and his key supporters out of the country .
It is described as " probably the largest and bloodiest battle ever fought on English soil " , though Boudicca 's defeat at the Battle of Watling Street is also a contender . According to chroniclers , more than 50 @,@ 000 soldiers from the Houses of York and Lancaster fought for hours amidst a snowstorm on that day , which was Palm Sunday . A newsletter circulated a week after the battle reported that 28 @,@ 000 died on the battlefield .
Contemporary accounts described Henry VI as peaceful and pious , not suited for the violent dynastic civil wars , such as the War of the Roses . He had periods of insanity while his inherent benevolence eventually required his wife , Margaret of Anjou , to assume control of his kingdom , which contributed to his own downfall . His ineffectual rule had encouraged the nobles ' schemes to establish control over him , and the situation deteriorated into a civil war between the supporters of his house and those of Richard , Duke of York . After the Yorkists captured Henry in 1460 , the English parliament passed an Act of Accord to let York and his line succeed Henry as king . Henry 's consort , Margaret of Anjou , refused to accept the dispossession of her son 's right to the | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
was a Formula One motor race held on 16 September 2001 at the Autodromo Nazionale Monza , Monza , Italy . It was the fifteenth round of the 2001 Formula One season and the 72nd Italian Grand Prix . The 53 @-@ lap race was won by Williams driver Juan Pablo Montoya after starting from pole position . Rubens Barrichello finished second in a Ferrari with Montoya 's teammate Ralf Schumacher third .
Montoya maintained his start @-@ line advantage and led until he was passed by Barrichello on the ninth lap . Barrichello pulled away from Montoya and held the lead until his one and only pit stop on lap 19 which proved problematic because of a faulty refuelling rig . Montoya was utilising a one @-@ stop strategy and made a pit stop on lap 29 , which allowed his teammate Ralf Schumacher to lead for six laps . Barrichello regained the lead on lap 36 , until Montoya took over the position on lap 42 when Barrichello made a pit stop for the second time . Barrichello started to reduce the gap between himself and Montoya but was unable to challenge the Williams driver who won his first Formula One victory .
The result meant Montoya moved up into fifth place in the Drivers ' Championship , 83 points behind leader Michael Schumacher who clinched the title two races beforehand . Barrichello 's third position finish allowed him to close the gap to David Coulthard . Williams ' strong finish meant the gap between themselves and McLaren was reduced to eight points with two races remaining in the season .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Grand Prix was contested by eleven teams with two drivers each . The teams ( also known as constructors ) were Ferrari , McLaren , Williams , Benetton , BAR , Jordan , Arrows , Sauber , Jaguar , Minardi and Prost . Before the race , both the Drivers ' Championship and Constructors ' Championship were already settled , with Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher having claimed the Drivers ' Championship two rounds earlier in the Hungarian Grand Prix and Ferrari took the Constructors ' Championship at the same event , with McLaren too many points behind to be able to catch them .
After the Belgian Grand Prix on 2 September , the teams conducted mid @-@ season testing at various European race circuits between 4 – 7 September to prepare for the Italian Grand Prix at the Autodromo Nazionale Monza . Ferrari , Williams , BAR , Jordan and Minardi tested at the Mugello Circuit . Rubens Barrichello for Ferrari set the fastest times on the first and second days . The second day of testing was disrupted on six occasions after BAR test driver Takuma Sato went off the circuit , suffered an electronic control unit failure and had a malfunctioning anti @-@ stall system . BAR driver Olivier Panis and Minardi driver Alex Yoong both had problems with their clutch and gearboxes . On the final day Michael Schumacher set the fastest lap of 1 : 24 @.@ 226 , four @-@ tenths ahead of Panis . Ferrari test driver Luca Badoer spent three days at his team 's private test track the Fiorano Circuit where he did practice starts as well as testing of launch control and traction control .
After the September 11 attacks on New York and Washington D.C. , Formula One 's governing body , the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) announced that the Italian Grand Prix would go ahead as scheduled . Ferrari president Luca di Montezemolo said that his team would approach the race as a normal racing event instead of a traditional Ferrari festival . Furthermore , di Montezemolo stated Formula One should continue its normal schedule and not cancel races . Additionally , the Automobile Club d 'Italia urged fans and spectators to behave " in keeping with the gravity of the situation and in collective participation in the pain of American citizens . " Podium celebrations were also cancelled and all pre @-@ race ceremonies including a flypast by the Italian Tricolour Arrows display team were called off . Three teams altered their car 's liveries as a mark of respect . Ferrari stripped their cars of all advertising and painted their nose cones black . Jaguar fitted black engine covers to their R2 cars on Saturday morning , and Jordan sponsor Deutsche Post replaced its branding with the flag of the United States on the Jordan cars engine cover on Sunday morning . Michael Schumacher was reluctant to take part in the race and said in 2002 that he felt it was a " bad sign " to be driving after the September 11 attacks .
There were two driver changes heading into the race . The Minardi team replaced regular driver Tarso Marques with Yoong . Yoong received backing from the Magnum Corporation and was granted a super licence after a two @-@ day test at the Mugello Circuit . He became the first Malaysian driver to compete in Formula One . Marques was kept on as the team 's test and reserve driver , and assisted with developing the Minardi PS02 . Czech Formula 3000 driver Tomáš Enge ( who had been signed as the test driver for Prost ) replaced Luciano Burti who had been recovering from an concussion and bruising he sustained in an accident at the previous race in Belgium .
Due to the configuration of the Autodromo Nazionale Monza , with its high average speed , the teams set up their cars to produce the minimum amount of downforce possible . Williams introduced a revised FW23 specification for Montoya after one was used by Ralf Schumacher in Belgium . Williams equipped the earlier aerodynamic package on Ralf Schumacher 's car on Sunday morning . Benetton brought a new front wing and Ferrari debuted a new engine specification with improved aerodynamics .
= = = Practice and qualifying sessions = = =
Four practice sessions were held before the Sunday race , two each on Friday and Saturday . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted an hour ; the third and fourth sessions , on Saturday morning , lasted 45 minutes each . The first practice session was moved from the usual start time from 11 : 00 CEST ( UTC + 02 : 00 ) to 10 : 50 to comply with a planned silence for one minute that was observed at 12 : 00 throughout Europe . Michael Schumacher set the pace in the first practice session , which took place in dry weather conditions , with a time of 1 : 25 @.@ 524 ; David Coulthard had the second @-@ fastest time . Barrichello was third fastest , ahead of Nick Heidfeld ( who crashed his car at Variante Ascari ) in fourth . Mika Häkkinen recorded the fifth fastest time , with Jenson Button in sixth . Kimi Räikkönen , who was seventh fastest , collided with a barrier at Variante Goodyear which removed his front @-@ right wheel . Ralf Schumacher , Jarno Trulli and Pedro de la Rosa rounded out the session 's top ten fastest drivers . Arrows driver Jos Verstappen did not set a lap time because he collided with a tyre barrier at the Curva di Lesmo early in the session . In the second practice session , where a brief rain shower hit the circuit early in the session , Ralf Schumacher set the fastest time of the day , a 1 : 24 @.@ 667 ; Montoya had the second fastest time despite going off the circuit during the session . Michael Schumacher ( with a time of 1 : 25 @.@ 131 ) was third fastest , ahead of de la Rosa . Barrichello , Häkkinen and Coulthard filled the next three positions . Despite not going onto the circuit , Heidfeld was the eighth fastest driver . Alesi and Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen ( who slowed in his car and went off the circuit and slid wide of the track and avoided colliding with the barriers ) followed in the top ten .
Montoya took the fastest lap of the third practice session , a 1 : 25 @.@ 558 which was held on a damp track . Barrichello was second fastest with a time 0 @.@ 336 slower than Montoya. de la Rosa was running quickly and set the third fastest lap , a 1 : 26 @.@ 542 . BAR drivers Villeneuve and Panis set the fourth and fifth fastest times . Räikkönen , Eddie Irvine , Verstappen , Enrique Bernoldi and Heidfeld rounded out the top ten . Giancarlo Fisichella , Yoong , Jenson Button , Jean Alesi , Michael Schumacher , Coulthard , Häkkinen and Fernando Alonso did not set lap times during the session . The circuit dried up for the final practice session where Michael Schumacher had the fastest lap of the weekend so far with a 1 : 23 @.@ 178 ; Barrichello had the fastest time when circuit conditions improved but fell down to fourth . The two Ferrari drivers were separated by Montoya and Trulli . Coulthard was fifth quickest with Ralf Schumacher sixth . Heidfeld , Häkkinen , de la Rosa and Räikkönen rounded out the top ten drivers ahead of qualifying . Enge spun but regained control of his car .
Saturday afternoon 's qualifying session lasted for an hour . Each driver was limited to twelve laps , with the grid order decided by the drivers ' fastest laps . During this session the 107 % rule was in effect , requiring each driver to remain within 107 % of the fastest lap time to qualify for the race . The session was held in dry weather conditions ; the air temperature was 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) and the track temperature was 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) . Montoya clinched his second consecutive pole position and his third of the season with a time of 1 : 22 @.@ 216 . Although he was happy with the feel of his car , he did not feel confident that he could take pole position . Montoya was joined on the front row by Barrichello who recorded a lap 0 @.@ 312 seconds slower and also went off into a gravel trap during qualifying . Michael Schumacher qualified third and admitted to making a mistake on his third run which prevented him from setting a quicker time . Ralf Schumacher had balance issues which meant his car alternated between understeer and oversteer en route to fourth position . He also managed three clear runs before his fourth was disrupted by a yellow flag . Trulli qualified fifth and was delighted with his car and tyres . Coulthard qualified in sixth position and felt his car 's balance was good although felt it difficult to push hard and achieve ideal grip . Häkkinen took seventh and ran wide at the exit of Curva di Lesmo on his final timed run and crashed heavily into a barrier which resulted in a large amount of damage to the front and left side of his car . Häkkinen was unhurt but the crash caused qualifying to be suspended for thirteen minutes .
The two Sauber drivers were eighth and ninth with Heidfeld in front of Räikkönen ; Heidfeld was happy with his position after losing track time on Friday while Räikkönen complained that he had been blocked by Fisichella who was on an out lap. de la Rosa rounded out the top ten qualifiers and was happy after Jaguar engineer Humphrey Corbett corrected an issue with understeer on de la Rosa 's car . Button took eleventh position and reported that his Benetton was well balanced . Frentzen took twelfth and said his qualifying position was more significant than his fourth @-@ place finish in the Belgian Grand Prix . Irvine struggled with brake balance which shifted towards the rear of his Jaguar which meant he managed thirteenth . He also was unable to set a faster time after Olivier Panis blocked him by driving to the first corner apex and stopped his car . Fisichella used his Benetton team 's spare car because his race car developed an hyradulic failure in practice but had an engine issue in the spare car which restricted him to fourteenth . BAR drivers Jacques Villeneuve and Panis took the fifteenth and seventeenth positions and both reported that there was a lack of aerodynamic grip but mechanical grip was fine . The two were separated by Alesi in the slower of the two Jordan cars and described his session as " the worst qualifying session I could imagine on a circuit which love " because he had brake balance and handling issues . Verstappen and Bernoldi took the eighteenth and nineteenth positions for the Arrows team . Enge set the twentieth fastest time in his first Formula One qualifying session , and had two engine problems in both his race car and the spare monocoque tuned for Frentzen . The two Minardi drivers qualified at the rear of the field with Fernando Alonso ahead of Yoong ; both drivers stopped on their out laps with gearbox actuator failures and were required to share the spare Minardi car .
= = = Race = = =
The drivers took to the track at 09 : 30 local time for a 30 @-@ minute warm @-@ up session . It took place in sunny and warm weather conditions . Michael Schumacher maintained his good performance , setting a time of 1 : 26 @.@ 029 . Coulthard was the second @-@ fastest driver . Montoya was third , two @-@ tenths of a second behind Schumacher . Barrichello completed the top four fastest drivers . After the end of the warm @-@ up but before the race , a second minute of silence was held at the end of the Drivers ' Parade .
The race started at 14 : 00 local time . The race was held in sunny weather conditions ; the air temperature was 19 ° C ( 66 ° F ) and the track temperature 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) . During the buildup to the race , Michael Schumacher attempted to organise a pact that would see no overtaking at the first two chicanes . The plan failed , with Villeneuve , Benetton team principal Flavio Briatore and Arrows owner Tom Walkinshaw refusing to accept the pact . Schumacher had been keen to avoid any accidents at the start , due to a combination of the effects of the 11 September 2001 attacks earlier that week ; the death of fire marshal Paolo Gislimberti in a pile @-@ up at the beginning of the previous year 's race ; and the horrific accident in the previous day 's ChampCar race in Germany , in which former Formula One driver Alex Zanardi was critically injured , resulting in the amputation of both legs .
Heidfeld lost hydraulic pressure on the grid ; he was required to use the spare Sauber monocoque and start from the pit lane . Fisichella did the same because he had a fuel leak in his car . When the race started , Montoya maintained his pole position advantage going into the first corner , with Barrichello in second and Michael Schumacher in third . Ralf Schumacher passed Michael Schumacher at the Variante Goodyear chicane but Michael challenged Ralf for the position at the exit of Variante della Roggia and got ahead heading into the Curve di Lesmo . Further back , Trulli was hit by Button and was sent into a spin and became the first retirement of the race . Button made a pit stop at the end of the lap for a replacement front wing . Irvine made a good start , rising from thirteenth to seventh by the end of the first lap , while Häkkinen made a poor gateway after going through the chicane to avoid making contact with other drivers and fell to thirteenth . Verstappen made the best start , moving from nineteenth to eighth . At the end of the first lap , Montoya led by half a second from Barrichello , who in turn was followed by Michael Schumacher , Ralf Schumacher , Coulthard , de la Rosa , Irvine , Verstappen , Räikkönen , Alesi , Villeneuve , Bernoldi , Häkkinen , Panis , Frentzen , Alonso , Enge , Heidfeld , Yoong , Fisichella and Button .
Barrichello and Michael Schumacher started to maintain the gap between themselves and Montoya , and started to pull away from Ralf Schumacher . Bernoldi passed Villeneuve for tenth position on lap two , while Irvine dropped to ninth one lap later after he was overtaken by Verstappen and Räikkönen . He later fell behind Alesi , Bernoldi and Villeneuve on the fourth lap . Button 's engine failed which caused him to retire on lap five . Irvine lost a further three positions to Häkkinen , Panis and Frentzen one lap later . Coulthard became the third retirement of the Grand Prix after an engine failure on lap seven , which meant Verstappen inherited fifth and Räikkönen moved into sixth . Montoya had a blister on one of his rear tyres which caused him to slide under braking , and was slow exiting the Variante della Roggia chicane which allowed Barrichello to take the lead on the ninth lap . Three laps later , Alesi passed Räikkönen for sixth while Häkkinen moved into tenth after passing Bernoldi on lap 13 . Irvine retired on lap 14 because he lost horsepower in his car when a cylinder in his engine stopped working . Verstappen fell down to seventh after he was passed by Alesi and Räikkönen on lap 16 . Yoong spun at Curva di Lesmo and fell to the back of the field .
Michael Schumacher battled for Montoya for third position until he became the first of the leading drivers to make a scheduled pit stop on lap 18 , and rejoined the track in fourth place . The Williams and Ferrari teams were employing different pit stop strategies – the Williams team were planning a one @-@ stop strategy whereas the Ferrari team were planning for two stops . Barrichello ( on a lighter fuel load ) was able to quickly extend his lead over Montoya to ten seconds by his first pit stop on lap 19 . However , Barrichello 's pit stop proved problematic : his refuelling rig failed to work which meant he was stationary for around six to seven seconds longer than planned . Barrichello exited the stop in third position , ahead of teammate Michael Schumacher . Häkkinen lost second during the course of the 19th lap , and then lost all gears on the previous lap which forced him to retire . Verstappen retired on the 26th lap because his engine stopped working . At the front of the field , Ralf Schumacher moved into the lead of the race when Montoya made his pit stop on lap 28 , where his pit crew made an adjustment to his front wing to rectify an issue Montoya had with oversteer , and he rejoined in third place with a deficit of 5 @.@ 5 seconds . Frentzen retired from ninth position with a gearbox failure on lap 29 . Villeneuve made a pit stop from sixth on lap 34 and retained the position .
Ralf Schumacher opened a gap of 6 @.@ 1 seconds over Barrichello by his one and only pit stop on lap 35 and rejoined in fourth. de la Rosa was the last one @-@ stop driver to pit on lap 36 from fifth , which he maintained upon rejoining the track . Michael Schumacher made his second pit stop on lap 40 , and dropped behind Ralf Schumacher . Montoya moved back into the lead position when Barrichello made a pit stop on lap 41 and rejoined right behind Ralf Schumacher . At the completion of lap 42 , with the scheduled pit stops completed , the order was Montoya , Ralf Schumacher , Barrichello , Michael Schumacher , de la Rosa , Villeneuve , Räikkönen , Alesi , Panis , Fisichella , Heidfeld , Bernoldi , Enge , Alonso and Yoong . Further down the field , Enge passed Bernoldi for twelfth on lap 43 . Barrichello ran in the slipstream of Ralf Schumacher down the start / finish straight and Schumacher cut the Variante Goodyear chicane after attempting to defend his position , allowing Barrichello to take over second on lap 47 . Yoong retired from the race on the same lap after he spun his car into a gravel trap . Bernoldi became the final retirement of the race when his car developed a crankshaft sensor problem on the same lap .
Barrichello closed the gap between himself and Montoya but was unable to catch up to the Colombian who crossed the finish line on lap 53 to clinch his first Formula One victory. in a time of 1 ' 16 : 58 @.@ 393 at an average speed of 239 @.@ 321 kilometres per hour ( 148 @.@ 707 mph ) . Barrichello finished in second position 5 @.@ 1 seconds behind Montoya , Ralf Schumacher came in third , Michael Schumacher took fourth , de la Rosa took his best result of the season after he finished fifth and Villeneuve rounded out the points @-@ scoring positions in sixth . Räikkönen was the final driver on the lead lap in a close seventh place , and Alesi , Panis , Fisichella , Heidfeld , Enge and Alonso were the last of the classified finishers .
= = = After the race = = =
The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and in a later press conference . Montoya said he was " so happy " and " pleased " that he won his first race which was the first for a Colombian driver . He also said that he was not frustrated on not achieving his first victory in the past fourteen races as he was not expecting to win during the season . Barrichello said that he felt that Ferrari put on " a good show " despite his slow pit stop from a fuel rig problem on lap 19 . He also believed that his two @-@ stop strategy was the right move and described his weekend as " one of my best " . When asked if his car was inconsistent during the Grand Prix , Ralf Schumacher said this was not the case and stated although he had problem with his tyres he felt the Williams finish of first and third was " a great achievement " .
Alesi attacked Briatore 's role in preventing the drivers from abiding by the pact that was to see no overtaking in the first two chicanes and told the Italian and French media that some team principals threatened their drivers if they did not race . Nevertheless , he was relieved that the race passed without any major incident and said the reason why the majority of the drivers supported Michael Schumacher was that he " behaved like a perfect leader " . Villeneuve said to British television station ITV that he felt discussing a no overtaking pact at the race circuit was not the appropriate place : " We are race car drivers , Because we signed contracts before the season and everyone was happy to be a race car driver and to earn millions of dollars . Because we knew a year ago that there would be a race at Monza and nobody complained . " FIA president Max Mosley stated that he disagreed with the pact and said that the drivers should have raised the concerns in the months leading up to the Grand Prix .
The result allowed Michael Schumacher to extend his lead in the Drivers ' Championship to 50 points over Coulthard . Barrichello 's third @-@ place finish allowed him to narrow the gap to Coulthard to be three points behind . Ralf Schumacher remained in fourth position , while Montoya 's victory meant he moved into fifth . Ferrari remained in the lead of the Constructors ' Championship with an 80 @-@ point advantage over McLaren , who 's points advantage over Williams had reduced to eight points . Sauber maintained fourth place , while BAR took over fifth position .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Bold text indicates the World Champions .
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Jai Ho ( song ) =
" Jai Ho " is a song composed by A. R. Rahman for the 2008 film , Slumdog Millionaire . When Danny Boyle , the director of Slumdog Millionaire , approached Rahman to compose its soundtrack , he included the song . " Jai Ho " accompanies a choreographed dance sequence at the end credits of Slumdog Millionaire . The song features vocals from Sukhvinder Singh , Mahalaxmi Iyer and Vijay Prakash in Hindi , Urdu and Punjabi . Indian singer Tanvi Shah wrote and provided vocals for a Spanish section of the song .
" Jai Ho " was , at the time of its release " the toast of the town in almost every part of the world " . Covers and remixes of the song and performances of the " Jai Ho " dance were posted on YouTube . " Jai Ho " received universally favorable reviews from music critics , who cited it as the best song on the Slumdog Millionaire soundtrack . The song won an Academy Award for Best Original Song and a Grammy Award for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture , Television or Other Visual Media . It was also the official campaign song of the Indian National Congress during the 2009 election .
American girl group The Pussycat Dolls recorded an English interpretation of " Jai Ho " . Entitled " Jai Ho ! ( You Are My Destiny ) " , and credited to " A. R. Rahman and the Pussycat Dolls featuring Nicole Scherzinger " , the song appeared on the re @-@ release of the group 's second studio album Doll Domination ( 2008 ) .
= = Background = =
In 2008 , while working on several films , A. R. Rahman received an email from Danny Boyle , the director of the film Slumdog Millionaire , stating : " Hey I 'm Danny Boyle , I like your work , and it would be great for us to have you on our film " . Rahman was unsure how to answer , but after exchanging several more emails , they met in Mumbai . Rahman summarized their first meeting by saying " when I talked to him , I had some interest and I wanted to see the film . He had a first cut of the film already , and when I saw that I was really interested and wanted to do it . So I left another film to do this one . I made time for it . "
While composing the soundtrack to the Slumdog Millionaire , Rahman aimed to mix modern India with eighties Hindi film soundtracks . Boyle , who " hated sentiment and cello " , told Rahman to " never put a cello in my film " . Boyle also insisted on a " pulsey " score . Rahman stated that Boyle wanted " edgy , upfront " music that did not suppress sound . He noted that " There 's not many cues in the film . Usually a big film has 130 cues . This had just seventeen or eighteen : the end credits , beginning credits " .
The soundtrack for Slumdog Millionaire took Rahman two months to plan and two weeks to complete . He recalled that : " Usually it takes six months with the musical films I 'm doing in India " . Rahman said the soundtrack " isn 't about India or Indian culture . The story could happen anywhere : China , Brazil , anywhere . Who Wants to Be a Millionaire is on in every damn country . "
= = Writing and composition = =
Rahman composed " Jai Ho " using Logic Pro , a digital audio workstation and MIDI sequencer software application created by Apple Inc . At the time of the song 's production , Rahman had been using the software for almost 12 years . For " Jai Ho " , Rahman made extensive use of Logic instruments , including the EXS24 , which comprises the EVP88 electric piano and ES2 synth mixed with a few plugins , such as the Channel EQ , Bitcrusher and Guitar Amp Pro . The bassline and the " trancey , arpeggiated " musical line used ES2 presets . For the " long chorus vocals " in the song , Rahman created a " robotic , stair @-@ stepping pitch @-@ bend effect " with Logic 's Pitch Correction plugin to achieve the " exaggerated tuning effect " .
The lyrics to " Jai Ho " were written by Gulzar and are a combination of Hindi , Urdu and Punjabi . Lyrics in Spanish are also included in the song " to go along with his [ Rahman ] Latin American touch of music " . According to the India @-@ EU Film Initiative , this inclusion " really makes the song quite unique and international " . Of the three singers credited , Sukhwinder Singh is the principal vocalist . Vijay Prakash sang the portion with the words " Jai Ho " , which takes a high pitch at numerous junctures of the song . Mahalakshmi Iyer sang the Hindi words between the " Jai Ho " chants and the portions of the verses not sung by Singh . Tanvi Shah sang and wrote the song 's Spanish words .
According to Rahman , " Jai Ho " was meant to create " a vision of the whole world celebrating this victory " . The song contains a mix of " multiple motifs from the traditional pieces on the soundtrack " with " the big drums and blasting horns of the present " . It was originally composed and shortlisted for Subhash Ghai 's 2008 film Yuvvraaj . Although Rahman was excited about the song , Ghai " wasn 't too kicked about it " . Ghai felt it was " too subtle and soft to be picturized on the character played by Zayed Khan " . Rahman and Gulzar believed the song had " immense potential " and used it in Slumdog Millionaire . Following the song 's win at the Oscar 's , Rahman stated that : " He [ Ghai ] said the words had a positive feel . It was like a prayer . I honestly didn 't think the song would win me an Oscar though . But like the film Slumdog suggests , everything has its own destiny " .
When asked if he considers " Jai Ho " as his best creation , Rahman stated : " Sometimes it 's not about a best creation , but the best for a particular moment of the film . ' Jai Ho ' was right for that particular moment , that particular mindset in Slumdog Millionaire . I know there 's lot of debate over this song winning the Oscars . But then , I didn 't send the song to the Oscars , the makers did . I just composed the tune in three weeks and was done with it . However , I too feel ' Jai Ho ' was apt for that particular moment in the film — the protagonist comes out of darkness and pain to light amid ' Jai Ho ' hammering in the background . "
= = Critical response = =
" Jai Ho " received universally favorable reviews from music critics . Bhasker Gupta of AllMusic labelled the song a highlight of the soundtrack . Tajpal Rathore of BBC Music gave the song a positive review , calling it a " quintessential Rahman track " . He praised Sukhvinder Singh , saying that he " does an amazing job " . Sean Daly of the St. Petersburg Times called the song and its choreography " brilliant " . He described it as " two lovers consummating their long , winding courtship not with sex but a hand @-@ waving , side @-@ stepping , totally cathartic shimmy " .
Emily Heward of Music OMH called " Jai Ho " an " exuberant Bollywood dance number " that " encapsulates the film 's feel @-@ good @-@ factor , and reminds us just how much this score deserves the accolades it has already won and the many it is sure still to receive – just as India 's most treasured composer deserves the new @-@ found global recognition it has earned him " . In a review of the Slumdog Millionaire soundtrack , Joginder Tutej of Bollywood Hungama deemed " Jai Ho " the " flagship number " of the film . Tutej complimented Sukhwinder Singh 's vocals as being " energetic " and concluded that the singer " can comfortably add on another big chartbuster to his name " . He also stated that the song , while " boasting of an amazing mix of melody and rhythm " remains " Indian at heart " and is " instantly catchy " . He concluded that : " No wonder , it is the lone promotional song of the film and also sees a music video being dedicated to it . Gulzar saab celebrates the spirit of love and life with ' Jai Ho ' and infuses enough power in it that justifies all the nominations it is receiving today . "
= = Recognition = =
According to the India @-@ EU Film Initiative " Jai Ho " became " the toast of the town in almost every part of the world " . They noted that : " Music experts are listening to the song again and again to appreciate the global texture of the song and at the same time they are admiring the beauty of the lyrics by India ’ s foremost lyricist Gulzar who , like AR Rahman , has always experimented with his narrative " . According to Sean Daly of the St. Petersburg Times : " YouTube now has vids of babies and girlfriends doing this Jai Ho dance . There are remixes and tributes , too . "
" Jai Ho " received an Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 81st Academy Awards on 22 February 2009 . The song beat out WALL @-@ E 's " Down to Earth " by Peter Gabriel and " O ... Saya " , also of Slumdog Millionaire , by A. R. Rahman and M.I.A. " Jai Ho " also received a Grammy Award for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture during the 52nd Grammy Awards on 31 February 2010 . The song received a nomination from the Broadcast Film Critics Association for Best Song during its 2008 award ceremony on 8 January 2009 . The Houston Film Critics Society nominated it for Best Original Song during its 2008 awards ceremony on 17 December 2008 . It was also nominated by the MTV Movie Awards for Best Song From a Movie during its 2009 award ceremony on 31 May 2009 .
= = Live performances = =
Rahman and Singh performed " Jai Ho " live during the 81st Academy Awards on 22 February 2009 , the night it won for the award for Best Original Song . The song served as the opening of the ceremony . The song 's lyricist , Gulzar , made a guest appearance during the performance . Rahman modified the song to " set it in sync with the live orchestra and make it suitable for a stage presentation " .
" Jai Ho " was performed as part of a medley with " Jiyo Utho Badho Jeeto " during the 2010 Delhi Commonwealth Games opening ceremony on 28 August 2010 . Rahman , who wore a white bandhgala jacket , black pants and white shoes , was accompanied by hundreds of dancers wearing traditional Indian costumes . Following the performance of " Jiyo Utho Badho Jeeto " , fireworks went off and " Jai Ho " began . An editor from Sify wrote that , during the performance of " Jai Ho " , " the chant at Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium , many would swear , was magical " .
= = Usage in media = =
In March 2009 Super Cassettes Industries ( T @-@ Series ) , the music company which holds the song 's copyright for India , received nearly $ 200 @,@ 000 from the governing Indian National Congress party for its use in its national campaign in 2009 Indian General Elections . Harindra Singh , vice @-@ chairman and managing director of the advertising firm Percept , told BBC that : " The tune of the song and the Jai Ho phrase have been used in the campaign . The lyrics have been written by a combination of people , they will be projecting what the Congress wishes to communicate " . " Popular Bollywood numbers " are often " re @-@ jigged " by political parties in India to " convey their message to voters " , but this is the first time that a party has ever bought exclusive rights to use a song for political promotion . The version used in the campaign features altered lyrics sung by Sukhwinder Singh , who performed on the original song . A video was also shot for this version . Rahman refused to comment on " Jai Ho " being used for the campaigns , but stated that the song " belongs to everyone " . " Jai Ho " was performed by Ravi K Tripathi , a Lucknow @-@ based singer , at the closing ceremony of 16th Asian Games on 27 November 2010 .
= = English adaption = =
American girl group the Pussycat Dolls recorded an English interpretation of " Jai Ho " . Entitled " Jai Ho ! ( You Are My Destiny ) " , and credited to " A. R. Rahman and the Pussycat Dolls featuring Nicole Scherzinger " , the song appeared on the re @-@ release of the group 's second studio album Doll Domination ( 2008 ) . After watching Slumdog Millionaire record executives Ron Fair and Jimmy Iovine wanted to turn " Jai Ho " into a " pop record without deviating from the original melody " .
After getting a green @-@ light from Rahman , they asked Scherzinger , the leader singer of the Pussycat Dolls , to write an interpretation of the song . Scherzinger was hesitant at first , stating in an interview that : " [ ... ] I was scared to death to touch it [ and ] afraid for people to hear it before I even wrote it " . Scherzinger put her " heart into writing the lyrics and put in themes from the film Slumdog Millionaire . Love and destiny were elements from the movie that she put into the track " . She stated that she " prayed every night to do this right " . Fair and Iovine additionally hired Brick & Lace , The Writing Camp and Ester Dean to write their own interpretation of the song .
E. Kidd Bogart , a member of The Writing Camp , stated that : " They [ Fair and Iovine ] wanted to get a bunch of different versions to see who could nail a version for the Pussycat Dolls . " Once all interpretations were complete , " they [ Fair and Iovine ] took parts of The Writing Camp version , parts of Ester Dean 's version , and parts of another version , and they put them together , and then Nicole [ Scherzinger ] and Ron [ Fair ] filled in the blanks that they thought were missing " . Bogart additionally stated that it was " a very unique and awkward way of writing a song " . Bogart , Dean , Fair , Erika Nuri , David Quiñones , Scherzinger , Candace Thorbourne , Nailah Thorbourne and Nyanda Thorbourne are credited for writing the track , while its production was handled by Fair Scherzinger . The song was recorded in London , while Scherzinger and Rahman corresponded via webcam .
Music critics responded generally favorably to " Jai Ho ( You Are My Destiny ) " . Newsround praised the song by saying " [ Nicole Scherzinger ] sounds right at home – making the most of her soulful R & B voice and hitting all the ( incredibly ) high notes on this Eastern @-@ themed piece of pop ! " Nick Levine from Digital Spy wrote that , " The Hindi original , which soundtracks the Bollywood dance routine at the end of the movie , is far more urgent and atmospheric , but this remake works nicely enough as a slick , shamelessly opportunistic PCD single . Well , that hollered " JAI HO ! " makes for a pretty sweet pop hook , you have to admit . "
= Ahmedabad =
Ahmedabad ( / ˈɑːmᵻdəbɑːd / ; also known as Amdavad Gujarati pronunciation : [ ˈəmdɑːvɑːd ] ) is the largest city and former capital of Gujarat . It is the administrative headquarters of the Ahmedabad district and the seat of the Gujarat High Court . With a population of more than 6 @.@ 3 million and an extended population of 7 @.@ 2 million , it is the sixth largest city and seventh largest metropolitan area of India . Ahmedabad is located on the banks of the Sabarmati River , 30 km ( 19 mi ) from the state capital Gandhinagar .
Ahmedabad has emerged as an important economic and industrial hub in India . It is the second largest producer of cotton in India , and its stock exchange is the country 's second oldest . Cricket is a popular sport in Ahmedabad , which houses the 54 @,@ 000 @-@ seat Sardar Patel Stadium . The effects of liberalisation of the Indian economy have energised the city 's economy towards tertiary sector activities like commerce , communication and construction . Ahmedabad 's increasing population has resulted in an increase in the construction and housing industries resulting in recent development of skyscrapers .
In 2010 , it was ranked third in Forbes 's list of fastest growing cities of the decade . In 2012 , The Times of India chose Ahmedabad as the best city to live in in India . As of 2014 , Ahmedabad 's estimated gross domestic product was $ 119 billion .
Ahmedabad has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under PM Narendra Modi 's flagship Smart Cities Mission .
= = History = =
The area around Ahmedabad has been inhabited since the 11th century , when it was known as Ashaval ( or Ashapalli ) . At that time , Karandev I , the Solanki ruler of Anhilwara ( modern | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
in water . Although water forms the large majority of the cytosol , its structure and properties within cells is not well understood . The concentrations of ions such as sodium and potassium are different in the cytosol than in the extracellular fluid ; these differences in ion levels are important in processes such as osmoregulation , cell signaling , and the generation of action potentials in excitable cells such as endocrine , nerve and muscle cells . The cytosol also contains large amounts of macromolecules , which can alter how molecules behave , through macromolecular crowding .
Although it was once thought to be a simple solution of molecules , the cytosol has multiple levels of organization . These include concentration gradients of small molecules such as calcium , large complexes of enzymes that act together to carry out metabolic pathways , and protein complexes such as proteasomes and carboxysomes that enclose and separate parts of the cytosol .
= = Definition = =
The term cytosol was first introduced in 1965 by H.A. Lardy , and initially referred to the liquid that was produced by breaking cells apart and pelleting all the insoluble components by ultracentrifugation . Such a soluble cell extract is not identical to the soluble part of the cell cytoplasm and is usually called a cytoplasmic fraction . The term cytosol is now used to refer to the liquid phase of the cytoplasm in an intact cell . This excludes any part of the cytoplasm that is contained within organelles . Due to the possibility of confusion between the use of the word " cytosol " to refer to both extracts of cells and the soluble part of the cytoplasm in intact cells , the phrase " aqueous cytoplasm " has been used to describe the liquid contents of the cytoplasm of living cells .
= = Properties and composition = =
The proportion of cell volume that is cytosol varies : for example while this compartment forms the bulk of cell structure in bacteria , in plant cells the main compartment is the large central vacuole . The cytosol consists mostly of water , dissolved ions , small molecules , and large water @-@ soluble molecules ( such as proteins ) . The majority of these non @-@ protein molecules have a molecular mass of less than 300 Da . This mixture of small molecules is extraordinarily complex , as the variety of molecules that are involved in metabolism ( the metabolites ) is immense . For example , up to 200 @,@ 000 different small molecules might be made in plants , although not all these will be present in the same species , or in a single cell . Estimates of the number of metabolites in single cells such as E. coli and baker 's yeast predict that under 1 @,@ 000 are made .
= = = Water = = =
Most of the cytosol is water , which makes up about 70 % of the total volume of a typical cell . The pH of the intracellular fluid is 7 @.@ 4 @.@ while human cytosolic pH ranges between 7 @.@ 0 - 7 @.@ 4 , and is usually higher if a cell is growing . The viscosity of cytoplasm is roughly the same as pure water , although diffusion of small molecules through this liquid is about fourfold slower than in pure water , due mostly to collisions with the large numbers of macromolecules in the cytosol . Studies in the brine shrimp have examined how water affects cell functions ; these saw that a 20 % reduction in the amount of water in a cell inhibits metabolism , with metabolism decreasing progressively as the cell dries out and all metabolic activity halting when the water level reaches 70 % below normal .
Although water is vital for life , the structure of this water in the cytosol is not well understood , mostly because methods such as nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy only give information on the average structure of water , and cannot measure local variations at the microscopic scale . Even the structure of pure water is poorly understood , due to the ability of water to form structures such as water clusters through hydrogen bonds .
The classic view of water in cells is that about 5 % of this water is strongly bound in by solutes or macromolecules as water of solvation , while the majority has the same structure as pure water . This water of solvation is not active in osmosis and may have different solvent properties , so that some dissolved molecules are excluded , while others become concentrated . However , others argue that the effects of the high concentrations of macromolecules in cells extend throughout the cytosol and that water in cells behaves very differently from the water in dilute solutions . These ideas include the proposal that cells contain zones of low and high @-@ density water , which could have widespread effects on the structures and functions of the other parts of the cell . However , the use of advanced nuclear magnetic resonance methods to directly measure the mobility of water in living cells contradicts this idea , as it suggests that 85 % of cell water acts like that pure water , while the remainder is less mobile and probably bound to macromolecules .
= = = Ions = = =
The concentrations of the other ions in cytosol are quite different from those in extracellular fluid and the cytosol also contains much higher amounts of charged macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids than the outside of the cell structure .
In contrast to extracellular fluid , cytosol has a high concentration of potassium ions and a low concentration of sodium ions . This difference in ion concentrations is critical for osmoregulation , since if the ion levels were the same inside a cell as outside , water would enter constantly by osmosis - since the levels of macromolecules inside cells are higher than their levels outside . Instead , sodium ions are expelled and potassium ions taken up by the Na ⁺ / K ⁺ -ATPase , potassium ions then flow down their concentration gradient through potassium @-@ selection ion channels , this loss of positive charge creates a negative membrane potential . To balance this potential difference , negative chloride ions also exit the cell , through selective chloride channels . The loss of sodium and chloride ions compensates for the osmotic effect of the higher concentration of organic molecules inside the cell .
Cells can deal with even larger osmotic changes by accumulating osmoprotectants such as betaines or trehalose in their cytosol . Some of these molecules can allow cells to survive being completely dried out and allow an organism to enter a state of suspended animation called cryptobiosis . In this state the cytosol and osmoprotectants become a glass @-@ like solid that helps stabilize proteins and cell membranes from the damaging effects of desiccation .
The low concentration of calcium in the cytosol allows calcium ions to function as a second messenger in calcium signaling . Here , a signal such as a hormone or an action potential opens calcium channels so that calcium floods into the cytosol . This sudden increase in cytosolic calcium activates other signalling molecules , such as calmodulin and protein kinase C. Other ions such as chloride and potassium may also have signaling functions in the cytosol , but these are not well understood .
= = = Macromolecules = = =
Protein molecules that do not bind to cell membranes or the cytoskeleton are dissolved in the cytosol . The amount of protein in cells is extremely high , and approaches 200 mg / ml , occupying about 20 @-@ 30 % of the volume of the cytosol . However , measuring precisely how much protein is dissolved in cytosol in intact cells is difficult , since some proteins appear to be weakly associated with membranes or organelles in whole cells and are released into solution upon cell lysis . Indeed , in experiments where the plasma membrane of cells were carefully disrupted using saponin , without damaging the other cell membranes , only about one quarter of cell protein was released . These cells were also able to synthesize proteins if given ATP and amino acids , implying that many of the enzymes in cytosol are bound to the cytoskeleton . However , the idea that the majority of the proteins in cells are tightly bound in a network called the microtrabecular lattice is now seen as unlikely .
In prokaryotes the cytosol contains the cell 's genome , within a structure known as a nucleoid . This is an irregular mass of DNA and associated proteins that control the transcription and replication of the bacterial chromosome and plasmids . In eukaryotes the genome is held within the cell nucleus , which is separated from the cytosol by nuclear pores that block the free diffusion of any molecule larger than about 10 nanometres in diameter .
This high concentration of macromolecules in cytosol causes an effect called macromolecular crowding , which is when the effective concentration of other macromolecules is increased , since they have less volume to move in . This crowding effect can produce large changes in both the rates and the position of chemical equilibrium of reactions in the cytosol . It is particularly important in its ability to alter dissociation constants by favoring the association of macromolecules , such as when multiple proteins come together to form protein complexes , or when DNA @-@ binding proteins bind to their targets in the genome .
= = Organization = =
Although the components of the cytosol are not separated into regions by cell membranes , these components do not always mix randomly and several levels of organization can localize specific molecules to defined sites within the cytosol .
= = = Concentration gradients = = =
Although small molecules diffuse rapidly in the cytosol , concentration gradients can still be produced within this compartment . A well @-@ studied example of these are the " calcium sparks " that are produced for a short period in the region around an open calcium channel . These are about 2 micrometres in diameter and last for only a few milliseconds , although several sparks can merge to form larger gradients , called " calcium waves " . Concentration gradients of other small molecules , such as oxygen and adenosine triphosphate may be produced in cells around clusters of mitochondria , although these are less well understood .
= = = Protein complexes = = =
Proteins can associate to form protein complexes , these often contain a set of proteins with similar functions , such as enzymes that carry out several steps in the same metabolic pathway . This organization can allow substrate channeling , which is when the product of one enzyme is passed directly to the next enzyme in a pathway without being released into solution . Channeling can make a pathway more rapid and efficient than it would be if the enzymes were randomly distributed in the cytosol , and can also prevent the release of unstable reaction intermediates . Although a wide variety of metabolic pathways involve enzymes that are tightly bound to each other , others may involve more loosely associated complexes that are very difficult to study outside the cell . Consequently , the importance of these complexes for metabolism in general remains unclear .
= = = Protein compartments = = =
Some protein complexes contain a large central cavity that is isolated from the remainder of the cytosol . One example of such an enclosed compartment is the proteasome . Here , a set of subunits form a hollow barrel containing proteases that degrade cytosolic proteins . Since these would be damaging if they mixed freely with the remainder of the cytosol , the barrel is capped by a set of regulatory proteins that recognize proteins with a signal directing them for degradation ( a ubiquitin tag ) and feed them into the proteolytic cavity .
Another large class of protein compartments are bacterial microcompartments , which are made of a protein shell that encapsulates various enzymes . These compartments are typically about 100 @-@ 200 nanometres across and made of interlocking proteins . A well @-@ understood example is the carboxysome , which contains enzymes involved in carbon fixation such as RuBisCO .
= = = Cytoskeletal sieving = = =
Although the cytoskeleton is not part of the cytosol , the presence of this network of filaments restricts the diffusion of large particles in the cell . For example , in several studies tracer particles larger than about 25 nanometres ( about the size of a ribosome ) were excluded from parts of the cytosol around the edges of the cell and next to the nucleus . These " excluding compartments " may contain a much denser meshwork of actin fibres than the remainder of the cytosol . These microdomains could influence the distribution of large structures such as ribosomes and organelles within the cytosol by excluding them from some areas and concentrating them in others .
= = Function = =
The cytosol has no single function and is instead the site of multiple cell processes . Examples of these processes include signal transduction from the cell membrane to sites within the cell , such as the cell nucleus , or organelles . This compartment is also the site of many of the processes of cytokinesis , after the breakdown of the nuclear membrane in mitosis . Another major function of cytosol is to transport metabolites from their site of production to where they are used . This is relatively simple for water @-@ soluble molecules , such as amino acids , which can diffuse rapidly through the cytosol . However , hydrophobic molecules , such as fatty acids or sterols , can be transported through the cytosol by specific binding proteins , which shuttle these molecules between cell membranes . Molecules taken into the cell by endocytosis or on their way to be secreted can also be transported through the cytosol inside vesicles , which are small spheres of lipids that are moved along the cytoskeleton by motor proteins .
The cytosol is the site of most metabolism in prokaryotes , and a large proportion of the metabolism of eukaryotes . For instance , in mammals about half of the proteins in the cell are localized to the cytosol . The most complete data are available in yeast , where metabolic reconstructions indicate that the majority of both metabolic processes and metabolites occur in the cytosol . Major metabolic pathways that occur in the cytosol in animals are protein biosynthesis , the pentose phosphate pathway , glycolysis and gluconeogenesis . The localization of pathways can be different in other organisms , for instance fatty acid synthesis occurs in chloroplasts in plants and in apicoplasts in apicomplexa .
= Flat Bastion Road =
Flat Bastion Road is a road in Gibraltar , the British Overseas Territory at the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula . The road runs north @-@ south , providing views of the city and Bay of Gibraltar . Previously known in Spanish as Senda del Moro ( English : Path of the Moor ) , the traditional Llanito name for the road is Cuesta de Mr. Bourne .
The road angles along the west side of the Rock of Gibraltar to the Flat Bastion , a fortification . Married quarters were built along the road . In the nineteenth century there were outbreaks of yellow fever in the 1820s and of diphtheria in the 1880s among the residents , apparently due to faulty sewers . Developments included , in the 1830s a school for poor children which remained in use as a school into the early twentieth century and a club where masked balls were held . In modern times the bastion 's magazine has been refurbished for civilian use , the barracks have been converted into affordable housing , and parking has become an issue .
= = Background = =
Flat Bastion Road begins to the southeast of the Garrison Library , at the intersection of Prince Edward 's Road and Castle Road , north of its junction with Devil 's Gap Road . Proceeding in a southerly direction , it becomes Gardiner 's Road as it passes through Charles V Wall , just before it reaches Europa Road .
The road runs along the west side of the Rock of Gibraltar , leading to the Flat Bastion fortification . The original Flat Bastion , then called Baluarte de Santiago ( Santiago 's Bastion ) , was built by the Spanish some time between 1565 and 1627 . It may have been designed by Daniel Specklin . It was one of the fortifications along the Charles V Wall that protected the new Africa Gate . The Flat Bastion Magazine within the Bastion was once a point where immense quantities of gunpowder were stored . It was threatened by a fire in 1874 that swept through the long grass and other vegetation of the south districts of the colony and reached Charles V 's wall before burning out .
= = History = =
Conditions were unsanitary in the 19th century . The road is mentioned in 1828 when there was an outbreak of yellow fever in Gibraltar . A French medical commission visited the colony and documented their findings on the spread of the epidemic . Many of the reported cases were in houses on Flat Bastion Road . By September most of the houses on the road were infected . A sanitary sewer that ran parallel to the road was suspected . One source said it did not emit any excessive odours that seemed out of the normal . However , the French commission said that the sewer outside at least one of the houses in the road emitted a very bad smell ( " une très mauvaise odeur " ) . A report of 1 September 1828 described Wilson 's Buildings , two wooden sheds on the road to Flat Bastion , as " decidedly inimical to the health of any persons who may inhabit them . "
Families living on the road in 1828 included those of Josepha Bernado , Jose Nuñez , the financier Grellet , the family of Thomas Gum , and the family of Michaela Medina . In 1832 the Gibraltar Public School , a free English @-@ language establishment for poor children , was set up in a government @-@ owned building on Flat Bastion Road . Funded by the contributions of wealthy people in the colony , it was open to children of all faiths . By 1833 , there were 181 boys and 99 girls at the school . After boys were excluded in 1897 , it continued as a school for girls into the early 20th century .
An 1883 Sanitary Order in Council aimed at reducing health risks defined Flat Bastion Road as one of the boundaries of the " streets , ramps , roads , lanes , passages , alleys , stairs and public places " within which the new regulations would apply . The Army Medical Department reported in 1889 that several cases of diphtheria had occurred in the married quarters on Flat Bastion Road . It turned out that the rainwater pipes from the roof were cracked . The pipes were connected directly to the sewer , and sewer gas was escaping into the rooms .
The road was depicted in an article on the colony that appeared in 1885 in Frank Leslie 's Popular Monthly , a New York @-@ based magazine , in a pastiche of ink drawings that also depict " Catland Bay " ( Catalan Bay ) , Waterport Gate , the signal station and the rock from the Spanish lines . A donkey is depicted in the foreground . Jeanie Conan depicted the picturesque road in a watercolour titled " Flat Bastion Rd . Gibraltar " in 1888 . A visitor noted that the " Ladysmith club " on the Flat Bastion Road was holding masquerades in its salons , while elsewhere the Salvation Army was preaching and parading signs with advice from the gospels .
= = Modern times = =
During the 1970 census , residents on the road were counted as part of the Gowlands Ramp enumeration area .
The magazine is now a geological research facility and exhibition centre involved with the lithology of Gibraltar . The barracks , north of the bastion on Flat Bastion Road , have been renovated and converted into affordable residential housing . The Flat Bastion barracks redevelopment project started by 2007 , and was completed about 2010 . The development has been renamed Flat Bastion Mews . Communal gardens for the new housing were established at that time . The two bedroom apartments also included allocated parking .
The government 's Traffic , Parking and Transport Plan issued in 2009 , mentions a parking project for Flat Bastion Road under which 104 parking spots were to be added . In 2010 there was public criticism about the lack of parking on the road as the government had removed existing parking before constructing the new parking spaces .
= = Gallery = =
= Animal testing =
Animal testing , also known as animal experimentation , animal research , and in vivo testing , is the use of non @-@ human animals in experiments that seek to control the variables that affect the behavior or biological system under study . This approach can be contrasted with field studies in which animals are observed in their natural environments . Experimental research with animals is usually conducted in universities , medical schools , pharmaceutical companies , defense establishments , and commercial facilities that provide animal @-@ testing services to industry . The focus of animal testing varies on a continuum from pure research , done with little regard to the uses to which understanding may be put , to applied research , which may focus on answering some question of great practical importance , such as finding a cure for a disease . Examples of applied research include testing , breeding , defense research , and toxicology , including cosmetics testing . In education , animal testing is sometimes a component of biology or psychology courses . The practice is regulated to varying degrees in different countries .
Worldwide it is estimated that the number of vertebrate animals — from zebrafish to non @-@ human primates — ranges from the tens of millions to more than 100 million used annually . In the US in 2014 , official statistics indicate that 834 @,@ 453 vertebrates were used in research . However , it is important to realise that mice , rats , birds , fish , frogs , invertebrates and animals not yet weaned are not included in this figure as they are not protected by the relevant US legislation . In the EU , these species represent 93 % of animals used in research . If the same was true in the US then the total number of animals used in research is estimated to be between 12 and 25 million . One estimate of mice and rats used in the US alone in 2001 was 80 million . In the EU in 2011 , 11 @.@ 5 million animals were used in research . Mice , rats , fish , amphibians and reptiles together account for over 85 % of research animals .
Most animals are euthanized after being used in an experiment . Sources of laboratory animals vary between countries and species ; most animals are purpose @-@ bred , while a minority are caught in the wild or supplied by dealers who obtain them from auctions and pounds .
Supporters of the use of animals in experiments , such as the British Royal Society , argue that virtually every medical achievement in the 20th century relied on the use of animals in some way . The Institute for Laboratory Animal Research of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences has argued that animal research cannot be replaced by even sophisticated computer models , which are unable to deal with the extremely complex interactions between molecules , cells , tissues , organs , organisms , and the environment . Animal rights , and some animal welfare , organizations — such as PETA and BUAV — question the need for and legitimacy of animal testing , arguing that it is cruel and poorly regulated , that medical progress is actually held back by misleading animal models that cannot reliably predict effects in humans , that some of the tests are outdated , that the costs outweigh the benefits , or that animals have the intrinsic right not to be used or harmed in experimentation .
= = Definitions = =
The terms animal testing , animal experimentation , animal research , in vivo testing , and vivisection have similar denotations but different connotations . Literally , " vivisection " means the " cutting up " of a living animal , and historically referred only to experiments that involved the dissection of live animals . The term is occasionally used to refer pejoratively to any experiment using living animals ; for example , the Encyclopædia Britannica defines " vivisection " as : " Operation on a living animal for experimental rather than healing purposes ; more broadly , all experimentation on live animals " , although dictionaries point out that the broader definition is " used only by people who are opposed to such work " . The word has a negative connotation , implying torture , suffering , and death . The word " vivisection " is preferred by those opposed to this research , whereas scientists typically use the term " animal experimentation " .
= = History = =
The earliest references to animal testing are found in the writings of the Greeks in the 2nd and 4th centuries BCE . Aristotle and Erasistratus were among the first to perform experiments on living animals . Galen , a physician in 2nd @-@ century Rome , dissected pigs and goats , and is known as the " father of vivisection " . Avenzoar , an Arabic physician in 12th @-@ century Moorish Spain who also practiced dissection , introduced animal testing as an experimental method of testing surgical procedures before applying them to human patients .
Animals have been used repeatedly through the history of biomedical research . The founders , in 1831 , of the Dublin Zoo were members of the medical profession , interested in studying the animals both while they were alive and when they were dead . In the 1880s , Louis Pasteur convincingly demonstrated the germ theory of medicine by inducing anthrax in sheep . In the 1880s , Robert Koch infected mice and guinea pigs with anthrax and tuberculosis . In the 1890s , Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to describe classical conditioning . In World War I , German agents infected sheep bound for Russia with anthrax , and inoculated mules and horses of the French cavalry with the equine glanders disease . Between 1917 and 1918 , the Germans infected mules in Argentina bound for American forces , resulting in the death of 200 mules . Insulin was first isolated from dogs in 1922 , and revolutionized the treatment of diabetes . On November 3 , 1957 , a Soviet dog , Laika , became the first of many animals to orbit the earth . In the 1970s , antibiotic treatments and vaccines for leprosy were developed using armadillos , then given to humans . The ability of humans to change the genetics of animals took a large step forwards in 1974 when Rudolf Jaenisch was able to produce the first transgenic mammal , by integrating DNA from the SV40 virus into the genome of mice . This genetic research progressed rapidly and , in 1996 , Dolly the sheep was born , the first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell .
Toxicology testing became important in the 20th century . In the 19th century , laws regulating drugs were more relaxed . For example , in the U.S. , the government could only ban a drug after a company had been prosecuted for selling products that harmed customers . However , in response to the Elixir Sulfanilamide disaster of 1937 in which the eponymous drug killed more than 100 users , the U.S. congress passed laws that required safety testing of drugs on animals before they could be marketed . Other countries enacted similar legislation . In the 1960s , in reaction to the Thalidomide tragedy , further laws were passed requiring safety testing on pregnant animals before a drug can be sold .
= = = Historical debate = = =
As the experimentation on animals increased , especially the practice of vivisection , so did criticism and controversy . In 1655 , the advocate of Galenic physiology Edmund O 'Meara said that " the miserable torture of vivisection places the body in an unnatural state . " O 'Meara and others argued that animal physiology could be affected by pain during vivisection , rendering results unreliable . There were also objections on an ethical basis , contending that the benefit to humans did not justify the harm to animals . Early objections to animal testing also came from another angle — many people believed that animals were inferior to humans and so different that results from animals could not be applied to humans .
On the other side of the debate , those in favor of animal testing held that experiments on animals were necessary to advance medical and biological knowledge . Claude Bernard — who is sometimes known as the " prince of vivisectors " and the father of physiology , and whose wife , Marie Françoise Martin , founded the first anti @-@ vivisection society in France in 1883 — famously wrote in 1865 that " the science of life is a superb and dazzlingly lighted hall which may be reached only by passing through a long and ghastly kitchen " . Arguing that " experiments on animals ... are entirely conclusive for the toxicology and hygiene of man ... the effects of these substances are the same on man as on animals , save for differences in degree " , Bernard established animal experimentation as part of the standard scientific method .
In 1896 , the physiologist and physician Dr. Walter B. Cannon said " The antivivisectionists are the second of the two types Theodore Roosevelt described when he said , ' Common sense without conscience may lead to crime , but conscience without common sense may lead to folly , which is the handmaiden of crime . ' " These divisions between pro- and anti- animal testing groups first came to public attention during the brown dog affair in the early 1900s , when hundreds of medical students clashed with anti @-@ vivisectionists and police over a memorial to a vivisected dog .
In 1822 , the first animal protection law was enacted in the British parliament , followed by the Cruelty to Animals Act ( 1876 ) , the first law specifically aimed at regulating animal testing . The legislation was promoted by Charles Darwin , who wrote to Ray Lankester in March 1871 : " You ask about my opinion on vivisection . I quite agree that it is justifiable for real investigations on physiology ; but not for mere damnable and detestable curiosity . It is a subject which makes me sick with horror , so I will not say another word about it , else I shall not sleep to @-@ night . " In response to the lobbying by anti @-@ vivisectionists , several organizations were set up in Britain to defend animal research : The Physiological Society was formed in 1876 to give physiologists " mutual benefit and protection " , the Association for the Advancement of Medicine by Research was formed in 1882 and focused on policy @-@ making , and the Research Defence Society ( now Understanding Animal Research ) was formed in 1908 " to make known the facts as to experiments on animals in this country ; the immense importance to the welfare of mankind of such experiments and the great saving of human life and health directly attributable to them . "
Opposition to the use of animals in medical research first arose in the United States during the 1860s , when Henry Bergh founded the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals ( ASPCA ) , with America 's first specifically anti @-@ vivisection organization being the American AntiVivisection Society ( AAVS ) , founded in 1883 . Antivivisectionists of the era generally believed the spread of mercy was the great cause of civilization , and vivisection was cruel . However , in the USA the antivivisectionists ' efforts were defeated in every legislature , overwhelmed by the superior organization and influence of the medical community . Overall , this movement had little legislative success until the passing of the Laboratory Animal Welfare Act , in 1966 .
= = Care and use of animals = =
= = = The Three Rs = = =
The Three Rs ( 3Rs ) are guiding principles for more ethical use of animals in testing . These were first described by W.M.S. Russell and R.L. Burch in 1959 . The 3Rs are :
Replacement which refers to the preferred use of non @-@ animal methods over animal methods whenever it is possible to achieve the same scientific aims . These methods include computer modeling .
Reduction which refers to methods that enable researchers to obtain comparable levels of information from fewer animals , or to obtain more information from the same number of animals .
Refinement which refers to methods that alleviate or minimize potential pain , suffering or distress , and enhance animal welfare for the animals used . These methods include non @-@ invasive techniques .
The 3Rs have a broader scope than simply encouraging alternatives to animal testing , but aim to improve animal welfare and scientific quality where the use of animals can not be avoided . These 3Rs are now implemented in many testing establishments worldwide and have been adopted by various pieces of legislation and regulations .
Despite the widespread acceptance of the 3Rs , many countries — including Canada , Australia , Israel , the United Kingdom , and Germany — have reported rising experimental use of animals in recent years with increased use of mice and , in some cases , fish while reporting declines in the use of cats , dogs , primates , rabbits , guinea pigs , and hamsters . Along with other countries , China has also escalated its use of GM animals , resulting in an increase in overall animal use .
Four R 's
= = = Regulations = = =
The regulations that apply to animals in laboratories vary across species . In the U.S. , under the provisions of the Animal Welfare Act and the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals ( the Guide ) , published by the National Academy of Sciences , any procedure can be performed on an animal if it can be successfully argued that it is scientifically justified . In general , researchers are required to consult with the institution 's veterinarian and its Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee ( IACUC ) , which every research facility is obliged to maintain . The IACUC must ensure that alternatives , including non @-@ animal alternatives , have been considered , that the experiments are not unnecessarily duplicative , and that pain relief is given unless it would interfere with the study . The IACUCs regulate all vertebrates in testing at institutions receiving federal funds in the USA . Although the provisions of the Animal Welfare Act do not include purpose @-@ bred rodents and birds , these species are equally regulated under Public Health Service policies that govern the IACUCs . Animal Welfare Act ( AWA ) regulations are enforced by the USDA , whereas Public Health Service regulations are enforced by OLAW and in many cases by AAALAC .
According to the 2014 U.S. Department of Agriculture Office of the Inspector General ( OIG ) report — which looked at the oversight of animal use during a three @-@ year period — “ some Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees … did not adequately approve , monitor , or report on experimental procedures on animals . ” The OIG found that “ as a result , animals are not always receiving basic humane care and treatment and , in some cases , pain and distress are not minimized during and after experimental procedures . ” According to the report , within a three @-@ year period , nearly half of all American laboratories with regulated species were cited for AWA violations relating to improper IACUC oversight . The USDA OIG made similar findings in a 2005 report . Others have criticized the composition of IACUCs , asserting that the committees are predominantly made up of animal researchers and university representatives who may be biased against animal welfare concerns .
Larry Carbone , a laboratory animal veterinarian , writes that , in his experience , IACUCs take their work very seriously regardless of the species involved , though the use of non @-@ human primates always raises what he calls a " red flag of special concern . " A study published in Science magazine in July 2001 confirmed the low reliability of IACUC reviews of animal experiments . Funded by the National Science Foundation , the three @-@ year study found that animal @-@ use committees that do not know the specifics of the university and personnel do not make the same approval decisions as those made by animal @-@ use committees that do know the university and personnel . Specifically , blinded committees more often ask for more information rather than approving studies .
Scientists in India are protesting a recent guideline issued by the University Grants Commission to ban the use of live animals in universities and laboratories .
= = = Numbers = = =
Accurate global figures for animal testing are difficult to obtain ; it has been estimated that 100 million vertebrates are experimented on around the world every year , 10 – 11 million of them in the EU . The Nuffield Council on Bioethics reports that global annual estimates range from 50 to 100 million animals . None of the figures include invertebrates such as shrimp and fruit flies .
According to the US Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) , the total number of animals used in the US during 2014 was 834 @,@ 453 , down from almost 1 @.@ 2 million in 2005 , however , this number does not include rats and mice , which make up around 90 % of research animals . By comparing with EU data , where all vertebrate species are counted , Speaking of Research estimated that around 12 million vertebrates were used in research in the US in 2014 . A 2015 article published in the Journal of Medical Ethics , argued that the use of animals in the US has dramatically increased in recent years . Researchers found this increase is largely the result of an increased reliance on genetically modified mice in animal studies .
In 1995 , researchers at Tufts University Center for Animals and Public Policy estimated that 14 – 21 million animals were used in American laboratories in 1992 , a reduction from a high of 50 million used in 1970 . In 1986 , the U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment reported that estimates of the animals used in the U.S. range from 10 million to upwards of 100 million each year , and that their own best estimate was at least 17 million to 22 million .
In GB , Home Office figures show that 3 @.@ 87 million procedures were carried out in 2014 . 3 @,@ 246 procedures used non @-@ human primates , down over 50 % since 1988 . A " procedure " refers here to an experiment that might last minutes , several months , or years . Most animals are used in only one procedure : animals are frequently euthanized after the experiment ; however death is the endpoint of some procedures . The procedures conducted on animals in GB in 2014 were categorised as -
9 % ( 180 thousand ) were assessed as sub @-@ threshold
7 % ( 133 thousand ) were assessed as non @-@ recovery
51 % ( 980 thousand ) were assessed as mild
25 % ( 483 thousand ) were assessed as moderate
8 % ( 150 thousand ) were assessed as severe
A ‘ severe ’ procedure would be , for instance , any test where death is the end @-@ point or fatalities are expected , whereas a ‘ mild ’ procedure would be something like a blood test or an MRI scan .
= = = Invertebrates = = =
Although many more invertebrates than vertebrates are used in animal testing , these studies are largely unregulated by law . The most frequently used invertebrate species are Drosophila melanogaster , a fruit fly , and Caenorhabditis elegans , a nematode worm . In the case of C. elegans , the worm 's body is completely transparent and the precise lineage of all the organism 's cells is known , while studies in the fly D. melanogaster can use an amazing array of genetic tools . These invertebrates offer some advantages over vertebrates in animal testing , including their short life cycle and the ease with which large numbers may be housed and studied . However , the lack of an adaptive immune system and their simple organs prevent worms from being used in several aspects of medical research such as vaccine development . Similarly , the fruit fly immune system differs greatly from that of humans , and diseases in insects can be different from diseases in vertebrates ; however , fruit flies and waxworms can be useful in studies to identify novel virulence factors or pharmacologically active compounds .
Several invertebrate systems are considered acceptable alternatives to vertebrates in early @-@ stage discovery screens . Because of similarities between the innate immune system of insects and mammals , insects can replace mammals in some types of studies . Drosophila melanogaster and the Galleria mellonella waxworm have been particularly important for analysis of virulence traits of mammalian pathogens . Waxworms and other insects have also proven valuable for the identification of pharmaceutical compounds with favorable bioavailability . The decision to adopt such models generally involves accepting a lower degree of biological similarity with mammals for significant gains in experimental throughput .
= = = Vertebrates = = =
In the U.S. , the numbers of rats and mice used is estimated to be between 20 and 100 million a year . Other rodents commonly used are guinea pigs , hamsters , and gerbils . Mice are the most commonly used vertebrate species because of their size , low cost , ease of handling , and fast reproduction rate . Mice are widely considered to be the best model of inherited human disease and share 99 % of their genes with humans . With the advent of genetic engineering technology , genetically modified mice can be generated to order and can provide models for a range of human diseases . Rats are also widely used for physiology , toxicology and cancer research , but genetic manipulation is much harder in rats than in mice , which limits the use of these rodents in basic science . Nearly 200 @,@ 000 fish and 20 @,@ 000 amphibians were used in the UK in 2004 . The main species used is the zebrafish , Danio rerio , which are translucent during their embryonic stage , and the African clawed frog , Xenopus laevis . Over 20 @,@ 000 rabbits were used for animal testing in the UK in 2004 . Albino rabbits are used in eye irritancy tests ( Draize test ) because rabbits have less tear flow than other animals , and the lack of eye pigment in albinos make the effects easier to visualize . Rabbits are also frequently used for the production of polyclonal antibodies .
= = = = Cats = = = =
Cats are most commonly used in neurological research . 24 @,@ 221 cats were used in the U.S. in 2013 , around half of whom were used in experiments which have the potential to cause " pain and / or distress " though only 0 @.@ 3 % of cat experiments involved potential pain which was not relieved by anesthetics / analgesics .
= = = = Dogs = = = =
Dogs are widely used in biomedical research , testing , and education — particularly beagles , because they are gentle and easy to handle , and to allow for comparisons with historical data from beagles ( a Reduction technique ) . They are used as models for human and veterinary diseases in cardiology , endocrinology , and bone and joint studies , research that tends to be highly invasive , according to the Humane Society of the United States . The most common use of dogs is in the safety assessment of new medicines for human or veterinary use as a second species following testing in rodents , in accordance with the regulations set out in the International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use . The U.S. Department of Agriculture 's Animal Welfare Report shows that 67 @,@ 772 dogs were used in USDA @-@ registered facilities in 2013 .
= = = = Non @-@ human primates = = = =
Non @-@ human primates ( NHPs ) are used in toxicology tests , studies of AIDS and hepatitis , studies of neurology , behavior and cognition , reproduction , genetics , and xenotransplantation . They are caught in the wild or purpose @-@ bred . In the United States and China , most primates are domestically purpose @-@ bred , whereas in Europe the majority are imported purpose @-@ bred . The European Commission reported that in 2011 , 6 @,@ 012 monkeys were experimented on in European laboratories . According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture , there were 105 @,@ 665 monkeys in U.S. laboratories in 2014 . 23 @,@ 465 monkeys were imported into the U.S. in 2014 including 929 who were caught in the wild . Most of the NHPs used in experiments are macaques ; but marmosets , spider monkeys , and squirrel monkeys are also used , and baboons and chimpanzees are used in the US . As of 2015 , there are approximately 730 chimpanzees in U.S. laboratories .
In one survey , it was found that 89 % of singly @-@ housed primates exhibited self @-@ injurious or abnormal stereotypyical behaviors including pacing , rocking , hair pulling , and biting among others .
The first transgenic primate was produced in 2001 , with the development of a method that could introduce new genes into a rhesus macaque . This transgenic technology is now being applied in the search for a treatment for the genetic disorder Huntington 's disease . Notable studies on non @-@ human primates have been part of the polio vaccine development , and development of Deep Brain Stimulation , and their current heaviest non @-@ toxicological use occurs in the monkey AIDS model , SIV . In 2008 a proposal to ban all primates experiments in the EU has sparked a vigorous debate .
= = = Pain and suffering = = =
The extent to which animal testing causes pain and suffering , and the capacity of animals to experience and comprehend them , is the subject of much debate .
According to the USDA , in 2006 about 670 @,@ 000 animals ( 57 % ) ( not including rats , mice , birds , or invertebrates ) were used in procedures that did not include more than momentary pain or distress . About 420 @,@ 000 ( 36 % ) were used in procedures in which pain or distress was relieved by anesthesia , while 84 @,@ 000 ( 7 % ) were used in studies that would cause pain or distress that would not be relieved .
In the UK , research projects are classified as mild , moderate , and substantial in terms of the suffering the researchers conducting the study say they may cause ; a fourth category of " unclassified " means the animal was anesthetized and killed without recovering consciousness , according to the researchers . In December 2001 , 1 @,@ 296 ( 39 % ) of project licenses in force were classified as mild , 1 @,@ 811 ( 55 % ) as moderate , 63 ( 2 % ) as substantial , and 139 ( 4 % ) as unclassified . There have , however , been suggestions of systemic underestimation of procedure severity .
The idea that animals might not feel pain as human beings feel it traces back to the 17th @-@ century French philosopher , René Descartes , who argued that animals do not experience pain and suffering because they lack consciousness . Bernard Rollin of Colorado State University , the principal author of two U.S. federal laws regulating pain relief for animals , writes that researchers remained unsure into the 1980s as to whether animals experience pain , and that veterinarians trained in the U.S. before 1989 were simply taught to ignore animal pain . In his interactions with scientists and other veterinarians , he was regularly asked to " prove " that animals are conscious , and to provide " scientifically acceptable " grounds for claiming that they feel pain . Carbone writes that the view that animals feel pain differently is now a minority view . Academic reviews of the topic are more equivocal , noting that although the argument that animals have at least simple conscious thoughts and feelings has strong support , some critics continue to question how reliably animal mental states can be determined . The ability of invertebrates to experience pain and suffering is less clear , however , legislation in several countries ( e.g. U.K. , New Zealand , Norway ) protects some invertebrate species if they are being used in animal testing .
In the U.S. , the defining text on animal welfare regulation in animal testing is the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals . This defines the parameters that govern animal testing in the U.S. It states " The ability to experience and respond to pain is widespread in the animal kingdom ... Pain is a stressor and , if not relieved , can lead to unacceptable levels of stress and distress in animals . " The Guide states that the ability to recognize the symptoms of pain in different species is vital in efficiently applying pain relief and that it is essential for the people caring for and using animals to be entirely familiar with these symptoms . On the subject of analgesics used to relieve pain , the Guide states " The selection of the most appropriate analgesic or anesthetic should reflect professional judgment as to which best meets clinical and humane requirements without compromising the scientific aspects of the research protocol " . Accordingly , all issues of animal pain and distress , and their potential treatment with analgesia and anesthesia , are required regulatory issues in receiving animal protocol approval .
= = = Euthanasia = = =
Regulations require that scientists use as few animals as possible , especially for terminal experiments . However , while policy makers consider suffering to be the central issue and see animal euthanasia as a way to reduce suffering , others , such as the RSPCA , argue that the lives of laboratory animals have intrinsic value . Regulations focus on whether particular methods cause pain and suffering , not whether their death is undesirable in itself . The animals are euthanized at the end of studies for sample collection or post @-@ mortem examination ; during studies if their pain or suffering falls into certain categories regarded as unacceptable , such as depression , infection that is unresponsive to treatment , or the failure of large animals to eat for five days ; or when they are unsuitable for breeding or unwanted for some other reason .
Methods of euthanizing laboratory animals are chosen to induce rapid unconsciousness and death without pain or distress . The methods that are preferred are those published by councils of veterinarians . The animal can be made to inhale a gas , such as carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide , by being placed in a chamber , or by use of a face mask , with or without prior sedation or anesthesia . Sedatives or anesthetics such as barbiturates can be given intravenously , or inhalant anesthetics may be used . Amphibians and fish may be immersed in water containing an anesthetic such as tricaine . Physical methods are also used , with or without sedation or anesthesia depending on the method . Recommended methods include decapitation ( beheading ) for small rodents or rabbits . Cervical dislocation ( breaking the neck or spine ) may be used for birds , mice , and immature rats and rabbits . Maceration ( grinding into small pieces ) is used on 1 day old chicks . High @-@ intensity microwave irradiation of the brain can preserve brain tissue and induce death in less than 1 second , but this is currently only used on rodents . Captive bolts may be used , typically on dogs , ruminants , horses , pigs and rabbits . It causes death by a concussion to the brain . Gunshot may be used , but only in cases where a penetrating captive bolt may not be used . Some physical methods are only acceptable after the animal is unconscious . Electrocution may be used for cattle , sheep , swine , foxes , and mink after the animals are unconscious , often by a prior electrical stun . Pithing ( inserting a tool into the base of the brain ) is usable on animals already unconscious . Slow or rapid freezing , or inducing air embolism are acceptable only with prior anesthesia to induce unconsciousness .
= = Research classification = =
= = = Pure research = = =
Basic or pure research investigates how organisms behave , develop , and function . Those opposed to animal testing object that pure research may have little or no practical purpose , but researchers argue that it forms the necessary basis for the development of applied research , rendering the distinction between pure and applied research — research that has a specific practical aim — unclear . Pure research uses larger numbers and a greater variety of animals than applied research . Fruit flies , nematode worms , mice and rats together account for the vast majority , though small numbers of other species are used , ranging from sea slugs through to armadillos . Examples of the types of animals and experiments used in basic research include :
Studies on embryogenesis and developmental biology . Mutants are created by adding transposons into their genomes , or specific genes are deleted by gene targeting . By studying the changes in development these changes produce , scientists aim to understand both how organisms normally develop , and what can go wrong in this process . These studies are particularly powerful since the basic controls of development , such as the homeobox genes , have similar functions in organisms as diverse as fruit flies and man .
Experiments into behavior , to understand how organisms detect and interact with each other and their environment , in which fruit flies , worms , mice , and rats are all widely used . Studies of brain function , such as memory and social behavior , often use rats and birds . For some species , behavioral research is combined with enrichment strategies for animals in captivity because it allows them to engage in a wider range of activities . | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Breeding experiments to study evolution and genetics . Laboratory mice , flies , fish , and worms are inbred through many generations to create strains with defined characteristics . These provide animals of a known genetic background , an important tool for genetic analyses . Larger mammals are rarely bred specifically for such studies due to their slow rate of reproduction , though some scientists take advantage of inbred domesticated animals , such as dog or cattle breeds , for comparative purposes . Scientists studying how animals evolve use many animal species to see how variations in where and how an organism lives ( their niche ) produce adaptations in their physiology and morphology . As an example , sticklebacks are now being used to study how many and which types of mutations are selected to produce adaptations in animals ' morphology during the evolution of new species .
= = = Applied research = = =
Applied research aims to solve specific and practical problems . Compared to pure research , which is largely academic in origin , applied research is usually carried out in the pharmaceutical industry , or by universities in commercial partnerships . These may involve the use of animal models of diseases or conditions , which are often discovered or generated by pure research programmes . In turn , such applied studies may be an early stage in the drug discovery process . Examples include :
Genetic modification of animals to study disease . Transgenic animals have specific genes inserted , modified or removed , to mimic specific conditions such as single gene disorders , such as Huntington 's disease . Other models mimic complex , multifactorial diseases with genetic components , such as diabetes , or even transgenic mice that carry the same mutations that occur during the development of cancer . These models allow investigations on how and why the disease develops , as well as providing ways to develop and test new treatments . The vast majority of these transgenic models of human disease are lines of mice , the mammalian species in which genetic modification is most efficient . Smaller numbers of other animals are also used , including rats , pigs , sheep , fish , birds , and amphibians .
Studies on models of naturally occurring disease and condition . Certain domestic and wild animals have a natural propensity or predisposition for certain conditions that are also found in humans . Cats are used as a model to develop immunodeficiency virus vaccines and to study leukemia because their natural predisposition to FIV and Feline leukemia virus . Certain breeds of dog suffer from narcolepsy making them the major model used to study the human condition . Armadillos and humans are among only a few animal species that naturally suffer from leprosy ; as the bacteria responsible for this disease cannot yet be grown in culture , armadillos are the primary source of bacilli used in leprosy vaccines .
Studies on induced animal models of human diseases . Here , an animal is treated so that it develops pathology and symptoms that resemble a human disease . Examples include restricting blood flow to the brain to induce stroke , or giving neurotoxins that cause damage similar to that seen in Parkinson 's disease . Such studies can be difficult to interpret , and it is argued that they are not always comparable to human diseases . For example , although such models are now widely used to study Parkinson 's disease , the British anti @-@ vivisection interest group BUAV argues that these models only superficially resemble the disease symptoms , without the same time course or cellular pathology . In contrast , scientists assessing the usefulness of animal models of Parkinson 's disease , as well as the medical research charity The Parkinson 's Appeal , state that these models were invaluable and that they led to improved surgical treatments such as pallidotomy , new drug treatments such as levodopa , and later deep brain stimulation .
Animal testing has also included the use of placebo testing . In these cases animals are treated with a substance that produces no pharmacological effect , but is administered in order to determine any biological alterations due to the experience of a substance being administered , and the results are compared with those obtained with an active compound .
= = = = Xenotransplantation = = = =
Xenotransplantation research involves transplanting tissues or organs from one species to another , as a way to overcome the shortage of human organs for use in organ transplants . Current research involves using primates as the recipients of organs from pigs that have been genetically modified to reduce the primates ' immune response against the pig tissue . Although transplant rejection remains a problem , recent clinical trials that involved implanting pig insulin @-@ secreting cells into diabetics did reduce these people 's need for insulin .
Documents released to the news media by the animal rights organization Uncaged Campaigns showed that , between 1994 and 2000 , wild baboons imported to the UK from Africa by Imutran Ltd , a subsidiary of Novartis Pharma AG , in conjunction with Cambridge University and Huntingdon Life Sciences , to be used in experiments that involved grafting pig tissues , suffered serious and sometimes fatal injuries . A scandal occurred when it was revealed that the company had communicated with the British government in an attempt to avoid regulation .
= = = Toxicology testing = = =
Toxicology testing , also known as safety testing , is conducted by pharmaceutical companies testing drugs , or by contract animal testing facilities , such as Huntingdon Life Sciences , on behalf of a wide variety of customers . According to 2005 EU figures , around one million animals are used every year in Europe in toxicology tests ; which are about 10 % of all procedures . According to Nature , 5 @,@ 000 animals are used for each chemical being tested , with 12 @,@ 000 needed to test pesticides . The tests are conducted without anesthesia , because interactions between drugs can affect how animals detoxify chemicals , and may interfere with the results .
Toxicology tests are used to examine finished products such as pesticides , medications , food additives , packing materials , and air freshener , or their chemical ingredients . Most tests involve testing ingredients rather than finished products , but according to BUAV , manufacturers believe these tests overestimate the toxic effects of substances ; they therefore repeat the tests using their finished products to obtain a less toxic label .
The substances are applied to the skin or dripped into the eyes ; injected intravenously , intramuscularly , or subcutaneously ; inhaled either by placing a mask over the animals and restraining them , or by placing them in an inhalation chamber ; or administered orally , through a tube into the stomach , or simply in the animal 's food . Doses may be given once , repeated regularly for many months , or for the lifespan of the animal .
There are several different types of acute toxicity tests . The LD50 ( " Lethal Dose 50 % " ) test is used to evaluate the toxicity of a substance by determining the dose required to kill 50 % of the test animal population . This test was removed from OECD international guidelines in 2002 , replaced by methods such as the fixed dose procedure , which use fewer animals and cause less suffering . Abbott writes that , as of 2005 , " the LD50 acute toxicity test ... still accounts for one @-@ third of all animal [ toxicity ] tests worldwide . "
Irritancy can be measured using the Draize test , where a test substance is applied to an animal 's eyes or skin , usually an albino rabbit . For Draize eye testing , the test involves observing the effects of the substance at intervals and grading any damage or irritation , but the test should be halted and the animal killed if it shows " continuing signs of severe pain or distress " . The Humane Society of the United States writes that the procedure can cause redness , ulceration , hemorrhaging , cloudiness , or even blindness . This test has also been criticized by scientists for being cruel and inaccurate , subjective , over @-@ sensitive , and failing to reflect human exposures in the real world . Although no accepted in vitro alternatives exist , a modified form of the Draize test called the low volume eye test may reduce suffering and provide more realistic results and this was adopted as the new standard in September 2009 . However , the Draize test will still be used for substances that are not severe irritants .
The most stringent tests are reserved for drugs and foodstuffs . For these , a number of tests are performed , lasting less than a month ( acute ) , one to three months ( subchronic ) , and more than three months ( chronic ) to test general toxicity ( damage to organs ) , eye and skin irritancy , mutagenicity , carcinogenicity , teratogenicity , and reproductive problems . The cost of the full complement of tests is several million dollars per substance and it may take three or four years to complete .
These toxicity tests provide , in the words of a 2006 United States National Academy of Sciences report , " critical information for assessing hazard and risk potential " . Animal tests may overestimate risk , with false positive results being a particular problem , but false positives appear not to be prohibitively common . Variability in results arises from using the effects of high doses of chemicals in small numbers of laboratory animals to try to predict the effects of low doses in large numbers of humans . Although relationships do exist , opinion is divided on how to use data on one species to predict the exact level of risk in another .
= = = = Cosmetics testing = = = =
Cosmetics testing on animals is particularly controversial . Such tests , which are still conducted in the U.S. , involve general toxicity , eye and skin irritancy , phototoxicity ( toxicity triggered by ultraviolet light ) and mutagenicity .
Cosmetics testing on animals is banned in India , the European Union , Israel and Norway while legislation in the U.S. and Brazil is currently considering similar bans . In 2002 , after 13 years of discussion , the European Union agreed to phase in a near @-@ total ban on the sale of animal @-@ tested cosmetics by 2009 , and to ban all cosmetics @-@ related animal testing . France , which is home to the world 's largest cosmetics company , L 'Oreal , has protested the proposed ban by lodging a case at the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg , asking that the ban be quashed . The ban is also opposed by the European Federation for Cosmetics Ingredients , which represents 70 companies in Switzerland , Belgium , France , Germany , and Italy . In October 2014 , India passed stricter laws that also ban the importation of any cosmetic products that are tested on animals .
= = = Drug testing = = =
Before the early 20th century , laws regulating drugs were lax . Currently , all new pharmaceuticals undergo rigorous animal testing before being licensed for human use . Tests on pharmaceutical products involve :
metabolic tests , investigating pharmacokinetics — how drugs are absorbed , metabolized and excreted by the body when introduced orally , intravenously , intraperitoneally , intramuscularly , or transdermally .
toxicology tests , which gauge acute , sub @-@ acute , and chronic toxicity . Acute toxicity is studied by using a rising dose until signs of toxicity become apparent . Current European legislation demands that " acute toxicity tests must be carried out in two or more mammalian species " covering " at least two different routes of administration " . Sub @-@ acute toxicity is where the drug is given to the animals for four to six weeks in doses below the level at which it causes rapid poisoning , in order to discover if any toxic drug metabolites build up over time . Testing for chronic toxicity can last up to two years and , in the European Union , is required to involve two species of mammals , one of which must be non @-@ rodent .
efficacy studies , which test whether experimental drugs work by inducing the appropriate illness in animals . The drug is then administered in a double @-@ blind controlled trial , which allows researchers to determine the effect of the drug and the dose @-@ response curve .
Specific tests on reproductive function , embryonic toxicity , or carcinogenic potential can all be required by law , depending on the result of other studies and the type of drug being tested .
= = = Education = = =
It is estimated that 20 million animals are used annually for educational purposes in the United States including , classroom observational exercises , dissections and live @-@ animal surgeries . Frogs , fetal pigs , perch , cats , earthworms , grasshoppers , crayfish and starfish are commonly used in classroom dissections . Alternatives to the use of animals in classroom dissections are widely used , with many U.S. States and school districts mandating students be offered the choice to not dissect . Citing the wide availability of alternatives and the decimation of local frog species , India banned dissections in 2014 .
The Sonoran Arthropod Institute hosts an annual Invertebrates in Education and Conservation Conference to discuss the use of invertebrates in education . There also are efforts in many countries to find alternatives to using animals in education . The NORINA database , maintained by Norecopa , lists products that may be used as alternatives or supplements to animal use in education , and in the training of personnel who work with animals . These include alternatives to dissection in schools . InterNICHE has a similar database and a loans system .
In November 2013 , the US @-@ based company Backyard Brains released for sale to the public what they call the " Roboroach " , an " electronic backpack " that can be attached to cockroaches . The operator is required to amputate a cockroach 's antennae , use sandpaper to wear down the shell , insert a wire into the thorax , and then glue the electrodes and circuit board onto the insect 's back . A mobile phone app can then be used to control it via Bluetooth . It has been suggested that the use of such a device may be a teaching aid that can promote interest in science . The makers of the " Roboroach " have been funded by the National Institute of Mental Health and state that the device is intended to encourage children to become interested in neuroscience .
= = = Defense = = =
Animals are used by the military to develop weapons , vaccines , battlefield surgical techniques , and defensive clothing . For example , in 2008 the United States Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency used live pigs to study the effects of improvised explosive device explosions on internal organs , especially the brain .
In the US military , goats are commonly used to train combat medics . ( Goats have become the main animal species used for this purpose after the Pentagon phased out using dogs for medical training in the 1980s . ) While modern mannequins used in medical training are quite efficient in simulating the behavior of a human body , some trainees feel that " the goat exercise provide [ s ] a sense of urgency that only real life trauma can provide " . Nevertheless , in 2014 , the U.S. Coast Guard announced that it would reduce the number of animals it uses in its training exercises by half after PETA released video showing Guard members cutting off the limbs of unconscious goats with tree trimmers and inflicting other injuries with a shotgun , pistol , ax and a scalpel . That same year , citing the availability of human simulators and other alternatives , the Department of Defense announced it would begin reducing the amount of animals it uses in various training programs . In 2013 , several Navy medical centers stopped using ferrets in intubation exercises after complaints from PETA .
Besides the US , six out of 28 NATO countries , including Poland and Denmark , use live animals for combat medic training .
= = Ethics = =
= = = Viewpoints = = =
The moral and ethical questions raised by performing experiments on animals are subject to debate , and viewpoints have shifted significantly over the 20th century . There remain disagreements about which procedures are useful for which purposes , as well as disagreements over which ethical principles apply to which species .
A 2015 Gallup poll found that 67 % of Americans were “ very concerned ” or “ somewhat concerned ” about animals used in research . A Pew poll taken the same year found 50 % of American adults opposed the use of animals in research .
Still , a wide range of viewpoints exist . The view that animals have moral rights ( animal rights ) is a philosophical position proposed by Tom Regan , among others , who argues that animals are beings with beliefs and desires , and as such are the " subjects of a life " with moral value and therefore moral rights . Regan still sees ethical differences between killing human and non @-@ human animals , and argues that to save the former it is permissible to kill the latter . Likewise , a " moral dilemma " view suggests that avoiding potential benefit to humans is unacceptable on similar grounds , and holds the issue to be a dilemma in balancing such harm to humans to the harm done to animals in research . In contrast , an abolitionist view in animal rights holds that there is no moral justification for any harmful research on animals that is not to the benefit of the individual animal . Bernard Rollin argues that benefits to human beings cannot outweigh animal suffering , and that human beings have no moral right to use an animal in ways that do not benefit that individual . Another prominent position is that of philosopher Peter Singer , who argues that there are no grounds to include a being 's species in considerations of whether their suffering is important in utilitarian moral considerations . Malcolm Macleod and collaborators argue that most controlled animal studies do not employ randomization , allocation concealment , and blinding outcome assessment , and that failure to employ these features exaggerates the apparent benefit of drugs tested in animals , leading to a failure to translate much animal research for human benefit .
Governments such as the Netherlands and New Zealand have responded to the public 's concerns by outlawing invasive experiments on certain classes of non @-@ human primates , particularly the great apes . In 2015 , captive chimpanzees in the U.S. were added to the Endangered Species Act adding new road blocks to those wishing to experiment on them . Similarly , citing ethical considerations and the availability of alternative research methods , the U.S. NIH announced in 2013 that it would dramatically reduce and eventually phase out experiments on chimpanzees .
The British government has required that the cost to animals in an experiment be weighed against the gain in knowledge . Some medical schools and agencies in China , Japan , and South Korea have built cenotaphs for killed animals . In Japan there are also annual memorial services ( Ireisai 慰霊祭 ) for animals sacrificed at medical school .
Various specific cases of animal testing have drawn attention , including both instances of beneficial scientific research , and instances of alleged ethical violations by those performing the tests . The fundamental properties of muscle physiology were determined with work done using frog muscles ( including the force generating mechanism of all muscle , the length @-@ tension relationship , and the force @-@ velocity curve ) , and frogs are still the preferred model organism due to the long survival of muscles in vitro and the possibility of isolating intact single @-@ fiber preparations ( not possible in other organisms ) . Modern physical therapy and the understanding and treatment of muscular disorders is based on this work and subsequent work in mice ( often engineered to express disease states such as muscular dystrophy ) . In February 1997 a team at the Roslin Institute in Scotland announced the birth of Dolly the sheep , the first mammal to be cloned from an adult somatic cell .
Concerns have been raised over the mistreatment of primates undergoing testing . In 1985 the case of Britches , a macaque monkey at the University of California , Riverside , gained public attention . He had his eyelids sewn shut and a sonar sensor on his head as part of an experiment to test sensory substitution devices for blind people . The laboratory was raided by Animal Liberation Front in 1985 , removing Britches and 466 other animals . The National Institutes of Health conducted an eight @-@ month investigation and concluded , however , that no corrective action was necessary . During the 2000s other cases have made headlines , including experiments at the University of Cambridge and Columbia University in 2002 . In 2004 and 2005 , undercover footage of staff of Covance 's , a contract research organization that provides animal testing services , Virginia lab was shot by People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) . Following release of the footage , the U.S. Department of Agriculture fined Covance $ 8 @,@ 720 for 16 citations , three of which involved lab monkeys ; the other citations involved administrative issues and equipment . In 1997 PETA filmed staff from Huntingdon Life Sciences , showing dogs being mistreated . The employees responsible were dismissed , with two given community service orders and ordered to pay £ 250 costs , the first lab technicians to have been prosecuted for animal cruelty in the UK .
= = = Threats to researchers = = =
In 2006 , a primate researcher at the University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) shut down the experiments in his lab after threats from animal rights activists . The researcher had received a grant to use 30 macaque monkeys for vision experiments ; each monkey was anesthetized for a single physiological experiment lasting up to 120 hours , and then euthanized . The researcher 's name , phone number , and address were posted on the website of the Primate Freedom Project . Demonstrations were held in front of his home . A Molotov cocktail was placed on the porch of what was believed to be the home of another UCLA primate researcher ; instead , it was accidentally left on the porch of an elderly woman unrelated to the university . The Animal Liberation Front claimed responsibility for the attack . As a result of the campaign , the researcher sent an email to the Primate Freedom Project stating " you win , " and " please don 't bother my family anymore . " In another incident at UCLA in June 2007 , the Animal Liberation Brigade placed a bomb under the car of a UCLA children 's ophthalmologist who experiments on cats and rhesus monkeys ; the bomb had a faulty fuse and did not detonate . UCLA is now refusing Freedom of Information Act requests for animal medical records .
These attacks — as well as similar incidents that caused the Southern Poverty Law Center to declare in 2002 that the animal rights movement had " clearly taken a turn toward the more extreme " — prompted the US government to pass the Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act and the UK government to add the offense of " Intimidation of persons connected with animal research organisation " to the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005 . Such legislation and the arrest and imprisonment of extremists may have decreased the incidence of attacks .
= = Alternatives to animal testing = =
Many scientists and governments state that animal testing should cause as little suffering to animals as possible , and that animal tests should only be performed where necessary . The " Three Rs " are guiding principles for the use of animals in research in most countries . Whilst replacement of animals , i.e. alternatives to animal testing , is one of the principles , their scope is much broader . Although such principles have been welcomed as a step forwards by some animal welfare groups , they have also been criticized as both outdated by current research , and of little practical effect in improving animal welfare .
The scientists and engineers at Harvard 's Wyss Institute have created " organs @-@ on @-@ a @-@ chip " , including the " lung @-@ on @-@ a @-@ chip " and " gut @-@ on @-@ a @-@ chip " . These tiny devices contain human cells in a 3 @-@ dimensional system that mimics human organs . The chips can be used instead of animals in in vitro disease research , drug testing , and toxicity testing . Researchers have also begun using 3 @-@ D bioprinters to create human cells for in vitro testing .
Another non @-@ animal research method is in silico or computer simulation and mathematical modeling which seeks to investigate and ultimately predict toxicity and drug affects in humans without using animals . This is done by investigating test compounds on a molecular level using recent advances in technological capabilities with the ultimate goal of creating treatments unique to each patient .
EpiOcular a form of in vitro is on the uprising of alternatives .
Microdosing is another alternative to the use of animals in experimentation . Microdosing is a process whereby volunteers are administered a small dose of a test compound allowing researchers to investigate its pharmacological affects without harming the volunteers . Microdosing can replace the use of animals in pre @-@ clinical drug screening and can reduce the number of animals used in safety and toxicity testing .
Additional alternative methods include positron emission tomography ( PET ) , which allows scanning of the human brain in vivo , and comparative epidemiological studies of disease risk factors among human populations .
Simulators and computer programs have also replaced the use of animals in dissection , teaching and training exercises .
Official bodies such as the European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Test Methods of the European Commission , the Interagency Coordinating Committee for the Validation of Alternative Methods in the US , ZEBET in Germany , and the Japanese Center for the Validation of Alternative Methods ( among others ) also promote and disseminate the 3Rs . These bodies are mainly driven by responding to regulatory requirements , such as supporting the cosmetics testing ban in the EU by validating alternative methods .
The European Partnership for Alternative Approaches to Animal Testing serves as a liaison between the European Commission and industries . The European Consensus Platform for Alternatives coordinates efforts amongst EU member states .
Academic centers also investigate alternatives , including the Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing at the Johns Hopkins University and the NC3Rs in the UK .
= New York State Route 398 =
New York State Route 398 ( NY 398 ) was an east – west state highway located within the town of Stuyvesant in Columbia County , New York , in the United States . It served as a short connector between NY 9J in the hamlet of Stuyvesant and U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) in the hamlet of Sunnyside southwest of the village of Kinderhook . NY 398 was assigned in the early 1930s and remained unchanged until 1980 , when ownership and maintenance of the highway was transferred to Columbia County . The route was redesignated as County Route 26A at that time .
= = Route description = =
NY 398 began at an intersection with NY 9J in downtown Stuyvesant . The route progressed eastward , passing a small park and intersecting with local roads . NY 398 passed Firwood Barn as it climbed in elevation . The route turned to the southeast and passed some small parks . After that , the route became more rural , climbing even higher in elevation and intersecting with another local road .
After the local road however , the highway began to patch its way through several hills and mountains , but this did not last long . The highway then became rural again , emerging from the mountains behind it . There were a few short hills the rest of the way along NY 398 , until it entered the small hamlet of Sunnyside . There , it became a little more suburbanized , and the highway terminated at an intersection with US 9 .
= = History = =
NY 398 was assigned c . 1932 to the highway connecting the hamlets of Stuyvesant and Sunnyside . It remained unchanged until January 28 , 1980 , when the NY 398 designation was officially removed from the highway . Ownership and maintenance of NY 398 's former routing was transferred from the state of New York to Columbia County on April 1 , 1980 , as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . The highway became part of County Route 26A ( CR 26A ) , a designation that continues west of NY 9J to a junction with River View Street near the Hudson River .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Stuyvesant , Columbia County .
= Mary Dyer =
Mary Dyer , born Marie Barrett ( c . 1611 – 1 June 1660 ) , was an English and colonial American Puritan turned Quaker who was hanged in Boston , Massachusetts Bay Colony , for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony . She is one of the four executed Quakers known as the Boston martyrs .
While the place of her birth is not known , she was married in London in 1633 to the milliner William Dyer . Mary and William were Puritans who were interested in reforming the Anglican Church from within , without separating from it . As the English king increased pressure on the Puritans , they left England by the thousands to go to New England in the early 1630s . Mary and William arrived in Boston by 1635 , joining the Boston Church in December of that year . Like most members of Boston 's church , they soon became involved in the Antinomian Controversy , a theological crisis lasting from 1636 to 1638 . Mary and William were strong advocates of Anne Hutchinson and John Wheelwright in the controversy , and as a result Mary 's husband was disenfranchised and disarmed for supporting these " heretics " and also for harboring his own heretical views . Subsequently , they left Massachusetts with many others to establish a new colony on Aquidneck Island ( later Rhode Island ) in Narraganset Bay .
Before leaving Boston , Mary had given birth to a severely deformed infant that was stillborn . Because of the theological implications of such a birth , the baby was buried secretly . When the Massachusetts authorities learned of this birth , the ordeal became public , and in the minds of the colony 's ministers and magistrates , the monstrous birth was clearly a result of Mary 's " monstrous " religious opinions . More than a decade later , in late 1651 , Mary Dyer boarded a ship for England , and stayed there for over five years , becoming an avid follower of the Quaker religion that had been established by George Fox several years earlier . Because Quakers were considered among the most heinous of heretics by the Puritans , Massachusetts enacted several laws against them . When Dyer returned to Boston from England , she was immediately imprisoned , and then banished . Defying her order of banishment , she was again banished , this time upon pain of death . Deciding that she would die as a martyr if the anti @-@ Quaker laws were not repealed , Dyer once again returned to Boston and was sent to the gallows in 1659 , having the rope around her neck when a reprieve was announced . Not accepting the reprieve , she again returned to Boston the following year , and was then hanged to become the third of four Quaker martyrs .
= = Early life = =
Details of the life of Mary Dyer in England are scarce ; only her marriage record and a short probate record for her brother have been found . In both of these English records her name is given as Marie Barret . A tradition that Dyer was the daughter of Lady Arbella Stuart and Sir William Seymour , was debunked by genealogist G. Andrews Moriarty in 1950 . However , Moriarty correctly predicted that despite his work the legend would persist , and in 1994 the tradition was included as being plausible in a published biography of Dyer .
While the parents of Mary Dyer have not been identified , family researcher Johan Winsser made a significant discovery concerning a brother of Dyer , which he published in 2004 . On 18 January 1633 / 4 a probate administration was recorded in the Prerogative Court of Canterbury for a William Barret . The instrument granted administration of Barret 's estate " jointly to William Dyer of St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields , fishmonger , and his wife Marie Dyer , otherwise Barret . " The fact that the estate of a brother of Mary Dyer would be left in the hands of Mary and her husband strongly suggests that William ( and therefore Mary ) had no living parents and no living brothers at the time , and also suggests that Mary was either William Barrett 's only living sister , or his oldest living sister . The other facts that could be drawn from the instrument are that William Barrett was unmarried and that he died somewhere " beyond the seas " from England .
That Mary was well educated is apparent from letters that she wrote . The Quaker chronicler , George Bishop described her as a " Comely Grave Woman , and of a goodly Personage , and one of a good Report , having a husband of an Estate , fearing the Lord , and a Mother of Children . " Dutch writer , Gerard Croese wrote that she was reputed to be a " person of no mean extract and parentage , of an estate pretty plentiful , of a comely stature and countenance , of a piercing knowledge in many things , of a wonderful sweet and pleasant discourse , so fit for great affairs ... " Massachusetts Governor John Winthrop described her as being " a very proper and fair woman ... of a very proud spirit , and much addicted to revelations " .
Mary was married to William Dyer , a fishmonger and milliner , on 27 October 1633 at the parish of St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields , which at the time was in Westminster , Middlesex , but is now a part of London . Mary 's husband was baptized in Lincolnshire , England . Settlers from Lincolnshire contributed a disproportionately large percentage of members of the Boston Church in New England , and a disproportionately large part of the leadership during the founding of Rhode Island .
Mary and William Dyer were Puritans , as evidenced by their acceptance into the membership of the Boston church in New England . The Puritans wanted to complete the separation of the Anglican church from Catholicism that had begun under the rule of the English monarch Henry VIII . The conformists in England accepted the English monarch as the head of the church , and the form of worship that greatly resembled that in the Catholic church . The Puritans , as non @-@ conformists , wanted to do away with the vestments , bowing and making the sign of the cross that were prevalent in Anglican worship , and observe a much simpler and Biblical form of worship . Some of the non @-@ conformists , such as the Pilgrims , wanted to separate completely from the Anglican church , while the Puritans wished to reform the church from within . As the ranks of Puritans began swelling in England , so too did the severity of government intervention , including exile or death for ministers not adhering to the state religious practices . In the 1620s England 's King Charles I , with little understanding of religion , was adamant that English subjects conform to the same uniform religion , which included the vestments and procedures found in the Catholic church . As exploration of the North American continent was then leading to settlement , the Puritans found a way to practice their form of religion by emigrating from England .
= = Massachusetts = =
In 1635 , Mary and William Dyer sailed from England to New England . Mary was likely pregnant , or gave birth during the voyage , because on 20 December 1635 their son Samuel was baptized at the Boston church , exactly one week after the Dyers joined the church . William Dyer became a freeman of Boston on 3 March the following year .
= = = Antinomian Controversy = = =
During the earliest days of the Boston Church , before the arrival of Mary and William Dyer , there was a single minister , the Reverend John Wilson . In 1633 , one of England 's most noted Puritan clergymen , John Cotton , arrived in Boston , and quickly became the second minister ( called " teacher " ) in Boston 's church . In time , the Boston parishioners could sense a theological difference between Wilson and Cotton . Anne Hutchinson , a theologically astute midwife who had the ear of many of the colony 's women , became outspoken in support of Cotton , and condemned the theology of Wilson and most of the other ministers in the colony during gatherings , or conventicles , held at her house .
Differing religious opinions within the colony eventually became public debates and erupted into what has traditionally been called the Antinomian Controversy . Many members of Boston 's church found Wilson 's emphasis on morality , and his doctrine of " evidencing justification by sanctification " ( a covenant of works ) to be disagreeable . Hutchinson told her followers that Wilson lacked " the seal of the Spirit . " Wilson 's theological views conformed with those of all of the other ministers in the colony except for Cotton , who instead stressed " the inevitability of God 's will " ( a covenant of grace ) . The Boston parishioners had become accustomed to Cotton 's doctrines , and some of them began disrupting Wilson 's sermons , even finding excuses to leave when Wilson got up to preach or pray .
Both William and Mary Dyer sided strongly with Hutchinson and the free @-@ grace advocates , and it is highly likely that Mary attended the periodic theological gatherings at the Hutchinson 's home . In May 1636 , the Bostonians received a new ally when the Reverend John Wheelwright arrived from England , and immediately aligned himself with Cotton , Hutchinson and the other free @-@ grace supporters . Yet another boost for those advocating the free @-@ grace theology came during the same month , when the young aristocrat Henry Vane was elected as the governor of the colony . Vane was a strong supporter of Hutchinson , but also had his own unorthodox ideas about theology that were considered radical .
By late 1636 , the theological schism had become great enough that the General Court called for a day of fasting to help ease the colony 's difficulties . The appointed fasting day , in January , included church services , and Cotton preached during the morning , but with Wilson away in England , John Wheelwright was invited to preach during the afternoon . Though his sermon may have seemed benign to the average listener in the congregation , most of the colony 's ministers found Wheelwright 's words to be objectionable . Instead of bringing peace , the sermon fanned the flames of controversy , and in Winthrop 's words , Wheelwright " inveighed against all that walked in a covenant of works , ... and called them antichrists , and stirred up the people against them with much bitterness and vehemency . " In contrast , the followers of Hutchinson were encouraged by the sermon , and intensified their crusade against the " legalists " among the clergy . During church services and lectures , they publicly questioned the ministers about their doctrines which disagreed with their own beliefs .
When the General Court next met on 9 March , Wheelwright was called upon to answer for his sermon . He was judged guilty of " contempt & sedition " for having " purposely set himself to kindle and increase " bitterness within the colony . The vote did not pass without a fight , however , and Wheelwright 's friends protested formally . Most members of the Boston church , favoring Wheelwright in the conflict , drafted a petition justifying Wheelwright 's sermon , and 60 people signed this remonstrance protesting the conviction . William Dyer was among those who signed the petition which accused the General Court of condemning the truth of Christ . Dyer 's signature in support of Wheelwright soon proved to be fateful to the Dyer family .
Anne Hutchinson faced trial in early November 1637 for " traducing " ( slandering ) the ministers , and was sentenced to banishment on her second day in court . Within a week of her sentencing , many supporters of hers , including William Dyer , were called into court and were disenfranchised . Fearing an armed insurrection , the constables were then sent from door to door throughout the colony 's towns to disarm those who signed the Wheelwright petition . Within ten days these individuals were ordered to deliver " all such guns , pistols , swords , powder , shot , & match as they shall be owners of , or have in their custody , upon paine of ten pound [ s ] for every default " . A great number of those who signed the petition , faced with losing their protection and in some cases livelihood , recanted under the pressure , and " acknowledged their error " in signing the petition . Those who refused to recant suffered hardships and many decided to leave the colony . Being both disenfranchised and disarmed , William Dyer was among those who could no longer justify remaining in Massachusetts .
= = = Monstrous birth = = =
While William Dyer appeared in the Boston records on several occasions , Mary Dyer had not caught the attention of the Massachusetts authorities until March 1638 as the Antinomian Controversy came to an end . Following Hutchinson 's civil trial , she was kept as a prisoner in the home of a brother of one of the colony 's ministers . Though she had been banished from the colony , this did not mean she was removed as a member of the Boston church . In March 1638 she was forced to face a church trial to get at the root of her heresies , and determine if her relationship with the Puritan church would continue . While William Dyer was likely with other men finding a new home away from Massachusetts , Mary Dyer was still in Boston and in attendance at this church trial . At the conclusion of the trial , Hutchinson was excommunicated , and as she was leaving the Boston Church , Mary stood and walked hand in hand with her out of the building . As the two women were leaving the church , a member of the congregation asked another person about the identity of the woman leaving the church with Hutchinson . A reply was made that it was the woman who had had the monstrous birth . Governor Winthrop soon became aware of this verbal exchange and began conducting an investigation .
Dyer had given birth five months earlier , on 11 October 1637 , to a deformed stillborn baby . Winthrop wrote that while many women had gathered for the occasion , that " none were left at the time of the birth but the midwife and two others , whereof one fell asleep . " Actually , two women present were midwives — Anne Hutchinson and Jane Hawkins , but the third woman was never identified . Hutchinson fully understood the serious theological implications of such a birth , and immediately sought the counsel of Reverend John Cotton . Thinking about how he would react if this were his child , Cotton instructed Hutchinson to conceal the circumstances of the birth . The infant was then buried secretly .
Once Winthrop had learned of the monstrous birth , he confronted Jane Hawkins , and armed with new information then confronted Reverend Cotton . As the news spread among the colony 's leaders , it was determined that the infant would be exhumed and examined . According to Winthrop , a group of " above a hundred persons " including Winthrop , Cotton , Reverend Wilson , and Reverend Thomas Weld " went to the place of buryall & commanded to digg it up to [ behold ] it , & they sawe it , a most hideous creature , a woman , a fish , a bird , & a beast all woven together ... " In his journal , Winthrop provided a more complete description as follows :
it was of ordinary bigness ; it had a face , but no head , and the ears stood upon the shoulders and were like an ape 's ; it had no forehead , but over the eyes four horns , hard and sharp ; two of them were above one inch long , the other two shorter ; the eyes standing out , and the mouth also ; the nose hooked upward ; all over the breast and back full of sharp pricks and scales , like a thornback [ i.e. , a skate or ray ] , the navel and all the belly , with the distinction of the sex , were where the back should be , and the back and hips before , where the belly should have been ; behind , between the shoulders , it had two mouths , and in each of them a piece of red flesh sticking out ; it had arms and legs as other children ; but , instead of toes , it had on each foot three claws , like a young fowl , with sharp talons .
While some of the description may have been accurate , many puritanical embellishments were added to better fit the moral story being portrayed by the authorities . The modern medical condition that best fits the description of the infant is anencephaly , meaning partial or complete absence of a brain . This episode was just the beginning of the attention emanating from Dyer 's personal tragedy . The religion of the Puritans demanded a close look at all aspects of one 's life for signs of God 's approval or disapproval . Even becoming a member of the Puritan church in New England required a public confession of faith , and any behavior that was viewed by the clergy as being unorthodox required a theological examination by the church , followed by a public confession and repentance by the offender . Such microscopic inspection caused even private matters to become looked at publicly for the purpose of instruction , and Dyer 's tragedy was widely examined for signs of God 's judgment . This led to a highly subjective form of justice , an example of which was the 1656 hanging of Ann Hibbins whose offense was simply being resented by her neighbor . In Winthrop 's eyes Dyer 's case was unequivocal , and he was convinced that her monstrous birth was a clear signal of God 's displeasure with the antinomian heretics . Winthrop felt that it was quite providential that the discovery of the monstrous birth occurred exactly when Anne Hutchinson was excommunicated from the local body of believers , and exactly one week before Dyer 's husband was questioned in the Boston church for his heretic opinions .
To further fuel Winthrop 's beliefs , Anne Hutchinson suffered from a miscarriage later in the same year when she aborted a strange mass of tissue that appeared like a handful of transparent grapes ( a rare condition , mostly in woman over 45 , called a hydatidiform mole ) . Winthrop was convinced of divine influence in these events , and made sure that every leader in New England received his own account of the " monster " birth , and he even sent a deposition to England . Soon , the story took on a life of its own , and in 1642 it was printed in London under the title Newes from New @-@ England of a Most Strange and Prodigious Birth , brought to Boston in New @-@ England ... Though the author of this work was not named , it may have been the New England minister Thomas Weld who was in England at the time to support New England 's ecclesiastical independence . In 1644 Weld , who was still in England , took Winthrop 's account of the Antinomian Controversy , and published it under one title , and then added a preface of his own and republished it under the title A Short story of the Rise , reign and ruine of the Antinomians , Familists & Libertines ... usually just called Short Story . In 1648 Samuel Rutherford , a Scottish Presbyternian , included Winthrop 's account of the monster in his anti @-@ sectarian treatise A Survey of the Spirituall Antichrist , Opening the Secrets of Familisme and Antinomianisme . Even the English writer , Samuel Danforth , included the birth in his 1648 Almanack as a " memorable occurrence " from 1637 . The only minister who wrote without sensationalism about Dyer 's deformed infant was the Reverend John Wheelwright , Anne Hutchinson 's ally during the Antinomian Controversy . In his 1645 response to Winthrop 's Short Story , entitled Mercurius Americanus , he wrote that Dyer 's and Hutchinson 's monsters described by Winthrop were nothing but " a monstrous conception of his [ Winthrop 's ] brain , a spurious issue of his intellect . "
Twenty years after the tragic birth , when Mary Dyer returned to the public spotlight for her Quaker evangelism , she continued to be remembered for the birth of her deformed child , this time in the diary of John Hull . Also , in 1660 , an exchange of letters took place between England and New England when the two eminent English clergymen , Richard Baxter and Thomas Brooks , sought information about the monstrous birth from 1637 . A New Englander , whose identity was not included , sent back information about the event to the English divines . The New Englander , who used Winthrop 's original description of the " monster " almost verbatim , has subsequently been identified as yet another well @-@ known clergyman , John Eliot who preached at the church in Roxbury , not far from Boston .
The most outrageous accounting of Dyer 's infant occurred in 1667 when a memorandum of the Englishman Sir Joseph Williamson quoted a Major Scott about the event . Scott was a country lawyer with a notorious reputation , and his detractors included the famous diarist Samuel Pepys . Scott 's outlandish assertion was that the young Massachusetts governor , Henry Vane , fathered the monstrous births of both Mary Dyer and Anne Hutchinson ; that he " debauched both , and both were delivered of monsters . " After this , the accounts became less frequent , and the last historical account of Dyer 's monstrous birth was in 1702 when the New England minister Cotton Mather mentioned it in passing in his Magnalia Christi Ameriana .
= = Rhode Island = =
Several of those affected by the events of the Antinomian Controversy went north with John Wheelwright in November 1637 to found the town of Exeter in what would become New Hampshire . A larger group , uncertain where to go , contacted Roger Williams , who suggested they purchase land from the natives along the Narraganset Bay , near his settlement in Providence . On 7 March 1638 , just as Anne Hutchinson 's church trial was getting underway , a group of men gathered at the home of William Coddington and drafted a compact for a new government . This group included several of the strongest supporters of Hutchinson who had either been disenfranchised , disarmed , excommunicated , or banished , including William Dyer . Altogether , 23 individuals signed the instrument which was intended to form a " Bodie Politick " based on Christian principles , and Coddington was chosen as the leader of the group . Following through with Roger Williams ' proposed land purchase , these exiles established their colony on Aquidneck Island ( later named Rhode Island ) , naming the settlement Pocasset .
William and Mary Dyer joined William and Anne Hutchinson and many others in building the new settlement on Aquidneck Island . Within a year of the founding of this settlement , however , there was dissension among the leaders , and the Dyers joined Coddington , with several other inhabitants , in moving to the south end of the island , establishing the town of Newport . The Hutchinsons remained in Pocasset , whose inhabitants renamed the town Portsmouth , and William Hutchinson became its chief magistrate . William Dyer immediately became the recording secretary of Newport , and he and three others were tasked in June 1639 to proportion the new lands . In 1640 the two towns of Portsmouth and Newport united , and Coddington was elected governor , while Dyer was chosen as Secretary , and held this position from 1640 to 1647 . Roger Williams , who envisioned a union of all four settlements on the Narragansett Bay ( Providence , Warwick , Portsmouth , and Newport ) , wanted royal recognition of these settlements for their protection , and went to England where he obtained a patent bringing the four towns under one government . Coddington was opposed to the Williams patent and managed to resist union with Providence and Warwick until 1647 when representatives of the four towns ultimately met and united under the patent . With all four of the Narragansett settlements now under one government , William Dyer was elected the General Recorder for the entire colony in 1648 .
Coddington continued to be unhappy with the consolidated government , and wanted colonial independence for the two island towns . He sailed to England to present his case , and in April 1651 , the Council of State of England gave him the commission he sought , making him governor @-@ for @-@ life of the island . Criticism of Coddington arose as soon as he returned with his commission . Three men were then directed to go to England to get Coddington 's commission revoked : Roger Williams , representing the mainland towns , and John Clarke and William Dyer representing the two island towns . In November 1651 the three men left for England , where Dyer would meet his wife . Mary Dyer had sailed to England before the three men departed , as Coddington wrote in a letter to Winthrop that Mr. Dyer " sent his wife over in the first ship with Mr. Travice , and is now gone himself for England . " It remains a mystery as to why Mary Dyer would leave six children behind , one an infant , to travel abroad . Biographer Ruth Plimpton hinted that Mary had some royal connection , and suggested that the news of the execution of King Charles compelled her to go . However , no record has been found to satisfactorily explain this mystery .
Because of recent hostilities between the English and the Dutch , the three men , once in England , did not meet with the Council of State on New England until April 1652 . After the men explained their case , Coddington 's commission for the island government was revoked in October 1652 . William Dyer was the messenger who returned to Rhode Island the following February , bringing the news of the return of the colony to the Williams Patent of 1643 . Mary , however , would remain in England for the next four years .
= = Quaker conversion = =
= = = England = = =
Mary Dyer 's time in England lasted for over five years , and during her stay she had become deeply taken by the Quaker religion established by George Fox around 1647 . Formally known as the Society of Friends , the Quakers did not believe in baptism , formal prayer and the Lord 's Supper , nor did they believe in an ordained ministry . Each member was a minister in his or her own right , women were essentially treated as men in matters of spirituality , and they relied on an " Inner Light of Christ " as their source of spiritual inspiration . In addition to denouncing the clergy , and refusing to support it with their tithes , they also claimed liberty of conscience as an inalienable right and demanded the separation of church and state . Their worship consisted of silent meditation , though those moved by the Spirit would at times make public exhortations . They minimized the customs of bowing or men removing their hats , they would not take an oath , and they would not fight in wars . The Puritans in Massachusetts viewed Quakers as being among the most reprehensible of heretics , and they enacted several laws against them .
While in England , one place that Dyer visited , and likely spent a lot of time , was Swarthmoor Hall , located near Ulverston in Cumbria in northwestern England . Biographer Ruth Plimpton surmises that Dyer had spent time with her old friend Henry Vane at his estate in Lincolnshire , called Belleau , and that Vane had introduced Mary to the judge Thomas Fell who traveled extensively across the kingdom , and who owned the Swarthmoor manor . In 1652 George Fox had visited Swarthmoor while the judge was traveling , but was invited in as a house guest by the judge 's wife , Margaret Fell . Within a few days , Fox had swayed Margaret to his religious beliefs . When the judge returned to Swarthmoor , he too listened to Fox , and though he was not taken by Fox 's religious views , he was nevertheless tolerant and sympathetic with Fox , and allowed him to use Swarthmoor as a Quaker meeting place .
Plimpton relates that Dyer made the journey of several days from Lincolnshire to Cumbria , and stayed at Swarthmoor as a guest of the Fells . It is here that Dyer almost certainly met George Fox , and learned about his beliefs and the role of women as preachers in his faith . Though documentary evidence of an actual meeting of Dyer and Fox is lacking , it is certain that Dyer was known to Margaret Fell , based on a letter written to Margaret by two Quakers in Barbadoes . The two men , John Rous and Henry Fell ( no close relation to Thomas and Margaret Fell ) wrote on 24 May 1657 that " We are still waiting here to get a passage for New England . We have not heard anything yet from Anne Burden and Mary Dyer , who went thither ... "
Judge Thomas Fell died in 1658 , but Swarthmoor continued to be a center of Quaker activity where George Fox would visit on many occasions . Margaret Fell was imprisoned for her Quaker activism from 1664 to 1668 , and following her release she married George Fox .
= = = Quakers in Massachusetts = = =
Of all the New England colonies , Massachusetts was the most active in persecuting the Quakers , but the Plymouth , Connecticut and New Haven colonies also shared in their persecution . When the first Quakers arrived in Boston in 1656 there were no laws yet enacted against them , but this quickly changed , and punishments were meted out with or without the law . It was primarily the ministers and the magistrates who opposed the Quakers and their evangelistic efforts . A particularly vehement persecutor , the Reverend John Norton of the Boston church , clamored for the law of banishment upon pain of death . He is the one who later wrote the vindication to England , justifying the execution of the first two Quakers in 1659 .
The punishments doled out to the Quakers intensified as their perceived threat to the Puritan religious order increased . These included the stocks and pillory , lashes with a three @-@ corded , knotted whip , fines , imprisonment , mutilation ( having ears cut off ) , banishment and death . When whipped , women were stripped to the waist , thus being publicly exposed , and whipped until bleeding . Such was the fate of Dyer 's Newport neighbor , Herodias Gardiner who had made a perilous journey through a 60 @-@ mile wilderness to get to Weymouth in the Massachusetts colony . She had made the arduous trek with another woman and with her " Babe sucking at her Breast " to give her Quaker testimony to friends in Weymouth . Similarly , Katharine , the wife of Richard Scott , and a younger sister of Anne Hutchinson , had received ten lashes for coming to visit her future son @-@ in @-@ law , Christopher Holder , in prison . This was the setting into which Mary Dyer stepped , upon her return from England .
= = = Dyer 's return to New England = = =
In early 1657 Dyer returned to New England with the widow Ann Burden , who came to Boston to settle the estate of her late husband . Dyer was immediately recognized as a Quaker and imprisoned . Dyer 's husband had to come to Boston to get her out of jail , and he was bound and sworn not to allow her to lodge in any Massachusetts town , or to speak to any person while traversing the colony to return home . Dyer nevertheless continued to travel in New England to preach her Quaker message , and in early 1658 was arrested in the New Haven Colony , and then expelled for preaching her " inner light " belief , and the notion that women and men stood on equal ground in church worship and organization . In addition to sharing her Quaker message , she had come to New Haven with two others to visit Humphrey Norton who had been imprisoned for three weeks . Anti @-@ Quaker laws had been enacted there , and after Dyer was arrested , she was " set on a horse " , and forced to leave .
Following her New Haven trip , Mary was recovering from a bout of pneumonia when in June 1658 two Quaker activists , Christopher Holder and John Copeland came to Boston . They had already been evicted from other parts of the colony , and were exasperating the magistrates . Being joined by John Rous from Barbadoes , the three men were sentenced to having their right ears cut off , and the sentence was carried out in July . As biographer Plimpton wrote , the men " were so stalwart while their ears were removed " that additional punishment in | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the form of whippings were carried out for the next nine weeks . Word of this cruelty reached Dyer while she was visiting Richard and Katherine Scott in Providence . Richard Scott was considered to be the first Quaker in Providence . The Scotts had two daughters , Mary , the older , who was engaged to Christopher Holder , and Patience , the younger , aged 11 . Mrs. Scott and her two daughters , along with Mary Dyer and her friend Hope Clifton , were all compelled to go to Boston to visit with Holder and the other men in jail . The four women and child were all imprisoned . Three other people who had also come to visit Holder and were then imprisoned were Nicholas Davis from Plymouth , the London merchant William Robinson and a Yorkshire farmer named Marmaduke Stephenson , the latter two on a Quaker mission from England .
The Quaker situation was becoming highly problematical for the magistrates . Their response to the increasing presence of these people was to enact tougher laws , and on 19 October 1658 a new law was passed in the Massachusetts colony that introduced capital punishment . Quakers would be banished from the colony upon pain of death , meaning they would be hanged if they defied the law . Dyer , Davis , Robinson and Stephenson were then brought to court , and then sentenced to " banishment upon pain of death " under the new law . Davis returned to Plymouth , Dyer went home to Newport , but Robinson and Stephenson remained in the Massachusetts Bay Colony , spending time in Salem .
In June 1659 Robinson and Stephenson were once again apprehended and brought back to the Boston jail . When Dyer heard of these arrests , she once again left her home in Newport , and returned to Boston to support her Quaker brethren , ignoring her order of banishment , and once again being incarcerated . Her husband had already come to Boston two years earlier to retrieve her from the authorities , signing an oath that she wouldn 't return . He wouldn 't come back to Boston again , but on 30 August 1659 he did sit down to write a long and impassioned letter to the magistrates , questioning the legality of the actions taken by the Massachusetts authorities .
On 19 October Dyer , Robinson and Stephenson were brought before Governor Endicott , where they explained their mission for the Lord . The next day , the same group was brought before the governor , who directed the prison keeper to remove the men 's hats . He then addressed the group , " We have made many laws and endeavored in several ways to keep you from among us , but neither whipping nor imprisonment , nor cutting off ears , nor banishment upon pain of death will keep you from among us . We desire not your death . " Having met his obligation to present the position of the colony 's authorities , he then pronounced , " Hearken now to your sentence of death . " William Robinson then wanted to read a prepared statement about being called by the Lord to Boston , but the governor would not allow it to be read , and Robinson was sent back to prison . Marmaduke Stephenson , being less vociferous than Robinson , was allowed to speak , and though initially declining , he ultimately spoke his mind , and then was also sent back to jail .
When Dyer was brought forth , the governor pronounced her sentence , " Mary Dyer , you shall go from hence to the place from whence you came , and from thence to the place of execution , and there be hanged till you be dead . " She replied , " The will of the Lord be done . " When Endicott directed the marshall to take her away , she said , " Yea , and joyfully I go . "
= = The first Quaker executions = =
The date set for the executions of the three Quaker evangelists , William Robinson , Marmaduke Stephenson and Mary Dyer , was 27 October 1659 . Captain James Oliver of the Boston military company was directed to provide a force of armed soldiers to escort the prisoners to the place of execution . Dyer walked hand @-@ in @-@ hand with the two men , and between them . When she was publicly asked about this inappropriate closeness , she responded instead to her sense of the event : " It is an hour of the greatest joy I can enjoy in this world . No eye can see , no ear can hear , no tongue can speak , no heart can understand the sweet incomes and refreshings of the spirit of the Lord which now I enjoy . " The prisoners attempted to speak to the gathered crowd as they proceeded to the gallows , but their voices were drowned out by constant drum beats .
The place of execution was not the Boston Common , as expressed by many writers over the years , but instead about a mile south of there on Boston Neck , near the current intersection of West Dedham Street and Washington Street . Boston Neck was at one time a narrow spit of land providing the only land access to the Shawmut Peninsula where Boston is located . Over time , the water on both sides of the isthmus was filled in , so that the narrow neck no longer exists . A possible reason for the confusion may be because the land immediately south of Boston Neck was not privately owned and considered " common lands " , leading some writers to misinterpret this as being the Boston Common .
The gallows consisted of nothing more than a large elm tree . Here the prisoners would step up a ladder with one end of a rope about their neck and the other end secured to the tree , and the ladder would then be pulled away . William Robinson was the first of the three to mount the ladder , and when he was positioned he made a statement to the crowd , then died when the ladder was removed . Marmaduke Stephenson was the next to hang , and then it was Dyer 's turn , after she witnessed the execution of her two friends . Dyer 's arms and legs were bound and her face was covered with a handkerchief provided by Reverend John Wilson who had been one of her pastors in the Boston church many years earlier . She stood calmly on the ladder , prepared for her death , but as she waited , an order of a reprieve was announced . A petition from her son , William , had given the authorities an excuse to avoid her execution . It had been a pre @-@ arranged scheme , in an attempt to unnerve and dissuade Dyer from her mission . This was made clear from the wording of the reprieve , though Dyer 's only expectation was to die as a martyr .
The day after Dyer was pulled from the gallows she wrote a letter to the General Court , refusing to accept the provision of the reprieve . In this letter she wrote , " My life is not accepted , neither availeth me , in comparison with the lives and liberty of the Truth and Servants of the living God for which in the Bowels of Love and Meekness I sought you ; yet nevertheless with wicked Hands have you put two of them to Death , which makes me to feel that the Mercies of the Wicked is cruelty ; I rather chuse to Dye than to live , as from you , as Guilty of their Innocent Blood . "
The courage of the martyrs led to a popular sentiment against the authorities who now felt it necessary to draft a vindication of their actions . The wording of this petition suggested that the reprieve of Mary Dyer should soften the reality of the martyrdom of the two men . The Massachusetts General Court sent this document to the newly restored king in England , and in answer to it , the Quaker historian , Edward Burrough wrote a short book in 1661 . In this book , Burrough refuted the claims of Massachusetts , point by point , provided a list of the atrocities committed against Quakers , and also provided a narrative of the three Quaker executions that had transpired prior to the book 's publication .
After going home to Rhode Island , Dyer spent most of the following winter on Shelter Island , sitting between the north and south forks of Long Island . Though sheltered from storms , the island 's owner , Nathaniel Sylvester , used it as a refuge for Quakers seeking shelter from the Puritans , thus providing its name . Here Dyer was able to commune with her fellow Quakers , including her Newport neighbors , William Coddington and his wife Anne Brinley , who had recently converted . Dyer used her time here to mull over the vindication prepared by the Puritan authorities to send to England , concerning their actions against the Quakers . This document was an affront to Dyer , and she viewed it as merely a means to soften public outrage . She was determined to return to Boston to force the authorities to either change their laws or to hang a woman , and she left Shelter Island in April 1660 focused on this mission .
= = Dyer 's martyrdom = =
Dyer returned to Boston on 21 May 1660 and ten days later she was once again brought before the governor . The exchange of words between Dyer and Governor Endicott was recorded as follows :
Endicott : Are you the same Mary Dyer that was here before ?
Dyer : I am the same Mary Dyer that was here the last General Court
Endicott : You will own yourself a Quaker , will you not ?
Dyer : I own myself to be reproachfully so called .
Endicott : Sentence was passed upon you the last General Court ; and now likewise--You must return to the prison , and there remain till to @-@ morrow at nine o 'clock ; then thence you must go to the gallows and there be hanged till you are dead .
Dyer : This is no more than what thou saidst before
Endicott : But now it is to be executed . Therefore prepare yourself to @-@ morrow at nine o 'clock .
Dyer : I came in obedience to the will of God the last General Court , desiring you to repeal your unrighteous laws of banishment on pain of death ; and that same is my work now , and earnest request , although I told you that if you refused to repeal them , the Lord would send others of his servants to witness against them .
Following this exchange , the governor asked if she was a prophetess , and she answered that she spoke the words that the Lord spoke to her . When she began to speak again , the governor called , " Away with her ! Away with her ! " She was returned to jail . Though her husband had written a letter to Endicott requesting his wife 's freedom , another reprieve was not granted .
= = = Execution = = =
On 1 June 1660 , at nine in the morning , Mary Dyer once again departed the jail and was escorted to the gallows . Once she was on the ladder under the elm tree she was given the opportunity to save her life . Her response was , " Nay , I cannot ; for in obedience to the will of the Lord God I came , and in his will I abide faithful to the death . " The military commander , Captain John Webb , recited the charges against her and said she " was guilty of her own blood . " Dyer 's response was :
Nay , I came to keep bloodguiltiness from you , desiring you to repeal the unrighteous and unjust law of banishment upon pain of death , made against the innocent servants of the Lord , therefore my blood will be required at your hands who willfully do it ; but for those that do is in the simplicity of their hearts , I do desire the Lord to forgive them . I came to do the will of my Father , and in obedience to his will I stand even to the death .
Her former pastor , John Wilson , urged her to repent and to not be " so deluded and carried away by the deceit of the devil . " To this she answered , " Nay , man , I am not now to repent . " Asked if she would have the elders pray for her , she replied , " I know never an Elder here . " Another short exchange followed , and then , in the words of her biographer , Horatio Rogers , " she was swung off , and the crown of martyrdom descended upon her head . "
= = = Burial = = =
The Friends ' records of Portsmouth , Rhode Island contain the following entry : " Mary Dyer the wife of William Dyer of Newport in Rhode Island : she was put to death at the Town of Boston with ye like cruil hand as the martyrs were in Queen Mary 's time , and there buried upon ye 31 day of ye 3d mo . 1660 . " In the calendar used at the time , May was the third month of the year , but the date in the record is incorrect by a day , as the actual date of death was 1 June . Also , this entry states that Mary was buried there in Boston where she was hanged , and biographer Rogers echoed this , but this is not likely . Family researcher Johan Winsser presents evidence that Mary was buried on the Dyer family farm , located north of Newport where the Navy base is now situated in the current town of Middletown . The strongest evidence found is the 1839 journal entry given by Daniel Wheeler , who wrote , " Before reaching Providence [ coming from Newport ] , the site of the dwelling , and burying place of Mary Dyer was shown me . " Winsser provides other items of evidence lending credence to this notion ; it is unlikely that Dyer 's remains would have been left in Boston since she had a husband , many children , and friends living in Newport , Rhode Island .
= = = Aftermath = = =
In his History of Boston , Dr. Caleb Snow wrote that one of the officers attending the hanging , Edward Wanton , was so overcome by the execution that he became a Quaker convert . The Wantons later became one of the leading Quaker families in Rhode Island , and two of Wanton 's sons , William and John , and two of his grandsons , Gideon and Joseph Wanton , became governors of the Rhode Island Colony .
Humphrey Atherton , a prominent Massachusetts official and one of Dyer 's persecutors , wrote , " Mary Dyer did hang as a flag for others to take example by . " Atherton died on 16 September 1661 following a fall from a horse , and many Quakers viewed this as God 's wrath sent upon him for his harshness towards their sect .
Dyer 's biographer Ruth Plimpton wrote that the early New England poet , Anne Bradstreet , who wrote about many contemporary events , was so taken by the hanging of Mary Dyer that " this day her quill was stilled . " Poet John Greenleaf Whittier , in his work Journal of Margaret Smith , called Bradstreet " so wrought up that she was fain to take to her bed , refusing to be comforted , and counting it the heaviest day of her life . " Bradstreet was the daughter of Massachusetts magistrate Thomas Dudley and the wife of another magistrate , Simon Bradstreet , and because the latter was involved in the hanging of Dyer , Whittier wrote of the strain on the once loving relationship between Anne and Simon Bradstreet . Another strong reaction from a contemporary woman and friend of Mary Dyer came from Anne Brinley Coddington , with whom Dyer spent her final winter on Shelter Island . Anne Coddington sent a scathing letter to the Massachusetts magistrates , singling out Governor Endicott 's role in the execution . In addition , her husband , William Coddington sent several letters to the Connecticut governor , John Winthrop , Jr . , condemning the execution .
While news of Dyer 's hanging was quick to spread through the American colonies and England , there was no immediate response from London because of the political turbulence , resulting in the restoration of the king to power in 1660 . One more Quaker was martyred at the hands of the Puritans , William Leddra of the Barbadoes , who was hanged in March 1661 . A few months later , however , the English Quaker activist Edward Burrough was able to get an appointment with the king . In a document dated 9 September 1661 and addressed to Endicott and all other governors in New England , the king directed that executions and imprisonments of Quakers cease , and that any offending Quaker be sent to England for trial under the existing English law .
While the royal response put an end to executions , the Puritans continued to find ways to harangue the Quakers who came to Massachusetts . In 1661 they passed the " Cart and Tail Law " , having Quakers tied to carts , stripped to the waist , and dragged through various towns behind the cart , being whipped en route , until they were taken out of the colony . At about the time that Endicott died in 1665 , a royal commission directed that all legal actions taken against Quakers would cease . Nevertheless , whippings and imprisonments continued into the 1670s , after which popular sentiment , coupled with the royal directives , finally put an end to the Quaker persecution .
= = Modern view = =
According to literary scholar Anne Myles , the life of Mary Dyer " functions as a powerful , almost allegorical example of a woman returning , over and over , to the same power @-@ infused site of legal and discursive control . " The only first @-@ hand evidence available as to the thoughts and motives of Dyer lie in the letters that she wrote . But Myles sees her behavior as " a richly legible text of female agency , affiliation , and dissent . " Looking at Burrough 's account of the conversation between Dyer and Governor Endicott , Myles views the two most important dimensions as being agency and affiliation . The first is that Dyer 's actions " can be read as staging a public drama of agency , " a means for women , including female prophets , to act under the power and will of God . While Quaker women were allowed to preach , they were not being assertive when doing so because they were actually " preaching against their own wills and minds . "
Dyer possessed a " vigorous intentionality " in engaging with the magistrates and ministers , both in her speech and in her behavior . Even though those who chronicled her actions and life , such as Burroughs and Rogers , looked at her as being submissive to the will of God , she was nevertheless the active participant in her fate , voluntarily choosing to become a martyr . She took full responsibility for her actions , while imploring the Puritan authorities to assume their moral responsibility for her death . This provides a distinguishing feature between Dyer and Anne Hutchinson , the latter of whom may not have fully comprehended the consequences of her behavior . While Dyer 's husband and those unsympathetic to her labelled her as having a " madness " , it is clear from her letters and her spoken words that her purpose and intentions were displayed with the utmost clarity of mind .
During her dialogues while walking to the gallows , or standing on the ladder under the hanging tree , Dyer exchanged a series of " yeas " and " nays " with her detractors . With these affirmations and negations she was refusing to allow others to construct her meaning . She refuted the image of her as a sinner in need of repentance , and contested the authority of the elders of the church . Just like Hutchinson 's befuddling of her accusers during her civil trial , Dyer did not allow her interrogators to feel assured in how they framed her meaning .
While agency is the first of two dimensions of Dyer 's story , the second is allegiance . Dyer became a known in the public eye on the day when Anne Hutchinson was excommunicated , and Dyer took her hand while they walked out of the meeting house together . Dyer had a strong affiliation and allegiance to this older woman who shared the secret of her unfortunate birth . Likewise , two decades later she framed her acts as a means to stand by her friends and share in their fate . In the first of two letters of Dyer 's that have been preserved , she wrote to the General Court , " if my Life were freely granted by you , it would not avail me , nor could I expect it of you , so long as I should daily hear or see the Sufferings of these People , my dear Brethren and Seed , with whom my Life is bound up , as I have done these two years " . Traditional bonds for females were to spouses and children , yet in the Quaker community there were strong spiritual bonds that transcended gender boundaries . Thus the Puritan public found it very unusual that Dyer walked to the gallows hand @-@ in @-@ hand between two male friends , and she was asked if she was not ashamed of doing so . This spiritual closeness of the Quakers was very threatening to the Puritan mindset where allegiance was controlled by the male church members . The Quakers allowed their personal bonds to transgress not only gender lines , but also the boundaries of age and class .
In her first letter to the General Court , Dyer used the themes of agency and allegiance in creating an analogy between her witnessing in Massachusetts with the Old Testament Book of Esther . Esther , a Jew , was called upon to save her people after the evil Haman urged the king to enact a law to have all Jews put to death . It was Esther 's intercession with the king that saved her people , and the parallels are that Dyer is the beautiful Esther , with wicked Haman representing the Massachusetts authorities , and the Jews of the Bible being the Quakers of Dyer 's time . Ultimately , Dyer 's martyrdom did have the desired effect . Unlike the story of Anne Hutchinson , that was narrated for more than a century by only her enemies , the orthodox Puritans , Dyer 's story became the story of the Quakers , and it was quickly shared in England , and eventually made its way before the English King , Charles II . The king ordered an end to the capital punishments , though the severe treatment continued for several more years .
According to Myles , Dyer 's life journey during her time in New England transformed her from " a silenced object to a speaking subject ; from an Antinomian monster to a Quaker martyr " . The evidence from a personal standpoint and from the standpoint of all Quakers , suggests that Dyer 's ending was as much a spiritual triumph as it was a tragic injustice .
= = Memorials and honors = =
A bronze statue of Dyer by Quaker sculptor Sylvia Shaw Judson stands in front of the Massachusetts State House in Boston , and is featured on the Boston Women 's Heritage Trail ; a copy stands in front of the Friends Center in downtown Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , and another in front of Stout Meetinghouse at Earlham College in Richmond , Indiana .
In Portsmouth , Rhode Island , Mary Dyer and her friend Anne Hutchinson have been remembered at Founders Brook Park with the Anne Hutchinson / Mary Dyer Memorial Herb Garden , a medicinal botanical garden , set by a scenic waterfall with a historical marker for the early settlement of Portsmouth . The garden was created by artist and herbalist Michael Steven Ford , who is a descendant of both women . The memorial was a grass roots effort by a local Newport organization , the Anne Hutchinson Memorial Committee headed by Newport artist , Valerie Debrule . The organization , called Friends of Anne Hutchinson , meets annually at the memorial in Portsmouth , on the Sunday nearest to 20 July , the date of Anne 's baptism , to celebrate her life and the local colonial history of the women of Aquidneck Island .
Dyer was inducted into the Rhode Island Heritage Hall of Fame in 1997 and into the National Women 's Hall of Fame in 2000 .
= = Published works = =
Two biographies of Mary Dyer have been published , the first being Mary Dyer of Rhode Island , the Quaker Martyr That Was Hanged on Boston Common , June 1 , 1660 by Horatio Rogers ( 1896 ) and the second being Mary Dyer : Biography of a Rebel Quaker by Ruth Plimpton ( 1994 ) . While Dyer published no works herself , she did write two letters which have been preserved , both of them focal to her martyrdom , and both of them published in her biographies . She is the only woman associated with the Antinomian Controversy who produced any published texts .
= = Children and descendants = =
Mary Dyer had eight known children , six of whom grew to adulthood . Following her martyrdom , her husband remarried and had one more known child , and possibly others . Her oldest child , William , was baptized at St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields ( London ) on 24 October 1634 and was buried there three days later . After sailing to New England , her second child , Samuel , was baptized at the Boston church on 20 December 1635 and married by 1663 Anne Hutchinson , the daughter of Edward Hutchinson and the granddaughter of William and Anne Hutchinson . Her third child was the premature stillborn female , born 17 October 1637 , discussed earlier . Henry , born roughly 1640 , was the fourth child , and he married Elizabeth Sanford , the daughter of John Sanford , Jr . , and the granddaughter of Governor John Sanford .
The fifth child was a second William , born about 1642 , who married Mary , possibly a daughter of Richard Walker of Lynn , Massachusetts , but no evidence supports this . Child number six was a male and given the Biblical name Mahershallalhashbaz . He was married to Martha Pearce , the daughter of Richard Pearce . Mary was the seventh child , born roughly 1647 , and married by about 1675 Henry Ward ; they were living in Cecil County , Maryland , in January 1679 . Mary Dyer 's youngest child was Charles , born roughly 1650 , whose first wife was named Mary ; there are unsupported claims that she was a daughter of John Lippett . Charles married second after 1690 Martha ( Brownell ) Wait , who survived him .
There is no evidence that Mary 's husband , William Dyer , ever became a Quaker . However , her two sons , Samuel and Mahershallalhashbaz , were likely Quakers because they were required to appear before the General Court of Trials at Portsmouth , Rhode Island to face charges for not serving in the military . In general , Quakers refused to serve in the military , and the charges were eventually dropped . There was a lot of litigation concerning the estate of William Dyer , Sr ; his widow , Katherine , took both the widow of his son Samuel and later his son Charles to court over the estate , likely feeling that more of his estate belonged to his children with her .
Notable descendants of Mary Dyer include Rhode Island Governors Elisha Dyer and Elisha Dyer , Jr . , and U.S. Senator from Rhode Island , Jonathan Chace .
= Delaware Route 15 =
Delaware Route 15 ( DE 15 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Delaware . The route runs from DE 14 west of Milford in Kent County to U.S. Route 301 ( US 301 ) / DE 71 / DE 896 in Summit Bridge , New Castle County , just south of Summit Bridge over the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal . DE 15 winds a path through many rural sections of Delaware , turning along many different roads . Most of the route , with the exception of the southern part of the route from Canterbury to Milford , runs to the west of US 13 . DE 15 runs through the western outskirts of several cities and towns , including Wyoming , Dover , Clayton , and Middletown . The route intersects DE 12 near Felton , US 13 in Canterbury , DE 10 near Camden , DE 8 in Dover , DE 42 in Seven Hickories , DE 300 and DE 6 in the Clayton area , US 301 / DE 299 in Middletown , and DE 286 near Summit Bridge .
What is now DE 15 was paved in several stages from the 1930s to the 1960s . By the 1980s , the route was designated between DE 14 in Milford and US 13 in Canterbury . By 1990 , it was extended north to US 301 / DE 299 near Middletown and then to US 301 / DE 71 / DE 896 near the Summit Bridge by 1994 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Kent County = = =
DE 15 begins at an intersection with DE 14 west of the city of Milford in Kent County and proceeds northwest on two @-@ lane undivided Canterbury Road . The road heads through a mix of farmland and woodland with some homes , crossing Browns Branch to the east of McColley Pond and the Murderkill River to the east of Coursey Pond . The route intersects DE 12 and runs to the east of Henderson Aviation Airport . DE 15 reaches the community of Canterbury , where it passes homes and comes to an intersection with US 13 .
DE 15 turns north to form a concurrency with US 13 for a short distance on the four @-@ lane divided Dupont Highway before continuing northwest along with US 13 Alt. on two @-@ lane undivided Upper King Road . The road continues through rural land before entering Woodside . Here , US 13 Alt . / DE 15 passes homes and intersects DE 10 Alt . , with DE 15 splitting from US 13 Alt. by heading west along with DE 10 Alt. on Main Street and crossing Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line .
DE 15 splits from DE 10 Alt. by turning north on Dundee Road , leaving Woodside . The road heads through a mix of farmland , woodland , and residential subdivisions , coming to an intersection with DE 10 . Past this intersection , the route becomes Moose Lodge Road and continues north . DE 15 turns east onto Westville Road and enters Wyoming , where it becomes Southern Boulevard and passes homes and some businesses . The route turns northeast onto South Railroad Avenue and runs immediately to the west of the Norfolk Southern railroad line . The road becomes North Railroad Avenue before it leaves Wyoming as it passes to the east of Wyoming Lake . At this point , DE 15 becomes Wyoming Mill Road and heads north through agricultural areas away from the railroad tracks . The road continues through farmland with some woods and residential development before entering Dover and curving to the northwest .
Here , DE 15 turns east onto Hazlettville Road and heads into industrial areas , where it becomes West North Street and widens into a four @-@ lane road . The route turns north onto two @-@ lane Saulsbury Road , continuing through more commercial areas and coming to an intersection with DE 8 . Past this intersection , DE 15 continues north as a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane , coming to a junction with Walker Road . Past this intersection , the road name changes to McKee Road and it runs northwest through residential areas with some fields and commercial development . The route loses the center left @-@ turn lane past the College Road intersection . DE 15 turns west to remain on two @-@ lane undivided McKee Road , with Scarborough Road continuing north to US 13 and DE 1 . Past Scarborough Road , the route heads northwest near an industrial park before it leaves Dover .
Upon leaving Dover , DE 15 continues through a mix of farmland and woodland with some residential areas , turning southwest onto West Denneys Road and then north onto Kenton Road . The road curves to the north @-@ northwest and reaches an intersection with DE 42 in Moores Corner . At this point , DE 15 turns west to form a concurrency with DE 42 on Seven Hickories Road . In Seven Hickories , DE 15 splits from DE 42 by heading north on Brenford Road . The route splits from Brenford Road and continues northwest on Mount Friendship Road before reaching an intersection with DE 300 . Here , DE 15 turns northeast for a brief concurrency with DE 300 on Wheatleys Pond Road before turning northwest on Alley Corner Road . The road crosses an abandoned railroad line before it comes to an intersection with DE 6 . At this point , DE 15 turns east to form a concurrency with DE 6 on Millington Road . On the western edge of Clayton , DE 15 splits from DE 6 by heading northeast on Duck Creek Road , passing through residential areas with some industry . The road curves to the north and leaves Clayton .
= = = New Castle County = = =
DE 15 crosses the Duck Creek into New Castle County and the name becomes Clayton Greenspring Road as it passes through farm fields and woods with some homes . The route turns west onto Vandyke Greenspring Road and skirts the southern edge of the Blackbird State Forest , curving to the west @-@ northwest . DE 15 turns north onto Dexter Corner Road before it continues west onto Blackbird Station Road , curving to the northwest . DE 15 crosses the Maryland and Delaware Railroad 's Northern Line before turning north onto Dogtown Road and heading northwest again . The route runs through agricultural areas and turns north @-@ northeast onto Levels Road . DE 15 passes to the west of a residential neighborhood before turning northwest at a roundabout to remain on Levels Road and reach an intersection with US 301 / DE 299 .
At this point , DE 15 turns northeast to join US 301 / DE 299 on four @-@ lane divided Middletown Warwick Road , entering commercial areas in the town of Middletown . At an intersection , the three routes split , with DE 15 heading northwest on Bunker Hill Road , DE 299 turning east onto Main Street , and US 301 continuing north along Middletown Warwick Road . Past US 301 / DE 299 , DE 15 becomes a two @-@ lane undivided road , passing areas of homes and businesses and heading northeast of Appoquinimink High School . At a roundabout , the route turns north onto Choptank Road and leaves Middletown , heading through agricultural areas with some woods and residential development . DE 15 intersects the eastern terminus of DE 286 at a roundabout and continues northeast along Bethel Church Road , ending at an intersection with US 301 / DE 71 / DE 896 in Summit Bridge , just south of the Summit Bridge over the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal .
The portion of the route along the DE 6 concurrency west of Clayton and between Alley Mill Road and Caldwell Corner Road in southwestern New Castle County is part of the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad Byway , a Delaware Byway . DE 15 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 23 @,@ 156 vehicles at the Walker Road intersection in Dover to a low of 504 vehicles along Duck Creek Road in Clayton . The portions of DE 15 concurrent with US 13 , between DE 8 and Scarborough Road , and along the US 301 / DE 299 concurrency are part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , the roads that comprise present @-@ day DE 15 existed as county roads . Bunker Hill Road was paved by 1932 , with Levels Road being constructed as a state highway by this time . Four years later , the segment between DE 12 and US 13 , Brenford Road , a portion north of DE 6 , and Bethel Church Road were paved , while Kenton Road was paved three years later . Paving was completed on the sections between DE 14 and Carpenters Bridge Road and from DE 8 to Kenton Road by 1942 , and the entire segment between Clayton and Middletown excluding a portion of Blackbird Station Road . The remainder of the road between Milford and Canterbury , the portion between Woodside and DE 10 , the portion between Wyoming and Dover , and the segment of Choptank Road between Bohemia Church Road and Bethel Church Road were all paved by 1952 . The remainder of the route between Clayton and Middletown was paved two years later . By 1957 , paving was completed on the remainder of Choptank Road . The section between Woodside and Wyoming was fully paved by 1959 . The Mt . Friendship Road part of the current route was paved by 1964 . Two years later , the paving of present @-@ day DE 15 was completed when Alley Corner Road was paved .
DE 15 was designated to run from DE 14 near Milford north to US 13 in Canterbury by 1984 . The route was extended north to US 301 / DE 299 west of Middletown by 1990 . Four years later , DE 15 was extended farther north to US 301 / DE 71 / DE 896 near the Summit Bridge . In 2011 , Wyoming Mill Road was realigned to intersect Hazlettville Road further to the west at a signalized intersection , reducing congestion .
= = Major intersections = =
= Magnapop =
Magnapop is an alternative rock band based in Atlanta , Georgia . Formed in 1989 , the band has consistently included songwriting duo Linda Hopper as vocalist and Ruthie Morris on guitar . Magnapop first achieved recognition in the Benelux countries of Belgium , the Netherlands and Luxembourg through the festival circuit and have remained popular in Europe throughout their career . After modest success in the United States in the mid @-@ 1990s with the singles " Slowly , Slowly " and " Open the Door " and a series of albums produced by Michael Stipe , Bob Mould , and Geza X , the band went on an extended hiatus due to the dissolution of their record label . They returned with a new rhythm section in 2005 on the Daemon Records release Mouthfeel . The band has continued to perform and record since this reunion and have self @-@ released two more albums . Magnapop 's musical style is noted for blending the pop vocals and melodies of Hopper with the aggressive , punk @-@ influenced guitar @-@ playing of Morris and her back @-@ up vocal harmonies .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and self @-@ titled debut ( 1989 – 1993 ) = = =
Linda Hopper — a native of Marietta , Georgia — was a member of the late 1970s / early 1980s music scene in Athens , Georgia , where she befriended fellow University of Georgia student Michael Stipe in an art design class . Stipe went on to form R.E.M. and Hopper joined him in the experimental music group Tanzplagen along with Stipe 's sister Lynda , and other local musicians . After the group folded , Lynda Stipe and Hopper formed Oh @-@ OK , whose line @-@ up later included Matthew Sweet and David McNair . That project ended in 1984 and Hopper briefly belonged to a Washington , D.C. band named Holiday , who released their only EP in 1987 .
In 1989 , Ruthie Morris had recently moved to Atlanta from West Palm Beach , Florida — where she played a few shows as the guitarist for The Pockets . She attempted to play with local male musicians , but did not feel comfortable with any of them . Hopper and Morris were introduced by a mutual acquaintance and became fast friends ; they wrote their first song together at Hopper 's apartment the day they met . The duo had a difficult time finding collaborators to form a complete band ( as Hopper described it , " We had to beg people to come and play with us . " ) The duo eventually recruited bassist Tim Lee and McNair on drums in March 1990 . Lee left the band after a brief tenure and was replaced by Shannon Mulvaney , whom Morris met at a record store . The musicians named themselves Homemade Sister after a line from the film Baby Doll and released their first single — " Rip the Wreck " / " Merry " — on Safety Net Records in 1990 . Displeased with their name , the band was briefly renamed Swell , before they found out a San Francisco band had the same name and then billed themselves as Swell Dopa .
In 1990 — while named Swell — they made their public debut at a show in Athens that Michael Stipe attended . He approached the band afterward and offered to produce some demos for them in John Keane 's Athens studio in December . Their first high @-@ profile show was at the July 1991 New York New Music Seminar along with three other bands that were introduced by Stipe . At that event , Morris gave out two demo tapes — one to American rock journalist James Sullivan and the other to Tom Engelshoven and John van Luyn of the Dutch music magazine Muziekkrant OOR . The band proceeded to pass the tape to a promoter in The Netherlands who gave the band some club dates as well as a spot at the side stage of the 1991 Rotterdam Festival . After the positive response they received , they were promoted to the main stage the next day . In The Netherlands , Magnapop was signed to Play It Again Sam Records , who released the Sugarland EP and Magnapop demo album in 1992 . Their self @-@ titled first album included four of the 1990 Stipe demos , and was released on Caroline Records in the United States . A music video for the single " Merry " was shot and aired in Europe .
Magnapop was featured on a variety of various artist compilations . Their first commercial recording other than their independent single was their 1992 cover version of " Pleasant Valley Sunday " for Here No Evil – A Tribute to The Monkees . The band was also featured on other various artist tribute albums , including " Ear " ( a different recording from the one on Magnapop ) for Delicacy & Nourishment – Lyrics by Ernest Noyes Brookings Vol . 3 in 1992 and 1993 's recording of " Every Grain of Sand " for Outlaws Blues Volume Two – A Tribute to Bob Dylan with violinist Mamie Fike . The band also recorded the Kiss My Mouth EP with Ted Niceley and released it in Europe . Around this time , the band was so fraught from booking recording sessions , that they briefly considered breaking up .
Magnapop established their fan base in the early 1990s through touring and the festival circuit — particularly in central Europe , where they first broke through to the mainstream . It was only after they had established a fan base in Europe and received positive press in the United Kingdom that the band first became recognized in the United States , including their native Atlanta . By the end of 1992 , they were getting positive write @-@ ups in American press such as The New York Times and supported Juliana Hatfield on tour . The group made appearances at Rocking Kolonia Festival in Maastricht in 1992 , Pukkelpop in 1992 , Transmusicales in 1992 , A Campingflight to Lowlands Paradise in 1993 , and the Reading Festival in 1993 . They also recorded a John Peel session on September 2 , 1993 and a Black Session on February 25 , 1994 .
= = = Mainstream success ( 1994 – 1997 ) = = =
Bob Mould of Hüsker Dü had seen the band at a show in New York City 's CBGB as well as in Rotterdam — he called the latter show their " turning point " — and invited the band to tour with his new group Sugar in Europe and the United States in 1992 – 1993 . The band asked Sugar bassist and fellow Athens musician David Barbe produce their major label debut album . When he refused , Mould offered to record with the band , taking them to Pedernales Recording Studio , in Austin , Texas in August 1993 . The sessions would result in the album Hot Boxing , which was released by Play It Again Sam in Europe and Priority Records domestically on July 5 , 1994 . Releasing an album by Magnapop was a radical departure for Priority who had previously focused on rap music .
The album produced two singles : " Slowly , Slowly " , which spent seven weeks on the charts , peaking on September 10 , 1994 , at 25 on the U.S. Modern Rock Tracks , and " Lay It Down " , which topped the 1993 De Afrekening poll . The band toured the United States supporting The Lemonheads in 1993 and played at the 1994 Phoenix Festival and Marktrock to promote the album and created music videos for " Lay It Down " , " Slowly , Slowly " , and " Texas " . The promotional EP Big Bright Cherry was released in 1994 and included three tracks from the Hot Boxing recording sessions as well as three self @-@ produced songs .
In 1995 , the McNair and the band parted ways , with neither party giving a definitive rationale . Hopper explained " We had a hard time recording Hot Boxing , because our drummer had a lot of things in the way ... Nobody wants to hurt anyone , or to cut them out , but it was just like four adults getting a divorce , and their child is the band . " She has alternately explained that the split was due to the " alternative lifestyles " of McNair and the rest of the group and that McNair 's musicianship was not as competent as the other members . The remaining trio recruited session drummer Josh Freese and engineers Sandy Solomon and Bernie Zwass to record a cover of Tom Waits ' " Christmas Card from a Hooker in Minneapolis " at Plus Four Recordings Studios , in Sherman Oaks , California in June 1995 for the compilation album Step Right Up : The Songs of Tom Waits . Freese joined the group in November – December of that year in Los Angeles , California to record Rubbing Doesn 't Help . Mould was unavailable , so the band relocated to Los Angeles and worked with producer Geza X at his home studio in attempt to make a more " eclectic " album that would represent the diversity of their songwriting . After hearing some demos , the band decided to hire him to produce the actual album and moved to Los Angeles for recording . The album produced the singles " Open the Door " and " This Family " ( the former also had a music video ) , as well as the EP Fire All Your Guns at Once . The band immediately set out to tour in promotion .
Los Angeles musician Mark Posgay auditioned for the band in 1995 and became the group 's permanent drummer . In July of that year , Magnapop supported R.E.M. on their Monster World Tour and continued playing in the United States and Europe , including an appearance at X @-@ Fest in 1996 . They also played their first dates in Australia and Japan in 1996 and hosted 120 Minutes on July 7 of the same year . In late 1996 , Mulvaney left the group , citing problems of distance — Hopper and Morris had relocated permanently to Los Angeles — as well as a desire to focus on his family . He continued playing bass guitar and stand @-@ up bass with Atlanta groups The Hots , The Lugosis , and Anna Kramer & The Lost Cause . Boston native and former Queers bassist Greg Urbaitis replaced him after replying to an ad in The Recycler and the band continued to play live shows through 1997 , including supporting Throwing Muses on their farewell tour . Posgay quit that summer and he was replaced by former Lifter drummer Johnny Rozas and this line @-@ up recorded six demos at a recording studio in Orange County . This version of the band was short @-@ lived as Magnapop was informed while on tour that their record label 's rock division ceased to exist and they did not have any funding for future touring or recording . Compounding matters further , the band members were still under contract to their old record label and were legally disbarred from using the name " Magnapop " until their contract expired seven years later .
= = = Hiatus , reformation , and independent releases ( since 1998 ) = = =
Hopper and Morris continued to play a few acoustic live shows as a duo into 1999 , occasionally with accompaniment ( such as Philadelphia bassist Billy Warburton and drummer Lance Crow ) and attempted to record an EP for record label Vital Cog with a drum machine as backing , but ended up putting Magnapop on an indefinite hiatus . During this time , Morris also moved to Seattle , where she recorded a 2002 single with drummer Curtis Hall as The New Candidates . Hopper , Morris , Hall , and a group of Seattle musicians also demoed some Hopper / Morris songs during this period . Hall would also drum with Hopper , Morris , and Mulvaney for a few Magnapop shows in 2002 – 2003 . The band officially re @-@ formed in 2003 with bassist Scott Rowe and drummer Brian Fletcher to tour the European festival circuit and record an album . In The Netherlands , Hopper also performed vocals on R.E.M. ' s cover of " Favorite Writer " at two of the group 's concerts on June 21 and 22 .
The following May , the band entered Zero Return Studios in Atlanta with drummer Curt Wells as producer for their first album in almost a decade . On January 25 , 2005 , Magnapop released Mouthfeel on Amy Ray 's record label Daemon Records and supported it with a tour through the United States . By 2005 , Fletcher had left the group , and drummer Chad Williams had been recruited to replace him on two weeks prior to the first show on the Mouthfeel tour that included an appearance at South by Southwest . One of these performances was recorded for the band 's first live album — Magnapop Live at Maxwell 's 03 / 09 / 2005 — which they released independently through online music distributors including eMusic , the iTunes Store , and Rhapsody . In May 2006 , the band completed a tour of Belgium and The Netherlands and returned to Atlanta to begin work on the followup to Mouthfeel . They continued touring Europe in 2007 and completed writing and recording for a new album sometime prior to 2008 , with the album initially slated to be released in summer 2009 . These sessions recorded with Brian Paulson were released as Chase Park on September 4 , 2009 , through digital distributors by the band 's own , newly created label , The Kraft Records .
The band has continued to intermittently tour since the release of Chase Park and on September 13 , 2011 , Creative Loafing announced that Mulvaney had attempted to re @-@ form the original line @-@ up of Magnapop to perform a benefit concert for local independent music store Criminal Records . The benefit was later scheduled for October 15 , and the band announced that they would be performing their self @-@ titled debut album in its entirety , along with some songs from Hot Boxing . Mulvaney was motivated to support Criminal due to the store carrying their early releases in the Atlanta area . The original line @-@ up has continued to perform on occasion through 2015 .
Between touring with Magnapop , bassist Scott Rowe also performed in Luigi from 2003 through 2008 with former Magnapop drummer Brian Fletcher as well as Bad Magic Number with current drummer Williams . The former has released two albums — 2003 's Vamonos and Found on the Forest Floor in 2005 .
= = Musical style = =
Magnapop have been defined genre @-@ wise as power pop by multiple rock critics , and their performances have drawn comparisons with punk , new wave , and surf rock . Reviewers have commented on the band 's pop @-@ influenced songwriting , specifically their employment of guitar hooks and simple chord structure . To that end , they have been compared to Mould 's previous work as a member of Sugar and Hüsker Dü , as well as fellow Georgia @-@ based rock acts such as Guadalcanal Diary and Let 's Active and alternative rock pioneers Pixies and The Replacements . The album Rubbing Doesn 't Help represented a stylistic shift for the band away from their more pop @-@ inspired material toward more guitar @-@ oriented rock , but their comeback with Mouthfeel returned to the more pop @-@ inspired sound of Hot Boxing .
Morris is known for her particularly aggressive guitar @-@ playing and its interaction with Linda Hopper 's pop @-@ influenced vocals . In addition , the vocal harmony between the two singers has defined the band 's sound , especially on later releases such as Rubbing Doesn 't Help that feature more of Morris ' vocals . Critics have compared Morris 's guitar @-@ playing to punk acts like Johnny Ramone of Ramones as well as alternative rock musicians such as Johnny Marr .
= = Covers and tributes = =
" Open the Door " has been covered by Eels as the B @-@ side to " Flyswatter " — it would later be collected on Useless Trinkets : B @-@ Sides , Soundtracks , Rarities and Unreleased 1996 – 2006 . Eels performed the song several times on their Electro @-@ Shock Blues Show tour in support of the album Electro @-@ Shock Blues . Karaoke versions of the song were released by Stingray Digital through the iTunes Store on January 15 , 2008 . " Favorite Writer " was covered by R.E.M. as a B @-@ side to " Bad Day " in 2003 and was played live during the 2003 tour to promote In Time : The Best of R.E.M. 1988 – 2003 .
In 1993 , Juliana Hatfield wrote " Ruthless " in honor of the band 's guitarist after the two had a conversation about Camille Paglia while touring in 1992 ( " We 're all gushin ' , but I swear we really mean it , man / We 're all sucking up to Ruthie . " ) It appeared as a B @-@ side on the Juliana Hatfield Three singles " Spin the Bottle " and " My Sister " .
= = Discography = =
Magnapop ( 1992 )
Hot Boxing ( 1994 )
Rubbing Doesn 't Help ( 1996 )
Mouthfeel ( 2005 )
Chase Park ( 2009 )
= = Members = =
Linda Hopper – lead vocals
Ruthie Morris – backing vocals , guitar
Scott Rowe – bass guitar
Chad Williams – drums
= Star Trek : The Next Generation ( season 1 ) =
The first season of the American television science fiction series Star Trek : The Next Generation commenced airing in broadcast syndication in the United States on September 28 , 1987 , and concluded on May 16 , 1988 , after 26 episodes were broadcast . Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship Enterprise @-@ D. It was the first live @-@ action television series in the franchise to be broadcast since Star Trek : The Original Series was cancelled in 1969 , and the first to feature all new characters . Paramount Television eventually sought the advice of the creator of Star Trek , Gene Roddenberry , who set about creating the new show with mostly former The Original Series staff members . An entirely new cast were sought , which concerned some members of The Original Series crew , as Roddenberry did not want to re @-@ tread the same steps as he had in the first series to the extent that well known Star Trek aliens such as Vulcans , Klingons and Romulans were banned at first .
The characters in the series gradually changed during preproduction , with adjustments made to the names , genders and ethnicity . When the cast was announced at first , LeVar Burton was the main actor highlighted because of his work on the Roots mini series ; his character , Geordi La Forge was named for a disabled fan . Although the casting was managed by producers Rick Berman and Robert H. Justman , Roddenberry intervened to switch the characters assigned to Marina Sirtis and Denise Crosby . Sirtis took over Crosby 's role as Deanna Troi , and Crosby became Tasha Yar , who had been named Macha Hernandez while Sirtis held the part . Behind the scenes , the writing team became chaotic . Eddie Milkis had quit prior to casting , with Berman taking over from him . Roddenberry 's insistence on re @-@ writing scripts and unusual behaviour alienated some staff . Longtime Star Trek contributor D.C. Fontana quit , filing a claim with the Writer 's Guild of America as she had been acting as story editor but was unpaid in the role . Such were the troubles that the series had a problem recruiting potential writers halfway through the season . By the end of the second season , all the writing staff recruited during season one except for Rick Berman had quit .
As the series was being launched directly into syndication , there were concerns that it could affect the ratings . " Encounter at Farpoint " , the pilot , was broadcast to Nielsen ratings of 15 @.@ 7 percent , and after a lull seeing ratings for " The Last Outpost " reach a season low of 8 @.@ 9 percent , they increased again and by the end of the first season , it had become the most popular syndicated series on television . While highly anticipated , initial reviews other than for " Encounter at Farpoint " were poor . The second episode , " The Naked Now " had fans and critics concerned that The Next Generation would re @-@ hash plots of The Original Series , and " Code of Honor " was seen as racist . It was nominated for seven Emmy Awards , winning in makeup , costume design and sound editing . " The Big Goodbye " was awarded a Peabody Award , while cast member Wil Wheaton was nominated for an award at the 9th Youth in Film Awards . The season was first released on DVD on March 26 , 2002 on Region 1 , and was subsequently released in other regions . The region @-@ free Blu @-@ ray releases came in July 2012 @,@
= = Production = =
As production was underway on the film Star Trek IV : The Voyage Home , Paramount executives began to work on ideas to bring Star Trek back to television , hiring writer / producer Greg Strangis to develop some proposals . This was not the first time that this had been considered following the success of Star Trek : The Original Series in broadcast syndication , as a series entitled Star Trek : Phase II had been briefly worked on in the late seventies between attempts at creating a film based on The Original Series . The pilot episode of Phase II , entitled " In Thy Image " was changed to become the first Star Trek film , Star Trek : The Motion Picture . Paramount spoke to Leonard Nimoy , who was still portraying Spock in the film franchise , about the new series . They offered him the chance of producing the new series , but he turned them down due to the time commitment .
Next , Paramount sought to consult franchise creator Gene Roddenberry , he turned down the idea of running the show based on the time it took him away from his family during the production of The Original Series . When Paramount told him that it would have been impossible to pursue , Roddenberry became interested and began to make plans for a new series with a new cast as he wanted to avoid retreading and recreating the same roles now seen in the film series . Although they had not planned on it originally , Paramount hired Roddenberry to oversea the production and fired Strangis . However , one of his ideas appeared in the premise of The Next Generation , that the Federation and the Klingons had become allies . The first announcement of a new series was made by Roddenberry publicly on October 10 , 1986 .
Several stars of The Original Series and the film franchise stated that they did not like the premise of a new series set in the same universe that did not feature them . DeForest Kelley , who would go on to appear in the pilot as Admiral Leonard McCoy , said that while he understood that the studio wanted to keep the franchise going beyond them , he felt that " there 's only one Star Trek , and that 's ours " . James Doohan , who played Montgomery " Scotty " Scott , said that Star Trek was about the characters and with a new cast the studio was " trying to fool the public , and that 's bad business . " William Shatner , who portrayed James T. Kirk , was concerned with the overexposure of the franchise and how a new television series could affect future films .
A memo sent on October 24 , showed that Robert H. Justman , an associate producer on The Original Series , was working with Roddenberry on the new plans for a series , which was at that time untitled . They took several influences from the criticism of the previous series in David Gerrold 's The Worlds of Star Trek , and brought the writer of " The Trouble with Tribbles " on as a writer . Gerrold would go on to produce the series bible , although Roddenberry would take the credit for it . Roddenberry also brought together former Star Trek associate producer Eddie Milkis , who had gone on to produce series such as Happy Days . Ideas were suggested such as an android and Klingon marine , which each made it into the final series as well as the great @-@ great @-@ great granddaughter of James T. Kirk , which did not .
Ideas proposed for Phase II were included , such as having the second @-@ in @-@ command leading the away team , an idea originally proposed in Gerrold 's The Worlds of Star Trek . Concepts refined from Star Trek : The Animated Series such as the " rec room " were also incorporated , becoming the holodeck . Roddenberry also insisted that technology failures should not be a routinely used plot device . The new version of the Starship Enterprise was at first designated NCC @-@ 1701 @-@ 7 , but following the numbering pattern established in The Voyage Home , became NCC @-@ 1701 @-@ G. Roddenberry also insisted that the new series would avoid reappearances by alien races well known from the The Original Series , specifically banning Romulans , Vulcans and the majority of Klingons . These plans did not last , with Klingons being central to the plot of " Heart of Glory " , a Vulcan appearing in " Coming of Age " and Romulans making their first appearance in the season finale , " The Neutral Zone " .
= = = Crew = = =
They were joined by Robert Lewin as writing producer , based on a recommendation by Justman who had worked with him previously . Lewin was the first person to be involved in the series who did not have a background working on the franchise . D. C. Fontana , who had originally been Roddenberry 's secretary while working on The Original Series and went on to become the story editor for the show , was also brought onto the staff of The Next Generation . She was also the story editor on the new series , but sought a promised associate producer credit . Non @-@ writing staff who were brought from working on the film franchise included Rick Sternbach and Andrew Probert , as well as Michael Okuda who was hired as a scenic artist . Roddenberry hired costume designer William Ware Theiss , who had designed The Original Series costumes , while Milkis and Justman recruited art director Herman Zimmerman . Rick Berman joined the team as the liaison between Roddenberry 's team and Paramount Television .
Roddenberry proved a tough negotiator in hiring staff . When he made his first offers to recruit Gerrold and Fontana , they were each | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Houston families suffering from hunger . Fans who donated to the campaign resulted in a chance of winning some of the best tickets in the house for the On the Run Tour in Houston , at Minute Maid Park . The campaign " exceeded expectations " , with 2 @,@ 500 people donating over 10 tonnes of food .
On May 17 , 2014 , an official video in a faux movie trailer style starring Beyoncé and Jay Z was released entitled " Run " , featuring " Part II ( On the Run ) " serving as background music . The video , which features multiple celebrity cameos including Don Cheadle , Guillermo Díaz , Jake Gyllenhaal , Kidada Jones , Rashida Jones , Blake Lively , Emmy Rossum and Sean Penn , shows Beyoncé and Jay Z out on a Bonnie and Clyde expedition , filled with action , crime , love and guns . Multiple other snippets of tracks from Magna Carta Holy Grail carry the video , alongside " Part II ( On the Run ) " . The video notably ended stating " coming never " , indicating that the trailer was in fact never going to be a full feature film . The video was directed by Melina Matsoukas . One of the many outfits worn by Beyoncé in the video was a Givenchy lace pant suit , and was commented to add an angelic feel to the contrasting , violent run of the narrative .
= = Concert synopsis = =
The concert opened with a black @-@ and @-@ white video on the screen accompanied by sirens as Beyoncé and Jay Z appeared onstage surrounded by smoke . The duo started performing the song " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " with Beyoncé wearing a fishnet see @-@ through mask and Jay Z wearing black sunglasses , a star @-@ speckled shirt , black jacket and gold chains . The pair went on to perform " Upgrade U " as the second song during the set . The opening run from " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde to " Upgrade U " set the tone . " Crazy in Love " was performed by the duo among purple lights , smoke , and strobe lights with funky horns in the background . After the performance of the song , " Diamonds from Sierra Leone " began and Beyoncé left the stage as Jay Z continued singing . He performed " Niggas in Paris " alone on stage before being quickly joined by Beyoncé again for the performance of " Tom Ford " . She returned to the stage with a military cap and sang the background vocals for the song . A performance of " Run the World ( Girls ) " followed with Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie 's words from " Flawless " appearing on the screen and the latter song was sung by the singer while dancing with her background dancers . A short snippet of " Yoncé " was performed afterwards . An a cappella performance of " Big Pimpin ' " followed accompanied by vintage videos and party scenes on the screen with Jay @-@ Z wearing a fedora . Beyoncé performed " Naughty Girl " dressed in a bodysuit as she was immediately joined by Jay @-@ Z for " Big Pimpin ' " .
Beyoncé appeared on stage seated in a glass chair , wearing a full @-@ length sequined bodysuit and performed dancehall choreography to " Ring the Alarm " before continuing with " On to the Next One " along with Jay @-@ Z. " Clique " followed with Beyoncé dressed in hooded leather as montage of war images and fireballs were shown on the screen . During the song , Beyonce shortly sang a remixed version of her " Diva " and went on singing " Baby Boy " . She reappeared on stage dressed in a black drop @-@ sleeve lace for the performance of " Haunted " . " Drunk in Love " was performed with Beyoncé doing a chair dance and Jay @-@ Z appeared during the end to rap his verse . " Public Service Announcement " and " Why Don 't You Love Me " followed with the latter performance being accompanied by the French dancing duo Les Twins . For " Holy Grail " , Justin Timberlake 's vocals in the studio version were replaced with Beyoncé 's . " Partition " featured a new rap verse sang by Jay @-@ Z and Beyoncé performed it with a pole choreography along with other female dancers . A video with allusions from " Part II ( On the Run ) " showing Beyoncé covered in blood in a lineup and glass shattering preceded " 99 Problems " . " If I Were a Boy " followed with a cover of Lauryn Hill 's " Ex @-@ Factor " afterwards . Beyoncé moved to a stage in the middle of the stadium dressed as a bride in white with a floor @-@ length bridal veil and continued with a performance of " Resentment " seated . She continued with " Love on Top " which was performed as a tribute to Michael Jackson .
" Hard Knock Life ( Ghetto Anthem ) " was performed by Jay @-@ Z with black and white shots of Brooklyn . Beyoncé appeared on stage again to perform " Pretty Hurts " in a leather @-@ studded jacket with the word " Texas " emblazoned across the back . The pair moved to the mini @-@ stage for the performances of " Part II ( On the Run ) " and " Young Forever " . Home videos of the couples ' daughter Blue Ivy appeared on the screen and an image of " The Carters " written in the sand followed . One of the short projections on the screen showed footage of the pair 's wedding ceremony in April 2008 along with their " IV " tattoos , as well as a pregnant Beyoncé showing her bare stomach , with Jay @-@ Z behind , putting the surrogacy and fake pregnancy rumors that have appeared since 2011 to rest . " Lift Off " was performed as the last song on the set , serving as an outro . During the performance , Beyoncé changed her costumes numerous times .
= = Critical reception = =
The opening night of the tour received generally positive reviews : USA Today 's Erica K. Landau praised the Miami concert , summarizing it as " [ a ] tantalizing spectacle , [ with ] triumphant vocals , palpable sensuality and booty @-@ shaking anthems " . She further described the performance as integrated adding that , " the coordination is not just remarkable , it 's the absolute best way that two of the world 's best performers can deliver a show that proves why they 're on top together " . MTV News editor Rebecca Thomas praised the duo 's united performance , adding that they demonstrated how to share a stage , " egos aside : They toggled , repeatedly , and mostly seamlessly from one megastar catalog to the other and took fan @-@ favorites in surprising new directions — ones that imbued them with pathos that hadn 't been there before . " Miami New Times Kat Bein felt that the chemistry between the couple was not what it could have been , with Beyoncé reportedly shaking off Jay @-@ Z 's kisses or turning away during his " doting playfulness " , however Bein added that this could have been merely a playful act for the stage . She felt that potential " witty banter " between the couple was lost with the use of the video pieces between the songs . Jon Caramanica in a review for The New York Times opined that each entertainer gave the other the opportunity to be the center of attention , while acknowledging their different types of success . He concluded " Jay Z allowed for breezy enjoyment ; Beyoncé demanded full and reverent attention " .
The following concerts for the duration of the tour were also met with high praise from critics : Merecedes J. Howze of New Pittsburgh Courier praised the " consistent " show in Cincinnati , stating " The duo has proven numerous times that their union , professionally and personally , is unstoppable . " Howze concluded that the show was definitely a " couples concert " meant to be " enjoy [ ed ] " with a love partner . CityBeat 's Jac Kern , who attended the same show praised the duo for performing hard while fully using both of the two stages and interacting with the crowd . However he also felt that intimate moments between the couple on stage were " possibly staged " . The production of the tour was stated to be both large and minimal by The Boston Globe writer James Read who commented that only a few performers could manage to pull off a production of On The Run 's scale . He continued his review , " Nor is there much to behold beyond its stars : no long catwalks , elaborate sets , or even a visible band . With Beyoncé and Jay Z , two natural @-@ born entertainers , you do not need much more . " Mesfin Fekadu of the Associated Press reported that the set list of the show emulated a conversation told through songs ; he noted that despite the concert being a collaborative tour , " it was the performers ' emotional solo material that made their presence as a collaborative duo strong and resilient " . The first Canadian show of the tour was again well received by critics . Graham Slaughter of the Toronto Star concluded in his review , " If there 's anything to be learned from the On the Run tour , it 's that tight timing , a dynamic storyline and legendary talent make a 42 @-@ song concert not just enjoyable , but rather unforgettable . Performers be warned : the bar on dual concerts has forever been raised . " Lorraine Ali of the Los Angeles Times who attended the first of two shows in Pasadena , California , also gave a positive review noting that the concert showcased how a marriage should work with the spouses " balancing out each other 's weaknesses with individual strengths " on stage . Ali went on praising the stage interactions between the pair such as kissing and toggling and concluded , " Whether it was a carefully orchestrated act or not , they are a great team . "
The only European shows in Paris , France , were also lauded by critics . Lewis Corner of Digital Spy gave the second Parisian show a five star review . He praised the performance abilities of both artists , explaining " When left to [ Jay @-@ Z 's ] own devices on stage , the rapper is forceful and beguiling . It takes little for him to have thousands waving their hands to ' Tom Ford ' , as he looks dapper in honour of the designer . But when Beyoncé rises up out of the stage in a denim military outfit to the question ' bad bitch ? ' and then storms into ' Run The World ( Girls ) ' , the track 's sentiment couldn 't resound more . Without doubt , she lives up to her hype as one of the world 's best performers . Slick movement , tight choreography , innocent attitude and effortless vocals instantly escalate the atmosphere of the show . " Simon Harper of Clash felt that both performers had immediately apparent different performance approaches and both commanded an " incredible presence and deafening screams from the French crowd " , however concluded that Beyoncé just finished on top as the better of the two , finalising his all positive review with " The music world 's most powerful and influential partnership couldn 't fail to demonstrate the reasons for their rise to dominance ... As the On The Run tour comes to its conclusion , it 's clear to see that Mrs. Carter emerges on top . But damn , it was a good race to watch . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Tickets for the tour were priced at $ 40 to $ 275 , so that wherever fans were on the " ticket chain " , they had an opportunity to attend the show . " We made sure we had affordable tickets as well as the higher @-@ priced tickets that we know the market can bear . Pricing went right across the spectrum , " promoters explained . Jesse Lawrence of Forbes stated that demand for the tour was " through the roof " and that the On the Run Tour was " guaranteed to be one of the biggest tours in recent years . " Shortly after pre @-@ sales for the tour began , tickets had already started to appear on the secondary ticketing market . In the same article , Lawrence explained how with an average ticket price of $ 342 @.@ 67 on the secondary market , the On the Run Tour was " head and shoulders above the rest " , having a higher average ticket price than both Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z 's previous aforementioned solo tours , Jay @-@ Z 's previous co @-@ headlining tours with Justin Timberlake and Eminem , as well as The Monster Tour ; the then upcoming co @-@ headlining tour from Rihanna and Eminem .
Billboard reported that the On the Run Tour was " already one of the summer concert season 's hottest engagements " and noted that tickets had sold out in minutes for multiple dates . Due to the large demand , extra dates were added in East Rutherford , San Francisco and Pasadena following the first shows in each city selling out . The second Rose Bowl stadium date in Pasadena , California , again had to await approval from the Pasadena City Council for the aforementioned reason that the Rose Bowl has a cap of twelve events per year and all other events exceeding this limit require approval from the city council . On June 13 , 2014 , two Paris dates of the tour were announced , set to be performed at the Stade de France . The dates were labelled as the exclusive , only European shows of the On the Run Tour . Within two hours of going on general sale , 90 @,@ 000 tickets were sold between the two Paris shows . Stephanie Smith of Page Six reported that Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z were paid $ 4 million per show of the tour , " guaranteed and independent of ticket sales " . This totalled to a $ 84 million total payout to the couple throughout the duration of the tour .
Live Nation reported to Billboard that the tour had already sold 750 @,@ 000 tickets and was on pace to reach 850 @,@ 000 total tickets sold in North America . It was also noted that the tour was averaging close to $ 5 @.@ 2 million per show in current sales and that the On the Run Tour would finish as " one of the most successful tours of the year " . On the same day , Forbes reported that the summer tour would most likely finish as the second most successful tour of all time by one measure when looking at the average gross per show , which then stood at a predicted $ 5 million . In August 2014 , Omar Al @-@ Joulani of North American touring for Live Nation confirmed that the On the Run Tour had officially passed $ 100 million in ticket sales in the 19 North American shows alone , with attendance topping out at more than the previously predicted 850 @,@ 000 . Al @-@ Joulani also noted the triumph of the tour outside of the " must play " markets such as New York City or Los Angeles , stating the tour routed into some secondary touring markets like Cincinnati , New Orleans and Seattle “ that turned out to be wildly successful " . " We had the greatest time in those markets " said Al @-@ Joulani .
In September 2014 , the North American leg of the tour was individually reported to Billboard Boxscore . Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z landed atop of the Hot Tours chart with 19 sold out shows . The most commercially successful performances of the tour were venues with double bookings , found in East Rutherford , grossing $ 11 @.@ 5 million , Pasadena grossing $ 10 @.@ 9 million and San Francisco , generating $ 8 @.@ 8 million . The tour was announced as the 5th highest grossing tour of 2014 in Pollstar 's annual highest grossing tours chart , with a total revenue of $ 109 @.@ 7 million . The tour also had a total attendance of 979 @,@ 781 and an average attendance of 57 @,@ 634 per city .
= = = Records = = =
At the July 1 , 2014 concert in Foxborough , Jay @-@ Z became the first rapper to headline Gillette Stadium . Baltimore Ravens senior manager for ticket sales Mike Burke reported that the On the Run Tour was the fastest selling concert ever at the M & T Bank Stadium , stating that unlike other shows there , " this sold out every seat almost instantly . I guess that 's the power of Beyoncé . "
= = Broadcasts and recordings = =
In July 2014 , it was announced that HBO would exclusively air the On the Run Tour in full at some point in September , following the upcoming filming of the concerts in Paris , France at the scheduled September 12 and 13 , 2014 shows in the city . The shows were shot by music video director Jonas Åkerlund and aired on the channel on September 20 , 2014 . HBO used 20 different cameras to record the two shows . The concert special received a 0 @.@ 5 rating of adults aged 18 – 49 , and aired to 888 @,@ 000 viewers . Following the airing of the special , videos of the performances of " Young Forever " / " Halo " and " Flawless ( remix ) " featuring Nicki Minaj , were uploaded to Beyoncé 's official YouTube and Vevo account .
In September 2014 , it was announced that a trilogy of videos entitled " Bang Bang " were to be released as a short film leading up to the broadcast of the tour special . The short film ( in which multiple scenes are found in video interludes and backdrops throughout the tour ) was directed by New York @-@ based filmmaker and photographer Dikayl Rimmasch . Together with war photographer William Kaner , Rimmasch put together the filmmaking approach and aesthetic of the series . Inspired by French New Wave cinema , the short film was created using custom camera rigs that Rimmasch had designed , 50 @-@ year @-@ old Russian lenses and lighting effects by Archie Ciotti and Scott Spencer and followed an incredibly fast , shoot @-@ from @-@ the @-@ hip recording style . However , following the release of part one of the trilogy , the remaining two videos never came to surface on their scheduled release dates . When asked about this ( and the deletion of part one from its original upload source ) , Rimmasch simply stated " no comment " . In February 2015 , all 3 videos resurfaced online , debuting on creativeexchangeagency.com.
= = Set list = =
This set list is representative of the first performance in East Rutherford , New Jersey . It does not represent all concerts for the duration of the tour .
= = Shows = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits and personnel are taken from the Official On the Run Tour Program .
= Saving Private Brian =
" Saving Private Brian " is the fourth episode of season five of Family Guy , an episode produced for Season 4 . The episode originally broadcast on November 5 , 2006 . The episode follows Stewie and Brian after they unintentionally join the United States Army , and end up leaving to serve in Iraq , only to return home when the war ends . Meanwhile , Chris joins a heavy metal band , and develops an anti @-@ social attitude , which requires Marilyn Manson to intervene .
The episode was written by Cherry Chevapravatdumrong and directed by Cyndi Tang . It received mostly positive reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 8 @.@ 45 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Gary Cole , Louis Gossett , Jr . , Juanita Jennings , Phil LaMarr , Samm Levine , Rachael MacFarlane , Denis Martel , Enn Reitel , Stacey Scowley , Fred Tatasciore and Wally Wingert , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
A U.S. Army recruitment officer comes to the high school to hold an assembly and entices the students with a glamorized , deceptive video presentation , which impresses every one including Chris . Chris returns home and tells the family during dinner that he wants to enlist , but Lois attempts to dissuade him , for the military is not a place for him . The next day , while driving Stewie to Gymboree Play & Music for parachute day , Brian decides to take a detour to the recruitment office to scold the recruiting officer for trying to trick Chris through devious means . The two arrive at the office but the wait is long ; when Brian goes to top @-@ up the parking meter Stewie walks into the office . Stewie ends up enlisting in the Army and signs Brian up as well when told there " is a $ 100 bonus for signing up a buddy . " Brian returns and is shocked . Brian and Stewie begin basic training , but Brian becomes stressed from the discipline and decides one night to leave . Stewie wakes up and finds Brian packing his suitcase , but he manages to talk him out of leaving , insisting that he had never finished anything significant in his life and that the Army will provide him the discipline . With this , Brian decides to stay . After they complete their training , Stewie and Brian are deployed to Iraq . Meantime , the two are patrolling the streets of a village , commenting on the " good situation so far " ; however , after the pair get caught up in a terrorist attack , they become dissuaded and decide to find a way to get out of the Army . They first attempt to be discharged by pretending to be homosexual ( only to discover that one of their superiors is gay ) . As a last resort , they attempt to get " Wounded in Action " by shooting each other in the foot ; they do this only to find out that the Army now takes anyone no matter what , going so far as to allow two corpses to guard the ammunition . They are then told that democracy has kicked in and the war is over , thus meaning all the soldiers can return to the United States .
Meanwhile , to distract Chris from the Army , Peter takes him to look at extracurricular activities at his school , where he is accepted into a heavy metal band . Chris develops a rebellious and rude attitude after joining the band , and he significantly changes his appearance . Peter and Lois , worried about his behavior , search his room to find the cause of his behavioral change ; Lois becomes convinced it is a result of listening to the violent lyrics from his music . In addition , they find a poster shrine to Marilyn Manson in his closet , and become convinced that his music corrupted their son . They decide to track down Manson and find him at the Grammys Music Awards . When they find Manson , Peter punches him in the face and Lois accuses him for destroying their son with his songs . Manson , played by writer Tom Devanney , laughing at " this old thing again " , offers to help them with Chris . Manson returns to the Griffin house with Peter and Lois , where he tells Chris and his bandmates that it is important to respect and obey their parents , and in addition to mending the tension between them , Manson ends the episode by giving Peter some more parental advice : Peter and Chris should start fishing .
= = Production = =
The scene in which recruitment officers enter public schools in an attempt to recruit children is based on real life , as the Army has often sent recruitors to high schools for seniors . More recently they have started with the younger grades even though there is a minimum age for enlistment . The show also featured the last ( living ) appearance of Johnny and Vern , the vaudeville performers ; Stewie shoots them because , as MacFarlane comments , " people were getting sick of them " , with David Goodman adding that " the show was relying on them too much " . The duo return in " Back to the Woods " , with Vern as a ghost and Johnny in Hell .
Upon the receiving of the news that democracy has come to Iraq , one scene shows a man having a knife held to his throat , which caused some controversy after the episode was broadcast . Stewie also knowingly breaks the fourth wall in the episode , by speaking in a manner as if he were talking to the audience . In one scene , Stewie mentions the time " Peter went after that hockey coach " ( making a veiled reference to " Hockey Dad " Thomas Junta ) , in the expectation of a cutaway gag . However , nothing happens , and Stewie comments , " Oh , no clip ? Thought we had a clip " . This scene was described as being a one off .
In addition to the regular cast , actor Gary Cole , actor Louis Gossett , Jr . , actress Juanita Jennings , voice actor Phil LaMarr , actor Samm Levine , voice actress Rachael MacFarlane , actor Denis Martel , voice actor Enn Reitel , actress Stacey Scowley , voice actor Fred Tatasciore and voice actor Wally Wingert guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Alex Breckenridge , Chris Cox , writer Tom Devanney , actor Ralph Garman , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin and writer John Viener made minor appearances . Actor Adam West also has a guest appearance in the episode .
= = Cultural references = =
The title is a pun on Steven Spielberg 's hit war film Saving Private Ryan . Several scenes from the Army training contained real @-@ life references ; when the recruits are marching , they begin to sing and dance ; this is a reference to West Side Story . Additionally , the song playing during the recruitment video bears a close resemblance to the Def Leppard song " Pour Some Sugar On Me " . When Peter visits a psychiatrist , the psychiatrist is Dr. Katz ( from Comedy Central ) . The training is similar to that in the film Full Metal Jacket , also spoofing the scene when the Sergeant found contraband food . The Sergeant punishes Brian by informing him that he will have to listen to singles from Chris Gaines ' album : this entire scene was based on a sketch from Saturday Night Live approximately 10 years ago . Peter references actor Gregory Peck and his " kids " with a cutaway gag featuring four Pecks in a car . Brian shown performing numerous different tasks to complete his army training is a reference to An Officer and a Gentleman , with the music playing in the background from Stripes . The lyrics Lois reads from the Wu @-@ Tang Clan album is from the song " Bring Da Ruckus " , the first track from their album Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) . The scene where Marilyn Manson tells Chris about nutrition is a reference to an episode of Clone High , where Manson leads a musical scene about the importance of the food pyramid . The sign outside of the building where the Grammys are being held says " Welcome to the Grammys ( Not You , Fred Durst ) " , a reference to the lead singer of Limp Bizkit . Stewie misunderstands the location of their deployment to be " Fraggle Ir @-@ Rock " , rather than Iraq , referring to the TV show Fraggle Rock . The scene where Zinedine Zidane headbutts an old lady while delivering her a birthday cake is based on the incident that happened in the 2006 FIFA World Cup final , when Zidane headbutted Marco Materazzi . When Brian is frustrated with the recruits recommending Chris to join the Army , Stewie says that 10 % of his high school class is off to fight another battle . After hearing Stewie , Brian says that he was plagiarizing from The Onion , since Brian read about the war in Iraq in The Onion . During the obstacle course , Brian rides a unicycle , solves a Rubik 's Cube , plays Perfection , finds Waldo , offers a couple eating a salad at a dinner table some fresh pepper , and consoles a woman who was just dumped by her boyfriend .
= = Reception = =
In a significant decrease from the previous week , the episode was viewed in 8 @.@ 45 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 0 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , slightly being edged out by The Simpsons , while still winning over series creator Seth MacFarlane 's second show American Dad ! .
IGN commented that the portrayal of " service in the military is a hilarious satire of the current state of our military in Iraq " . Iverson was also impressed with the episode 's random flashback gags , commenting that " normally they are only groan @-@ worthy " , receiving a final rating of 9 / 10 . Brett Love of TV Squad noted that " The Full Metal Jacket / Stripes angle for Stewie and Brian was great , right down to the Stripes music during the obstacle course . And Louis Gossett , Jr. as Sergeant Angryman is a nice bit of casting " .
= Dame Tu Amor ( song ) =
" Dame Tu Amor " ( English : " Give Me Your Love " ) is a song recorded by American recording artist Selena for her second LP record , Alpha ( 1986 ) . Lyrically , the narrator addresses her infatuation to give her his love as she is longing for him to do so with a kiss that ensures admiration for her . The themes explored in the song suggest solicit love . " Dame Tu Amor " is a ranchera ballad with cumbia influences . It was composed by Richard Brooks , Ricky Vela , and Selena 's father and manager , Abraham Quintanilla , Jr .. Critics praised the song for its instrumentation and lyrical content and has since been in several compilation albums following Selena 's death in 1995 . " Dame Tu Amor " peaked at number 31 on the US Billboard Hot Ringtones chart in 2006 .
= = Background and composition = =
" Dame Tu Amor " was written in 1985 by Richard Brooks , keyboardist for Selena y Los Dinos — Ricky Vela — and Selena 's father and manager , Abraham Quintanilla , Jr . Selena was 14 years old during recording sessions for the song , and it was later included on her second LP record , Alpha , in 1986 . The recording was arranged by Brian " Red " Moore , a family friend , and Ray Paz . Rolando Hernandez performed the guitar parts , while Vela used his keyboards to record the piano parts of the song . While additional vocals were provided by former guitarist of the group , Roger Garcia .
= = Critical reception and release = =
" Dame Tu Amor " was well received by music critics . Josh Kun of Salon noted that the remix version , found on the triple box @-@ set Anthology , has " enough brass and string to make it sound like a Bacharach @-@ penned ranchero . " Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News called the recording an " infectious cumbia [ song ] . " The recording has been released in several compilation albums including , Anthology ( 1998 ) , Y Sus Inicios , Vol . 1 ( 2003 ) , Y Sus Inicios , Vol . 2 ( 2004 ) and Classic Series , Vol . 1 ( 2006 ) .
= = Chart performance = =
On the week ending September 23 , 2006 , " Dame Tu Amor " debuted and peaked at number 31 on the US Billboard Hot Ringtones chart .
= Type Ia supernova =
A type Ia supernova is a type of supernova that occurs in binary systems ( two stars orbiting one another ) in which one of the stars is a white dwarf . The other star can be anything from a giant star to an even smaller white dwarf . However , white dwarfs of the common carbon – oxygen variety are capable of further fusion reactions that release a great deal of energy if their temperatures rise high enough .
Physically , carbon – oxygen white dwarfs with a low rate of rotation are limited to below 1 @.@ 38 solar masses ( M ☉ ) . Beyond this , they re @-@ ignite and in some cases trigger a supernova explosion . Somewhat confusingly , this limit is often referred to as the Chandrasekhar mass , despite being marginally different from the absolute Chandrasekhar limit where electron degeneracy pressure is unable to prevent catastrophic collapse . If a white dwarf gradually accretes mass from a binary companion , the general hypothesis is that its core will reach the ignition temperature for carbon fusion as it approaches the limit . If the white dwarf merges with another white dwarf ( a very rare event ) , it will momentarily exceed the limit and begin to collapse , again raising its temperature past the nuclear fusion ignition point . Within a few seconds of initiation of nuclear fusion , a substantial fraction of the matter in the white dwarf undergoes a runaway reaction , releasing enough energy ( 1 – 2 × 1044 J ) to unbind the star in a supernova explosion .
This type Ia category of supernovae produces consistent peak luminosity because of the uniform mass of white dwarfs that explode via the accretion mechanism . The stability of this value allows these explosions to be used as standard candles to measure the distance to their host galaxies because the visual magnitude of the supernovae depends primarily on the distance .
In May 2015 , NASA reported that the Kepler space observatory observed KSN 2011b , a Type Ia supernova in the process of exploding . Details of the pre @-@ nova moments may help scientists better understand dark energy .
= = Consensus model = =
The Type Ia supernova is a sub @-@ category in the Minkowski @-@ Zwicky supernova classification scheme , which was devised by American astronomer Rudolph Minkowski and Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky . There are several means by which a supernova of this type can form , but they share a common underlying mechanism . Theoretical astronomers long believed the progenitor star for this type of supernova is a white dwarf and empirical evidence for this was found in 2014 when a Type Ia supernova was observed in the galaxy Messier 82 . When a slowly @-@ rotating carbon @-@ oxygen white dwarf accretes matter from a companion , it can exceed the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1 @.@ 44 M ☉ , beyond which it can no longer support its weight with electron degeneracy pressure . In the absence of a countervailing process , the white dwarf would collapse to form a neutron star , in an accretion induced non @-@ ejective process , as normally occurs in the case of a white dwarf that is primarily composed of magnesium , neon , and oxygen .
The current view among astronomers who model Type Ia supernova explosions , however , is that this limit is never actually attained and collapse is never initiated . Instead , the increase in pressure and density due to the increasing weight raises the temperature of the core , and as the white dwarf approaches about 99 % of the limit , a period of convection ensues , lasting approximately 1 @,@ 000 years . At some point in this simmering phase , a deflagration flame front is born , powered by carbon fusion . The details of the ignition are still unknown , including the location and number of points where the flame begins . Oxygen fusion is initiated shortly thereafter , but this fuel is not consumed as completely as carbon .
Once fusion has begun , the temperature of the white dwarf starts to rise . A main sequence star supported by thermal pressure would expand and cool which automatically counterbalances an increase in thermal energy . However , degeneracy pressure is independent of temperature ; the white dwarf is unable to regulate the fusion process in the manner of normal stars , so it is vulnerable to a runaway fusion reaction . The flame accelerates dramatically , in part due to the Rayleigh – Taylor instability and interactions with turbulence . It is still a matter of considerable debate whether this flame transforms into a supersonic detonation from a subsonic deflagration .
Regardless of the exact details of this nuclear fusion , it is generally accepted that a substantial fraction of the carbon and oxygen in the white dwarf are converted into heavier elements within a period of only a few seconds , raising the internal temperature to billions of degrees . This energy release from thermonuclear fusion ( 1 – 2 × 1044 J ) is more than enough to unbind the star ; that is , the individual particles making up the white dwarf gain enough kinetic energy to fly apart from each other . The star explodes violently and releases a shock wave in which matter is typically ejected at speeds on the order of 5 @,@ 000 – 20000 km / s , roughly 6 % of the speed of light . The energy released in the explosion also causes an extreme increase in luminosity . The typical visual absolute magnitude of Type Ia supernovae is Mv = − 19 @.@ 3 ( about 5 billion times brighter than the Sun ) , with little variation .
The theory of this type of supernovae is similar to that of novae , in which a white dwarf accretes matter more slowly and does not approach the Chandrasekhar limit . In the case of a nova , the in @-@ falling matter causes a hydrogen fusion surface explosion that does not disrupt the star . This type of supernova differs from a core @-@ collapse supernova , which is caused by the cataclysmic explosion of the outer layers of a massive star as its core implodes .
= = Formation = =
= = = Single degenerate progenitors = = =
One model for the formation of this category of supernova is a close binary star system . The progenitor binary system consists of main sequence stars , with the primary possessing more mass than the secondary . Being greater in mass , the primary is the first of the pair to evolve onto the asymptotic giant branch , where the star 's envelope expands considerably . If the two stars share a common envelope then the system can lose significant amounts of mass , reducing the angular momentum , orbital radius and period . After the primary has degenerated into a white dwarf , the secondary star later evolves into a red giant and the stage is set for mass accretion onto the primary . During this final shared @-@ envelope phase , the two stars spiral in closer together as angular momentum is lost . The resulting orbit can have a period as brief as a few hours . If the accretion continues long enough , the white dwarf may eventually approach the Chandrasekhar limit .
The white dwarf companion could also accrete matter from other types of companions , including a subgiant or ( if the orbit is sufficiently close ) even a main sequence star . The actual evolutionary process during this accretion stage remains uncertain , as it can depend both on the rate of accretion and the transfer of angular momentum to the white dwarf companion .
It has been estimated that single degenerate progenitors account for no more than 20 % of all Type Ia supernovae .
= = = Double degenerate progenitors = = =
A second possible mechanism for triggering a Type Ia supernova is the merger of two white dwarfs whose combined mass exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit . The resulting merger is called a super @-@ Chandrasekhar mass white dwarf . In such a case , the total mass would not be constrained by the Chandrasekhar limit .
Collisions of solitary stars within the Milky Way occur only once every 107 @-@ 1013 years ; far less frequently than the appearance of novae . Collisions occur with greater frequency in the dense core regions of globular clusters ( cf. blue stragglers ) . A likely scenario is a collision with a binary star system , or between two binary systems containing white dwarfs . This collision can leave behind a close binary system of two white dwarfs . Their orbit decays and they merge through their shared envelope . However , a study based on SDSS spectra found 15 double systems of the 4 @,@ 000 white dwarfs tested , implying a double white dwarf merger every 100 years in the Milky Way . Conveniently , this rate matches the number of Type Ia supernovae detected in our neighborhood .
A double degenerate scenario is one of several explanations proposed for the anomalously massive ( 2 M ☉ ) progenitor of the SN 2003fg . It is the only possible explanation for SNR 0509 @-@ 67 @.@ 5 , as all possible models with only one white dwarf have been ruled out . It has also been strongly suggested for SN 1006 , given that no companion star remnant has been found there . Observations made with NASA 's Swift space telescope ruled out existing supergiant or giant companion stars of every Type Ia supernovae studied . The supergiant companion 's blown out outer shell should emit X @-@ rays , but this glow was not detected by Swift 's XRT ( X @-@ Ray telescope ) in the 53 closest supernova remnants . For 12 Type Ia supernovae observed within 10 days of the explosion , the satellite 's UVOT ( Ultraviolet / Optical Telescope ) showed no ultraviolet radiation originating from the heated companion star 's surface hit by the supernova shock wave , meaning there were no red giants or larger stars orbiting those supernova progenitors . In the case of SN 2011fe , the companion star must have been smaller than the Sun , if it existed . The Chandra X @-@ ray Observatory revealed that the X @-@ ray radiation of five elliptical galaxies and the bulge of the Andromeda galaxy is 30 @-@ 50 times fainter than expected . X @-@ ray radiation should be emitted by the accretion discs of Type Ia supernova progenitors . The missing radiation indicates that few white dwarfs possess accretion discs , ruling out the common , accretion @-@ based model of Ia supernovae . Inward spiraling white dwarf pairs must be strong sources of gravitational waves , but this cannot be detected as of 2012 .
Double degenerate scenarios raise questions about the applicability of Type Ia supernovae as standard candles , since total mass of the two merging white dwarfs varies significantly , meaning luminosity also varies .
= = = Type Iax = = =
It has been proposed that a group of sub @-@ luminous supernovae that occur when helium accretes onto a white dwarf should be classified as Type Iax . This type of supernova may not always completely destroy the white dwarf progenitor .
= = Observation = =
Unlike the other types of supernovae , Type Ia supernovae generally occur in all types of galaxies , including ellipticals . They show no preference for regions of current stellar formation . As white dwarf stars form at the end of a star 's main sequence evolutionary period , such a long @-@ lived star system may have wandered far from the region where it originally formed . Thereafter a close binary system may spend another million years in the mass transfer stage ( possibly forming persistent nova outbursts ) before the conditions are ripe for a Type Ia supernova to occur .
A long @-@ standing problem in astronomy has been the identification of supernova progenitors . Direct observation of a progenitor would provide useful constraints on supernova models . As of 2006 , the search for such a progenitor had been ongoing for longer than a century . Observation of the supernova SN 2011fe has provided useful constraints . Previous observations with the Hubble Space Telescope did not show a star at the position of the event , thereby excluding a red giant as the source . The expanding plasma from the explosion was found to contain carbon and oxygen , making it likely the progenitor was a white dwarf primarily composed of these elements . Similarly , observations of the nearby SN PTF 11kx , discovered January 16 , 2011 ( UT ) by the Palomar Transient Factory ( PTF ) , lead to the conclusion that this explosion arises from single @-@ degenerate progenitor , with a red giant companion , thus suggesting there is no single progenitor path to SN Ia . Direct observations of the progenitor of PTF11kx were reported in the August 24 edition of Science and support this conclusion , and also show that the progenitor star experienced periodic nova eruptions before the supernova - another surprising discovery . However , later analysis revealed that the circumstellar material ( CSM ) is too massive for the single @-@ degenerate scenario , and fits better the core @-@ degenerate scenario .
= = = Light curve = = =
Type Ia supernovae have a characteristic light curve , their graph of luminosity as a function of time after the explosion . Near the time of maximum luminosity , the spectrum contains lines of intermediate @-@ mass elements from oxygen to calcium ; these are the main constituents of the outer layers of the star . Months after the explosion , when the outer layers have expanded to the point of transparency , the spectrum is dominated by light emitted by material near the core of the star , heavy elements synthesized during the explosion ; most prominently isotopes close to the mass of iron ( or iron peak elements ) . The radioactive decay of nickel @-@ 56 through cobalt @-@ 56 to iron @-@ 56 produces high @-@ energy photons which dominate the energy output of the ejecta at intermediate to late times .
The use of Type Ia supernovae to measure precise distances was pioneered by a collaboration of Chilean and US astronomers , the Calán / Tololo Supernova Survey . In a series of papers in the 1990s the survey showed that while Type Ia supernovae do not all reach the same peak luminosity , a single parameter measured from the light curve can be used to correct unreddened Type Ia supernovae to standard candle values . The original correction to standard candle value is known as the Phillips relationship and was shown by this group to be able to measure relative distances to 7 % accuracy . The cause of this uniformity in peak brightness is related to the amount of nickel @-@ 56 produced in white dwarfs presumably exploding near the Chandrasekhar limit .
The similarity in the absolute luminosity profiles of nearly all known Type Ia supernovae has led to their use as a secondary standard candle in extragalactic astronomy . Improved calibrations of the Cepheid variable distance scale and direct geometric distance measurements to NGC 4258 from the dynamics of maser emission when combined with the Hubble diagram of the Type Ia supernova distances have led to an improved value of the Hubble constant .
In 1998 , observations of distant Type Ia supernovae indicated the unexpected result that the Universe seems to undergo an accelerating expansion . Three members from two teams were subsequently awarded Nobel Prizes for this discovery .
= = Two distinct types = =
Recently it has been discovered that type Ia supernovae which were considered the same are in fact different , moreover a form of the type Ia supernova which is relatively infrequent today was far more common earlier in the history of the universe . This could have far reaching cosmological significance and could lead to revision of estimation of the rate of expansion of the universe and the prevalence of dark energy . More research is needed .
= I Can See the Whole Room ... and There 's Nobody in It ! =
I Can See the Whole Room ... and There 's Nobody in It ! ( sometimes I Can See the Whole Room and There 's Nobody in It ! or simply I Can See the Whole Room ! ) is a 1961 painting by Roy Lichtenstein . It is a painting of a man looking through a peephole . It formerly held the record for highest auction price for a Lichtenstein painting .
The work is based on a William Overgard @-@ drawn comics panel from a Steve Roper cartoon . Lichtenstein 's derivation augments the presentation of the narrative and expands the use of color in the image . As with the original the image employs the theme of vision , and focuses specifically on mechanized vision as well as monocularity .
= = Background = =
Based on a 1961 William Overgard drawing for a Steve Roper cartoon story published by the Publishers Syndicate on August 6 , 1961 , Lichtenstein ’ s I Can See the Whole Room ! ... and There 's Nobody in It ! ( 1961 ) measures four @-@ foot by four @-@ foot and is in graphite and oil . The painting depicts a man looking through a hole in a door . His finger is extended to open a circular peephole , while simultaneously allowing the artist to present his face . The painting also uses a speech balloon .
It was sold by collector Courtney Sale Ross for $ 43 @.@ 2 million , double its estimate , at Christie 's in New York City in November 2011 ; the seller 's husband , Steve Ross had acquired it at auction in 1988 for $ 2 @.@ 1 million . The painting originally sold for $ 550 in 1961 . It surpassed the $ 42 @.@ 6 million record set the previous November by Ohhh ... Alright ... The following May , it was surpassed by Sleeping Girl , which sold for $ 44 @.@ 8 million .
= = Description = =
The picture teases the viewer who is given the feeling that he is in a dark room being viewed by the main subject of the painting who is a man that peeks through a hole in the door . The narrative element of the image , which included a speech bubble that presents the caption " I Can See the Whole Room and There 's Nobody in It " , clarifies that the man can not see anything in the room although he has a good look at it . The work is a satirical reference to abstraction because it can be imagined as a monochrome canvas that is affected by an actor that has inserted his finger as well as a narrative that also violates this imagining . This finger is also regarded as phallic .
The speech bubble makes the entire canvas relevant by broadening the attention to the entire width of the painting and the curves of the bubble unite the narrative with several of the picture 's other graphical elements . Lichtenstein has added color , including all of the primary colors , while transforming the original and making reference to mechanical reproduction via Ben @-@ Day dots . Like Look Mickey , there is reason to describe this image as a self @-@ portrait of sorts . The subject is extending a finger through a circular opening , which is a self @-@ reference because it is representative of Lichtenstein 's technique of stenciling Ben @-@ day dots by pressing the fluid onto the painting surface through a screen with a device not too different in size and shape from a finger . An alternative self @-@ representation is interpreted as a singular peephole that represents the monocular subject matter of Lichtenstein 's training , while the entire canvas represents a doubt in this training 's representation of the physical body , its perception and its actual view . However , the corporeal is depicted quite adequately in the intense phallicism and the dotted coloration of the skin .
The work is an example of Lichtenstein 's presentation of the uncertainty of the one @-@ eyed perspective . It is considered to be a work on the subject of " focal vision and blindness " , and it is a prominent example of the theme running through Lichtenstein 's art relating to vision . He uses the narrative to emphasize this theme , while playing on both the circular peephole and the circular eyes . The depicted mechanical device , a peephole in this case , forces the vision into a monocular format . Monocularity is funnelled through the primitive peephole apparatus that almost mimics a camera lens . In some senses , monocularity of this work is a strong theme that is directly embodied although only by allusion . In addition , the work is considered to be closely related to his later work , Image Duplicator ( 1963 ) , which is regarded as a correction of I Can See the Whole Room ! with its glaring and aggressive binocularity . The monocularity of I Can See the Whole Room ! should be viewed as a concentrated form of monocularity , such as " the common experience of closing one eye in order to fix an object in the gaze " , but a subordinated form of monocularity that is enhanced by technology .
= Shaw and Crompton =
Shaw and Crompton is a town and civil parish within the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham , in Greater Manchester , England . The population of the civil parish at the 2011 census was 21 @,@ 065 . It lies on the River Beal at the foothills of the South Pennines , 2 @.@ 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) north of Oldham , 3 @.@ 6 miles ( 5 @.@ 8 km ) southeast of Rochdale , and 8 @.@ 7 miles ( 14 km ) to the northeast of the city of Manchester . It is regularly referred to as Shaw .
Historically in Lancashire , Crompton ( as it was originally known ) and its surroundings have provided evidence of ancient British and Anglian activity in the area . During the Middle Ages , Crompton formed a small township of scattered woods , farmsteads , moorland , and swamp with a small and close community of families . The local lordship was weak or absent , and so Crompton failed to emerge as a manor with its own lord and court . Farming was the main industry of this broadly independent and self @-@ supporting rural area , with locals supplementing their incomes by hand @-@ loom woollen weaving in the domestic system .
The introduction of textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution initiated a process of rapid and unplanned urbanisation . A building boom began in Crompton during the mid @-@ 19th century , when suitable land for factories in Oldham was becoming scarce . By the late 19th century Crompton had emerged as a densely populated mill town . Forty @-@ eight cotton mills — some of the largest in the United Kingdom — have been recorded as existing in the area . At its spinning zenith , as a result of an interwar economic boom associated with the textile industry , Shaw and Crompton was reported to have had more millionaires per capita than any other town in the world . Imports of foreign cotton goods began the decline in the region 's textile industry during the mid @-@ 20th century ; Shaw and Crompton 's last mill closed in 1989 .
Shaw and Crompton , which covers 4 @.@ 5 square miles ( 11 @.@ 7 km2 ) , is a predominantly suburban area of mixed affluence with a population of 21 @,@ 721 in 2001 . Its double name has been said to make it " distinctive , if not unique " . The legacy of its industrial past can be seen in its six surviving cotton mills , all of which are home to large distribution companies , among them Shop Direct Group 's Shaw National Distribution Centre , a major employer in the area .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
The name Shaw is derived from the Old English word sceaga , meaning " wood " . The name Crompton is also of Old English derivation , from the words crom or crumb , meaning " bent " or " crooked " , and ton , for " hamlet or village " . A local historian stated that " this name aptly describes the appearance of the place , with its uneven surface , its numerous mounds and hills , as though it had been crumpled up to form these ridges " . The University of Nottingham 's Institute for Name @-@ Studies has offered the suggestion that the name Crompton means " river @-@ bend settlement " , which may reflect Crompton 's location on a meander of the River Beal .
The dual name of both Shaw and Crompton has been said to make the town " distinctive , if not unique " , while preference of Shaw over Crompton and vice versa has been ( and to a limited extent remains ) a minor local controversy and point of confusion . Today , the single name of Shaw seems to have won preference in the locality .
Shaw was originally a hamlet and sub @-@ district of Crompton , and appears to have originated as the commercial and ecclesiastic centre of Crompton because of a small chapel sited there dating back to the 16th century . Before then , Whitfield had been the largest village in Crompton . In 1872 , Shaw was noted as one of three villages in Crompton . However , due to Shaw 's urbanisation following the construction of a major road from Werneth to Littleborough , and the establishment of a post office sub @-@ district named and situated in Shaw , it came to dominate Crompton . Additionally , a separate ecclesiastical parish was created for the township in 1835 , which was given the name Shaw because of the church 's location on Shaw Moor , in Crompton . The names merged to form the present day Shaw and Crompton , which boundary markers have used since at least the 1950s .
= = = Early history = = =
An early type of axe known as a palstave has been discovered on Crompton Moor , providing evidence of Bronze Age human activity . It is believed that the area was inhabited by Ancient Britons , and that the Brigantes gave the River Beal its name . An ancient track , perhaps of Roman origin , crosses the modern Buckstones Road leading to Castleshaw Roman fort in neighbouring S | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Jodie performs the physical manoeuvre ; during this time , the player must determine the direction Jodie is moving and push the controller stick in that direction to complete the action . Other sequences require real @-@ time stealth , which has the player sneak Jodie through environments while coordinating certain actions with Aiden . Failing certain action sequences will alter the course of a chapter ( and sometimes later chapters ) and in some cases lead to the death of a non @-@ playable character .
While playing as Aiden , the game becomes monochromatic . Amongst the shades of greys , interactive objects are highlighted by an aura shining in one of several colours , with the colour of the aura indicating his potential interaction : orange characters can be possessed , red characters strangled , blue objects ( or characters with environmental effects ) knocked around , and green characters healed . Jodie frequently calls upon Aiden to provide different abilities , such as form a protective shield around her , allow the dead to speak to the living through her , grant her an ability to see events of the recent past , and enable her to heal a character 's wounds .
As the player makes choices throughout the game , the gameplay 's plot is revealed . Besides affecting dialogue and story developments , the outcome of entire scenes ( and in some cases , the outcome of scenes several chapters later ) can be manipulated to a certain extent based on player choices . These choices are typically moral decisions made through Jodie 's dialogue options , interventions with various characters , success or failure in her combat scenes , or psychic actions that the player chooses to have Aiden perform . Examples of choice @-@ based outcomes are the chapter titled The Party , where the player is given the choice of unleashing brutal revenge toward a group of bullies or simply running away , and the chapter titled The Embassy , where the player can either engage in psychic information retrieval or can jeopardize the mission by forcing one of the guards to commit suicide . Choices also determine the finale of Beyond : Two Souls , as any number of possible plot endings can be experienced by the player .
= = Plot = =
While the story is told through nonlinear narrative , this summary is given in chronological order .
Young Jodie Holmes ( Caroline Wolfson ) lives on a military base with her foster parents . Since birth , Jodie has had a psychic connection with a mysterious entity named Aiden , with whom she can communicate and perform telepathic acts , such as possessing peoples ' minds and manipulating certain objects . After an incident with some neighbourhood kids results in Aiden almost killing one of them , Jodie 's foster parents seek help to care for her condition , permanently leaving her under the custody of doctors Nathan Dawkins ( Willem Dafoe ) and Cole Freeman ( Kadeem Hardison ) of the United States Department of Paranormal Activity .
Under the two doctors ' care , Jodie slowly learns to control Aiden and the powers they share . During this time , Nathan and Cole are building the condenser , a portal that connects the world of the living with the world of the dead — the Infraworld . One night , Nathan learns that his wife and daughter were killed in a car accident . While trying to comfort him , Jodie discovers that she can channel spirits of the dead from the Infraworld ; she helps the spirits speak to the living through a psychic link created by her physical contact . As the years pass , a teenage Jodie ( Ellen Page ) seeks her independence , both from the doctors and from Aiden , and tries several times to live a normal life . At each attempt , Aiden intervenes , ending in disaster .
At one point , Nathan asks for Jodie 's help with the condenser , which has broken open . After braving hostile entities from the Infraworld , Jodie manages to shut down the condenser and warns Nathan not to build another . This gets the attention of the CIA , who send agent Ryan Clayton ( Eric Winter ) to forcibly recruit Jodie . After training , the now @-@ adult Jodie goes on multiple missions as a field agent , often with Ryan , to whom she slowly becomes attracted . On one such mission in Somalia , Jodie learns that the target she killed was not a warlord , but the country 's benign president . An enraged Jodie flees in disgust , despite Ryan 's pleas . Branded a traitor , Jodie becomes a fugitive , evading and fighting pursuing CIA forces . Along the way , she befriends a group of homeless people , one of whom she helps give birth , and a family of Native Americans whom she saves from a malevolent entity . The CIA eventually recaptures Jodie after she attempts to reconnect with her catatonic biological mother , who has been held and forcibly drugged for decades in a military hospital .
The CIA hands Jodie over to Nathan , now executive director of the DPA , overseeing the DPA 's newest condenser , code @-@ named the Black Sun . He reveals that the CIA is willing to let Jodie go if she agrees to a final mission . Jodie and a CIA team led by Ryan destroy a facility housing a Chinese @-@ developed condenser before it is used to attack the United States . Jodie then learns that Nathan built a miniature condenser to speak exclusively to his family , but without success . After showing Nathan that his refusal to let them go is only making them suffer , Jodie tries to leave , only to be held in captivity by the CIA — the organisation has deemed her too dangerous to be freed . Jodie is subjected to the same fate as her mother . Nathan appears and informs Jodie that he 's decided to shut down the containment field to the Black Sun , merging the two worlds together and making death meaningless . Too weak to free Jodie , Aiden contacts Ryan and Cole , leading them to her . After Nathan shuts down the containment field , the three chase after him into the heart of the Black Sun , with the intent of destroying it .
During the trek towards the Black Sun , Cole is injured by entities and Ryan sacrifices his own safety to keep Jodie alive . Eventually , Jodie confronts Nathan near the Black Sun . He commits suicide to reunite with his family . As Jodie shuts down the condenser , she has a vision — Aiden is her stillborn twin brother . Jodie must make a choice : go back to the world of the living , or go on to the Infraworld and be reunited with everyone she has lost . By the story 's end , the Infraworld has become a widespread threat in the not @-@ so @-@ distant future . One or two heroines prepare to confront the threat .
= = Development = =
David Cage , founder and CEO of Quantic Dream , announced Beyond : Two Souls at Sony 's press conference during the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2012 . He showed the crowd a debut trailer featuring the game 's in @-@ game graphics . When he was asked to compare Beyond : Two Souls to Quantic Dream 's previous game Heavy Rain , Cage described Beyond as a " more action @-@ driven experience " that offers " much more direct control " and " much more spectacular action " than the 2010 thriller . Unlike Quantic Dream 's previous game , Beyond was not to be PlayStation Move compatible . Earlier games created by Cage , which have been called " wrought psychological thrillers " , demonstrate that emotional narrative is a critical element in a Quantic Dream game 's development . In an interview , actress Ellen Page noted that the script for the game was around 2 @,@ 000 pages long ( an average screenplay is between 95 and 125 pages long ; each page is approximately one minute of screen time ) . " We 'd do 30 , 40 pages a day . It 's insane compared to a film . Jody goes through a lot . This is an incredibly emotional story and journey for this girl . "
Quantic Dream , an advanced motion capture studio as well as video game developer , required the Beyond : Two Souls actors to perform motion capture acting as well as on @-@ set voice acting . Ellen Page , Willem Dafoe , Kadeem Hardison , Eric Winter , Caroline Wolfson , and other actors cast in the game worked during the year @-@ long project in the Paris studio to perform the physical actions seen onscreen as performed by their fully realised video game graphic characters . Meanwhile , Quantic Dream programmers , artists , and animators , led by art director Christophe Brusseaux , designed the computer @-@ generated imagery seen in the game . David Cage provided writing and direction and Guillaume de Fondaumière was the video game producer .
Beyond : Two Souls is dedicated to video game composer Normand Corbeil , who died of pancreatic cancer on 25 January 2013 . Corbeil had worked on Quantic Dream 's Heavy Rain and its predecessor Fahrenheit and was unable to finish his work on Beyond . Lorne Balfe , who wrote the score for Assassin 's Creed III , replaced Corbeil as the game 's composer after Corbeil 's death . Balfe 's collaborator Hans Zimmer joined him as producer in August 2013 .
On 27 April 2013 , five months before the game 's debut , Quantic Dream released a new trailer and demonstrated 35 minutes of the game at the 2013 Tribeca Film Festival , with both Page and Cage in attendance . This marks only the second time the film festival recognised a video game , the first being 2011 's L.A. Noire . In interviews conducted immediately prior to the game 's worldwide release , Cage explained that development studios like Quantic Dream have an obligation to provide " interactive storytelling " that can be played by everyone , including non @-@ gamers .
= = Release = =
On 5 September 2013 , the PlayStation Blog announced that a demo for Beyond : Two Souls would be released 1 October 2013 in the United States , 2 October for Europe , and 3 October for Japan , about a week prior to the full game 's worldwide release . Despite the demo 's official release date , a few users of the paid subscription service PlayStation Plus were allowed to receive the demo a week earlier , on 24 September 2013 . GameStop also gave out a limited number of beta keys on that day . The full game was released on 8 October 2013 in North America , 9 October 2013 in Australia , 11 October 2013 in Europe , and 17 October 2013 in Japan .
The European version of the game is censored to keep the PEGI rating at 16 instead of 18 . Two changes were made amounting to 5 – 10 seconds of gameplay .
Immediately after the game was released , nude images of Jodie , actress Ellen Page , surfaced on the Reddit online community . The game did include one nude scene of Jodie — showering , shown at an angle that preserves the character 's modesty — however the leaked images were full @-@ frontal . Industry analysts deduced that a person in possession of a developer PlayStation 3 that allowed quality assurance features such as " free camera " mode had used the special PlayStation to create and upload the images . Sony immediately took steps to remove them , asking for the community 's assistance and explaining that the images were of a digital model and not of Page , who has a " no nudity " policy in titles she appears in . The images were removed from the website .
In June 2015 , Quantic Dream announced a PlayStation 4 version of Beyond : Two Souls for North America , Europe , and the PAL region alongside Heavy Rain . The PlayStation 4 version of Beyond : Two Souls was released on 24 November , with the remake of Heavy Rain following on 1 March 2016 . A package containing both games was then released physically on a Blu @-@ ray disc .
= = Reception = =
Beyond : Two Souls received mostly positive to mixed critical reception upon release . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic rated the game 72 @.@ 04 % and 70 / 100 respectively . Reviewers praised Page 's character portrayal of Jodie Holmes and Dafoe 's performance as Nathan Dawkins , as well as the amount of technical details in the game 's animations and graphics . Praise was also generally given toward the elaborate motion capture , interactive storytelling mechanics , emotional soundtrack , and ability to appeal to non @-@ gamers .
IGN gaming website criticised the game for offering a gaming experience too passive and unrewarding and a plot too muddy and unfocused . Joystiq criticised the game 's lack of solid character interaction and its unbelievable , unintentionally silly plot . Destructoid criticised the game 's thin character presentation and frequent narrative dead ends , as well as its lack of meaningful interactivity . Ben " Yahtzee " Croshaw of Zero Punctuation was heavily critical of the game , focusing on the overuse of quick time events , the underuse of the game 's central stealth mechanics , and the inconsistent tone and atmosphere .
At Spike 's VGX award show , Beyond : Two Souls earned two nominations : " Best Voice Actress " ( Ellen Page ) and " Best Voice Actor " ( Willem Dafoe ) .
The British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) nominated the game for Best Artistic Achievement ( John Rostron , David Cage , Guillaume De Fondaumiere ) , Best Original Music ( Lorne Balfe ) , and Best Performer ( Ellen Page ) .
= = = Sales = = =
It was reported in July 2013 that Beyond : Two Souls was in the top twenty most pre @-@ ordered games of 2013 , and that by the end 2013 , the game sold one million copies worldwide during its first three months of availability . The game sold over 70 @,@ 000 copies in Quantic Dream 's home country France during that time , more than its previous game Heavy Rain during its three @-@ month debut . Heavy Rain 's budget was $ 22 million and the budget for Beyond : Two Souls was $ 27 million , not including approximately $ 18 million in costs for marketing and distribution .
= = = Legacy = = =
In November 2014 , David Cage discussed the future of video games and referred to the generally negative reviews Beyond received from hardcore gamers . " There will always be games for the hardcore gamers who see games as a skill @-@ based sport , or as a way to compete with their friends " , he said . He referred to other types of gamers who play games " as a mere hobby , like many titles for smartphones " . He stated , " We try to develop a middle way , with games that try to tell a story , to carry meaning , and where violence isn 't the core activity . Most of all , we try to create an emotion , to make players live something strong and unique , which remains an ambitious challenge in a video game . "
= Flaming Moe 's =
" Flaming Moe 's " is the tenth episode of The Simpsons ' third season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 21 , 1991 . In the episode , Homer tells Moe Szyslak of a secret alcoholic cocktail that includes cough medicine and fire that he calls " Flaming Homer " . Moe steals the recipe from Homer , renames the drink the " Flaming Moe " and begins selling it at his tavern . The drink is a success and boosts business and patronage , but Homer is angry at Moe for his betrayal , and seeks revenge .
The episode was written by Robert Cohen and directed by Rich Moore , with assistance from Alan Smart . " Flaming Moe 's " was the first episode of the show to feature Moe in a prominent role . The main plot of the episode in which Moe 's Tavern becomes famous because of a drink is loosely based on the Los Angeles establishment Coconut Teaszer . The episode also parodies the television series Cheers , including the theme song " Where Everybody Knows Your Name " , and a character named Collette is modeled after Shelley Long 's character Diane Chambers . Catherine O 'Hara originally recorded dialogue for the part of Colette , but the writers felt her voice did not fit the role and instead used a track recorded by regular Jo Ann Harris .
American rock band Aerosmith ( Steven Tyler , Tom Hamilton , Joey Kramer , Joe Perry and Brad Whitford ) appears in the episode . They were the first band to make a guest appearance on the show . Their dialogue was recorded in Boston with Hank Azaria , the voice of Moe , who flew over to record his part with them and help them with their lines .
The episode has been well received by critics and has been included in best Simpsons episode lists by IGN , Entertainment Weekly , AskMen.com and AOL . In its original airing during the November sweeps period , the episode had a 14 @.@ 4 Nielsen rating and finished the week ranked 29th .
= = Plot = =
After Bart and Lisa 's slumber party fighting drives him to distraction at home one night , Homer visits Moe 's Tavern , where he finds Moe is struggling financially as fewer people are drinking in bars nowadays and he ran out of Duff Beer after neglecting to pay his distributor . Homer tells him about a drink recipe that he accidentally invented one night , called the " Flaming Homer " . He explains that after Patty and Selma made the Simpson family watch slides from their latest vacation , he was unable to find a beer . He decided to mix together drops of liquor from near @-@ empty bottles and accidentally included a bottle of Krusty Brand non @-@ narcotic cough syrup . When Patty dropped cigarette ash in the drink and set it on fire , Homer discovered that fire greatly enhanced the taste of the drink .
Moe tries making Homer 's drink , and gives it to a customer , who loves it . When the customer asks what the drink is called , Homer starts to respond , but Moe butts in and calls it a " Flaming Moe " . Word of mouth spreads , and Moe sees his business boom because of the drink . To help out with the extra customers , he hires a waitress named Colette . Moe 's Tavern , renamed " Flaming Moe 's " , soon becomes one of the trendiest nightspots in Springfield and Aerosmith 's new hangout . Homer becomes angry with Moe and vows never to return to the tavern . He subsequently becomes obsessed with Moe and his betrayal , even having a hallucination where he sees Moe 's face everywhere .
A restaurant chain becomes interested in purchasing the recipe for the drink , of which they have managed to identify all but the secret ingredient ( cough syrup ) . A representative offers Moe $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , but he refuses . Colette quickly discovers that Moe stole the recipe from Homer and not only makes him promise to sell the drink , but also apologize to Homer and give half of the money to him in compensation . Later , as Moe is about to accept the deal — and share half of the money with Homer — Homer , unhinged by resentment , arrives at the tavern . He gets his revenge on Moe by revealing to everyone in the bar that the secret ingredient is " nothing but plain , ordinary , over the @-@ counter children 's cough syrup ! " The representative quickly retracts the offer and leaves .
Within one week , nearly all restaurants in Springfield are serving " Flaming Moes " , and Moe 's business has gone back to the way it was before . Homer stops in , and he and Moe reconcile . Moe gives Homer a " Flaming Homer " free of charge .
= = Production = =
Al Jean said that the opening two minutes of the episode were inspired by his own childhood where " My sister would have sleepover parties and her friends would always try to kiss me and stuff . "
The main plot of the episode , in which Moe 's Tavern becomes famous because of a drink , is loosely based on the Los Angeles establishment Coconut Teaszer . According to IGN , " Flaming Moe 's " was " one of the first [ episodes ] to really give Moe the spotlight . " There was originally a joke in the episode in which a gay couple walked into " Flaming Moe 's " , assuming that it was a gay bar because of the name . Matt Groening feels that it was a good thing the joke was cut because he did not feel the writers should bring attention to the name .
Catherine O 'Hara originally agreed to provide the voice of Collette the waitress , and went into the studio and recorded her part for the character . According to Mike Reiss , " Something about her did not animate correctly . The voice did not work for our purposes . " Jo Ann Harris , a regular voice actor in the show , had recorded a temporary track using an impression of Shelley Long 's character Diane Chambers from Cheers . The producers thought it fit the role better and used it instead of O 'Hara , although O 'Hara is still credited at the end of the episode . Sam Simon had previously written for Cheers , and contributed much of Collette 's dialogue , as he was familiar with writing dialogue for Diane . Originally , there was more to the subplot featuring Moe and Colette , but it was cut because the writers felt it did not work . The third act opens with a parody of " Where Everybody Knows Your Name " , the theme song from Cheers . The parody was written by Jeff Martin , and the sequence was designed by future Simpsons director Nancy Kruse .
American rock band Aerosmith were the first band to make a guest appearance on the show . The writers had heard that the band had wanted to appear in an episode , so they wrote the guest spot for them . According to Al Jean , they later found out that part of the reason why Aerosmith agreed to appear was the drink being called the " Flaming Moe " . The band was recorded in Boston , and Hank Azaria , the voice of Moe , flew over to record his part with them and help them with their lines . In the original script , Moe tempted the band to play by offering them free beer , but the band members asked that the joke be changed . The writers changed the line to " free pickled eggs . " The band is shown sitting at a table with a bearded man , who is modeled after their A & R man John Kalodner . One of the stipulations from the band was to include him in the episode . Kalodner also received a " special thanks to " credit at the end of the episode . Aerosmith 's song " Young Lust " from the album Pump plays over the end credits . According to Al Jean , the band recorded a special shortened version of the song just for the episode .
The episode was directed by Rich Moore and Alan Smart . Moore 's daughter was born during the production of the episode , and he missed several weeks of layout , which Smart oversaw . When Sam Simon was asked if the premise of the episode was inspired by the tumultuous relationship between himself and Matt Groening , Simon acknowledged , " That may be true . "
= = Cultural references = =
The basic premise of the episode is similar to the film Cocktail . Several references are made to the sitcom Cheers . Collette the waitress is a parody of Cheers character Diane Chambers , and the " theme sequence " for Flaming Moe 's , is a direct parody of the famous Cheers theme . Barney Gumble is given a Norm Peterson entrance . Aerosmith sings " Walk This Way " in Moe 's Tavern and " Young Lust " during the closing credits . When Homer reveals the secret of the " Flaming Moe " , the scene has many parallels to The Phantom of the Opera including Homer standing high up in the roof , covering half of his face . The scene in which Professor Frink analyzes a " Flaming Moe " is an homage to The Nutty Professor . The scene where Bart runs away from Lisa and her friends makes reference to the Alfred Hitchcock film North by Northwest . Lionel Hutz says that a drink can not be copyrighted , citing the " Frank Wallbanger case of ' 78 " . This refers to the Harvey Wallbanger cocktail . Near the end of the episode , several bars with names similar to " Flaming Moe 's " can be seen . This parodies Ray 's Pizza in New York City where dozens of individual establishments have similar names .
= = Reception = =
In its original airing on the Fox Network during November sweeps , the episode had a 14 @.@ 4 Nielsen rating and was viewed in approximately 13 @.@ 26 million homes . It finished the week ranked 29th , up from the season 's average rank of 32nd . It finished second in its timeslot behind The Cosby Show , which finished 17th with a 15 @.@ 9 rating . It was the highest rated show on Fox that week .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it " Possibly the best Simpsons episode , with a constant stream of gags , inspired animation ( in particular the sequence when Homer begins to see and hear Moe everywhere , from Maggie 's gurgles to the leaves on the trees ) , and a superb plot that twists about in every direction but the one you might expect . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson wrote " From Lisa ’ s slumber party at the opening through the Cheers spoof at Moe ’ s , this episode ’ s another real winner . Homer gets some of his all @-@ time best lines , including a great run where he mocks Marge ’ s attempts to have him accept his fate . We even find a great twist on Bart ’ s prank phone calls when he asks for “ Hugh Jass ” . All in all , “ Flaming ” provides a terrific show . " Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed gave the episode 5 / 5 , calling it " another great chapter in the history of The Simpsons , with tons of laughs throughout . " Todd VanDerWerff of Slant Magazine called it " a very funny episode " and highlighted the plot 's focus on Moe as " an example of the show gradually expanding its supporting townspeople into characters in their own right , " as " Moe was just an angry bartender before this episode . After this one , he 's the sad man who sometimes tastes success but always lets it slip away because of his inability to do the right thing until it 's too late . " VanDerWerff also interpreted the episode as a metaphor for Simon 's relationship with fellow The Simpsons ' developers Groening and James L. Brooks and Simon 's belief that he was not receiving enough credit for The Simpsons .
In 2006 , IGN named " Flaming Moe 's " the best episode of the third season . They wrote , " This episode has tons of standout moments , from the appearance by Aerosmith ( the first time a musical act of that caliber appeared as themselves on the series ) ; a funny payoff for all of Bart 's prank calls to Moe 's , when a man named Hugh Jass actually does turn out to be a customer ; a deftly done Cheers parody at the height of Moe 's success ; and Homer turning into a Phantom of the Opera type lunatic . " In Entertainment Weekly 's 2003 list of the top 25 The Simpsons episodes ever , it was placed sixteenth . In 2003 , Rich Weir of AskMen.com placed the episode in second on his list of his ten favorite episodes of the show . He wrote , " As one of the early episodes that helped solidify the show 's sharp wit and satirical ability , " Flaming Moe 's " has everything a classic Simpsons episode should have : gut @-@ busting humor , nifty parody , and some superstar cameos to seal the deal . [ ... ] highlights include a performance by Aerosmith ( in a guest @-@ starring role ) , Bart actually apologizing to Moe for one of his infamous prank calls , and a memorable spoof of Cheers ' theme song . " In 2003 , executive producer Al Jean listed the episode as one of his favorites . Niel Harvey of The Roanoke Times called " Flaming Moe 's " a " classic bit of Simpsonia . " AOL placed the episode sixth on their list of the top 25 Simpsons episodes . In 2006 , the members of Aerosmith were collectively named the 24th best Simpsons guest stars by IGN .
The song " Flaming Moe 's " , which parodies " Where Everybody Knows Your Name " from Cheers , was well received . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly named the song the " Best Theme Song Parody " of 1991 . It was later included in the 1997 album Songs in the Key of Springfield , a compilation of songs from the first seven seasons of the show .
= U.S. Route 197 =
U.S. Route 197 ( US 197 ) is a north – south United States Highway , of which all but 2 @.@ 76 miles of its 69 @.@ 93 miles ( 4 @.@ 44 of 112 @.@ 54 km ) are within the state of Oregon . The highway starts in rural Wasco County in Central Oregon at an intersection with US 97 . US 197 travels north as a continuation of The Dalles @-@ California Highway No. 4 through the cities of Maupin , Tygh Valley , and Dufur to The Dalles . Within The Dalles , the highway becomes concurrent with US 30 and intersects Interstate 84 ( I @-@ 84 ) before it crosses over the Columbia River on The Dalles Bridge into Washington . The highway continues through the neighboring city of Dallesport in Klickitat County and terminates at a junction with State Route 14 ( SR 14 ) .
US 197 was established in 1952 using the existing The Dalles @-@ California Highway , itself created as a part of the initial named Oregon highways in 1917 . US 197 traveled from its current northern terminus at Dallesport to US 97 in Maryhill along Primary State Highway 8 ( PSH 8 ) and US 830 , successors to the original State Road 8 designated along the corridor in 1907 . The Dallesport – Maryhill section was transferred to SR 14 in 1979 , but was not recognized by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) until 2006 .
= = Route description = =
US 197 runs 69 @.@ 93 miles ( 112 @.@ 54 km ) in Oregon and Washington and is maintained by the Oregon Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) and Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) .
= = = Oregon = = =
US 197 begins at an intersection with US 97 at Shaniko Junction in unincorporated Wasco County , located between the cities of Madras and Shaniko in Central Oregon . The highway , a continuation of The Dalles @-@ California Highway No. 4 , travels northwest over the 3 @,@ 363 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 1 @,@ 025 m ) Criterion Summit and down along Stag Canyon through the community of Criterion towards Maupin . US 197 crosses the Deschutes River and a BNSF rail line on a warren truss bridge , becoming Deschutes Avenue as it passes South Wasco County High School and through the city of Maupin . The highway continues west into the Juniper Flat and intersects Oregon Route 216 ( OR 216 ) , designated as Wapinitia Highway No. 44 , and forms a concurrency . US 197 and OR 216 travel north and northwest to Tygh Valley , where OR 216 leaves the concurrency and heads east on Sherars Bridge Highway No. 290 towards Grass Valley . The lone highway continues north up Butler Canyon onto Tygh Ridge , passing through the 2 @,@ 710 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 830 m ) Tygh Grade Summit . US 197 travels east of Dufur and down into the Columbia River Gorge , entering the city of The Dalles . The highway begins a 0 @.@ 24 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 39 km ) concurrency with US 30 , traveling north over an east – west BNSF rail line to a diamond interchange with I @-@ 84 . US 197 leaves the interchange and the state of Oregon on The Dalles Bridge , crossing over the Columbia River into Washington . An ODOT survey measuring traffic volume for any average day of the year , expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , was conducted in 2011 on US 197 and calculated that the busiest section of the highway in Oregon was on The Dalles Bridge , serving 5 @,@ 800 vehicles , while the least busiest section of the highway was north of its terminus at US 97 , serving 390 vehicles .
= = = Washington = = =
US 197 enters Washington on The Dalles Bridge , a steel cantilever truss bridge that crosses the Columbia River downstream of The Dalles Dam , and travels into Dallesport in Klickitat County . The 2 @.@ 76 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 44 km ) highway continues north past Columbia Gorge Regional Airport to its northern terminus , an intersection with SR 14 . US 197 is defined by the Washington State Legislature as SR 197 , part of the Revised Code of Washington as § 47 @.@ 17 @.@ 382 . Every year , WSDOT conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume , expressed in terms of AADT . In 2012 , WSDOT calculated that the Washington section of US 197 served between 3 @,@ 700 and 6 @,@ 100 vehicles , mostly on The Dalles Bridge .
= = History = =
US 197 within Washington was added to the state highway system in 1907 as State Road 8 , later designated as PSH 8 in 1937 , traveling east along the Columbia River from Vancouver to Maryhill . US 197 within Oregon is designated as a segment of The Dalles @-@ California Highway No. 4 , created as part of the initial named state highway system , adopted by the Oregon State Highway Commission on November 27 , 1917 . The highway traveled south from The Dalles through Central Oregon to the California state line south of Klamath Falls . Under the United States Numbered Highway system , approved by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) on November 11 , 1926 , State Road 8 in Washington was co @-@ signed with US 830 from Vancouver to Maryhill and The Dalles @-@ California Highway in Oregon was co @-@ signed with US 97 from Shaniko Junction to the California state line . The Oregon State Highway Department created a numbered state highway system to compliment the U.S. route system on May 18 , 1937 , and The Dalles @-@ California Highway from Shaniko Junction to The Dalles was numbered as OR 50 . OR 50 was renumbered to OR 23 on May 26 , 1950 and became the Oregon section of US 197 when it was established in 1952 .
US 197 traveled north onto the newly constructed The Dalles Bridge over the Columbia River to US 830 and PSH 8 northeast of Dallesport and traveled east with the two highways to end at US 197 in Maryhill . US 830 and its concurrency with US 197 were removed from the U.S. route system in 1968 , leaving US 197 concurrent with the successor to PSH 8 , SR 14 , after the 1964 state highway renumbering . The concurrency with SR 14 was removed from the Washington state highway system in 1979 , but remained as a part of US 197 as defined by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) until September 22 , 2006 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Typhoon Ewiniar ( 2006 ) =
Typhoon Ewiniar , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Ester , was the third named storm of the 2006 Pacific typhoon season and one that lasted for twelve days as a tropical cyclone , moving on a generally northward track . During its lifespan , it affected Palau , Yap , eastern China , the Ryūkyū Islands of Japan , South Korea as well as North Korea , briefly threatening to make landfall in North Korea before doing so in South Korea . Ewiniar is responsible for at least 181 deaths . However , an unofficial report stated that up to 10 @,@ 000 people had been killed by flooding in North Korea , with 4 @,@ 000 people missing .
= = Meteorological history = =
On June 29 , a persistent tropical disturbance was classified as a tropical depression by the JTWC while east of Palau . The depression moved northwestward and was upgraded to Tropical Storm 04W by the JTWC the next day on June 30 , while the JMA named the storm Tropical Storm Ewiniar at around the same time . The name " Ewiniar " was submitted by the Federated States of Micronesia , and refers to a traditional storm god of Chuuk .
Ewiniar moved west @-@ northwestward over the next two days , bringing heavy rain and localized flooding to the Yap Islands . Ewiniar turned to the northwest and reached its peak intensity of 130 knots ( 240 km / h or 150 mph ) on the U.S. method of measuring windspeeds by one @-@ minute averages , or 100 knots ( 185 km / h or 115 mph ) on the international method of measuring windspeeds by ten @-@ minute averages , and its minimum pressure of 930 hPa ( mbar ) . Ewiniar turned northward and brushed eastern China , forcing evacuations in many cities .
Ewiniar gradually weakened as it moved over colder waters , and made landfall in South Korea on July 10 as a severe tropical storm , having briefly threatened to make landfall on impoverished North Korea . Ewiniar passed within 50 km ( 31 mi ) of Seoul as it moved across the country before becoming extratropical over the Sea of Japan the next day . Ewiniar had also earlier brushed the Ryūkyū Islands of Japan .
= = Preparations = =
= = = People 's Republic of China = = =
As Ewiniar started to threaten the coast of China , the government in Beijing ordered emergency evacuations for all villagers in low @-@ lying areas . A reported 7 @,@ 634 people were evacuated from Ningbo , and over 8 @,@ 000 ships were asked to return to dock in harbours in Ningbo and Zhoushan . The municipal flood control headquarters in Shanghai also asked officials to prepare for the approaching typhoon , which was forecast to begin affecting the city on July 9 .
= = = Japan = = =
As Ewiniar started to approach the Ryūkyū Islands , Sasebo Naval Base in Kyūshū announced a Tropical Cyclone Condition of Readiness 3 at 4 p.m. local time on July 7 , while a day earlier , on July 6 , the USS Harpers Ferry had unanchored from the harbour for an area of safer weather conditions . The USS Essex also evacuated the area on July 7 . The USS Juneau and USS Bowditch , however , both remained anchored in Sasebo , while the USS Guardian and USS Safeguard were both moved to a nearby dry dock .
All United States military stations and bases on Okinawa were put into a Tropical Cyclone Condition of Readiness 2 on July 7 with an upgrade to a Condition of Readiness 1 expected the following day , and Commander 's Cup softball tournaments that had been scheduled for the weekend of July 8 and July 9 at Camp Hansen and Marine Corps Air Station Futenma had to be postponed . Tropical Cyclone Condition of Readiness 1E , which means that all outdoor activities are prohibited as there are sustained winds of at least 50 knots ( 95 km / h , 60 mph ) in force , was declared early on the morning of July 9 .
= = = South Korea = = =
As Ewiniar cleared the Ryūkyū Islands and began to threaten the Korean Peninsula , the Korea Meteorological Administration issued typhoon warnings for most of the country . The KMA also issued typhoon advisories for Liancourt Rocks and Ulleungdo .
United States Navy commands in South Korea were put into a Tropical Cyclone Condition of Readiness level 3 , with Condition of Readiness 2 declared on July 8 . TCCOR Level 1 was later declared by United States Forces Korea , which was cancelled after landfall on July 10 .
= = Impact = =
Ewiniar affected many areas due to its track and relatively long life , killing at least 40 people along the way and leaving much damage in its path .
= = = Yap and Palau = = =
Early in its life as a tropical cyclone , Ewiniar affected Yap and Palau , which fall under the warning jurisdiction of the National Weather Service office in Tiyan , Guam . Ewiniar caused coastal flooding in Yap of up to 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) , especially near the port and around the Colonia Bay area . Ewiniar also caused an island @-@ wide power outage in Yap , although according to an NWS post @-@ storm report , damage was minimised on Yap due to steadier structures after Super Typhoon Sudal of 2004 tore through the islands . Damage was also reported to agriculture due to salt spray . The total amount of damage caused was estimated to be just over $ 100 thousand ( 2006 USD ) .
About 2 @.@ 4 inches ( 61 mm ) of rain fell on Yap , while Koror in Palau reported a 24 @-@ hour total of 1 @.@ 88 inches ( 48 mm ) of rain through 6 a.m. UTC on July 3 . The peak wind gusts reported were 53 knots ( 98 km / h , 61 mph ) on Yap at the Weather Service Office ( WSO ) in Yap and 46 knots ( 85 km / h , 53 mph ) at the WSO in Koror . During its course through the islands , Tropical Storm Ewiniar also necessitated tropical storm warnings and watches for Ngulu , Yap , Koror and Kayangel . No deaths in Yap or Palau were reported due to Ewiniar .
= = = People 's Republic of China = = =
Typhoon Ewiniar killed at least 34 people in China , with areas as far northwest as Gansu and Shanxi affected by landslides . It is not known if the landslides were triggered directly as a result of Ewiniar , or whether it was caused by a combination of Ewiniar and other weather . Therefore , the deaths that can be attributed to Ewiniar from the landslides are assumed to be indirectly caused , and not directly . Average rainfall reported in Shandong was 3 @.@ 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 133 inches ) per hour from 6 a.m. July 9 through midnight July 10 ( totalling about 61 @.@ 2 mm or 2 @.@ 4 inches ) . At least 300 flights out of Beijing 's Capital International Airport had to be delayed due to thunderstorms and effects of Ewiniar , while Air China and China Eastern Airlines cancelled flights to South Korea heading out of China . As Ewiniar did not affect the mainland directly , there are little to no reports of major damage .
= = = Japan = = =
Ewiniar hammered Okinawa with heavy rain , creating mass confusion and troubles for tourists . Flights and ferries out of Okinawa to neighbouring islands were cancelled , and as many as 3 @,@ 500 tourists were left stranded at various airports because most hotels were already near full capacity . Other tourists reportedly stayed in the homes of some Okinawa residents , while some residents in landslide @-@ prone areas evacuated to higher ground . Seven people were injured in Nanjo from a fallen signboard , while an elderly woman in Nago City and a young girl in Yaese suffered wind @-@ related injuries .
The highest winds reported during the storm were 34 @.@ 9 m / s ( 78 mph , 126 km / h ) . These winds blew sand about 7 cm ( 3 in ) deep off the beach and into residents ' yards . Typhoon Ewiniar caused a reported 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 yen ( $ 173 @,@ 778 ) worth of sugar cane and vegetable damage , and farmers experienced profit losses when ripe fruits were unable to be shipped to Asian markets .
= = = South Korea = = =
In South Korea , much damage was reported . 150 km2 ( 58 sq mi ) of farmland was reported to have been flooded across the nation , while most domestic ferry and air travel was disrupted or cancelled . Landslides and flooding destroyed roads and levees , while in South Cholla province , a landslide damaged a temple . According to an official , floods also damaged over 600 homes and houses .
Rainfall totals varied from province to province . The KMA said up to 234 mm ( 9 @.@ 36 inches ) of rain had fallen on the southern areas of South Korea , while Hamyang County in South Kyongsang province reported a total rainfall of 199 mm ( 7 @.@ 83 inches ) to 260 mm ( 10 @.@ 2 inches ) .
About 300 schools were ordered to be closed down in South Cholla , South Kyongsang and on Jeju . However , two injuries were reported at a school in Jeju which ignored the orders . Injuries were also reported elsewhere across South Korea , while 62 people were killed due to Ewiniar .
Alongside the effects of flooding immediately following Typhoon Ewiniar , damage throughout the country amounted to ₩ 2 @.@ 06 trillion ( US $ 2 @.@ 2 billion ) .
= = = North Korea = = =
Due to the secrecy in North Korea , not much information is available on damage caused in the country . However , a TIME Asia report on North Korea noted that Ewiniar left 60 @,@ 000 villagers homeless . Floods in the country killed at least 141 people and left 112 others missing . However , an unofficial report stated that as many as 10 @,@ 000 people may have been killed . Another report indicated that the typhoon caused a " disaster of biblical proportions " , with an estimated 54 @,@ 700 people being killed , mainly by landslides .
= Agar.io =
Agar.io is a massively multiplayer action game created by Matheus Valadares . Players control a cell in a map representing a petri dish ; the goal is to gain as much mass as possible by swallowing smaller cells without being swallowed by bigger ones . The name Agar.io comes from the substance agar , used to culture bacteria .
The game was released to positive critical reception ; critics particularly praised its simplicity , competition , and mechanics , while criticism targeted its repetitive gameplay . Largely due to word of mouth on social networks , it was a quick success , becoming one of the most popular web and mobile games in its first year . A downloadable Steam version was announced on 3 May 2015 , and the mobile version of Agar.io for iOS and Android was released on 8 July 2015 by Miniclip .
= = Gameplay = =
The objective of Agar.io is to grow a cell by swallowing both randomly generated pellets , which slightly increase a cell 's mass , and smaller cells without being swallowed by larger cells . It currently holds four game modes : FFA ( Free @-@ for All ) , Teams , Experimental , and Party . The goal of the game is to obtain the largest cell ; players restart when all of their cells are swallowed . Players can change their cell 's appearance with predefined words , phrases , symbols or skins . The more mass a cell has , the slower it will move . Cells gradually lose mass over time .
Viruses split cells larger than them into many pieces ( 16 or less , depending on the mass ) and smaller cells can hide underneath a virus for protection against larger cells . Viruses are normally randomly generated , but players can make new viruses by feeding a virus , i.e. ejecting a small fraction of a player 's cell 's mass into the virus a few times , causing the virus to split up and hence create another virus .
Players can split their cell into two , and one of the two evenly divided cells will be flung in the direction of the cursor ( a maximum of 16 split cells ) . This can be used as a ranged attack to swallow other smaller cells , to escape an attack from another cell , or to move more quickly around the map . Split cells eventually merge back into one cell . Aside from feeding viruses , players can eject ( release ) a small fraction of their mass to feed other cells , an action commonly recognized as an intention to team with another player . A player can also eject mass to trick enemies into coming closer to the player . Once an enemy cell is close enough , the player can split his / her cell to eat the baited enemy .
= = Development = =
Agar.io was first announced on 4chan on 27 April 2015 by Matheus Valadares , a then @-@ 19 @-@ year @-@ old Brazilian developer . Written in JavaScript and C + + , the game was developed in a few days . The game originally did not have a name , and users had to connect to Valadares ' IP address in order to play . The name Agar.io was suggested by an anonymous 4chan user , as other domain names such as cell.io were already taken . Valadares continued updating and adding new features to the game , such as an experience system and an " experimental " gamemode for testing experimental features . One week later , Agar.io entered Steam Greenlight with Valadares announcing a future free @-@ to @-@ play version of the game for download . He planned to include features in the Steam version not available in the browser version , including additional gamemodes , custom styling , and an account system . It was approved for listing on Steam due to community interest .
On 8 July 2015 , Miniclip published a mobile version of Agar.io for iOS and Android . Sergio Varanda , head of mobile at Miniclip , explained that the main goal of the mobile version was to " recreate the gaming experience " on mobile , citing the challenges with recreating the game on touchscreen controls .
= = Reception = =
Agar.io was released to a positive critical reception . Particular praise was given to the simplicity , competition , and mechanics of the game . Engadget described the game as " a good abstraction of the fierce survival @-@ of @-@ the @-@ fittest competition that you sometimes see on the microscopic level . " Toucharcade praised its simplicity , strategic element , and " personality . "
Criticism was mainly targeted towards its repetitiveness and the controls of the mobile version . Tom Christiansen of Gamezebo was mixed on the game , saying that there was " nothing to hold my attention " and that it was " highly repetitive , overall . " Pocket Gamer , reviewing the mobile version , described its controls as " floaty . "
Because it was frequently propagated through social media and broadcast on Twitch.tv and YouTube , Agar.io was a quick success . The agar.io website ( for the browser version ) was ranked by Alexa as one of the 1 @,@ 000 most visited websites and the mobile versions were downloaded more than ten million times during their first week . During 2015 , Agar.io was Google 's most searched game .
Agar.io was featured ( including some details of its gameplay as well as a shot of an actual game ) in " Chapter 48 " of Netflix TV @-@ series House of Cards . Its gameplay was compared to the presidential campaigning .
= = = Use as a political soapbox = = =
During the campaigns of the June 2015 Turkish elections , Agar.io was used in Turkey as a medium of political advocacy ; many players were naming their cells after Turkish political parties and references , with alliances formed between players with similar political views , battling against other players with opposing views . Some political parties have used Agar.io in campaign posters as a symbol of support .
= Banksia sessilis =
Banksia sessilis , commonly known as parrot bush , is a species of shrub or tree in the plant genus Banksia in the Proteaceae family . It had been known as Dryandra sessilis until 2007 , when the genus Dryandra was sunk into Banksia . Widespread throughout southwest Western Australia , it is found on sandy soils over laterite or limestone , often as an understorey plant in open forest , woodland or shrubland . Encountered as a shrub or small tree up to 6 m ( 20 ft ) in height , it has prickly dark green leaves and dome @-@ shaped cream @-@ yellow flowerheads . Flowering from winter through to late spring , it provides a key source of food — both the nectar and the insects it attracts — for honeyeaters in the cooler months , and species diversity is reduced in areas where there is little or no parrot bush occurring . Several species of honeyeater , some species of native bee , and the European honey bee seek out and consume the nectar , while the long @-@ billed black cockatoo and Australian ringneck eat the seed . The life cycle of Banksia sessilis is adapted to regular bushfires . Killed by fire and regenerating by seed afterwards , each shrub generally produces many flowerheads and a massive amount of seed . It can recolonise disturbed areas , and may grow in thickets .
Banksia sessilis has a somewhat complicated taxonomic history . It was collected from King George Sound in 1801 and described by Robert Brown in 1810 as Dryandra floribunda , a name by which it was known for many years . However , Joseph Knight had published the name Josephia sessilis in 1809 , which had precedence due to its earlier date , and the specific name was formalised in 1924 . Four varieties are recognised . It is a prickly plant with little apparent horticultural potential , and none of the varieties are commonly seen in cultivation . A profuse producer of nectar , B. sessilis is valuable to the beekeeping industry .
= = Description = =
Banksia sessilis grows as an upright shrub or small tree up to 6 m ( 20 ft ) high , without a lignotuber . In most varieties , new stems are covered in soft , fine hairs that are lost with maturity ; but new stems of B. sessilis var. flabellifolia are usually hairless . Leaves are blue @-@ green or dark green . Their shape differs by variety : in var. cygnorum and var. flabellifolia they are wedge @-@ shaped , with teeth only near the apex ; in var. cordata they are wedge @-@ shaped , but with teeth along the entire margin ; and in var. sessilis they are somewhat broader at the base , sometimes almost oblong in shape . Leaf size ranges from 2 to 6 cm ( 1 to 2 @.@ 5 in ) in length , and 0 @.@ 8 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 31 – 1 @.@ 57 in ) in width . They may be sessile ( that is , growing directly from the stem without a petiole ) or on a petiole up to 0 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) long .
The inflorescences are cream or yellow , and occur in domed heads 4 to 5 cm ( 1 1 ⁄ 2 to 2 in ) wide , situated at the end of a stem . Each head contains from 55 to 125 individual flowers , surrounded at the base by a whorl of short involucral bracts . As with most other Proteaceae , individual flowers consist of a tubular perianth made up of four united tepals , and one long wiry style . The style end is initially trapped inside the upper perianth parts , but breaks free at anthesis . In B. sessilis the perianth is straight , 20 to 32 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 1 @.@ 26 in ) long , and pale yellow . The style is slightly shorter , also straight , and cream @-@ coloured . Thus in B. sessilis , unlike many other Banksia species , the release of the style at anthesis does not result in a showy flower colour change . One field study found that anthesis took place over four days , with the outer flowers opening first and moving inwards .
Flowering mostly takes place from July to November , although var. sessilis can start as early as May . After flowering , the flower parts wither and fall away , and up to four follicles develop in the receptable ( the base of the flower head ) . Young follicles are covered in a fine fur , but this is lost as they mature . Mature follicles are ovoid in shape , and measure 1 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) in length . Most follicles open as soon as they are ripe , revealing their contents : a woody seed separator and up to two winged seeds .
= = Discovery and naming = =
Specimens of B. sessilis were first collected by Scottish surgeon Archibald Menzies during the visit of the Vancouver Expedition to King George Sound in September and October 1791 . No firm location or collection date can be ascribed to Menzies ' specimens , as their labels simply read " New Holland , King Georges Sound , Mr. Arch . Menzies " , and Menzies ' journal indicates that he collected over a wide area , visiting a different location every day from 29 September to 8 October . In addition to B. sessilis , Menzies collected plant material of B. pellaeifolia , and seeds of at least four more Banksia species . This was therefore an important early collection for the genus , only seven species of which had previously been collected .
Menzies ' seed specimens were sent to England from Sydney in 1793 , but his plant material remained with him for the duration of the voyage , during which some material was lost . On his return to England in 1795 , the surviving specimens were deposited into the herbarium of Sir Joseph Banks , where they lay undescribed for many years .
The next collection was made in December 1801 , when King George Sound was visited by HMS Investigator under the command of Matthew Flinders . On board were botanist Robert Brown , botanical artist Ferdinand Bauer , and gardener Peter Good . All three men gathered material for Brown 's specimen collection , including specimens of B. sessilis , although neither Brown 's nor Good 's diary can be used to assign a precise location or date for their discovery of the species . Good also made a separate seed collection , which included B. sessilis , and the species was drawn by Bauer . Like nearly all of his field drawings of Proteaceae , Bauer 's original field sketch of B. sessilis was destroyed in a Hofburg fire in 1945 . A painting based on the drawing survives , however , at the Natural History Museum in London .
On returning to England in 1805 , Brown began preparing an account of his Australian plant specimens . In September 1808 , with Brown 's account still far from finished , Swedish botanist Jonas Dryander asked him to prepare a separate paper on the Proteaceae , so that he could use the genera erected by Brown in a new edition of Hortus Kewensis . Brown immediately began a study of the Proteaceae , and in January 1809 he read to the Linnean Society of London a monograph on the family entitled On the Proteaceae of Jussieu . Among the eighteen new genera presented was one that Brown named Josephia in honour of Banks .
Brown 's paper was approved for printing in May 1809 , but did not appear in print until March the following year . In the meantime , Joseph Knight published On the cultivation of the plants belonging to the natural order of Proteeae , which appeared to draw heavily on Brown 's unpublished material , without permission , and in most cases without attribution . It contained the first publication of Brown 's Josephia , for which two species were listed . The first , Josephia sessilis , was based on one of Menzies ' specimens : " This species , discovered by Mr. A. Menzies on the West coast of New Holland , is not unlike some varieties of Ilex Aquifolium , and now in his Majesty 's collection at Kew . " The etymology of the specific epithet was not explicitly stated , but it is universally accepted that it comes from the Latin sessilis ( sessile , stalkless ) , in reference to the sessile leaves of this species . Blame for the alleged plagiarism largely fell on Richard Salisbury , who had been present at Brown 's readings and is thought to have provided much of the material for Knight 's book . Salisbury was ostracized by the botanical community , which undertook to ignore his work as much as possible . By the time Brown 's monograph appeared in print , Brown had exchanged the generic name Josephia for Dryandra , giving the name Dryandra floribunda to Knight 's Josephia sessilis . As there were then no firm rules pertaining to priority of publication , Brown 's name was accepted , and remained the current name for over a century .
Another significant early collection was the apparent discovery of the species at the Swan River in 1827 . In that year , the colonial botanist of New South Wales Charles Fraser visited the area as part of an exploring expedition under James Stirling . Among the plants that Fraser found growing on the south side of the river entrance was " a beautiful species of Dryandra " , which was probably this species .
Over the course of the 19th century , the principle of priority in naming gradually came to be accepted by botanists , as did the need for a mechanism by which names in current usage could be conserved against archaic or obscure prior names . By the 1920s , Dryandra R.Br. was effectively conserved against Josephia Knight , although a mechanism for formal conservation was not put in place until 1933 . Brown 's specific name , however , was not conserved , and Karel Domin overturned Dryandra floribunda R.Br. by transferring Knight 's name into Dryandra as Dryandra sessilis ( Knight ) Domin in 1924 . This name was current until 2007 , when all Dryandra species were transferred into Banksia by Austin Mast and Kevin Thiele . The full citation for the current name is thus Banksia sessilis ( Knight ) A.R.Mast & K.R.Thiele.
= = = Common names = = =
The first common names for this species were literal translations of the scientific names . When published as Josephia sessilis in 1809 , it was given the common name sessile Josephia . Brown did not offer a common name when he published Dryandra floribunda in 1810 , but later that year the Hortus Kewensis translated it as many flowered dryandra . This name was also used when the plant was featured in Curtis 's Botanical Magazine in 1813 . In Australia , the names prickly banksia and shaving @-@ brush flower were offered up by Emily Pelloe in 1921 , the latter because " when in bud the flower very much resembles a shaving @-@ brush " . Shaving @-@ brush flower was still in use as late as the 1950s . The name holly @-@ leaved dryandra was used when the plant was featured as part of a series of articles in the Western Mail of 1933 – 34 , and this was taken up by William Blackall in 1954 , and was still in use as late as 1970 . Meanwhile , Gardner used the name parrot bush in 1959 , a name derived from the observation that the blooms attract parrots . , by which the species was already " well @-@ known to bee @-@ keepers " . This name was widely adopted , and since 1970 has been in almost exclusive usage .
The only indigenous names reported for the plant are Budjan and But @-@ yak . These were published by Ian Abbott in his 1983 Aboriginal Names for Plant Species in South @-@ western Australia , with Abbott suggesting that the latter name should be preferred , but with the orthography " Pudjak " . However , Abbott sources these names to George Fletcher Moore 's 1842 A Descriptive Vocabulary of the Language of the Aborigines , which in fact attributes these names to the species Dryandra fraseri ( now Banksia fraseri ) . It is unclear whether Abbott has corrected Moore 's error , or introduced an error of his own .
= = | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
. Acrodontae
D. ser . Capitellatae
D. ser . Ilicinae
D. ser . Dryandra
D. ser . Foliosae
D. ser . Decurrentes
D. ser . Tenuifoliae
D. ser . Runcinatae
D. ser . Triangulares
D. ser . Aphragma
D. ser . Ionthocarpae
D. ser . Inusitatae
D. ser . Subulatae
D. ser . Gymnocephalae
D. ser . Plumosae
D. ser . Concinnae
D. ser . Obvallatae
D. ser . Pectinatae
D. ser . Acuminatae
D. ser . Niveae
D. subg . Hemiclidia
D. subg . Diplophragma
George 's arrangement remained current until 2007 , when Austin Mast and Kevin Thiele transferred Dryandra into Banksia . They also published B. subg . Spathulatae for the Banksia taxa having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons , thus redefining B. subg . Banksia as comprising those that do not . They were not ready , however , to tender an infrageneric arrangement encompassing Dryandra , so as an interim measure they transferred Dryandra into Banksia at series rank . This minimised the nomenclatural disruption of the transfer , but also caused George 's rich infrageneric arrangement to be set aside . Thus under the interim arrangements implemented by Mast and Thiele , B. sessilis is placed in B. subg . Banksia , ser . Dryandra .
= = = Varieties = = =
Four varieties are recognised :
B. sessilis var. sessilis is an autonym that encompasses the type material of the species . This is the most widespread variety , occurring from Regans Ford and Moora in the north , south @-@ east to Albany , and inland as far as Wongan Hills , Pingelly and Kulin . Its blue @-@ green leaves are cuneate ( wedge @-@ shaped ) or oblong , and are usually two to three centimetres long but may reach five .
B. sessilis var. cordata was published as Dryandra floribunda var. cordata by Carl Meissner in 1848 . In 1870 , George Bentham published D. floribunda var. major , but this is now considered a taxonomic synonym of B. sessilis var. cordata . It has larger inflorescences than var. sessilis , as well as larger dark green rather than blue green leaves . It is found in the state 's far southwest , between Capes Leeuwin and Naturaliste , and east to Walpole , and grows on sandy soils over limestone .
B. sessilis var. cygnorum has its roots in Michel Gandoger 's publication of two new species names in 1919 . He published Dryandra cygnorum and Dryandra quinquedentata , but in 1996 both of these were found to refer to the same taxon , which Alex George gave variety rank as Dryandra sessilis var. cygnorum . The term cygnorum is Latin for " swan " and relates to the Swan River , which runs past the suburb of Melville where the type material was collected . It has smaller dark green leaves only 2 – 3 cm ( 1 – 1 in ) long and 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 31 – 0 @.@ 67 in ) wide , whose teeth are limited to the distal part of the leaf . The range is along the Western Australian coastline from Dongara southwards past Fremantle , and east to Lake Indoon and Kings Park .
B. sessilis var. flabellifolia was published by George in 1996 , the type specimen having been collected northwest of Northampton in 1993 . The northernmost of the four varieties , it is found from Kalbarri south to Geraldton and Northampton . There are some scattered records further south towards Moora . Its specific name is derived from the Latin flabellum " fan " and folium " leaf " . Its leaves are fan shaped , with a long , toothless lower margin , and a toothed end . Its stems are hairless , unlike the other varieties .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Banksia sessilis is endemic to the Southwest Botanical Province , a floristic province renowned as a biodiversity hotspot , located in the southwest corner of Western Australia . This area has a Mediterranean climate , with wet winters and hot , dry summers . B. sessilis occurs throughout much of the province , ranging from Kalbarri in the north , south to Cape Leeuwin , east along the south coast as far as Bremer Bay , and inland to Wongan Hills and Kulin . It thus spans a wide range of climates , occurring in all but the semi @-@ arid areas well inland . It is also absent from the Karri forest in the cool , wet , southwest corner of the province , but even there , B. sessilis var. cordata occurs along the coast .
The species tolerates a range of soils , requiring only that its soil be well @-@ drained . Like most dryandras , it grows well in lateritic soils and gravels , although this species is also found in deep sand , sand over laterite , and sand over limestone . It also occurs in a range of vegetation complexes , including coastal and kwongan heath , tall shrubland , woodland and open forest . It is a common understorey plant in drier areas of Jarrah forest , and forms thickets on limestone soils of the Swan Coastal Plain . Banksia sessilis sets a large amount of seed and is an aggressive coloniser of disturbed and open areas ; for example , it has been recorded colonising gravel pits in the Darling Scarp .
Nothing is known of the conditions that affect its distribution , as its biogeography is as yet unstudied . An assessment of the potential impact of climate change on this species found that its range is likely to contract by half in the face of severe change , but unlikely to change much under less severe scenarios .
= = Ecology = =
= = = As food = = =
The nectar of B. sessilis is an important component of the diet of a number of species of honeyeater . In one study , B. sessilis was found to be the main source of nectar for all six species studied , namely the tawny @-@ crowned honeyeater ( Gliciphila melanops ) , white @-@ cheeked honeyeater ( Phylidonyris niger ) , western spinebill ( Acanthorhynchus superciliosus ) , brown honeyeater ( Lichmera indistincta ) , brown @-@ headed honeyeater ( Melithreptus brevirostris ) , and black honeyeater ( Certhionyx niger ) . Moreover , B. sessilis played an important role in their distributions , with species that feed only on nectar occurring only where B. sessilis occurs , and remaining for longest at sites where B. sessilis is most abundant . Other honeyeaters that have been recorded feeding on B. sessilis include the red wattlebird ( Anthochaera carunculata ) , western wattlebird ( A. lunulata ) , and New Holland honeyeater ( Phylidonyris novaehollandiae ) . Furthermore , a study of bird species diversity in wandoo woodland around Bakers Hill found that honeyeater species and numbers were much reduced in forest that lacked a Banksia sessilis understory ; the plant is a key source of nectar and insects during the winter months . A field study in jarrah forest 9 km south of Jarrahdale , where B. sessilis grows in scattered clumps , found that western wattlebirds and New Holland honeyeaters sought out groups of plants with the greatest numbers of new inflorescences , particularly those one or two days after anthesis , where nectar yield was highest . The birds likely recognises these by visual clues .
Banksia sessilis is also a source of food for the Australian ringneck ( Barnardius zonarius ) , and the long @-@ billed black cockatoo ( Calyptorhynchus baudinii ) , which tear open the follicles and consume the seeds .
The introduced European honey bee ( Apis mellifera ) has also been observed feeding on B. sessilis , as have seven species of native bee , comprising four species of Hylaeus ( including the banksia bee H. alcyoneus ) , two of Leioproctus , and a Lasioglossum .
= = = Life cycle = = =
Honeyeaters are clearly the most important pollination vector , as inflorescences from which honeyeaters are excluded generally do not set any fruit . Moreover , honeyeaters have been observed moving from tree to tree with significant loads of B. sessilis pollen on their foreheads , beaks and throats , having acquired it by brushing against pollen presenters while foraging for nectar ; experiments have shown that some of this pollen may be subsequently deposited on stigmas during later foraging .
The flowers of B. sessilis have a number of adaptations that serve to encourage outcrossing . Firstly , they are protandrous : a flower 's pollen is released around 72 hours before it becomes itself receptive to pollen , by which time around half of its pollen has lost its viability . Secondly , the period of maximum nectar production closely matches the period during which the flower is sexually active , so honeyeaters are enticed to visit at the most opportune time for pollination . This has proven an effective strategy : almost all pollen is removed within two to three hours of presentation . In addition , honeyeaters tend to move between inflorescences on different plants , rather than between inflorescences on the same plant , at least in high density sites . These factors combine to make it fairly unusual for a flower to be fertilised by its own pollen . When self @-@ fertilisation does occur , whether autogamous or geitonogamous , the resulting seed is almost always aborted , and the species ultimately achieves an outcrossing rate of nearly 100 % , at least in high density sites . Limited data for low @-@ density sites , where honeyeaters move from plant to plant less frequently , suggest more of a mixed @-@ mating system .
The species is a prolific flowerer , and this , combined with the very high outcrossing rates , results in massive seed output . In one study , the average number of seeds produced per B. sessilis plant was 622 , compared with an average of 2 for B. dallanneyi . This exceptionally high fecundity can be understood as an adaption to regular bushfire . Most Banksia species can be placed in one of two broad groups according to their response to fire : resprouters survive fire , resprouting from a lignotuber or , more rarely , epicormic buds protected by thick bark ; reseeders are killed by fire , but populations are rapidly re @-@ established through the recruitment of seedlings . B. sessilis is a reseeder , but it differs from many other reseeders in not being strongly serotinous : the vast majority of seeds are released spontaneously in autumn , even in the absence of fire . The degree of serotiny is a matter of some contradiction in the scientific literature : it has been treated as " serotinous " , " weakly serotinous " and " non @-@ serotinous " . Regardless of the terminology used , the massive spontaneous seed output of B. sessilis is its primary survival strategy , and is so effective that the species has a reputation as an excellent coloniser . However , this strategy , together with its relatively long juvenile period , makes it vulnerable to overly frequent fire .
Seeds of B. sessilis are short @-@ lived , and must germinate in the winter following their release , or they die . They are also very sensitive to heating , and thus killed by bushfire ; in one study , just 30 seconds in boiling water reduced the germination rate from 85 % to 22 % , and not a single seed survived one minute of boiling .
Like most other Proteaceae , B. sessilis has compound cluster roots , roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter . These exude a range of carboxylates , including citrate , malonate and trans @-@ aconitate , that act as acid phosphatase , allowing the absorption of nutrients from nutrient @-@ poor soils , such as the phosphorus @-@ deficient native soils of Australia .
= = = Disease = = =
Banksia sessilis is highly susceptible to dieback caused by the introduced plant pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi , a soil @-@ borne water mould that causes root rot ; in fact it is so reliably susceptible that it is considered a good indicator species for the presence of the disease . Most highly susceptible species quickly become locally extinct in infected areas , and in the absence of hosts the disease itself eventually dies out . However , B. sessilis , being an aggressive coloniser of disturbed and open ground , often colonises old disease sites . The new colonies are themselves infected , and thus P. cinnamomi survives at these sites indefinitely .
The application of phosphite inhibits growth of P. cinnamomi in B. sessilis , but does not kill the pathogen . In one study , a foliar spray containing phosphite inhibited the growth of P. cinnamomi by over 90 % in plants infected with B. sessilis two weeks after spraying , and by 66 % in plants infected one year after spraying ; yet most plants infected shortly before or after spraying were dead 100 days later , while nearly all plants infected seven months later spraying survived a further 100 days . Phosphite is not known to affect plant growth , but has been shown to reduce pollen fertility : one study recorded fertility reductions of up to 50 % , and , in a separate experiment , fertility reductions that persisted for more than a year .
Infection of coastal stands of B. sessilis by the fungus Armillaria luteobubalina has also been recorded . The apparent infection rate of 0 @.@ 31 is quite slow compared to the progress of other Armillaria species through pine plantations .
= = Cultivation = =
= = = History = = =
It is not known whether the seed collection sent to the Royal Botanic Gardens , Kew , by Menzies in 1793 included seeds of B. sessilis , but if it did then it did not germinate . The species was successfully germinated , however , from Good 's seed , which was sent from Sydney on 6 June 1802 and arrived at Kew the following year . According to Brown 's notes it was flowering at Kew by May 1806 , and in 1810 it was reported in the second edition of Hortus Kewensis as flowering " most part of the Year " . In 1813 a flowering specimen from the nursery of Malcolm and Sweet was featured as Plate 1581 in Curtis 's Botanical Magazine .
By the 1830s the species was in cultivation in continental Europe . It was recorded as being cultivated in the garden of Karl von Hügel in Vienna , Austria in 1831 , and in 1833 it was listed amongst the rare plants that had been introduced into Belgium . Along with several hundred other native Australian plants it was exhibited at plant shows held at Utrecht and Haarlem in the Netherlands in the 1840s and 1850s . By this time , however , English gardeners had already begun to lose interest in the Proteaceae , and by the end of the 19th century European interest in the cultivation of Proteaceae was virtually non @-@ existent .
In Australia , there was little interest in the cultivation of Australian plants until the mid @-@ 20th century , despite a long @-@ standing appreciation of their beauty as wildflowers . For example , in 1933 and 1934 The Western Mail published a series of Edgar Dell paintings of Western Australian wildflowers , including a painting of B. sessilis . These were subsequently republished in Charles Gardner 's 1935 West Australian Wild Flowers . One of the first published colour photographs of the species appeared in William Blackall 's 1954 How to know Western Australian wildflowers , but this publication was restricted to plant identification . The species was discussed and illustrated in the 1959 Wildflowers of Western Australia , and in the 1973 Flowers and plants of Western Australia , but these books did not provide cultivation advice either .
Possibly the first published information on the cultivation of Dryandra appeared in the magazine Australian Plants in June and September 1961 . D. sessilis was among the species treated , but as there was not yet any experimental data on cultivation , information was restricted to its aesthetic qualities and the soil in which it naturally occurs .
From its inception in 1962 , the Kings Park and Botanic Garden undertook extensive research into the cultivation of native plants , resulting in two early publications that mentioned the cultivation potential of B. sessilis . In 1965 , John Stanley Beard published Descriptive catalogue of Western Australian plants , " a work of reference in which the horticultural characteristics of the plants concerned could be looked up by the staff " , which described D. sessilis as an erect shrub with pale yellow flowers appearing from May to October , growing in sand and gravel . Five years later , Arthur Fairall published West Australian native plants in cultivation . This presented largely the same information as Beard 's catalogue , adding only that the species flowers well in its third season .
= = = Current knowledge = = =
According to current knowledge , B. sessilis as an extremely hardy plant that grows in a range of soils and aspects , so long as it is given good drainage , and tolerates both drought and moderate frost . Unlike many dryandras , it grows well on limestone ( alkaline ) soils . It flowers very heavily and is an excellent producer of honey . It attracts birds , and is also popular with beekeepers . However , its size makes it unsuitable for smaller gardens , and if given an ideal situation it may produce a great many seedlings . It is propagated only from seed , as propagating it from cuttings has proven virtually impossible . Germination takes about five or six weeks , and plants may take two years to flower .
= Abra , Kadabra , and Alakazam =
Abra , Kadabra , and Alakazam , known in Japan as Casey ( ケーシィ , Kēshii ) , Yungerer ( ユンゲラー , Yungerā ) , and Foodin ( フーディン , Fūdin ) , are three Pokémon species in Nintendo and Game Freak 's Pokémon franchise that are linked through evolution . Abra evolves into Kadabra after gaining enough experience in battle , and Kadabra evolves into Alakazam after being traded to another trainer . Created by Ken Sugimori , they first appeared in the video games Pokémon Red and Blue and later appear in subsequent sequels . They have appeared in various merchandise , spinoff titles and animated and printed adaptations of the franchise . Known as the Psi Pokémon , using self @-@ hypnosis , Abra spends 18 hours a day sleeping , unable to utilize its abilities unless rested . This behavior ceases once it evolves into Kadabra , a strong psychic that emits alpha waves affected by its current mental state . Able to remember everything , Alakazam 's IQ is around 5000 and can outperform a supercomputer . Alakazam is one of the handful of Pokémon to be given a mega @-@ evolution in generation VI , giving it more strength along with a few physical changes such as a large white moustache .
In the Pokémon anime , Abra and Kadabra appear under the ownership of Sabrina . In Pokémon Mystery Dungeon Alakazam plays a large supporting role in the plot of the game . All three appear in the Pokémon Adventures manga in various roles . IGN described Abra , Kadabra , and Alakazam as " losing most of its charm " as it progressed . Calling Abra cute , they describe Kadabra as having " a bit of that personality " , and Alakazam as being a " distinctly grim , foreboding character " .
= = Design and characteristics = =
Abra , Kadabra , and Alakazam were three of several different designs conceived by Game Freak 's character development team and finalized by Ken Sugimori for the first generation of Pocket Monsters games Red and Green , which were localized outside Japan as Pokémon Red and Blue . Originally called " Casey " , " Yungerer " , and " Foodin " in Japanese , Nintendo decided to give the various Pokémon species " clever and descriptive names " related to their appearance or features when translating the game for western audiences as a means to make the characters more relatable to American children . Abra and Kadabra were initially intended to be named Hocus and Pocus for American audiences , but were instead changed to Abra and Kadabra , based on the famous incantation along with Alakazam . Alakazam 's Japanese name Foodin was inspired by a rough translation of Harry Houdini 's last name .
Abra , Kadabra , and Alakazam are bipedal Pokémon characterized by their humanoid body structure and somewhat fox @-@ like appearance . They look like they are wearing armor , as they have two pauldron @-@ shaped pieces on their shoulders and a fauld @-@ like piece around their chest . Abra , Kadabra , and Alakazam have three fingers on each hand and three toes on each foot , with two toes in the front on either side and one in the back near the ankle . Abra and Kadabra also have thick tails the same gold color as the rest of its body , except for a brown band located near the top . Kadabra and Alakazam have relatively large mustaches , which are shorter in female species . Kadabra has a red star @-@ shaped symbol on its forehead , and three red wavy lines on its fauld @-@ like torso . After evolving into Alakazam , the creatures no longer have the Zener markings and tails , while their heads become much larger , resulting in extremely powerful mental powers . Alakazam undergoes slight changes upon Mega Evolving into Mega Alakazam , as its overall color scheme becomes slightly paler , it gains a white beard alongside its now white mustache , a considerably thinner torso , and a red gem @-@ like organ on its forehead .
Possessing the ability to read minds , Abra can sense danger , teleporting when it does and can do so quickly enough to create visual doubles . Using self @-@ hypnosis , Abra spends 18 hours a day sleeping , unable to utilize its abilities unless rested . This behavior ceases once it evolves into Kadabra , a strong psychic that emits alpha waves affected by its current mental state . These waves can trigger headaches in nearby people and can cause machines to malfunction . Once it evolves into Alakazam , it has mastered every type and form of psychic ability , and its brain continually grows . This causes its head to become too heavy for its neck , requiring psychokinesis to hold it upright . Able to remember everything , its IQ is around 5000 and can outperform a supercomputer . Both Kadabra and Alakazam utilize spoons generated mentally to enhance their abilities , two for the latter , and can increase them further by closing their eyes . Upon Mega Evolving , Mega Alakazam 's mental abilities become even more pronounced due to it manifesting a red gem @-@ like organ on its forehead that emits psychic power . It also manifests three additional spoons alongside the two it possessed as Alakazam .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
The first video game appearance of Abra , Kadabra , and Alakazam was in Pokémon Red and Blue versions . When encountered in the wild , Abra will always use Teleport to attempt to escape the battle on the first turn . Abra evolves into Kadabra after gaining enough experience in battle , and Kadabra evolves into Alakazam after being traded to another trainer . Abra and Kadabra later appear in every subsequent sequel . In Pokémon Gold , Silver , and Crystal , before the Elite Four are defeated for the first time , an Abra appears as an NPC at the Indigo Plateau which will teleport the player back to New Bark Town . This NPC appears again in their remakes , but does not perform this function . In the main game series , many trainers use Abra , Kadabra , and Alakazam in their teams . Notable trainers include Saffron City Gym Leader Sabrina ; Blue , the player 's rival in Pokémon Red and Blue and their remakes ; Silver , the player 's rival in Pokémon Gold and Silver and their remakes ; Salon Maiden Anabel from the Hoenn Battle Frontier ; and Sinnoh Elite Four member Lucian . Outside of the main series , Abra , Kadabra , and Alakazam appeared in Pokémon Pinball , the Pokémon Mystery Dungeon games , and the Pokémon Ranger games , while Abra and Alakazam appeared in Pokémon Puzzle League and Abra appeared in PokéPark Wii : Pikachu 's Adventure and its sequel , PokéPark 2 : Wonders Beyond . In Pokémon Mystery Dungeon , Alakazam plays a large supporting role in the plot as the leader of a Gold Rank rescue team along with Tyranitar and Charizard .
= = = In anime = = =
In the Pokémon anime , the Saffron City Gym Leader , Sabrina owns an Abra , which she sends out in a battle against the series protagonist , Ash . After battling , Sabrina 's Abra evolves into Kadabra , causing Ash to forfeit the match due to Kadabra 's new and more powerful psychic abilities . Ash later returns for a rematch , and Ash 's Haunter makes Sabrina laugh , which causes Kadabra to laugh due to the psychic bond it has with Sabrina . Because of Kadabra and Sabrina 's laugh , they are unable to fight , and hand over the gym badge . Abra later appears in the series under the ownership of Mira , who offers to teleport everyone to Hearthome city using her Abra , but instead teleports them to a flooded city to find a Poké Ball containing a Sandshrew that was lost in the newly flooded lake . One of Abra and Kadabra 's other appearances is living in an abandoned mining colony with several other Psychic @-@ type Pokémon . Alakazam 's first appearance was as a giant Alakazam awakened near the site of the Pokémopolis ruins . Alakazam has also been owned by many notable trainers , such as Luana , the Gym Leader of Kumquat Island , Eusine , Anabel , and Kenny .
= = = In printed adaptations = = =
In the Pokémon Adventures manga , Abra makes a cameo as the stolen Pokémon of the Pokémon Fan Club President . Later when Red frees the Pokémon kidnapped by Lt. Surge ; instead of his beloved Abra , the President of the Pokémon Fan Club finds himself with a not @-@ so @-@ cute Alakazam . Like her anime counterpart , Sabrina also owns a Kadabra . After Red 's aptitude test to be the Gym Leader of Viridian City , a swarm of wild Pokémon suddenly appear outside the Gym after being attracted by Pokémon March music , one of which is an Alakazam . Blue captures all of them with his Scizor . Alakazam is seen again as part of Blue 's team for the Gym Leader faceoff , and again as one of the Pokémon in Viridian Gym . It defeated Yellow 's Pikachu easily using a combination of Role Play and ThunderPunch . Green is seen to have an Abra , using its Teleport move to transport Silver away to a safer location .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
IGN described Abra , Kadabra , and Alakazam as " losing most of its charm " as it progressed . Calling Abra cute , they describe Kadabra as having " a bit of that personality " , and Alakazam as being a " distinctly grim , foreboding character " . At the same time , they cited them as one of the most versatile groups of characters in the franchise . IGN also listed Alakazam , and to a lesser extent Kadabra , as one of the best Psychic types , alongside Mew , Mewtwo , and Starmie . They commented that Alakazam was good for " down @-@ to @-@ Earth " players who don 't want to use legendaries like Mew or Mewtwo . They further described Alakazam as " arguably the single most popular non @-@ legendary Psychic type in any of the current games " , also calling it a " brilliant yet brittle brainiac " . Boys ' Life named Abra one of the five " coolest " Pokémon from Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen at fourth . The St. Petersburg Times also praised the characters , describing their names as " clever " .
IGN called Abra unimpressive , but worth raising because it evolves into the more powerful Kadabra . GameSpy further commented that Kadabra makes up for the shortcomings of Abra . 1UP FM praised the characters ' design , as the hosts noted them as some of their favorite Pokémon in the series and that they were impressed with their appearance . GamesRadar editor Henry Gilbert praised Kadabra and Alakazam 's mustaches , listing them on their list of " The 10 greatest mustaches in gaming history " . GamesRadar editor Brett Elston labelled Abra 's moveset " lame " , while acknowledging its potential to evolve into more powerful Pokémon . However , he claimed that Alakazam was useful only in limited circumstances . Elston also called Alakazam one of the most disturbing Pokémon of all time for the game 's assertion that its brain cells continually multiply until it dies a horrible death . In a poll conducted by IGN , Kadabra was voted as the 91st best Pokémon , where it was called " much cooler " than Alakazam because " He doesn ’ t need to show off by bending two spoons " . Alakazam was voted as the 20th best Pokémon , where the staff commented on the evolution line , stating they " not only loved the clever naming system but the creatures ’ designs and abilities as well " . They further stated that " Abra has always been a bit of a pain to raise and evolve , but the end result , an Alakazam , is well worth it in my book . "
= = = Controversy = = =
Some conservative Christian groups have targeted Kadabra as representing anti @-@ Christian aspects of the franchise . In Palm Beach , Florida , Pastor Eugene Walton distributed pamphlets that described the symbol on its head as " a pentagram " ( even though Kadabra simply has a red five @-@ pointed star on its head , different than a pentagram ) and claimed the symbol on its chest was representative of Nazi Germany 's Waffen @-@ SS . In the book It 's a Dark World , Roger Boehm argued that due to its psychic @-@ status and the symbols on its body of the latter , Kadabra represented the occult , further arguing that the etymology of its name tied directly to them .
In November 2000 , it was reported that Uri Geller , an Israeli " psychic " -magician who claims to bend spoons with his mind , sued Nintendo over the Pokémon Kadabra , due to its Japanese name which he claimed was an unauthorized appropriation of his identity . Geller learned of the similarity after fans of both himself and Pokémon noted a resemblance to the character 's Japanese name , behavior and face , and presented him with cards of the character to autograph after he had finished taping a television special in Japan . He further claimed that the star on Kadabra 's forehead , and the lightning patterns on its abdomen , were symbols popular with the Waffen @-@ SS and that , through the character , Nintendo had " turned [ him ] into an evil , occult Pokémon character " . Nintendo countered by stating there was no connection between the two and that they had not named any of the Pokémon after actual people to the knowledge of their staff . In 2008 , Pokémon anime director and storyboard artist Masamitsu Hidaka confirmed in an interview that Kadabra would not be used on a Pokémon Trading Card until an agreement was reached on the case .
= SM UB @-@ 43 =
SM UB @-@ 43 was a Type UB II submarine or U @-@ boat for the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. UB @-@ 43 was sold to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) during the war . In Austro @-@ Hungarian service the B was dropped from her name and she was known as SM U @-@ 43 or U @-@ XLIII as the lead boat of the Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ 43 class .
UB @-@ 43 was ordered in July 1915 and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in September . UB @-@ 43 was a little more than 121 feet ( 37 m ) in length and displaced between 270 and 305 tonnes ( 266 and 300 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She was equipped to carry a complement of four torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and had an 8 @.@ 8 @-@ centimeter ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) deck gun . As part of a group of six submarines selected for Mediterranean service , UB @-@ 43 was broken into railcar sized components and shipped to Pola where she was assembled and launched in early April 1916 , and commissioned later in the month . Over the next year the U @-@ boat sank twenty @-@ two ships , which included the Peninsular and Oriental liner Arabia . UB @-@ 43 also damaged the British cruiser Grafton .
The German Imperial Navy was having difficulties filling submarine crews with trained men and offered to sell UB @-@ 43 and a sister boat , UB @-@ 47 , to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . After the terms were agreed to in June 1917 , both boats were handed over at Pola . When commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , the B in her designation was dropped so that she became U @-@ 43 or U @-@ XLIII . She damaged one Italian steamer in limited Austro @-@ Hungarian service through the end of the war . U @-@ 43 was ceded to France as a war reparation in 1920 and broken at Bizerta that same year .
= = Design and construction = =
The German UB II design improved upon the design of the UB I boats , which had been ordered in September 1914 . In service , the UB I boats were found to be too small and too slow . A major problem was that , because they had a single propeller shaft / engine combo , if either component failed , the U @-@ boat became almost totally disabled . To rectify this flaw , the UB II boats featured twin propeller shafts and twin engines ( one shaft for each engine ) , which also increased the U @-@ boat 's top speed . The new design also included more powerful batteries , larger torpedo tubes , and a deck gun . As a UB II boat , U @-@ 43 could also carry twice the torpedo load of her UB I counterparts , and nearly ten times as much fuel . To accommodate all of these changes the boats ' had larger hulls , and surface and submerged displacements more than twice those of the UB I boats .
The Imperial German Navy ordered UB @-@ 43 from AG Weser on 31 July 1915 as one of a series of six UB II boats ( numbered from UB @-@ 42 to UB @-@ 47 ) UB @-@ 43 was 36 @.@ 90 metres ( 121 ft 1 in ) long and 4 @.@ 37 metres ( 14 ft 4 in ) abeam . She had a single hull with saddle tanks and had a draft of 3 @.@ 68 metres ( 12 ft 1 in ) when surfaced . She displaced 305 tonnes ( 300 long tons ) while submerged but only 272 tonnes ( 268 long tons ) on the surface .
The submarine was equipped with twin Daimler diesel engines and twin Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motors — for surfaced and submerged running , respectively — that drove one propeller shaft . UB @-@ 43 had a surface speed of up to 8 @.@ 82 knots ( 16 @.@ 33 km / h ; 10 @.@ 15 mph ) and could go as fast as 6 @.@ 22 knots ( 11 @.@ 52 km / h ; 7 @.@ 16 mph ) while underwater . The U @-@ boat could carry up to 27 tonnes ( 27 long tons ) of diesel fuel , giving her a range of 6 @,@ 940 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 850 km ; 7 @,@ 990 mi ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) Her electric motors and batteries provided a range of 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) while submerged .
UB @-@ 43 was equipped with two 50 @-@ centimeter ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and could carry four torpedoes . The U @-@ boat was also armed with one 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) Uk L / 30 deck gun .
UB @-@ 43 was laid down by AG Weser at its Bremen shipyard on 3 September 1915 . As one of six U @-@ boats selected for service in the Mediterranean while under construction , UB @-@ 43 was broken into railcar @-@ sized components and shipped overland to the Austro @-@ Hungarian port of Pola . Shipyard workers from Weser assembled the boat and her five sisters at Pola , where she was launched on 8 April .
= = German Imperial Navy career = =
SM UB @-@ 43 was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy on 24 April 1916 under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Dietrich Niebuhr ; UB @-@ 43 was the only U @-@ boat command for the 27 @-@ year @-@ old officer . UB @-@ 43 was assigned to the Navy 's Pola Flotilla ( German : Deutsche U @-@ Halbflotille Pola ) in which she remained throughout her German career . Although the flotilla was based in Pola , the site of the main Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy base , boats of the flotilla operated out of the Austro @-@ Hungarian base at Cattaro which was located farther south and closer to the Mediterranean . German U @-@ boats typically returned to Pola only for repairs .
Under Niebuhr 's command , UB @-@ 43 had no success , and he was replaced by Kapitänleutnant Hans @-@ Joachim von Mellenthin on 29 August . After two weeks under von Mellenthin 's command , UB @-@ 43 sank her first ship . While 112 nautical miles ( 207 km ; 129 mi ) east of Malta , the British steamer Italiana with her cargo of hay destined for Salonica was torpedoed and sunk . Three days later , and some 60 nautical miles ( 110 km ; 69 mi ) closer to Malta , von Mellenthin sank a pair of British steamers . Dewa was in ballast headed for Port Said when attacked by UB @-@ 43 ; three of the steamer 's crew lost their lives in the attack . Lord Tredegar was carrying a general cargo when she was sent down with the loss of four men . The Wall Street Journal reported that the sinking of Lord Tredegar resulted in a loss of $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 for her American insurer .
In October , von Mellenthin and UB @-@ 43 sank an additional two ships . On 10 October , the British tanker Elax , carrying fuel oil from Rangoon was sunk off Cape Matapan without casualties . Three days later , two men were killed when UB @-@ 43 torpedoed and sank their ship , the British steamer Welsh Prince , of 4 @,@ 934 gross register tons ( GRT ) .
On 18 November , the British Admiralty , released a report that listed all of UB @-@ 43 's first five victims as evidence of German wrongdoing . According to the British report , Italiana , Dewa , Lord Tredegar , and Elax — four of the twenty @-@ two ships listed — had all been torpedoed without warning . This type of attack was counter to German pledges to adhere cruiser warfare , which required that ships be allowed time for the crews to escape before any attack could commence . UB @-@ 43 's fifth victim , Welsh Prince , was on another list of 107 British ships sunk whose lifeboats had been fired upon by German submarines .
In the meantime , UB @-@ 43 had continued sinking British ships , sending down five in a nine @-@ day span in early November . Statesman , a 6 @,@ 153 @-@ ton steamer carrying a general cargo , was first on 3 November ; six crewmen were killed when the ship went down 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) east of Malta . The following day , the 3 @,@ 937 @-@ ton Clan Leslie and the 5 @,@ 398 @-@ ton Huntsvale were sunk in the same area . Clan Leslie was carrying a general cargo from Bombay when sunk with three casualties . Seven were killed when Huntsvale , traveling in ballast for Algiers , was sunk .
On 6 November , UB @-@ 43 torpedoed the Peninsular and Oriental liner Arabia 112 nautical miles ( 207 km ; 129 mi ) off Cape Matapan . According to contemporary news accounts , gunners on Arabia fired upon UB @-@ 43 after the liner was torpedoed , but recorded no hits . All 437 passengers aboard the steamer , en route from Sydney to London when attacked , were rescued after an hour in the water . The liner went down 90 minutes after the torpedo struck . Eleven died in the attack , including two of Arabia 's engineers killed in the initial blast of the torpedo . Six days after Arabia 's sinking , UB @-@ 43 sank the 3 @,@ 383 @-@ ton British steamer Kapunda east of Malta . Kapunda 's loss brought the U @-@ boat 's November tally to 26 @,@ 774 gross register tons , which accounted for more than 15 % of the November tally for all German U @-@ boats in the Mediterranean .
UB @-@ 43 and von Mellenthin sank three more British steamers in December : Bretwalda on the 13th , and Russian and Westminster on the 14th . Bretwalda — which had escaped destruction from a mine laid by UC @-@ 5 in August 1915 — and her cargo of jute were sent down 220 nautical miles ( 410 km ; 250 mi ) from Malta . Russian , at 8 @,@ 825 tons , was the largest ship sunk by UB @-@ 43 ; the horse transport ship was sailing in ballast from Salonica when she went down with 28 of her crewmen . After UB @-@ 43 torpedoed Westminster , the U @-@ boat shelled the survivors in their lifeboats , according to authors R. H. Gibson and Maurice Prendergast . Fifteen men from Westminster died in the sinking .
UB @-@ 43 sank no ships over the next eight weeks . Author Paul Halpern reports that the majority of the German U @-@ boats in the Mediterranean fleet were undergoing repairs and refits at Pola and Cattaro during January . Although no specific mention is made of repairs done on UB @-@ 43 , the U @-@ boat 's inactivity in this period may be for that reason .
= = = Unrestricted submarine warfare = = =
On 1 February 1917 , Kaiser Wilhelm II personally approved a resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare in order to try to force the British to make peace . The new rules of engagement specified that no ship was to be left afloat , although British reports for several of UB @-@ 43 's victims suggest that von Mellenthin was already operating in this manner .
Under these new rules of engagement , UB @-@ 43 first sank the Greek steamer Miaoulis 130 nautical miles ( 240 km ; 150 mi ) from Benghazi on 24 February , while she was carrying cottonseed to London . Two days later , the turret hull steamer Clan Farquhar , carrying cotton and coal for London , was torpedoed and sunk . After the attack , which killed 49 of her crew , the ship 's second engineer was taken captive by von Mellenthin . On the 27th , Brodmore and her cargo of frozen meat from Majunga were sunk off Libya ( and her master taken prisoner ) , and on the 28th the Japanese steamer Shinsei Maru was sunk nearby .
She was nearly a month later before von Mellenthin and UB @-@ 43 sank their next target . On 26 March , the British steamer Ledbury , carrying wheat from Karachi , was sunk 90 nautical miles ( 170 km ; 100 mi ) from Benghazi . Eight days later , Vasilefs Constantinos , a Greek steamer of 4 @,@ 070 gross register tons ( GRT ) , was sunk in the Ionian Sea ; the Constantinos was the last ship sunk by UB @-@ 43 under von Mellenthin 's command . On 9 April , von Mellenthin was succeeded by Oblt.z.S. Horst Obermüller , a 26 @-@ year @-@ old first time U @-@ boat commander . Under von Mellenthin 's command , UB @-@ 43 had sunk 86 @,@ 236 gross register tons ( GRT ) of merchant shipping .
On 1 May , Obermüller sank the American @-@ owned ( but British @-@ flagged ) tanker British Sun carrying a load of fuel oil . According to a report in The New York Times , the 5 @,@ 565 @-@ ton vessel , valued at $ 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 , was " one of the finest " tankers . The collier Repton was sent down off Cape Matapan six days later ; three of the British steamer 's crewmen died in the attack . Later in the month , the Greek steamer Dorothy and her cargo of wheat from Karachi were sunk 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) from Cap D 'Armi . UB @-@ 43 's final attack of note was upon the cruiser HMS Grafton , torpedoed 150 nautical miles ( 280 km ; 170 mi ) east of Malta . Grafton was damaged but suffered no casualties . The 7 @,@ 350 @-@ tonne ( 7 @,@ 230 @-@ long @-@ ton ) -displacement British ship was brought safely into port at Malta .
On 21 July , UB @-@ 43 was decommissioned at Pola and handed over to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . In her German Imperial Navy career of fourteen months , UB @-@ 43 sank twenty @-@ two merchant ships totaling 99 @,@ 176 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and damaged one warship with a displacement of 7 @,@ 350 tonnes ( 7 @,@ 230 long tons ) .
= = Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy service = =
In November 1916 , the German Imperial Navy , having a hard time finding trained submarine crews , inquired to find out if its ally Austria @-@ Hungary was interested in purchasing some of its Mediterranean submarines . A general agreement led to protracted negotiations , which stalled over the outflow of Austro @-@ Hungarian gold reserves to Germany . But , with all of the details worked out , the two parties agreed on the sale of UB @-@ 43 and sister ship UB @-@ 47 to Austria @-@ Hungary in June 1917 .
When handed over by the Germans on 21 July , UB @-@ 43 was in a " worn out condition " . Despite the rough condition of the boat , the U @-@ boat was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 30 July 1917 as SM U @-@ 43 , dropping the B from her former designation . Linienschiffsleutnant Friedrich Schlosser was installed as the new commander of the U @-@ boat , which remained at Pola for the next three months undergoing repairs . Departing that port on 1 November , U @-@ 43 made way to Cattaro , and then went out on patrol . Schlosser torpedoed the Italian steamer Orione on 16 November , but the Italian ship did not sink ; she was towed to safety in Taranto .
On 30 November , a leak on U @-@ 43 partially flooded the boat and caused her to sink to a depth of 100 metres ( 330 ft ) before she was bought under control and raised to the surface . The flooding damaged the U @-@ boat 's electrical systems , preventing her from submerging on her return to port for repairs . An unidentified submarine launched a torpedo at the surfaced U @-@ 43 , but the torpedo 's aim was off and it passed harmlessly in front of the bow . The boat made port at Cattaro on 1 December and at Pola on 6 December for two months of repairs .
During U @-@ 43 's time under repair , Schlosser was reassigned to command U @-@ 14 , and Linienschiffsleutnant Eugen Hornyák Edler von Horn was named to take his place aboard U @-@ 43 on 18 January 1918 . Under von Horn , U @-@ 43 patrolled off Cattaro , having to crash dive at least once to escape attack from enemy torpedo boats . On 17 March , while returning to Cattaro from patrol , the crew of the Austro @-@ Hungarian destroyer Dinara mistook U @-@ 43 for an enemy submarine and rammed her , damaging the diving planes . U @-@ 43 sailed for Fiume for three months of repairs .
The U @-@ boat returned to action in June and patrolled off Montenegro , Durazzo , and Cattaro for the next five months . On 13 June , U @-@ 43 was slightly damaged in an air raid on Cattaro and , on 5 September , had to crash dive to avoid another air attack while off Cattaro . On 20 September , the boat rendezvoused with U @-@ 47 and received a French prisoner of war . The prisoner was the only survivor of the French submarine Circé , which U @-@ 47 had torpedoed the night before .
At the end of the war , U @-@ 43 was at Cattaro . In her Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy career , U @-@ 43 damaged a single merchant ships of 4 @,@ 016 gross register tons . U @-@ 43 was ceded to France as a war reparation in 1920 , towed to Bizerta , and broken up there within a year .
= = Ships sunk or damaged = =
= = = As the German UB @-@ 43 = = =
= = = As the Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ 43 = = =
= Priscilla Dailey =
Priscilla Dailey , previously known as the Elizabeth E. Newell , is a wooden canal boat constructed in 1929 in Whitehall , New York . The barge was used to transport bulk cargo in New York , New Jersey , and Connecticut harbors . It sunk in 1974 along with the Elmer S. Dailey and the Berkshire No. 7 . The sunken boat has deteriorated to the point that a salvage operation could result in it breaking apart . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 21 , 1978 .
= = Description = =
The barge measures 111 @.@ 1 feet ( 33 @.@ 9 m ) long with a 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) beam . The depth of the hold is listed at 11 @.@ 8 feet ( 3 @.@ 6 m ) and it had a listed capacity of 311 tons . Clouette describes the Priscilla Dailey as having a " nearly rectangular hull in profile , section and plan , with squared @-@ off stern and bluntly rounded bow . Low bulwarks with scuppers rise slightly to a peak where they join the prominently projecting stem . There are several raised strakes in the bow . The superstructure consists mainly of a single low coaming which extends nearly the length of the vessel " . Toward the stern is a small cabin that has the same width and height of the coaming . In 1978 , the National Register of Historic Places nomination noted that the convex hatch covers | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
likely floated away and that the squarish hood over the companionway had washed away .
= = History = =
The wooden canal boat Priscilla Dailey was originally known as Elizabeth E. Newell until it was purchased by Stewart J. Dailey in 1941 . It was constructed in 1929 in Whitehall , New York , by William J. Ryan for Anthony O. Boyle . The ship was built 24 years after the Champlain Canal 's enlargement , but more closely resembles the specifications of the 19th @-@ century canal boats . It was used to transport materials in New York , New Jersey and Connecticut harbors between 1941 and 1972 , and afterward was moored in Bridgeport Harbor together with the Elmer S. Dailey and Berkshire No. 7 .
In the spring of 1974 , one of the barges began to take on water , dragging down the other two . At neap tide , one @-@ third of the hull of the Priscilla Dailey is visible above water . Priscilla Dailey is listed in the U.S. Registry as # 170368 .
= = Importance = =
The Priscilla Dailey is historically significant because it is one of the few surviving wooden canal boats and is " a rare and representative artifact of canal transportation " . Its design is characteristic of its 19th @-@ century predecessors despite being a 20th @-@ century vessel . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 21 , 1978 . Its nomination and listing is unusual because it was not yet 50 years old at the time of its nomination , and it sunk in 1974 . It and the other two barges that sank with it are the only shipwrecks in Connecticut listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
In 1998 , the historic status of the barges was a concern for the Port Authority of Bridgeport Harbor , as the sunken ships interfered with a billion @-@ dollar redevelopment project . Over the years , the barges had deteriorated so that an operation to salvage them would likely result in them breaking apart . No action had been taken by 2003 , but a report noted that prior to any activity of the Priscilla Dailey , the Federal Transit Administration and / or the City of Bridgeport would document the barge with photos and a technical description . Specifics regarding the documentation based on the activity would be archived at the State Historic Preservation Office and the Mystic Seaport Museum .
= Jane Harris ( Neighbours ) =
Jane Harris is a fictional character from the Australian Network Ten soap opera Neighbours , played by Annie Jones . She debuted on @-@ screen during the episode broadcast on 31 July 1986 and was created by writer Ray Kolle . Jones originally auditioned for the role of Charlene Mitchell ( Kylie Minogue ) , but she was not successful . This prompted Jones to telephone the producers for two months asking for a role in the show until she was cast . In 1989 , Jones decided to quit the serial in order to pursue other projects and the character departed on 9 September the same year . In 2005 , Jones was one of many ex @-@ cast members who agreed to return to the serial , marking the 20th anniversary of Neighbours . On @-@ screen she was featured making a cameo in Annalise Hartman 's ( Kimberley Davies ) documentary about Ramsay Street .
Throughout her duration she held a nickname " Plain Jane Superbrain " , for her early intelligent , yet geeky image , which she was referred to by other character and media alike . She is portrayed as a mousy type character , going on a journey of self @-@ discovery as she transformed into a heart breaker . Her most notable point in this storyline is her makeover in which she wears make @-@ up in place of her glasses , dresses sexy and acts thick in order to win Mike Young 's ( Guy Pearce ) heart . Her makeover has been well documented by critics and holds a place in popular culture , where she is often referred to in cases of extreme makeovers . However , some academic publications have criticised her makeover for conforming to the stereo type that females cannot be sexy and intelligent at the same time . Jones also received the Logie Award for Most Popular Actress while portraying Jane .
= = Casting = =
The creation of Jane developed a different way to the usual process and there was no regular audition sessions . Aspiring actress Annie Jones spent two months ringing the Neighbours production company asking for a role on the show . She said " I had appeared on several other Australian TV shows , but desperately wanted to get into Neighbours " . Jones originally auditioned for the role of Charlene Mitchell , before she was given the small role , for what was a planned six weeks of appearances . Jones was 19 when she landed the role and became a permanent cast member .
= = Development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
Jane was originally portrayed as being dowdy , lonely and quiet . She was a bookworm and mousey , thus generating her nickname " Plain Jane the Superbrain " to which she was often referred at the beginning of her role . Jones describes her character as a " goody @-@ goody " . . Her clothing style was forced upon her by her mother who believed she should be dressed in " dowdy " clothing . Jane is very clever and was bullied because of this whilst at school . When she meets Charlene Mitchell ( Kylie Minogue ) , she begins to transform into a different person . With Charlene 's help , she began to dress differently and as she became more confident , she began drawing the attention of male characters , most notably Mike Young ( Guy Pierce ) and eventually was seen as a " heart @-@ breaker " . Jane 's grandmother Nell Mangel ( Vivean Gray ) does not approve of her change in personality , but Jane ignores her worries and becomes a model . Following her make over , she becomes more assertive and takes the initiative to end her relationship with Mike Young . She then begins an affair with an older man .
= = = Relationships = = =
In 1987 , producers cast actress Briony Behets to play Jane 's mother Amanda Harris to explore her backstory . She arrives in Erinsborough to reconnect with her daughter after two years . She had abandoned her to start a new life in Hong Kong . She was billed as a " glamorous but ageing socialite " . But Amanda notices that Jane has become attractive and the " scheming " character decides to try and compete against her to get more attention . Behets soon left the show as Amanda was only intended to be a guest character .
The producers devised a romance storyline for the character alongside Mike Young ( Guy Pearce ) . Jane 's grandmother is not happy with the prospect of Jane and Mike forming a relationship . Jane decides not to pursue their relationship any further . Pearce told Patrice Fidgeon from TV Week that his character mainly shared a " platonic " relationship with Jane . But writers introduced a temporary love interest for Jane , pilot Glen Matheson ( Richard Moss ) who is much older than her . Nell disapproves of her new boyfriend because of the age difference . But Jane decides to end the romance , Pearce explained that " she realises this was not going to work out and calls it quits . " This wins Nell 's support of Jane 's involvement with Mike who is of a similar age . The pair had not been on good terms prior to working together on a photography assignment . They spend the day with Charlene and Scott Robinson ( Jason Donovan ) but after they leave the pair spend time alone and resolve their past problems . Pearce added that his character had been trying to charm Jane for some time . Eventually " she gives in " to Mike , Pearce believed that she felt sorry for Mike but over time comes to the realisation that she " really likes him " .
It was reported in June 1988 that Jones had signed a new contract to appear as Jane for another twelve months . But Jane and Mike 's relationship would not last as writers decided to pair her with another established character , Des Clarke ( Paul Keane ) . Their relationship is formed when Des decides to help Mike set up a photography dark room for a birthday gift . Jane offers to help but nearly electrocutes herself but Des manages to rescue her . Jane believes Des has saved her life and they develop a connection . Jones told TV Week 's Lawrie Masterson that " it builds towards a full on affair . Jane becomes virtually a stand @-@ in mother for little Jamie ( Des ' son ) and all those maternal instincts that girls have start to emerge . This results in the final break @-@ down of her relationship with Mike , Jones added " Mike gets the flick basically . "
Mike is hurt when new love interest Bronwyn Davies ( Rachel Friend ) chose to be with Henry Ramsay ( Craig McLachlan ) . He incorrectly believes he and Jane have a chance of reconciling because when Jane and Des share a meal to discuss Mike , but Jane believed Des had invited her with romantic intentions in mind . Des does feel drawn to Jane and Jones told Darren Devlyn from the magazine that her character is " really upset " when Des wants to discuss Mike . Jane is nearly hit by a car and this makes Des realise that he is in love with Jane and asks her to marry him . Mike is left feeling worse that both women in his life have chosen other men . Jones told Devlyn that Des ' friends still believe he is attached to the memory of his late wife Daphne Clarke ( Elaine Smith ) . She explained that because of Daphne " it 's natural that the proposal comes as a big shock . " Both characters had been left emotionally damaged from previous relationships but Jones believed the duo had no hesitations once they made the commitment . The actress added " it 's great that Des is finally over his mourning . " She was also looking forward to her character taking the role of step @-@ mother to Jamie . It was interesting for her to see how Jane copes with the responsibility of looking after a child . Keane was happy with the storyline because he believed it was time for Des to move on . He was also excited to work more closely alongside Jones on the storyline .
= = = Departure and return = = =
In 1989 , Jones decided to quit the serial in order to pursue other projects . Jones ' contract had been up for renewal but she chose not to proceed . Jones told Chrissie Camp ( TV Week ) that three years on a soap opera was long enough and the right time to leave . Jones filmed her final scenes with Neighbours in July that year . Camp revealed that Jane 's exit storyline would see her receiving bad news about Nell 's health and performing a " mercy dash overseas " . But her fiance Des pleads with her not to leave . She leaves regardless of Des ' request and their wedding plans are put on hold . Camp added that Jane 's departure comes as a " total shock " to the other residents of Ramsay Street . Jane departed during the episode broadcast on 4 September 1989 .
In 2005 , it was confirmed that Jones would be reprising her role to join the many ex @-@ cast members returning for the show 's 20th anniversary episode .
= = Storylines = =
Jane was born in Erinsborough , to Peter and Amanda Harris , in 1969 . Her parents were constantly busy and never really had time for her , but she could always count on her grandmother , Nell ( who she went to live with at 16 , when her parents moved to Hong Kong ) . She is teased at school for being somewhat clever , and is given the nickname " Plain Jane the Super @-@ brain " . This ends after her neighbours , Helen Daniels ( Anne Haddy ) and Daphne give her a makeover .
She gradually becomes friends with Charlene and Scott Robinson ( Jason Donovan ) . Jane later starts to date Mike . Nell bans her from seeing Mike after her love rival Sue Parker ( Kate Gorman ) begins to send Nell poison pen letters about Mike . She later allows them be together when Daphne finds out Sue is behind the letters . After becoming lost in the bush with Shane Ramsay ( Peter O 'Brien ) , they strike up a friendship and share a bond , this makes Mike jealous . Her relationship with Mike gradually comes to an end after he cheats on her . Amanda comes back to Erinsborough , under the ruse of getting to know her daughter when in reality she is hiding from being fined for insurance fraud . Jane and Nell eventually tell her to leave .
Jane then starts working for Paul Robinson ( Stefan Dennis ) at the Robinson Corporation , Jane and Scott spend more time together as she is helping him revise for his HSC retakes , Jane always had a crush on him , they later kiss but Henry Ramsay ( Craig McLachlan ) witnesses it , he tells Charlene , who dumps Scott and refuses to talk to Jane , she eventually gets them back together when she pretends to pursue Scott , Charlene wants nothing more to do with her . Wanting to get away she is happy when Rosemary Daniels ( Joy Chambers ) then sees Jane 's potential and tries to get her to work for her in New York for the Daniels Corporation , but Jane later decides she is not willing to leave her friends and family behind . Her next love interest is Mark Granger ( Colin Handley ) who proposes to her on 25 December 1988 . While she accepts , the engagement does not last as Mark 's mother ( Mary Ward ) takes an instant dislike towards Jane . Tony Romeo ( Nick Carrafa ) later tries to pass Jane off as his fiance to his mother , when his mother arrives Jane is furious with Tony and reveals the truth when she finds out he also pursuing Sally Wells ( Rowena Mohr ) .
She falls in love with Des , Daphne 's widower and they became engaged . This engagement comes to an end when Nell suffers a heart attack and she goes to England to nurse her back to health . Des waits for his bride @-@ to @-@ be , but a few months later , Jane phones and tells Des that she can not go through with the wedding and settles down in England with her grandmother . Jane appears in Annalise Hartman 's ( Kimberley Davies ) documentary focusing on past residents of Ramsay Street , she reveals that she is still living with Nell .
= = Reception = =
For her portrayal of Jane , Jones won the ' Most Popular Actress ' award at the 1989 Logie Awards . The Times named her transformation as one of their top 15 most memorable Neighbours moments . They said " Again , a barely remembered moment , but long before the days of makeover television the momentous reveal of Jane – previously memorable in her daggy blazer and terribly parted hair – as super @-@ foxy , big haired balldress @-@ wearing lovely sent Mrs Mangel , and us , into shock " .
Comedy Central a satellite television station which airs in the UK , branded her the ' Original Lassiters girl ' . Also opining , Jones won Jane " a legion of male fans " , the author himself confessed his attraction to her . Neil Wallis and Dave Hogan in their book The Neighbours Factfile , comment on Jane stating : " Brought in to replace Kylie Minogue as the main love interest in the show , her character Jane Harris proves to be much raunchier and man @-@ hungry than Charlene ever was ! " Orange UK describe Jane 's style as " shy genius " and state she is famous for her " transformation from ugly duckling to beautiful swan " and obtained the serial 's " hottest spunks " .
Nick Harris of newspaper The Independent compared the Rangers Football Club 's makeover to hers . They said she was a " geeky girl wearing mumsy sweaters " before a " glamour puss " and joked she looked " knock @-@ down gorgeous – At least by late 1980s Ramsay Street standards . " Entertainment website Lowculture published an article criticising various soap operas for using each other 's storyline , in which they brand Jane 's " geek makeover " as the most famous of all and that other storylines of the same nature , are repetitive .
Naomi Alderman of The Guardian branded her purposely failing her maths tests to get Mike 's attention as " ridiculous " , however she added : " As a teenager I remember having earnest discussions with other girls about it : was it really true ? Did men not like clever girls ? Ought we to try to appear less clever ? " Whilst Owen Gibson of the newspaper said she was the " school swot " before she turned into a " beauty queen " . Columnist Felicity Cloake compiled an advice guide to attending Christmas parties for the workplace , on style she advised her readers to look to Jane for inspiration if they want to " dress to impress " . Josh Burt of entertainment website Hecklerspray ran a make over feature inspired by Jane 's make over , he also branded Jane a whore and said he thought her make over was astonishing . He also stated : " Ever since Plain Jane the Superbrain took off her glasses , smeared some slutty red lipstick around her mouth , and rubbed ice cubes on her stupid nipples , the celebrity makeover has been a must for anyone hoping to increase their fame . For those unaware , the whole Plain Jane thing happened in the Australian drama serial , Neighbours . She went from geek to whore in a matter of moments . "
Leeds culture website , Leeds Confidential stated the " makeover genre " has always fascinated them and mentioned the makeover as their prime example . Europe ’ s leading drinks trade publication , The Drinks Business compared Jane to their brand of Antipodean beer commenting it 's not as bland as it first appears . However they said that Jane is " notoriously nerdy " . TV Cream refer to Jane as the " neighbourhood dag " and stated that she conformed to the " plain , bespectacled , bookish female " taking her glasses off and becoming the " ravishing beauty " , they also brand her a minx for her antics with Scott . Sky Showbiz brand Jane as the serial 's " super swot " . Rod McPhee of Yorkshire Evening Post , stated that she went from " ostracised bookworm , who one day went from mousey nobody to sought @-@ after siren , all because she lost the lenses " . Additionly , he was confused why popular culture feels the need downgrade or upgrade someone 's sex appeal because of the presence or absence of glasses . Geoff Dean also agrees with this point in his book " English for Gifted and Talented Students : 11 – 18 Years " . However he added that able students seem to " lack a positive collective story or identity " , making an example of Jane .
Lorna Cooper a columnist of website MSN TV , branded Jane and Des one of " TV 's gruesome twosomes " . She has listed Jane as one of Soap Opera 's forgotten characters , claiming her as a favourite out of the golden era of Neighbours . Cooper once described her as " Seemingly mousey girl , who turned into a heartbreaker " and opines that she seemed to have liking for a " succession of older men " . Jane is referred to in Emily Barr 's fictitious novel " Out of My Depth " , in which character Amanda is watching her on Neighbours . Jane is mentioned in radio presenter Tony Horne tour guide book " Hornes Down Under " in which he states he was not excited about visiting the set of Neighbours because in his opinion nothing good happened after the departures of Jane and Mike .
= Italian cruiser San Giorgio =
The Italian cruiser San Giorgio was the name ship of her class of two armored cruisers built for the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) in the first decade of the 20th century . Commissioned in 1910 , the ship was badly damaged when she ran aground before the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 , although she was repaired before its end . During World War I , San Giorgio 's activities were limited by the threat of Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines , although the ship did participate in the bombardment of Durazzo , Albania , in late 1918 .
She acted as a royal yacht for Crown Prince Umberto 's 1924 tour of South America and then deployed to the Indian Ocean to support operations in Italian Somaliland in 1925 – 26 . San Giorgio served as a training ship from 1930 to 1935 and was then rebuilt in 1937 – 38 to better serve in that role . As part of her reconstruction , she received a modern anti @-@ aircraft suite that was augmented before she was transferred to bolster the defences of Tobruk shortly before Italy declared war on the Allies in mid @-@ 1940 . San Giorgio was forced to scuttle herself in early 1941 as the Allies moved in to occupy the port . Her wreck was used as an immobile repair ship by the British from 1943 through 1945 . Salvaged in 1952 , she sank while under tow to Italy to be broken up .
= = Design and description = =
The ships of the San Giorgio class were designed as improved versions of the Pisa @-@ class design . San Giorgio had a length between perpendiculars of 131 @.@ 04 metres ( 429 ft 11 in ) and an overall length of 140 @.@ 89 metres ( 462 ft 3 in ) . She had a beam of 21 @.@ 03 metres ( 69 ft 0 in ) and a draught of 7 @.@ 35 metres ( 24 ft 1 in ) . The ship displaced 10 @,@ 167 tonnes ( 10 @,@ 006 long tons ) at normal load , and 11 @,@ 300 tonnes ( 11 @,@ 100 long tons ) at deep load . Her complement was 32 officers and 666 to 673 enlisted men .
The ship was powered by a pair of vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller shaft using steam supplied by 14 mixed @-@ firing Blechynden boilers . Designed for a maximum output of 23 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 17 @,@ 000 kW ) and a speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) , San Giorgio handily exceeded this , reaching a speed of 23 @.@ 2 knots ( 43 @.@ 0 km / h ; 26 @.@ 7 mph ) during her sea trials from 19 @,@ 595 ihp ( 14 @,@ 612 kW ) . The ship had a cruising range of 6 @,@ 270 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 610 km ; 7 @,@ 220 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The main armament of the San Giorgio @-@ class ships consisted of four Cannone da 254 / 45 A Modello 1908 guns in twin @-@ gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure . The ships mounted eight Cannone da 190 / 45 A Modello 1908 in four twin @-@ gun turrets , two in each side amidships , as their secondary armament . For defense against torpedo boats , they carried 18 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 40 @-@ caliber 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns . Eight of these were mounted in embrasures in the sides of the hull and the rest in the superstructure . The ships were also fitted with a pair of 40 @-@ caliber QF 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns . The San Giorgios were also equipped with three submerged 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . During World War I , eight of the 76 mm guns were replaced by six 76 mm anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns and one torpedo tube was removed .
The ships were protected by an armoured belt that was 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships and reduced to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) at the bow and stern . The armoured deck was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick and the conning tower armour was 254 mm thick . The 254 mm gun turrets were protected by 200 mm of armour while the 190 mm turrets had 160 mm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) .
= = Construction and career = =
San Giorgio , named after Saint George , the patron saint of Genoa , was ordered on 3 August 1904 and laid down on 2 January 1907 at the Regio Cantieri di Castellammare di Stabia in Castellammare di Stabia . The ship was launched on 27 July 1908 and completed on 1 July 1910 . San Giorgio ran aground on a reef off Naples @-@ Posillipo on 12 August 1910 , and was badly damaged . An estimated 4 @,@ 369 tonnes ( 4 @,@ 300 long tons ) of water flooded the boiler rooms , magazines and lower compartments . To refloat the ship , her guns and turrets , together with her conning tower and some of her armour had to be removed .
San Giorgio was under repair at the outbreak of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September and only rejoined the fleet in June 1912 . In February 1913 , the ship cruised the Aegean Sea and made a port visit to Salonica , Greece , the next month . The ship ran aground again in November in the Strait of Messina , but she was only lightly damaged . The captain was dismissed as a result of the incident .
San Giorgio was based at Brindisi when Italy declared war on the Central Powers on 23 May 1915 . That night , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy bombarded the Italian coast in an attempt to disrupt the Italian mobilization . Of the many targets , Ancona was hardest hit , with disruptions to the town 's gas , electric , and telephone service ; the city 's stockpiles of coal and oil were left in flames . All of the Austrian ships safely returned to port , putting pressure on the Regia Marina to stop the attacks . When the Austrians resumed bombardments on the Italian coast in mid @-@ June , Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel responded by sending San Giorgio and the other armored cruisers at Brindisi — the navy 's newest — to Venice to supplement the older ships already there . Shortly after their arrival at Venice , Amalfi was sunk by a submarine on 7 July and her loss severely restricted the activities of the other ships based at Venice . San Giorgio participated in the bombardment of Durazzo on 2 October 1918 which sank one merchantman and damaged two others .
San Giorgio was relieved by the scout cruiser Brindisi as flagship of the Eastern Squadron on 16 July 1921 at Istanbul , Turkey . She later served in the Far East and China . In 1924 she conducted Crown Prince Umberto on his tour of South America . The ship departed Naples on 1 July and the outbreak of the second Tenente revolt in Brazil the following day forced the ships to divert to Argentina , where they arrived at Buenos Aires on 6 August . Three days later the government hosted a military parade in his honor which included a detachment of sailors from San Giorgio . He visited Chile before departing Montevideo , Uruguay on 5 September , bound for Bahia , Brazil . The ship sailed for home on 18 September .
After her return , she was assigned to the Red Sea and Indian Ocean Naval Division ( Divisione Navale del Mar Rosso e dell 'Oceano Indiano ) in 1925 – 26 , supporting operations in Italian Somaliland . From 1930 to 1935 , the ship was based in Pola as a training ship for naval cadets and was sent to Spain after the Spanish Civil War began in 1936 to protect Italian interests . In 1937 – 38 she was reconstructed to serve as a dedicated training ship for naval cadets at the Arsenale di La Spezia : six boilers were removed and the remaining eight were converted to burn fuel oil which reduced her speed to 16 – 17 knots ( 30 – 31 km / h ; 18 – 20 mph ) . Each pair of funnels was trunked together and her 76 / 40 guns were replaced by eight 47 @-@ caliber 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns in four twin turrets abreast the funnels . Her torpedo tubes were also removed while she received a light AA suite for the first time with the addition of six 54 @-@ caliber Breda 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns in single mounts , a dozen 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Breda Model 35 autocannon in six twin mounts and four 13 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) Breda Model 31 machine guns in two twin mounts .
Prior to her being sent to reinforce the defences of Tobruk in early May 1940 , a fifth 100 / 47 gun turret was added on the forecastle and five more twin 13 @.@ 2 mm machine gun mounts were added to better suit her new role as a floating battery . Two days after Italy declared war on Britain on 10 June , the British launched a co @-@ ordinated sea and land attack against Tobruk . The British naval force , including the light cruisers Gloucester and Liverpool bombarded the port and engaged San Giorgio , which suffered no damage , while Royal Air Force Blenheim bombers from No. 45 , No. 55 , and No. 211 Squadrons also attacked Tobruk , striking San Giorgio with a bomb . On 19 June , the British submarine HMS Parthian fired two torpedoes at San Giorgio , but they detonated before hitting the ship . Her principal role was to supplement the anti @-@ aircraft defences of Tobruk although she fired on Australian forces attacking Tobruk on 21 January 1941 . As British and Australian troops were entering Tobruk , San Giorgio was scuttled in shallow water on the morning of 22 January by placing demolition charges in her magazines . The ship was awarded the Gold Medal of Military Valor ( Medaglia d 'Oro al Valor Militare ) for her actions in the defence of Tobruk .
San Giorgio 's hulk was commissioned by the British in March 1943 as HMS San Giorgio for use as a repair ship and was used by them for the rest of the war . The wreck was refloated in 1952 , but it sank en route to Italy .
= Uranus =
Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun . It has the third @-@ largest planetary radius and fourth @-@ largest planetary mass in the Solar System . Uranus is similar in composition to Neptune , and both have different bulk chemical composition from that of the larger gas giants Jupiter and Saturn . For this reason , scientists often classify Uranus and Neptune as " ice giants " to distinguish them from the gas giants . Uranus 's atmosphere is similar to Jupiter 's and Saturn 's in its primary composition of hydrogen and helium , but it contains more " ices " such as water , ammonia , and methane , along with traces of other hydrocarbons . It is the coldest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System , with a minimum temperature of 49 K ( − 224 @.@ 2 ° C ) , and has a complex , layered cloud structure with water thought to make up the lowest clouds and methane the uppermost layer of clouds . The interior of Uranus is mainly composed of ices and rock .
Uranus is the only planet whose name is derived from a figure from Greek mythology , from the Latinized version of the Greek god of the sky Ouranos . Like the other giant planets , Uranus has a ring system , a magnetosphere , and numerous moons . The Uranian system has a unique configuration among those of the planets because its axis of rotation is tilted sideways , nearly into the plane of its solar orbit . Its north and south poles , therefore , lie where most other planets have their equators . In 1986 , images from Voyager 2 showed Uranus as an almost featureless planet in visible light , without the cloud bands or storms associated with the other giant planets . Observations from Earth have shown seasonal change and increased weather activity as Uranus approached its equinox in 2007 . Wind speeds can reach 250 metres per second ( 900 km / h , 560 mph ) .
= = History = =
Like the five classical planets , Uranus is visible to the naked eye , but it was never recognized as a planet by ancient observers because of its dimness and slow orbit . Sir William Herschel announced its discovery on 13 March 1781 , expanding the known boundaries of the Solar System for the first time in history and making Uranus the first planet discovered with a telescope .
= = = Discovery = = =
Uranus had been observed on many occasions before its recognition as a planet , but it was generally mistaken for a star . Possibly the earliest known observation was by Hipparchos , who in 128 BC may have recorded it as a star for his star catalogue that was later incorporated into Ptolemy 's Almagest . The earliest definite sighting was in 1690 when John Flamsteed observed it at least six times , cataloguing it as 34 Tauri . The French astronomer Pierre Lemonnier observed Uranus at least twelve times between 1750 and 1769 , including on four consecutive nights .
Sir William Herschel observed Uranus on 13 March 1781 from the garden of his house at 19 New King Street in Bath , Somerset , England ( now the Herschel Museum of Astronomy ) , and initially reported it ( on 26 April 1781 ) as a comet . Herschel " engaged in a series of observations on the parallax of the fixed stars " , using a telescope of his own design .
He recorded in his journal " In the quartile near ζ Tauri ... either [ a ] Nebulous star or perhaps a comet " . On 17 March he noted , " I looked for the Comet or Nebulous Star and found that it is a Comet , for it has changed its place " . When he presented his discovery to the Royal Society , he continued to assert that he had found a comet , but also implicitly compared it to a planet :
" The power I had on when I first saw the comet was 227 . From experience I know that the diameters of the fixed stars are not proportionally magnified with higher powers , as planets are ; therefore I now put the powers at 460 and 932 , and found that the diameter of the comet increased in proportion to the power , as it ought to be , on the supposition of its not being a fixed star , while the diameters of the stars to which I compared it were not increased in the same ratio . Moreover , the comet being magnified much beyond what its light would admit of , appeared hazy and ill @-@ defined with these great powers , while the stars preserved that lustre and distinctness which from many thousand observations I knew they would retain . The sequel has shown that my surmises were well @-@ founded , this proving to be the Comet we have lately observed " .
Herschel notified the Astronomer Royal , Nevil Maskelyne , of his discovery and received this flummoxed reply from him on 23 April : " I don 't know what to call it . It is as likely to be a regular planet moving in an orbit nearly circular to the sun as a Comet moving in a very eccentric ellipsis . I have not yet seen any coma or tail to it " .
Although Herschel continued to describe his new object as a comet , other astronomers had already begun to suspect otherwise . Finnish @-@ Swedish astronomer Anders Johan Lexell , working in Russia , was the first to compute the orbit of the new object and its nearly circular orbit led him to a conclusion that it was a planet rather than a comet . Berlin astronomer Johann Elert Bode described Herschel 's discovery as " a moving star that can be deemed a hitherto unknown planet @-@ like object circulating beyond the orbit of Saturn " . Bode concluded that its near @-@ circular orbit was more like a planet than a comet .
The object was soon universally accepted as a new planet . By 1783 , Herschel acknowledged this to Royal Society president Joseph Banks : " By the observation of the most eminent Astronomers in Europe it appears that the new star , which I had the honour of pointing out to them in March 1781 , is a Primary Planet of our Solar System . " In recognition of his achievement , King George III gave Herschel an annual stipend of £ 200 on condition that he move to Windsor so that the Royal Family could look through his telescopes .
= = = Name = = =
Uranus is named after the ancient Greek deity of the sky Uranus ( Ancient Greek : Οὐρανός ) , the father of Cronus ( Saturn ) and grandfather of Zeus ( Jupiter ) , which in Latin became " Ūranus " . It is the only planet whose name is derived from a figure of Greek mythology . The adjective of Uranus is " Uranian " . The pronunciation of the name Uranus preferred among astronomers is / ˈjʊərənəs / , with stress on the first syllable as in Latin Ūranus , in contrast to / jʊˈreɪnəs / , with stress on the second syllable and a long a , though both are considered acceptable .
Consensus on the name was not reached until almost 70 years after the planet 's discovery . During the original discussions following discovery , Maskelyne asked Herschel to " do the astronomical world the faver [ sic ] to give a name to your planet , which is entirely your own , [ and ] which we are so much obliged to you for the discovery of " . In response to Maskelyne 's request , Herschel decided to name the object Georgium Sidus ( George 's Star ) , or the " Georgian Planet " in honour of his new patron , King George III . He explained this decision in a letter to Joseph Banks :
In the fabulous ages of ancient times the appellations of Mercury , Venus , Mars , Jupiter and Saturn were given to the Planets , as being the names of their principal heroes and divinities . In the present more philosophical era it would hardly be allowable to have recourse to the same method and call it Juno , Pallas , Apollo or Minerva , for a name to our new heavenly body . The first consideration of any particular event , or remarkable incident , seems to be its chronology : if in any future age it should be asked , when this last @-@ found Planet was discovered ? It would be a very satisfactory answer to say , ' In the reign of King George the Third ' .
Herschel 's proposed name was not popular outside Britain , and alternatives were soon proposed . Astronomer Jérôme Lalande proposed that it be named Herschel in honour of its discoverer . Swedish astronomer Erik Prosperin proposed the name Neptune , which was supported by other astronomers who liked the idea to commemorate the victories of the British Royal Naval fleet in the course of the American Revolutionary War by calling the new planet even Neptune George III or Neptune Great Britain .
In a March 1782 treatise , Bode proposed Uranus , the Latinized version of the Greek god of the sky , Ouranos . Bode argued that the name should follow the mythology so as not to stand out as different from the other planets , and that Uranus was an appropriate name as the father of the first generation of the Titans . He also noted that elegance of the name in that just as Saturn was the father of Jupiter , the new planet should be named after the father of Saturn . In 1789 , Bode 's Royal Academy colleague Martin Klaproth named his newly discovered element uranium in support of Bode 's choice . Ultimately , Bode 's suggestion became the most widely used , and became universal in 1850 when HM Nautical Almanac Office , the final holdout , switched from using Georgium Sidus to Uranus .
Uranus has two astronomical symbols . The first to be proposed , ♅ , was suggested by Lalande in 1784 . In a letter to Herschel , Lalande described it as " un globe surmonté par la première lettre de votre nom " ( " a globe surmounted by the first letter of your surname " ) . A later proposal , ⛢ , is a hybrid of the symbols for Mars and the Sun because Uranus was the Sky in Greek mythology , which was thought to be dominated by the combined powers of the Sun and Mars .
Uranus is called by a variety of translations in other languages . In Chinese , Japanese , Korean , and Vietnamese , its name is literally translated as the " sky king star " ( 天王星 ) . In Thai , its official name is Dao Yurenat ( ดาวยูเรนัส ) , as in English . Its other name in Thai is Dao Maritayu ( ดาวมฤตยู , Star of Mṛtyu ) , after the Sanskrit word for " death " , Mrtyu ( मृत ् यु ) . In Mongolian , its name is Tengeriin Van ( Тэнгэрийн ван ) , translated as " King of the Sky " , reflecting its namesake god 's role as the ruler of the heavens . In Hawaiian , its name is Hele ‘ ekala . In Māori , its name is Whērangi . It is also named in Māori as Rangipō . In Nahuatl , Uranus is known as " Ilhuicateōcītlalli " , named after the word for " sky " , " ilhuicatl " . It is also named in Nahuatl as " Xiuhtēuccītlalli " , after the god Xiuhtecuhtli .
= = Orbit and rotation = =
Uranus orbits the Sun once every 84 years . Its average distance from the Sun is roughly 3 billion km ( about 20 AU ) . The difference between its minimum and maximum distance from the Sun is 1 @.@ 8 AU , larger than that of any other planet , though not as large as that of dwarf planet Pluto . The intensity of sunlight varies inversely with the square of distance , and so on Uranus ( at about 20 times the distance from the Sun compared to Earth ) it is about 1 / 400 the intensity of light on Earth . Its orbital elements were first calculated in 1783 by Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace . With time , discrepancies began to appear between the predicted and observed orbits , and in 1841 , John Couch Adams first proposed that the differences might be due to the gravitational tug of an unseen planet . In 1845 , Urbain Le Verrier began his own independent research into Uranus 's orbit . On September 23 , 1846 , Johann Gottfried Galle located a new planet , later named Neptune , at nearly the position predicted by Le Verrier .
The rotational period of the interior of Uranus is 17 hours , 14 minutes . As on all the giant planets , its upper atmosphere experiences strong winds in the direction of rotation . At some latitudes , such as about 60 degrees south , visible features of the atmosphere move much faster , making a full rotation in as little as 14 hours .
= = = Axial tilt = = =
The Uranian axis of rotation is approximately parallel with the plane of the Solar System , with an axial tilt of 97 @.@ 77 ° ( as defined by prograde rotation ) . This gives it seasonal changes completely unlike those of the other planets . Near the solstice , one pole faces the Sun continuously and the other faces away . Only a narrow strip around the equator experiences a rapid day – night cycle , but with the Sun low over the horizon . At the other side of Uranus 's orbit the orientation of the poles towards the Sun is reversed . Each pole gets around 42 years of continuous sunlight , followed by 42 years of darkness . Near the time of the equinoxes , the Sun faces the equator of Uranus giving a period of day – night cycles similar to those seen on most of the other planets . In contrast to the other planets , whose motions around the Sun resemble that of spinning tops , Uranus 's motion can be visualized as that of a ball rolling on the ecliptic plane near solstices and of a spinning rifle bullet near equinoxes .
Uranus reached its most recent equinox on December 7 , 2007 .
One result of this axis orientation is that , averaged over the Uranian year , the polar regions of Uranus receive a greater energy input from the Sun than its equatorial regions . Nevertheless , Uranus is hotter at its equator than at its poles . The underlying mechanism that causes this is unknown . The reason for Uranus 's unusual axial tilt is also not known with certainty , but the usual speculation is that during the formation of the Solar System , an Earth @-@ sized protoplanet collided with Uranus , causing the skewed orientation . Uranus 's south pole was pointed almost directly at the Sun at the time of Voyager 2 's flyby in 1986 . The labelling of this pole as " south " uses the definition currently endorsed by the International Astronomical Union , namely that the north pole of a planet or satellite is the pole that points | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
3 @.@ 15 – 3 @.@ 53 g / cm3 , with pure diamond close to 3 @.@ 52 g / cm3 . The chemical bonds that hold the carbon atoms in diamonds together are weaker than those in graphite . In diamonds , the bonds form an inflexible three @-@ dimensional lattice , whereas in graphite , the atoms are tightly bonded into sheets , which can slide easily over one another , making the overall structure weaker . In a diamond , each carbon atom is surrounded by neighboring four carbon atoms forming a tetrahedral shaped unit .
= = = Hardness = = =
Diamond is the hardest known natural material on both the Vickers and the Mohs scale . Diamond 's hardness has been known since antiquity , and is the source of its name .
Diamond hardness depends on its purity , crystalline perfection and orientation : hardness is higher for flawless , pure crystals oriented to the < 111 > direction ( along the longest diagonal of the cubic diamond lattice ) . Therefore , whereas it might be possible to scratch some diamonds with other materials , such as boron nitride , the hardest diamonds can only be scratched by other diamonds and nanocrystalline diamond aggregates .
The hardness of diamond contributes to its suitability as a gemstone . Because it can only be scratched by other diamonds , it maintains its polish extremely well . Unlike many other gems , it is well @-@ suited to daily wear because of its resistance to scratching — perhaps contributing to its popularity as the preferred gem in engagement or wedding rings , which are often worn every day .
The hardest natural diamonds mostly originate from the Copeton and Bingara fields located in the New England area in New South Wales , Australia . These diamonds are generally small , perfect to semiperfect octahedra , and are used to polish other diamonds . Their hardness is associated with the crystal growth form , which is single @-@ stage crystal growth . Most other diamonds show more evidence of multiple growth stages , which produce inclusions , flaws , and defect planes in the crystal lattice , all of which affect their hardness . It is possible to treat regular diamonds under a combination of high pressure and high temperature to produce diamonds that are harder than the diamonds used in hardness gauges .
Somewhat related to hardness is another mechanical property toughness , which is a material 's ability to resist breakage from forceful impact . The toughness of natural diamond has been measured as 7 @.@ 5 – 10 MPa · m1 / 2 . This value is good compared to other ceramic materials , but poor compared to most engineering materials such as engineering alloys , which typically exhibit toughnesses over 100 MPa · m1 / 2 . As with any material , the macroscopic geometry of a diamond contributes to its resistance to breakage . Diamond has a cleavage plane and is therefore more fragile in some orientations than others . Diamond cutters use this attribute to cleave some stones , prior to faceting . " Impact toughness " is one of the main indexes to measure the quality of synthetic industrial diamonds .
= = = Pressure resistance = = =
Used in so @-@ called diamond anvil experiments to create high @-@ pressure environments , diamonds are able to withstand crushing pressures in excess of 600 gigapascals ( 6 million atmospheres ) .
= = = Electrical conductivity = = =
Other specialized applications also exist or are being developed , including use as semiconductors : some blue diamonds are natural semiconductors , in contrast to most diamonds , which are excellent electrical insulators . The conductivity and blue color originate from boron impurity . Boron substitutes for carbon atoms in the diamond lattice , donating a hole into the valence band .
Substantial conductivity is commonly observed in nominally undoped diamond grown by chemical vapor deposition . This conductivity is associated with hydrogen @-@ related species adsorbed at the surface , and it can be removed by annealing or other surface treatments .
= = = Surface property = = =
Diamonds are naturally lipophilic and hydrophobic , which means the diamonds ' surface cannot be wet by water but can be easily wet and stuck by oil . This property can be utilized to extract diamonds using oil when making synthetic diamonds . However , when diamond surfaces are chemically modified with certain ions , they are expected to become so hydrophilic that they can stabilize multiple layers of water ice at human body temperature .
The surface of diamonds is partially oxidized . The oxidized surface can be reduced by heat treatment under hydrogen flow . That is to say , this heat treatment partially removes oxygen @-@ containing functional groups . But diamonds ( sp3C ) are unstable against high temperature ( above about 400 ° C ( 752 ° F ) ) under atmospheric pressure . The structure gradually changes into sp2C above this temperature . Thus , diamonds should be reduced under this temperature .
= = = Chemical stability = = =
Diamonds are not very reactive . Under room temperature diamonds do not react with any chemical reagents including strong acids and bases . A diamond 's surface can only be oxidized at temperatures above about 850 ° C ( 1 @,@ 560 ° F ) in air . Diamond also reacts with fluorine gas above about 700 ° C ( 1 @,@ 292 ° F ) .
= = = Color = = =
Diamond has a wide bandgap of 5 @.@ 5 eV corresponding to the deep ultraviolet wavelength of 225 nanometers . This means pure diamond should transmit visible light and appear as a clear colorless crystal . Colors in diamond originate from lattice defects and impurities . The diamond crystal lattice is exceptionally strong and only atoms of nitrogen , boron and hydrogen can be introduced into diamond during the growth at significant concentrations ( up to atomic percents ) . Transition metals nickel and cobalt , which are commonly used for growth of synthetic diamond by high @-@ pressure high @-@ temperature techniques , have been detected in diamond as individual atoms ; the maximum concentration is 0 @.@ 01 % for nickel and even less for cobalt . Virtually any element can be introduced to diamond by ion implantation .
Nitrogen is by far the most common impurity found in gem diamonds and is responsible for the yellow and brown color in diamonds . Boron is responsible for the blue color . Color in diamond has two additional sources : irradiation ( usually by alpha particles ) , that causes the color in green diamonds ; and plastic deformation of the diamond crystal lattice . Plastic deformation is the cause of color in some brown and perhaps pink and red diamonds . In order of rarity , yellow diamond is followed by brown , colorless , then by blue , green , black , pink , orange , purple , and red . " Black " , or Carbonado , diamonds are not truly black , but rather contain numerous dark inclusions that give the gems their dark appearance . Colored diamonds contain impurities or structural defects that cause the coloration , while pure or nearly pure diamonds are transparent and colorless . Most diamond impurities replace a carbon atom in the crystal lattice , known as a carbon flaw . The most common impurity , nitrogen , causes a slight to intense yellow coloration depending upon the type and concentration of nitrogen present . The Gemological Institute of America ( GIA ) classifies low saturation yellow and brown diamonds as diamonds in the normal color range , and applies a grading scale from " D " ( colorless ) to " Z " ( light yellow ) . Diamonds of a different color , such as blue , are called fancy colored diamonds , and fall under a different grading scale .
In 2008 , the Wittelsbach Diamond , a 35 @.@ 56 @-@ carat ( 7 @.@ 112 g ) blue diamond once belonging to the King of Spain , fetched over US $ 24 million at a Christie 's auction . In May 2009 , a 7 @.@ 03 @-@ carat ( 1 @.@ 406 g ) blue diamond fetched the highest price per carat ever paid for a diamond when it was sold at auction for 10 @.@ 5 million Swiss francs ( 6 @.@ 97 million euro or US $ 9 @.@ 5 million at the time ) . That record was however beaten the same year : a 5 @-@ carat ( 1 @.@ 0 g ) vivid pink diamond was sold for $ 10 @.@ 8 million in Hong Kong on December 1 , 2009 .
= = = Identification = = =
Diamonds can be identified by their high thermal conductivity . Their high refractive index is also indicative , but other materials have similar refractivity . Diamonds cut glass , but this does not positively identify a diamond because other materials , such as quartz , also lie above glass on the Mohs scale and can also cut it . Diamonds can scratch other diamonds , but this can result in damage to one or both stones . Hardness tests are infrequently used in practical gemology because of their potentially destructive nature . The extreme hardness and high value of diamond means that gems are typically polished slowly using painstaking traditional techniques and greater attention to detail than is the case with most other gemstones ; these tend to result in extremely flat , highly polished facets with exceptionally sharp facet edges . Diamonds also possess an extremely high refractive index and fairly high dispersion . Taken together , these factors affect the overall appearance of a polished diamond and most diamantaires still rely upon skilled use of a loupe ( magnifying glass ) to identify diamonds ' by eye ' .
= = Industry = =
The diamond industry can be separated into two distinct categories : one dealing with gem @-@ grade diamonds and another for industrial @-@ grade diamonds . Both markets value diamonds differently .
= = = Gem @-@ grade diamonds = = =
A large trade in gem @-@ grade diamonds exists . Although most gem @-@ grade diamonds are sold newly polished , there is a well @-@ established market for resale of polished diamonds ( e.g. pawnbroking , auctions , second @-@ hand jewelry stores , diamantaires , bourses , etc . ) . One hallmark of the trade in gem @-@ quality diamonds is its remarkable concentration : wholesale trade and diamond cutting is limited to just a few locations ; in 2003 , 92 % of the world 's diamonds were cut and polished in Surat , India . Other important centers of diamond cutting and trading are the Antwerp diamond district in Belgium , where the International Gemological Institute is based , London , the Diamond District in New York City , the Diamond Exchange District in Tel Aviv , and Amsterdam . One contributory factor is the geological nature of diamond deposits : several large primary kimberlite @-@ pipe mines each account for significant portions of market share ( such as the Jwaneng mine in Botswana , which is a single large @-@ pit mine that can produce between 12 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 carats ( 2 @,@ 500 kg ) to 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 carats ( 3 @,@ 000 kg ) of diamonds per year ) . Secondary alluvial diamond deposits , on the other hand , tend to be fragmented amongst many different operators because they can be dispersed over many hundreds of square kilometers ( e.g. , alluvial deposits in Brazil ) .
The production and distribution of diamonds is largely consolidated in the hands of a few key players , and concentrated in traditional diamond trading centers , the most important being Antwerp , where 80 % of all rough diamonds , 50 % of all cut diamonds and more than 50 % of all rough , cut and industrial diamonds combined are handled . This makes Antwerp a de facto " world diamond capital " . The city of Antwerp also hosts the Antwerpsche Diamantkring , created in 1929 to become the first and biggest diamond bourse dedicated to rough diamonds . Another important diamond center is New York City , where almost 80 % of the world 's diamonds are sold , including auction sales .
The De Beers company , as the world 's largest diamond mining company , holds a dominant position in the industry , and has done so since soon after its founding in 1888 by the British imperialist Cecil Rhodes . De Beers is currently the world 's largest operator of diamond production facilities ( mines ) and distribution channels for gem @-@ quality diamonds . The Diamond Trading Company ( DTC ) is a subsidiary of De Beers and markets rough diamonds from De Beers @-@ operated mines . De Beers and its subsidiaries own mines that produce some 40 % of annual world diamond production . For most of the 20th century over 80 % of the world 's rough diamonds passed through De Beers , but by 2001 – 2009 the figure had decreased to around 45 % , and by 2013 the company 's market share had further decreased to around 38 % in value terms and even less by volume . De Beers sold off the vast majority of its diamond stockpile in the late 1990s – early 2000s and the remainder largely represents working stock ( diamonds that are being sorted before sale ) . This was well documented in the press but remains little known to the general public .
As a part of reducing its influence , De Beers withdrew from purchasing diamonds on the open market in 1999 and ceased , at the end of 2008 , purchasing Russian diamonds mined by the largest Russian diamond company Alrosa . As of January 2011 , De Beers states that it only sells diamonds from the following four countries : Botswana , Namibia , South Africa and Canada . Alrosa had to suspend their sales in October 2008 due to the global energy crisis , but the company reported that it had resumed selling rough diamonds on the open market by October 2009 . Apart from Alrosa , other important diamond mining companies include BHP Billiton , which is the world 's largest mining company ; Rio Tinto Group , the owner of Argyle ( 100 % ) , Diavik ( 60 % ) , and Murowa ( 78 % ) diamond mines ; and Petra Diamonds , the owner of several major diamond mines in Africa .
Further down the supply chain , members of The World Federation of Diamond Bourses ( WFDB ) act as a medium for wholesale diamond exchange , trading both polished and rough diamonds . The WFDB consists of independent diamond bourses in major cutting centers such as Tel Aviv , Antwerp , Johannesburg and other cities across the USA , Europe and Asia . In 2000 , the WFDB and The International Diamond Manufacturers Association established the World Diamond Council to prevent the trading of diamonds used to fund war and inhumane acts . WFDB 's additional activities include sponsoring the World Diamond Congress every two years , as well as the establishment of the International Diamond Council ( IDC ) to oversee diamond grading .
Once purchased by Sightholders ( which is a trademark term referring to the companies that have a three @-@ year supply contract with DTC ) , diamonds are cut and polished in preparation for sale as gemstones ( ' industrial ' stones are regarded as a by @-@ product of the gemstone market ; they are used for abrasives ) . The cutting and polishing of rough diamonds is a specialized skill that is concentrated in a limited number of locations worldwide . Traditional diamond cutting centers are Antwerp , Amsterdam , Johannesburg , New York City , and Tel Aviv . Recently , diamond cutting centers have been established in China , India , Thailand , Namibia and Botswana . Cutting centers with lower cost of labor , notably Surat in Gujarat , India , handle a larger number of smaller carat diamonds , while smaller quantities of larger or more valuable diamonds are more likely to be handled in Europe or North America . The recent expansion of this industry in India , employing low cost labor , has allowed smaller diamonds to be prepared as gems in greater quantities than was previously economically feasible .
Diamonds which have been prepared as gemstones are sold on diamond exchanges called bourses . There are 28 registered diamond bourses in the world . Bourses are the final tightly controlled step in the diamond supply chain ; wholesalers and even retailers are able to buy relatively small lots of diamonds at the bourses , after which they are prepared for final sale to the consumer . Diamonds can be sold already set in jewelry , or sold unset ( " loose " ) . According to the Rio Tinto Group , in 2002 the diamonds produced and released to the market were valued at US $ 9 billion as rough diamonds , US $ 14 billion after being cut and polished , US $ 28 billion in wholesale diamond jewelry , and US $ 57 billion in retail sales .
= = = = Cutting = = = =
Mined rough diamonds are converted into gems through a multi @-@ step process called " cutting " . Diamonds are extremely hard , but also brittle and can be split up by a single blow . Therefore , diamond cutting is traditionally considered as a delicate procedure requiring skills , scientific knowledge , tools and experience . Its final goal is to produce a faceted jewel where the specific angles between the facets would optimize the diamond luster , that is dispersion of white light , whereas the number and area of facets would determine the weight of the final product . The weight reduction upon cutting is significant and can be of the order of 50 % . Several possible shapes are considered , but the final decision is often determined not only by scientific , but also practical considerations . For example , the diamond might be intended for display or for wear , in a ring or a necklace , singled or surrounded by other gems of certain color and shape . Some of them may be considered as classical , such as round , pear , marquise , oval , hearts and arrows diamonds , etc . Some of them are special , produced by certain companies , for example , Phoenix , Cushion , Sole Mio diamonds , etc .
The most time @-@ consuming part of the cutting is the preliminary analysis of the rough stone . It needs to address a large number of issues , bears much responsibility , and therefore can last years in case of unique diamonds . The following issues are considered :
The hardness of diamond and its ability to cleave strongly depend on the crystal orientation . Therefore , the crystallographic structure of the diamond to be cut is analyzed using X @-@ ray diffraction to choose the optimal cutting directions .
Most diamonds contain visible non @-@ diamond inclusions and crystal flaws . The cutter has to decide which flaws are to be removed by the cutting and which could be kept .
The diamond can be split by a single , well calculated blow of a hammer to a pointed tool , which is quick , but risky . Alternatively , it can be cut with a diamond saw , which is a more reliable but tedious procedure .
After initial cutting , the diamond is shaped in numerous stages of polishing . Unlike cutting , which is a responsible but quick operation , polishing removes material by gradual erosion and is extremely time consuming . The associated technique is well developed ; it is considered as a routine and can be performed by technicians . After polishing , the diamond is reexamined for possible flaws , either remaining or induced by the process . Those flaws are concealed through various diamond enhancement techniques , such as repolishing , crack filling , or clever arrangement of the stone in the jewelry . Remaining non @-@ diamond inclusions are removed through laser drilling and filling of the voids produced .
= = = = Marketing = = = =
Marketing has significantly affected the image of diamond as a valuable commodity .
N. W. Ayer & Son , the advertising firm retained by De Beers in the mid @-@ 20th century , succeeded in reviving the American diamond market . And the firm created new markets in countries where no diamond tradition had existed before . N. W. Ayer 's marketing included product placement , advertising focused on the diamond product itself rather than the De Beers brand , and associations with celebrities and royalty . Without advertising the De Beers brand , De Beers was advertising its competitors ' diamond products as well , but this was not a concern as De Beers dominated the diamond market throughout the 20th century . De Beers ' market share dipped temporarily to 2nd place in the global market below Alrosa in the aftermath of the global economic crisis of 2008 , down to less than 29 % in terms of carats mined , rather than sold . The campaign lasted for decades but was effectively discontinued by early 2011 . De Beers still advertises diamonds , but the advertising now mostly promotes its own brands , or licensed product lines , rather than completely " generic " diamond products . The campaign was perhaps best captured by the slogan " a diamond is forever " . This slogan is now being used by De Beers Diamond Jewelers , a jewelry firm which is a 50 % / 50 % joint venture between the De Beers mining company and LVMH , the luxury goods conglomerate .
Brown @-@ colored diamonds constituted a significant part of the diamond production , and were predominantly used for industrial purposes . They were seen as worthless for jewelry ( not even being assessed on the diamond color scale ) . After the development of Argyle diamond mine in Australia in 1986 , and marketing , brown diamonds have become acceptable gems . The change was mostly due to the numbers : the Argyle mine , with its 35 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 carats ( 7 @,@ 000 kg ) of diamonds per year , makes about one @-@ third of global production of natural diamonds ; 80 % of Argyle diamonds are brown .
= = = Industrial @-@ grade diamonds = = =
Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and thermal conductivity , making many of the gemological characteristics of diamonds , such as the 4 Cs , irrelevant for most applications . 80 % of mined diamonds ( equal to about 135 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 carats ( 27 @,@ 000 kg ) annually ) , are unsuitable for use as gemstones , and used industrially . In addition to mined diamonds , synthetic diamonds found industrial applications almost immediately after their invention in the 1950s ; another 570 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 carats ( 114 @,@ 000 kg ) of synthetic diamond is produced annually for industrial use ( in 2004 ; in 2014 it 's 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 carats ( 900 @,@ 000 kg ) , 90 % of which is produced in China ) . Approximately 90 % of diamond grinding grit is currently of synthetic origin .
The boundary between gem @-@ quality diamonds and industrial diamonds is poorly defined and partly depends on market conditions ( for example , if demand for polished diamonds is high , some lower @-@ grade stones will be polished into low @-@ quality or small gemstones rather than being sold for industrial use ) . Within the category of industrial diamonds , there is a sub @-@ category comprising the lowest @-@ quality , mostly opaque stones , which are known as bort .
Industrial use of diamonds has historically been associated with their hardness , which makes diamond the ideal material for cutting and grinding tools . As the hardest known naturally occurring material , diamond can be used to polish , cut , or wear away any material , including other diamonds . Common industrial applications of this property include diamond @-@ tipped drill bits and saws , and the use of diamond powder as an abrasive . Less expensive industrial @-@ grade diamonds , known as bort , with more flaws and poorer color than gems , are used for such purposes . Diamond is not suitable for machining ferrous alloys at high speeds , as carbon is soluble in iron at the high temperatures created by high @-@ speed machining , leading to greatly increased wear on diamond tools compared to alternatives .
Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high pressure experiments ( see diamond anvil cell ) , high @-@ performance bearings , and limited use in specialized windows . With the continuing advances being made in the production of synthetic diamonds , future applications are becoming feasible . The high thermal conductivity of diamond makes it suitable as a heat sink for integrated circuits in electronics .
= = = Mining = = =
Approximately 130 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 carats ( 26 @,@ 000 kg ) of diamonds are mined annually , with a total value of nearly US $ 9 billion , and about 100 @,@ 000 kg ( 220 @,@ 000 lb ) are synthesized annually .
Roughly 49 % of diamonds originate from Central and Southern Africa , although significant sources of the mineral have been discovered in Canada , India , Russia , Brazil , and Australia . They are mined from kimberlite and lamproite volcanic pipes , which can bring diamond crystals , originating from deep within the Earth where high pressures and temperatures enable them to form , to the surface . The mining and distribution of natural diamonds are subjects of frequent controversy such as concerns over the sale of blood diamonds or conflict diamonds by African paramilitary groups . The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses , and is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world .
Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actual diamonds . The ore is crushed , during which care is required not to destroy larger diamonds , and then sorted by density . Today , diamonds are located in the diamond @-@ rich density fraction with the help of X @-@ ray fluorescence , after which the final sorting steps are done by hand . Before the use of X @-@ rays became commonplace , the separation was done with grease belts ; diamonds have a stronger tendency to stick to grease than the other minerals in the ore .
Historically , diamonds were found only in alluvial deposits in Guntur and Krishna district of the Krishna River delta in Southern India . India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in approximately the 9th century BC to the mid @-@ 18th century AD , but the commercial potential of these sources had been exhausted by the late 18th century and at that time India was eclipsed by Brazil where the first non @-@ Indian diamonds were found in 1725 . Currently , one of the most prominent Indian mines is located at Panna .
Diamond extraction from primary deposits ( kimberlites and lamproites ) started in the 1870s after the discovery of the Diamond Fields in South Africa . Production has increased over time and now an accumulated total of 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 carats ( 900 @,@ 000 kg ) have been mined since that date . Twenty percent of that amount has been mined in the last five years , and during the last 10 years , nine new mines have started production ; four more are waiting to be opened soon . Most of these mines are located in Canada , Zimbabwe , Angola , and one in Russia .
In the U.S. , diamonds have been found in Arkansas , Colorado , Wyoming , and Montana . In 2004 , the discovery of a microscopic diamond in the U.S. led to the January 2008 bulk @-@ sampling of kimberlite pipes in a remote part of Montana . The Crater of Diamonds State Park in Arkansas is open to the public , and is the only mine in the world where members of the public can dig for diamonds .
Today , most commercially viable diamond deposits are in Russia ( mostly in Sakha Republic , for example Mir pipe and Udachnaya pipe ) , Botswana , Australia ( Northern and Western Australia ) and the Democratic Republic of the Congo . In 2005 , Russia produced almost one @-@ fifth of the global diamond output , according to the British Geological Survey . Australia boasts the richest diamantiferous pipe , with production from the Argyle diamond mine reaching peak levels of 42 metric tons per year in the 1990s . There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in the Northwest Territories of Canada and Brazil . Diamond prospectors continue to search the globe for diamond @-@ bearing kimberlite and lamproite pipes .
= = = Political issues = = =
In some of the more politically unstable central African and west African countries , revolutionary groups have taken control of diamond mines , using proceeds from diamond sales to finance their operations . Diamonds sold through this process are known as conflict diamonds or blood diamonds . Major diamond trading corporations continue to fund and fuel these conflicts by doing business with armed groups .
In response to public concerns that their diamond purchases were contributing to war and human rights abuses in central and western Africa , the United Nations , the diamond industry and diamond @-@ trading nations introduced the Kimberley Process in 2002 . The Kimberley Process aims to ensure that conflict diamonds do not become intermixed with the diamonds not controlled by such rebel groups . This is done by requiring diamond @-@ producing countries to provide proof that the money they make from selling the diamonds is not used to fund criminal or revolutionary activities . Although the Kimberley Process has been moderately successful in limiting the number of conflict diamonds entering the market , some still find their way in . According to the International Diamond Manufacturers Association , conflict diamonds constitute 2 – 3 % of all diamonds traded . Two major flaws still hinder the effectiveness of the Kimberley Process : ( 1 ) the relative ease of smuggling diamonds across African borders , and ( 2 ) the violent nature of diamond mining in nations that are not in a technical state of war and whose diamonds are therefore considered " clean " .
The Canadian Government has set up a body known as the Canadian Diamond Code of Conduct to help authenticate Canadian diamonds . This is a stringent tracking system of diamonds and helps protect the " conflict free " label of Canadian diamonds .
= = Synthetics , simulants , and enhancements = =
= = = Synthetics = = =
Synthetic diamonds are diamonds manufactured in a laboratory , as opposed to diamonds mined from the Earth . The gemological and industrial uses of diamond have created a large demand for rough stones . This demand has been satisfied in large part by synthetic diamonds , which have been manufactured by various processes for more than half a century . However , in recent years it has become possible to produce gem @-@ quality synthetic diamonds of significant size . It is possible to make colorless synthetic gemstones that , on a molecular level , are identical to natural stones and so visually similar that only a gemologist with special equipment can tell the difference .
The majority of commercially available synthetic diamonds are yellow and are produced by so @-@ called high @-@ pressure high @-@ temperature ( HPHT ) processes . The yellow color is caused by nitrogen impurities . Other colors may also be reproduced such as blue , green or pink , which are a result of the addition of boron or from irradiation after synthesis .
Another popular method of growing synthetic diamond is chemical vapor deposition ( CVD ) . The growth occurs under low pressure ( below atmospheric pressure ) . It involves feeding a mixture of gases ( typically 1 to 99 methane to hydrogen ) into a chamber and splitting them to chemically active radicals in a plasma ignited by microwaves , hot filament , arc discharge , welding torch or laser . This method is mostly used for coatings , but can also produce single crystals several millimeters in size ( see picture ) .
As of 2010 , nearly all 5 @,@ 000 million carats ( 1 @,@ 000 tonnes ) of synthetic diamonds produced per year are for industrial use . Around 50 % of the 133 million carats of natural diamonds mined per year end up in industrial use . Mining companies ' expenses average $ 40 to $ 60 per carat for natural colorless diamonds , while synthetic manufacturers ' expenses average $ 2 @,@ 500 per carat for synthetic , gem @-@ quality colorless diamonds . However , a purchaser is more likely to encounter a synthetic when looking for a fancy @-@ colored diamond because nearly all synthetic diamonds are fancy @-@ colored , while only 0 @.@ 01 % of natural diamonds are .
= = = Simulants = = =
A diamond simulant is a non @-@ diamond material that is used to simulate the appearance of a diamond , and may be referred to as diamante . Cubic zirconia is the most common . The gemstone moissanite ( silicon carbide ) can be treated as a diamond simulant , though more costly to produce than cubic zirconia . Both are produced synthetically .
= = = Enhancements = = =
Diamond enhancements are specific treatments performed on natural or synthetic diamonds ( usually those already cut and polished into a gem ) , which are designed to better the gemological characteristics of the stone in one or more ways . These include laser drilling to remove inclusions , application of sealants to fill cracks , treatments to improve a white diamond 's color grade , and treatments to give fancy color to a white diamond .
Coatings are increasingly used to give a diamond simulant such as cubic zirconia a more " diamond @-@ like " appearance . One such substance is diamond @-@ like carbon — an amorphous carbonaceous material that has some physical properties similar to those of the diamond . Advertising suggests that such a coating would transfer some of these diamond @-@ like properties to the coated stone , hence enhancing the diamond simulant . Techniques such as Raman spectroscopy should easily identify such a treatment .
= = = Identification = = =
Early diamond identification tests included a scratch test relying on the superior hardness of diamond . This test is destructive , as a diamond can scratch another diamond , and is rarely used nowadays . Instead , diamond identification relies on its superior thermal conductivity . Electronic thermal probes are widely used in the gemological centers to separate diamonds from their imitations . These probes consist of a pair of battery @-@ powered thermistors mounted in a fine copper tip . One thermistor functions as a heating device while the other measures the temperature of the copper tip : if the stone being tested is a diamond , it will conduct the tip 's thermal energy rapidly enough to produce a measurable temperature drop . This test takes about 2 – 3 seconds .
Whereas the thermal probe can separate diamonds from most of their simulants , distinguishing between various types of diamond , for example synthetic or natural , irradiated or non @-@ irradiated , etc . , requires more advanced , optical techniques . Those techniques are also used for some diamonds simulants , such as silicon carbide , which pass the thermal conductivity test . Optical techniques can distinguish between natural diamonds and synthetic diamonds . They can also identify the vast majority of treated natural diamonds . " Perfect " crystals ( at the atomic lattice level ) have never been found , so both natural and synthetic diamonds always possess characteristic imperfections , arising from the circumstances of their crystal growth , that allow them to be distinguished from each other .
Laboratories use techniques such as spectroscopy , microscopy and luminescence under shortwave ultraviolet light to determine a diamond 's origin . They also use specially made instruments to aid them in the identification process . Two screening instruments are the DiamondSure and the DiamondView , both produced by the DTC and marketed by the GIA .
Several methods for identifying synthetic diamonds can be performed , depending on the method of production and the color of the diamond . CVD diamonds can usually be identified by an orange fluorescence . D @-@ J colored diamonds can be screened through the Swiss Gemmological Institute 's Diamond Spotter . Stones in the D @-@ Z color range can be examined through the DiamondSure UV / visible spectrometer , a tool developed by De Beers . Similarly , natural diamonds usually have minor imperfections and flaws , such as inclusions of foreign material , that are not seen in synthetic diamonds .
Screening devices based on diamond type detection can be used to make a distinction between diamonds that are certainly natural and diamonds that are potentially synthetic . Those potentially synthetic diamonds require more investigation in a specialized lab . Examples of commercial screening devices are D @-@ Screen ( WTOCD / HRD Antwerp ) and Alpha Diamond Analyzer ( Bruker / HRD Antwerp ) .
= = Stolen diamonds = =
Occasionally large thefts of diamonds take place . In February 2013 armed robbers carried out a raid at Brussels Airport and escaped with gems estimated to be worth $ 50m ( £ 32m ; 37m euros ) . The gang broke through a perimeter fence and raided the cargo hold of a Swiss @-@ bound plane . The gang have since been arrested and large amounts of cash and diamonds recovered .
The identification of stolen diamonds presents a set of difficult problems . Rough diamonds will have a distinctive shape depending on whether their source is a mine or from an alluvial environment such as a beach or river - alluvial diamonds have smoother surfaces than those that have been mined . Determining the provenance of cut and polished stones is much more complex .
The Kimberley Process was developed to monitor the trade in rough diamonds and prevent their being used to fund violence . Before exporting , rough diamonds are certificated by the government of the country of origin . Some countries , such as Venezuela , are not party to the agreement . The Kimberley Process does not apply to local sales of rough diamonds within a country .
Diamonds may be etched by laser with marks invisible to the naked eye . Lazare Kaplan , a US @-@ based company , developed this method . However , whatever is marked on a diamond can readily be removed .
= = Books = =
C. Even @-@ Zohar ( 2007 ) . From Mine to Mistress : Corporate Strategies and Government Policies in the International Diamond Industry ( 2nd ed . ) . Mining Journal Press .
G. Davies ( 1994 ) . Properties and growth of diamond . INSPEC . ISBN 0 @-@ 85296 @-@ 875 @-@ 2 .
M. O 'Donoghue , M ( 2006 ) . Gems . Elsevier . ISBN 0 @-@ 7506 @-@ 5856 @-@ 8 .
M. O 'Donoghue and L. Joyner ( 2003 ) . Identification of gemstones . Great Britain : Butterworth @-@ Heinemann . ISBN 0 @-@ 7506 @-@ 5512 @-@ 7 .
A. Feldman and L.H. Robins ( 1991 ) . Applications of Diamond Films and Related Materials . Elsevier .
J.E. Field ( 1979 ) . The Properties of Diamond . London : Academic Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 255350 @-@ 0 .
J.E. Field ( 1992 ) . The Properties of Natural and Synthetic Diamond . London : Academic Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 255352 @-@ 7 .
W. Hershey ( 1940 ) . The Book of Diamonds . Hearthside Press New York . ISBN 1 @-@ 4179 @-@ 7715 @-@ 9 .
S. Koizumi , C.E. Nebel and M. Nesladek ( 2008 ) . Physics and Applications of CVD Diamond . Wiley VCH . ISBN 3 @-@ 527 @-@ 40801 @-@ 0 .
L.S. Pan and D.R. Kani ( 1995 ) . Diamond : Electronic Properties and Applications . Kluwer Academic Publishers . ISBN 0 @-@ 7923 @-@ 9524 @-@ 7 .
Pagel @-@ Theisen , Verena ( 2001 ) . Diamond Grading ABC : the Manual . Antwerp : Rubin & Son . ISBN 3 @-@ 9800434 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 .
R.L. Radovic , P.M. Walker and P.A. Thrower ( 1965 ) . Chemistry and physics of carbon : a series of advances . New York : Marcel Dekker . ISBN 0 @-@ 8247 @-@ 0987 @-@ X.
M. Tolkowsky ( 1919 ) . Diamond Design : A Study of the Reflection and Refraction of Light in a Diamond . London : E. & F.N. Spon .
R.W. Wise ( 2003 ) . Secrets of the Gem Trade : The Connoisseur 's Guide to Precious Gemstones . Brunswick House Press .
A.M. Zaitsev ( 2001 ) . Optical Properties of Diamond : A Data Handbook . Springer . ISBN 3 @-@ 540 @-@ 66582 @-@ X.
= 2015 Brazilian Grand Prix =
The 2015 Brazilian Grand Prix ( formally known as the Formula 1 Grande Prêmio Petrobras do Brasil 2015 ) was a Formula One motor race held at the Autódromo José Carlos Pace , in São Paulo , Brazil on 15 November 2015 . The race was the eighteenth round of the 2015 season , and marked the forty @-@ fourth running of the Brazilian Grand Prix as a round of the Formula One World Championship since its inception in 1950 .
Nico Rosberg , driving for Mercedes , was the defending race winner . His teammate Lewis Hamilton entered the race as World Drivers ' Champion , having secured the title two races earlier in the United States . Mercedes had also already clinched the Constructors ' Title , having done so at the 2015 Russian Grand Prix .
Rosberg took pole position in Saturday 's qualifying session , the twenty @-@ first of his career . He would go on to win the race from his teammate , in what many commentators perceived as a " boring " race . Sebastian Vettel completed the podium for Scuderia Ferrari .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
After the 2014 race had been held at a resurfaced circuit , causing the teams to fight with the soft tyre choice by Pirelli , speculations arose if drivers would be able to challenge the eleven @-@ year old track record set by Rubens Barrichello in 2004 . However , practice showed that lap times actually slowed due to changes to the kerbs , forcing the drivers to stay away from the insides of the corners . Pirelli chose the soft and medium compounds for the event .
In the wake of the terrorist attacks in Paris on the Friday evening of the race weekend , Formula One decided to honour the victims with all drivers wearing black armbands during the parade lap on race day as well as the French tricolore being displayed on the truck that took the drivers around the track . French driver Romain Grosjean had already worn an armband with the flag of his country during Saturday 's sessions . However , a long planned minute of silence for the World Day of Remembrance for Road Traffic Victims was upheld and plans to dedicate the salute to the Paris attacks discarded .
After passing on using Renault 's new power unit in the United States and Mexico , Red Bull equipped Daniel Ricciardo 's car with the new specification unit , which earned him a ten @-@ place grid penalty in the process . Once he had tried the new unit during the free practice and qualifying sessions , Ricciardo lamented that the upgrade had not improved the performance . He said : " In hindsight , it didn 't give us any laptime , it 's just for now a penalty for a little bit of knowledge . " During the first practice session on Friday , Mercedes tried out what was dubbed a " S @-@ duct " , a vent to channel airflow through the nose of the car , a feature already seen at other cars over the course of the season . However , Mercedes decided not to run the device over the whole weekend .
Going into the weekend Lewis Hamilton and his Mercedes team had already secured their respective World Championships . Fellow Mercedes driver Nico Rosberg was second in the Drivers ' Championship , 21 points ahead of Ferrari 's Sebastian Vettel . The two were followed by Finns Valtteri Bottas ( Williams ) and Kimi Räikkönen ( Ferrari ) , three points apart from each other , with Felipe Massa another six points behind in sixth . In the Constructors ' standings , Ferrari was second on 374 points , followed by Williams with 243 points .
= = = Free practice = = =
Per the regulations for the 2015 season , three practice sessions were scheduled , two 1 @.@ 5 @-@ hour sessions on Friday and another one @-@ hour session before qualifying on Saturday . Lewis Hamilton was fastest in the first session on Friday morning , setting a time of 1 : 13 @.@ 543 , more than half a second clear of his teammate Nico Rosberg , who was second fastest . Sebastian Vettel and Daniel Ricciardo in third and fourth respectively were the only other drivers to lap inside one second of Hamilton . The session was held in dry conditions , albeit earlier reports had indicated that thunderstorms could interrupt the weekend . Hamilton set his fastest time on the medium compound , but was caught out twice on other laps , locking up and running wide in the Senna S. In the later parts of the session , he also complained about a " weird " feeling clutch , but returned to the track soon after . Kimi Räikkönen , who was fifth fastest , spun out ten minutes before the end of the session , while eighth @-@ placed Max Verstappen had done the same early in the session at turn three . Jolyon Palmer replaced Romain Grosjean at Lotus , finishing twelfth fastest .
It was Hamilton 's teammate and defending race winner Rosberg who topped the time sheets at the second session on Friday afternoon , setting a 1 : 12 @.@ 385 lap time . He led Hamilton by almost half a second , with the two Ferraris of Vettel and Räikkönen about a second adrift . Slight rain saw most drivers head out early , but the conditions never became wet enough to require intermediate tyres . After starting on the medium compound tyres , many drivers switched to the softer compound for race simulations , only for the session to be red flagged shortly after when Fernando Alonso spun at turn four , only to pull over at the side of the road with smoke coming from his car some corners later . Valtteri Bottas was sixth fastest , behind Daniel Ricciardo , suffering a spin at turn nine .
Despite several problems during the third session on Saturday morning , Lewis Hamilton was fastest , setting a time of 1 : 12 @.@ 070 , just over a tenth of a second in front of his teammate . Earlier in the session , he needed to return to pit lane due to a gear @-@ selection problem which had caused him to temporarily stop on track and later spun at turn eleven . Vettel was again third fastest , more than six tenths of a second behind Hamilton . He was followed by teammate Räikkönen , Valtteri Bottas and Nico Hülkenberg in the Force India , all more than a second slower than Hamilton .
= = = Qualifying = = =
Qualifying consisted of three parts , 18 , 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively , with five drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions . During the first part of qualifying , all drivers used the softer compound tyres at least for their second run of timed laps , including the Mercedes pair . While Valtteri Bottas was the last driver to switch from the medium tyres , his Williams teammate Felipe Massa needed a quick lap at the end of the session to secure his participation in the second qualifying round , after he had been held up by compatriot Felipe Nasr earlier in the session . Fernando Alonso 's McLaren broke down due to a loss of power before he was able to set a time , with teammate Jenson Button likewise unable to proceed . Both Manor Marussias failed to advance , while Pastor Maldonado in fifteenth was the last driver to be eliminated .
During the second part , the Mercedes drivers set only one run of timed laps as they were able to save their tyres for the race , well clear of the competition . Lewis Hamilton was fastest , half a second ahead of Rosberg , with Sebastian Vettel between the two . Romain Grosjean was eliminated after a spin at turn six . He was joined on the sidelines by both Saubers , Carlos Sainz , Jr. and Sergio Pérez .
When the top ten drivers took to the track for the third and final part of qualifying , Nico Rosberg was able to beat his teammate Hamilton to pole position by 0 @.@ 078 seconds , securing his fifth pole in a row . Third was Sebastian Vettel , ahead of Bottas , who would be demoted three places due to a penalty . Following a mistake on his last timed lap , Kimi Räikkönen finished fifth fastest , ahead of Nico Hülkenberg . Albeit racing with an updated power unit , Daniel Ricciardo qualified slower than teammate Daniil Kvyat , and a ten @-@ place grid penalty for the change left him nineteenth on the grid .
= = = Race = = =
On his way to the starting grid , Carlos Sainz , Jr. stopped on track and had to be pushed back to pit lane , where he eventually started , only to retire after just a few hundred metres . At the start , both Mercedes drivers got away well and Hamilton tried to overtake Rosberg for the lead around the outside of the first corner , but were unable to do so . Jenson Button made a good start , moving from 16th to 13th , while Marcus Ericsson fell from 13th to 18th . Behind the leaders , the Ferraris retained third and fourth place respectively . Bottas moved into fifth after moving around the outside . Hamilton was able to follow Rosberg closely in the opening laps , while Daniel Ricciardo was the first driver to pit for new tyres on lap four . One lap later , Grosjean was able to use drag reduction system ( DRS ) to overtake Felipe Nasr for eleventh . With his back row start and an early pit stop , Ricciardo overtook the two Manor Marussias around lap nine .
Regular pit stops started on lap eleven , with Massa , Kvyat , Pérez and Grosjean being the first to come in . In addition , Nico Hülkenberg pitted and exited ahead of both Massa and Kvyat , who both had been in front of him before their respective stops . Bottas came in a lap later and maintained position . Kimi Räikkönen , who had been complaining about lack of grip in his front tyres , pitted on lap 13 . Race leader Rosberg came in for his tyre change on lap fourteen , simultaneously with Vettel , while Hamilton stayed out for another lap . He was ultimately unable to use his additional lap to come out in front of his teammate and remained second . On lap 18 , Nico Hülkenberg , who was suffering from an unstable car , overtook Maldonado for sixth place . Around lap 20 , Hamilton was moving closer to Rosberg , being in DRS range for multiple laps before reporting to the garage that his tyres would not last long and eased up . On lap 22 , Kvyat moved ahead of Maldonado as well and was now seventh . Lap 24 witnessed Massa go around Maldonado as well , while Felipe Nasr overtook Button for 14th .
Daniel Ricciardo was the first driver to pit for a second time on lap 30 . At the same time , a three @-@ way fight had emerged for ninth place , with Pérez in front of Grosjean and Verstappen . On lap 32 , Verstappen moved ahead of Grosjean and took another position from Pérez , who in turn lost another place to Grosjean in the same manoeuvre . Vettel pitted for a second time on lap 33 , prompting Rosberg to follow suit one lap later . Hamilton briefly held the lead , but pitted as well soon after , emerging to set a new fastest lap of the race albeit emerging behind both Ferraris . Lap 36 saw a collision between Pastor Maldonado and Marcus Ericsson , but both drivers were able to continue the race . Two laps later , Maldonado was in another fight for position with the other Sauber of Felipe Nasr , moving ahead . He ultimately received a five @-@ second penalty for his part in the incident with Ericsson .
By lap 43 , Romain Grosjean had managed to overtake Verstappen for tenth place . Hamilton started to lose ground on Rosberg , trailing him by 3 @.@ 4 seconds on lap 44 ; however , he managed to close the gap in the succeeding laps . Kimi Räikkönen put in his second stop on lap 47 , followed by Vettel 's third just one lap later , with Rosberg reacting and changing tyres as well . Hamilton changed tyres on lap 50 , and went on to set the fastest lap of the race one lap later . On lap 53 , Massa moved ahead of Grosjean into eighth place , but was already reported under investigation for his pre @-@ race tyre temperatures at that point . After serving his penalty , Maldonado managed to overtake Nasr for ninth place on lap 57 . Nasr , who was utilizing a two @-@ stop strategy , struggled with his tyres and fell back behind Ricciardo on lap 61 . Ricciardo gained another position at Pérez 's expense on lap 67 , while Verstappen moved into tenth place one lap later , overtaking Maldonado . At the front , Hamilton 's tyre started to wear off in the closing stages , enabling Rosberg to take victory 7 @.@ 7 seconds ahead of his teammate .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
At the podium interviews , which were conducted by former Formula One driver Martin Brundle , Nico Rosberg expressed delight about his victory , but also remembered the events of Paris which , as he put it , rendered " everything relative " . Replying to Brundle 's notion that driving the way he did earlier in the season would have given him a chance for the championship , Rosberg replied : " Thank you very much for that piece of advice , I could figure that out for myself ! " Lewis Hamilton on the other hand lamented the fact that he was unable to follow Rosberg closely on track without damaging his tyres too much , saying that he would have otherwise had the pace to pass him . Third placed Sebastian Vettel called it " a good race " , but also " not very exciting " , since the Ferraris had been " in no @-@ mans land " behind the Mercedes .
The main talking point after the race was Hamilton 's assertion that he would have preferred to go on a different strategy compared to his teammate to have a chance of passing him , an option denied by his team . Hamilton lobbied for his team to allow the drivers to take more risks , while his team principal , Toto Wolff , insisted that the team , not the drivers , were at liberty to make calls about strategy . Opinions on the matter were divided in the following days . 1996 world champion Damon Hill shared Hamilton 's frustration , saying : " I have some sympathy with what Lewis was saying , the drivers should be allowed to call the shots - and if he wants to try something different and basically zag when the other guy is zigging . " Daniel Johnson , writing for The Daily Telegraph , concurred : " It was not just Hamilton 's failure to win the Brazilian Grand Prix , following home an obdurate Nico Rosberg ; it was the manner of it , lacking the killer move while obeying a Mercedes strategy which rendered the drivers more robots than racers . " Meanwhile , the Daily Mail 's Jonathan McEvoy agreed with Mercedes ' call , saying that it was " a no @-@ brainer for Mercedes to keep their drivers comfortably first and second by the safest means " .
After the race Felipe Massa was disqualified after it was found that his tyres were too hot at the start of the race . Pirelli stated that the highest temperature at his right rear tyre was found to be 137 ° C ( 279 ° F ) , while a maximum temperature of 110 ° C ( 230 ° F ) was allowed . Williams announced that they would appeal the penalty . However , on 19 November 2015 , Williams decided to drop the appeal , stating that since a decision was unlikely to be made before the end of the year , the matter would draw attention away from the preparations for the 2016 season . Following his collision with Marcus Ericsson , Pastor Maldonado came under criticism by Sauber team principal Monisha Kaltenborn , who called him " very annoying " , pointing to the fact that Maldonado had been involved in similar situations in the past .
Reception of the race was mainly negative . Italian newspaper Corriere dello Sport – Stadio called it " boring " , while fellow Italian paper Corriere della Sera wrote of " Formula One like a sleeping pill " . Sky Sports described the race as " mundane " and " soporific " . Spanish newspaper Sport highlighted Max Verstappen 's " spectacular " overtaking as bringing " the only colour " into the race . The Independent wrote , referring to Hamilton 's desperate attempts to pass Rosberg : " If there was ever a race which confirmed that Formula One should be looking at ways to facilitate overtaking , this was it . " In the wake of his experience , Hamilton called for Formula One to adjust rules to enhance overtaking , saying : " I guess for fans it 's probably not too exciting to watch . Of course , it 's always nice when you 're at the front , as we have been for some time now - but still , being able to race is what ... and also down the back , the rest of the field is probably what fans want to see . That 's probably a change that would be looked positively on . " Sebastian Vettel agreed , calling for more grip created by the tyres to make it easier to follow a car closely .
As a result of the race , Nico Rosberg secured second place in the Drivers ' Championship ahead of Vettel . Further back , Kimi Räikkönen closed the gap to fourth placed Valtteri Bottas to just one point ahead of the final race of the season . In the Constructors ' Championship , Williams and Force India secured their respective third and fifth places , with no team able to overcome them on points .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
Notes :
^ 1 — Valtteri Bottas received a three @-@ place grid penalty for overtaking Felipe Nasr under red @-@ flag conditions in Practice Two .
^ 2 — Daniel Ricciardo was handed a ten @-@ place grid penalty for switching to a new power unit , having already used more than the allowed number of five .
^ 3 — Felipe Nasr was given a three @-@ place grid penalty for impeding Felipe Massa during qualifying .
^ 4 — Fernando Alonso was permitted to start the race by the stewards despite failing to set a qualifying time within the 107 % limit .
= = = Race = = =
Notes :
^ 5 — Carlos Sainz , Jr. stopped on the way to the grid and had to start from pit lane . His 10th spot on the starting grid was left open .
^ 6 — Felipe Massa originally finished eighth , but was disqualified for a breach of temperature limits in his rear right tyre .
= = = Championship standings after the race = = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
Bold text indicates 2015 World Champions .
= Akodon caenosus =
Akodon caenosus is a rodent in the genus Akodon found in northwestern Argentina and south @-@ central Bolivia . Since its description in 1918 , it has been alternatively classified as a separate species or a subspecies of Akodon lutescens ( formerly Akodon puer ) . The species Akodon aliquantulus , described from some very small Argentine specimens in 1999 , is now recognized as a synonym of A. caenosus .
Akodon caenosus is very small , averaging 19 @.@ 3 g ( 0 @.@ 68 oz ) in weight , and variable in coloration , but generally brown . The underparts are sharply different in color from the upperparts . The skull has a short rostrum ( front part ) , broad interorbital region ( between the eyes ) , and narrow braincase . The karyotype includes 34 chromosomes . A. caenosus mostly occurs in Yungas vegetation and breeds mainly during the winter . It shares its range with many other sigmodontine rodents , including three other species of Akodon .
= = Taxonomy = =
E. Budin collected the first specimen of the species on August 21 , 1917 , in Jujuy Province , northwestern Argentina , and the next year Oldfield Thomas used the animal as the holotype of a new subspecies of Akodon puer , a Bolivian species . He described the new subspecies Akodon puer cænosus as darker and duller in color than the Bolivian form , but otherwise identical . In 1920 , Thomas recognized additional differences between the two after examining more specimens and classified the Argentine form as a separate species , Akodon cænosus . Most subsequent authors followed this arrangement , but since the 1980s some have placed the form ( now spelled caenosus ) in A. puer again . In 1990 , Philip Myers and others reviewed the Akodon boliviensis group , which includes A. puer and A. caenosus , and again considered caenosus as a subspecies of puer . They retained caenosus as a separate subspecific name for the Argentine populations of puer because of its small size , dark fur , and distinctive karyotype . Myers and colleagues had included the name lutescens J.A. Allen , 1901 , as a subspecies of Akodon puer Thomas , 1902 , and in 1997 Sydney Anderson noted that the older name lutescens should instead be used for the species because of the Principle of Priority ; therefore , he utilized the combination Akodon lutescens caenosus for the Argentine subspecies . Through the 1990s and 2000s , authors continued to differ on the classification of caenosus as either a full species or a subspecies or puer ( = lutescens ) .
Two small Akodon collected in 1993 in Tucumán Province , northwestern Argentina , were given the name Akodon diminutus in 1994 , but that name is a nomen nudum and therefore not available for use under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature . In 1999 , Mónica Díaz and others described these animals more fully as a new species , Akodon aliquantulus , which they considered closely related to A. puer caenosus . The specific name means " how little " or " how few " in Latin and refers to the small size of the species and the small sample Díaz and colleagues could use . In the 2005 third edition of Mammal Species of the World , Guy Musser and Michael Carleton termed the differentiation between A. aliquantulus and A. lutescens ( = puer ) " unimpressive " and recommended further taxonomic research . Common names proposed for A. aliquantulus include " Diminutive Akodont " and " Tucumán Grass Mouse " .
In 2010 , Pablo Jayat and colleagues reviewed the members of the Akodon boliviensis group in Argentina . On the basis of sequences from the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene , they found A. caenosus to be closest to A. lutescens and A. subfuscus , forming a clade that was the sister group to a clade of the remaining species in the A. boliviensis group — A. boliviensis , A. spegazzinii , A. sylvanus , and A. polopi . They classified A. caenosus as a species separate from A. lutescens because the two forms did not form a single clade ( A. caenosus was instead closer to A. subfuscus ) , and because the difference between the cytochrome b sequences of A. lutescens and A. caenosus was relatively high at 3 @.@ 5 % . A. aliquantulus was reduced to a synonym of A. caenosus , because they found no substantial morphometrical differentiation between the two and could not replicate the characters Díaz and colleagues had noted as diagnostic for A. aliquantulus .
= = Description = =
Akodon caenosus is the smallest of the Argentine members of the A. boliviensis group – indeed , among the smallest of all species of Akodon . The upperparts are uniformly colored , but their tone is variable : generally ochraceous brown , but approaching yellow , red , or olivaceous in some individuals . Reddish tones occur mostly in lactating females . High @-@ altitude animals are generally lighter , but there is also conspicuous variation within populations . The ears are similar to the upperparts , but some individuals have the sides more rich and clear in color . The underparts are clearly different in color , varying from light gray to yellowish or reddish . There are yellowish rings around the eyes , which are more highly developed in high @-@ altitude populations . There are white to yellowish hairs on the fore- and hindfeet . The tail is variably covered with hair and is dark brown above and white to buffy below .
In the skull , the rostrum ( front part ) is short , the interorbital region ( between the eyes ) is broad and hourglass @-@ shaped , and the braincase is small . The zygomatic plate , the flattened front part of the zygomatic arch , is narrow , with poorly developed zygomatic notches at their front , but there is considerable variation in the features of the plate . The incisive foramina ( openings in the front part of the palate ) extend back to between the first molars . The mesopterygoid fossa , the openings behind the bony palate , is very narrow . In the mandible ( lower jaw ) , the masseteric ridges , which anchor some of the chewing muscles , extend to near the front margin of the first molar . The capsular process , a raising in the back part of the mandibular bone that accommodates the root of the incisor , is poorly developed . The upper incisors are orthodont ( with the chewing edge in the horizontal plane ) to slightly opisthodont ( with the chewing edge inclined backwards ) . The molars show some accessory crests and other features , such as the anteroloph on the first upper molar and the mesoloph on the first and second upper molar .
In twelve adult Argentine A. caenosus , total length is 124 to 169 mm ( 4 @.@ 9 to 6 @.@ 7 in ) , averaging 151 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) ; tail length is 46 to 75 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 0 in ) , averaging 62 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) ; hindfoot length is 20 to 26 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 1 @.@ 02 in ) , averaging 21 mm ( 0 @.@ 83 in ) ; ear length is 12 to 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 to 0 @.@ 59 in ) , averaging 13 mm ( 0 @.@ 51 in ) ; and weight is 10 @.@ 5 to 27 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 37 to 0 @.@ 97 oz ) , averaging 19 @.@ 3 g ( 0 @.@ 68 oz ) . The karyotype includes 34 chromosomes with a fundamental number of 40 major arms ( 2n
= 34 , FN =
40 ) . The autosomes includes three large and one very small pairs of metacentrics , with two long arms , and twelve small to medium @-@ sized acrocentric pairs , which have a long and a very short arm . The X chromosome is medium @-@ sized and subtelocentric , with a long and a short arm , and the Y chromosome is very small and is acrocentric in Jujuy specimens , but metacentric in those from Tucumán . The karyotype is separated from that of A. lutescens by three Robertsonian translocations .
Members of the Akodon boliviensis group , including A. caenosus , are generally similar and difficult to separate , but they differ in relative cranial measurements and some other characters . A. spegazzinii is larger than A. caenosus ; A. sylvanus is darker and has less contrast between the upper- and underparts and less well @-@ developed eye @-@ rings ; A. polopi has a squared interorbital region and more well @-@ developed ridges on its skull ; and A. boliviensis is paler and has more densely furred ears .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Akodon caenosus is found from northwestern Argentina into south @-@ central Bolivia . In | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Bolivia , it occurs in Tarija and Chuquisaca Departments . Its Argentine distribution extends from far northern Salta to southern Catamarca at altitudes ranging from 400 to 3 @,@ 100 m ( 1 @,@ 300 to 10 @,@ 200 ft ) . It is mostly found in Yungas , but also in the highest levels of the Chaco and the lowest of the Andean mountain grasslands . It occurs together with A. boliviensis , A. sylvanus , A. simulator , and species of Oxymycterus , Calomys , Phyllotis , Oligoryzomys , Necromys , Andinomys , Graomys , and Abrothrix . Breeding occurs throughout the year , but mostly from November to January , during the summer . Molting occurs mostly during the winter and autumn . The oestrid fly Cuterebra apicalis and the flea Hectopsylla gracilis have been recorded from A. caenosus . The mites Androlaelaps fahrenholzi , Androlaelaps rotundus , and Eulaelaps stabularis have been found on A. aliquantulus .
= = Conservation status = =
The IUCN currently assesses A. aliquantulus as " Data Deficient " because so little is known about it , but notes that ranching and fire may threaten it . Akodon lutescens , including A. caenosus , is assessed as " Least Concern " because of its wide distribution , large population , and ability to persist in disturbed habitats . However , habitat loss may threaten Yungas populations .
= Yamhad =
Yamhad was an ancient Semitic kingdom centered on Ḥalab ( Aleppo ) , Syria . The kingdom emerged at the end of the 19th century BC , and was ruled by the Yamhadite dynasty kings , who counted on both military and diplomacy to expand their realm . From the beginning of its establishment , the kingdom withstood the aggressions of its neighbors Mari , Qatna and Assyria , and was turned into the most powerful Syrian kingdom of its era through the actions of its king Yarim @-@ Lim I. By the middle of the 18th century BC , most of Syria minus the south came under the authority of Yamhad , either as a direct possession or through vassalage , and for nearly a century and a half , Yamhad dominated northern , northwestern and eastern Syria , and had influence over small kingdoms in Mesopotamia at the borders of Elam . The kingdom was eventually destroyed by the Hittites , then annexed by Mitanni in the 16th century BC .
Yamhad 's population was predominately Amorite , and had a typical Bronze Age Syrian culture . Yamhad was also inhabited by a substantial Hurrian population that settled in the kingdom , adding the influence of their culture . Yamhad controlled a wide trading network , being a gateway between the eastern Iranian plateau and the Aegean region in the west . Yamhad worshiped the traditional Northwest Semitic deities , and the capital Halab was considered a holy city among the other Syrian cities as a center of worship for Hadad , who was regarded as the main deity of northern Syria .
= = History = =
Little of Halab has been excavated by archaeologists , as Halab was never abandoned during its long history and the modern city is situated above the ancient site . Therefore , most of the knowledge about Yamhad comes from tablets discovered at Alalakh and Mari .
= = = Establishment = = =
The name Yamhad was likely an Amorite tribal name and is used synonymously with Halab when referring to the kingdom . The city of Halab was a religious center in northern Syria , and was mentioned by the name Ha @-@ lam , as a vassal of the Eblaite empire , which controlled most of Syria in the middle of the third millennium BC . Halab 's fame as a Holy City contributed to its later prominence , the main temple of the north Syrian storm god Hadad was located in the city , which was known as the " City of Hadad " . Ebla was destroyed twice at the end of the 3rd millennium , and the power vacuum in the region caused by its fall paved the way for Halab later rise .
The name Halab as well as that of Yamhad appeared for the first time during the Old Babylonian period , when Sumu @-@ Epuh , the first Yamhadite king , was attested in a seal from Mari as the ruler of the land of Yamhad , which included , in addition to Halab , the cities of Alalakh and Tuba . Sumu @-@ Epuh consolidated the kingdom and faced Yahdun @-@ Lim of Mari who had a dynastic alliance with Yamhad to oppose Assyria , but eventually campaigned in the north threatening the kingdom . The Yamhadite king supported the Yaminite tribes and formed an alliance with other Syrian states including Urshu , Hassum and Carchemish , against the Mariote king who defeated his enemies , but was eventually killed by his son Sumu @-@ Yamam .
= = = Rivalry with Assyria and expansion = = =
The rise of Shamshi @-@ Adad I of Assyria proved more dangerous to Yamhad than Mari . The Assyrian king was an ambitious conqueror with the aim to rule Mesopotamia and the Levant , and called himself king of the World . Shamshi @-@ Adad surrounded Yamhad by alliances with Charchemish , Hassum and Urshu to the north and by conquering Mari to the east forcing Zimri @-@ Lim the heir of Mari to flee . Sumu @-@ Epuh welcomed Zimri @-@ Lim and aimed to use him against Assyria since he was the legitimate heir of Mari .
Shamshi @-@ Adad most dangerous alliance was with Qatna , whose king Ishi @-@ Adad , became Assyria 's agent at Yamhad borders and married his daughter to Yasmah @-@ Adad , the son of the Assyrian king who was installed by his father as king of Mari . Sumu @-@ Epuh was apparently killed during his fight with Shamshi @-@ Adad and was succeeded by his son Yarim @-@ Lim I , who consolidated his father 's kingdom and turned it into the most powerful kingdom in Syria and northern Mesopotamia . Yarim @-@ Lim surrounded Shamshi @-@ Adad by alliances with Hammurabi of Babylon and Ibal @-@ pi @-@ el II of Eshnunna , then in 1777 BC he advanced to the east conquering Tuttul and installing Zimri @-@ Lim as governor of the city . The death of the Assyrian king came a year later . Yarim @-@ Lim then sent his army with Zimri @-@ Lim , to restore his ancestors throne as an ally @-@ vassal to Yamhad , cementing the relationship through a dynastic marriage between the new Mariote king and Shibtu , the daughter of Yarim @-@ Lim .
Yarim @-@ Lim spent the next years of his reign expanding the kingdom , which reached the upper Khabur valley in the east , and Mamma in the north . The Syrian city @-@ states were subdued through alliances or force ; Mamma , Ebla and Ugarit became vassals of Yamhad , while Qatna remained independent but was forced into peace , as it has lost its ally , the late Shamshi @-@ Adad I and was left alone in the face of Yamhad . A sample of Yarim @-@ Lim policy of diplomacy and war can be read in a tablet discovered at Mari , that was sent to the king of Dēr in southern Mesopotamia , which included a declaration of war against Der and its neighbor Diniktum , the tablet mentions the stationing of 500 Yamhadite warships for twelve years in Diniktum , and the Yamhadite military support of Der for 15 years . Yarim @-@ Lim 's accomplishments elevated Yamhad into the status of a Great Kingdom and the Yamhadite king title became the Great King .
Yarim @-@ Lim I was succeeded by his son Hammurabi I who had a peaceful reign . He was able to force Charchemish into submission , and sent troops to aid Hammurabi of Babylon against Larsa and Elam . The alliance ended after the Babylonian king sacked Mari and destroyed it . Babylon did not attack Yamhad , however , and the relations between the two kingdoms remained peaceful in later years . Hammurabi I was succeeded by his son Abba @-@ El I , whose reign witnessed the rebellion of the city Irridu , which was under the authority of prince Yarim @-@ Lim , Abba @-@ El 's brother . The king responded to the rebellion by destroying Irridu , and compensating his brother by giving him the throne of Alalakh , thus creating a cadet branch of the dynasty .
= = = Decline and end = = =
The era of Abba @-@ El I 's successors is poorly documented , and by the time of Yarim @-@ Lim III in the mid @-@ 17th century BC , the power of Yamhad declined due to internal dissent . Yarim @-@ Lim III ruled a weakened kingdom , and although he imposed Yamhadite hegemony over Qatna , the weakening was obvious as Alalakh had become all but independent under the self @-@ declared king Ammitakum . In spite of this regression , the king of Yamhad remained the strongest king of the Syrian states , as he was referred to as a Great King by the Hittites , the diplomatic equal of the Hittite king .
The rise of the Hittite kingdom in the north posed the biggest threat to Yamhad , although Yarim @-@ Lim III and his successor Hammurabi III were able to withstand the aggressions of the Hittite king Hattusili I through alliances with the Hurrian principalities . Hattusili chose not to attack Halab directly and began with conquering Yamhad 's vassals and allies , starting with Alalakh in the second year of his Syrian campaigns c . 1650 BC ( Middle chronology ) or slightly later . Hattusili then turned to attack the Hurrians in Urshu northeast of Halab , and won in spite of military support from Halab and Carchemish for the Hurrians . The Hittite king then defeated Yamhad in the battle of Mount Atalur , and sacked Hassum along with several other Hurrian cities in the sixth year of his Syrian wars . After many campaigns , Hattusili I finally attacked Halab during the reign of Hammurabi III . The attack ended in a defeat , the wounding of the Hittite king and his later death c . 1620 BC . Hattusili 's campaigns considerably weakened Yamhad , causing it to decline in status : the monarch ceased to be styled a Great King .
Hattusili was succeeded by his grandson Mursili I , who conquered Halab c . 1600 BC and destroyed Yamhad as a major power in the Levant . Mursili then left for Babylon and sacked it , but was assassinated upon his return to his capital Hattusa , and his empire disintegrated . Halab was rebuilt and the kingdom expanded to include Alalakh again . The reestablished kingdom was ruled by kings of whom nothing but their names is known ; the first is Sarra @-@ El , who might have been the son of Yarim @-@ Lim III . The last king of the dynasty to rule as king of Halab was Ilim @-@ Ilimma I , who was killed during a rebellion orchestrated by king Parshatatar of Mitanni who annexed Halab c . 1525 BC . Ilim @-@ Ilimma 's son , Idrimi , fled to Emar then conquered Alalakh c . 1518 BC . Seven years following his conquest of Alalakh , Idrimi made peace with Mitanni and was acknowledged as a vassal , and allowed to control Halab , though he had to relocate the dynasty 's residence to Alalakh and relinquish the title of " King of Halab " ; the use of the name Yamhad also ended .
= = = Kings of Yamhad = = =
Dates are estimated and given by the Middle chronology .
= = People and culture = =
The people of Yamhad were Amorites and spoke the Amorite language , and apart from a few Mesopotamian , Egyptian and Aegean influences , Yamhad belonged mainly to middle Bronze Age Syrian culture . This culture influenced the architecture and the functions of the temples , which were mainly cultic , while political authority was invested in the royal palace , in contrast to the important political role of the temples in Mesopotamia .
Since the capital Halab has not been excavated , the architecture of the kingdom is archaeologically best represented by the city of Alalakh , which was subordinate to Halab and ruled by a king belonging to the Yamhadite royal house . The Amorites in general built large palaces that bear architectural similarities to old Baylonian @-@ era palaces . They were adorned with grand central courtyards , throne rooms , tiled floors , drainage systems and plastered walls , which suggest the employment of specialized labor . Evidence exists for the presence of Minoan Aegean fresco artists who painted elaborate scenes on the walls of the palaces in Alalakh .
Yamhad had a distinctive Syrian iconography , which is clear in the seals of the kings that gave prominence to the Syrian gods . Egyptian influence was minimal and limited to the ankh , which cannot be interpreted as an emulation of Egyptian rituals but rather as merely a substitute for the cup held by the deity elsewhere . Yamhad had a special pattern of trim called the Yamhad style , which was favored in Mari during the reign of king Zimri @-@ Lim , whose queen Shibtu was the daughter of Yarim @-@ Lim I.
After the fall of the Akkadian Empire , Hurrians began to settle in the city and its surroundings , and by c . 1725 BC they constituted a sizable portion of the population . The presence of a large Hurrian population brought Hurrian culture and religion to Halab , as evidenced by the existence of certain religious festivals that bear Hurrian names .
= = Economy = =
Halab 's location has always been a factor in its prominence as an economic center . Yamhad 's economy was based on trade with the Iranian Plateau , Mesopotamia , Cyprus and Anatolia , with the city of Emar as its port on the Euphrates , and Alalakh with its proximity to the sea as its port on the Mediterranean .
The actions of Yarim @-@ Lim I and his alliance with Babylon proved vital for the kingdom 's economy , for they secured the trade between Mesopotamia and northern Syria , with the king of Mari protecting the caravans crossing from the Persian Gulf to Anatolia . Emar attracted many Babylonian merchants , who lived in the city and had a lasting impact on the local scribal conventions . As late as the 14th century BC , texts of the so @-@ called Syrian type from Emar preserve distinct Babylonian traits .
The markets of Yamhad became a source of copper , which was imported from the mountains ( probably Anatolian ) and Cyprus . However , the Babylonian invasion of Mari had a negative impact on the trade between the two kingdoms , as the road became dangerous because of the loss of Mari 's protection to the caravans . This led the Babylonian king Samsu @-@ iluna to build many strongholds up the river valley , and to establish colonies of mercenaries known as the " Kassite Houses " to protect the middle Euphrates area . Those colonies later evolved into semi @-@ independent polities that waged a war against the Babylonian king Ammi @-@ Saduqa and caused the trade temporarily to stop .
= = Religion = =
The people of Yamhad practiced the Amorite religion , and mainly worshiped the Northwest Semitic deities . The most important of these were Dagon , who was considered the father of the gods , and Hadad , who was the most important deity and the head of the pantheon . The kingdom was known as the " land of Hadad " , who was famous as the Storm @-@ God of Halab beginning in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC . His main temple was located on the citadel hill in the center of the city and remained in use from the 24th century BC until at least the 9th century BC .
The title " Beloved of Hadad " was one of the king 's titles . Hadad was the kingdom 's patron god , and all treaties were concluded in his name , which was also used to threaten other kingdoms and to declare wars . As the Hurrian presence grew , so did Hurrian religious influences and some of the Hurrian deities found a place in the Yamhadite pantheon . King Abba @-@ El I mentioned receiving the support of the Hurrian goddess Hebat in one of the Alalakh tablets ( Hebat was the spouse of the Hurrian main deity Teshub , but in Abba @-@ El I 's tablet , she is associated with Hadad ) . Later , the Hurrians started to identify Teshub with Hadad , who became Teshub the Storm @-@ God of Halab .
Beside the general gods , the kings had a " head god " , that is , a deity who had an intimate connection for the worshiper . King Yarim @-@ Lim I described Hadad as the god of the state , but the Mesopotamian deity Sin as the god of his head . His son Hammurabi I did likewise .
= Battle of Beersheba ( 1917 ) =
The Battle of Beersheba ( Turkish : Birüssebi Savaşı , German : Schlacht von Birüssebi ) , was fought on 31 October 1917 , when the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) attacked and captured the Yildirim Army Group garrison at Beersheba , beginning the Southern Palestine Offensive of the Sinai and Palestine campaign of World War I. After successful limited attacks in the morning , by infantry from the 60th ( London ) and the 74th ( Yeomanry ) Divisions of the XX Corps from the south @-@ west , the Anzac Mounted Division ( Desert Mounted Corps ) launched a series of attacks . These attacks , against the strong defences which dominated the eastern side of Beersheba , eventually resulted in their capture during the late afternoon . Shortly afterwards , the Australian Mounted Division 's 4th and 12th Light Horse Regiments ( 4th Light Horse Brigade ) conducted a mounted infantry charge with bayonets in their hands , their only weapon for mounted attack , as their rifles were slung across their backs . While part of the two regiments dismounted to attack entrenchments on Tel es Saba defending Beersheba , the remainder of the light horsemen continued their charge into the town , capturing the place and part of the garrison as it was withdrawing .
After the EEF defeats at the first and second battles of Gaza in March and April 1917 , the victorious German General Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein ( commander of the three divisions of the Fourth Army ) further strengthened his defensive line stretching from Gaza to Beersheba , and received reinforcements of two divisions . Meanwhile , Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode ( commanding the EEF 's Eastern Force ) began the Stalemate in Southern Palestine , defending more @-@ or @-@ less the same entrenched lines held at the end of the second battle , initiated regular mounted reconnaissance into the open eastern flank of the Gaza to Beersheba line , towards Beersheba . In June the Ottoman Fourth Army was reorganised when the new Yildirim Army Group was established , commanded by German General Erich von Falkenhayn . At about the same time , the British General Edmund Allenby replaced General Archibald Murray as commander of the EEF . Allenby reorganised the EEF to give him direct command of three corps , in the process deactivating Chetwode 's Eastern Force and placing him in command of one of the two infantry corps . At the same time Chauvel 's Desert Column was renamed the Desert Mounted Corps . As the stalemate continued through the summer in difficult conditions on the northern edge of the Negev Desert , EEF reinforcements began to strengthen the divisions ( which had suffered more than 10 @,@ 000 casualties during the two battles for Gaza ) . While the primary functions of the EEF and the Ottoman Army during this time were to man the front lines and patrol the open eastern flank , both sides conducted training of all units . By mid @-@ October , while the battle of Passchendaele continued on the Western Front , the XXI Corps maintained the defences in the Gaza sector of the line . Further , Allenby 's preparations for the manoeuvre warfare attacks on the Ottoman defensive line , beginning with Beersheba , and the subsequent advance to Jerusalem , were nearing completion with the arrival of the last reinforcements .
Beersheba was defended by lines of trenches , supported by isolated redoubts on earthworks and hills , which covered all approaches to the town . The Ottoman garrison was eventually encircled by the two infantry and two mounted divisions , as they ( and their supporting artillery ) launched their attacks . The 60th ( London ) Division 's preliminary attack and capture of the redoubt on Hill 1070 , led to the bombardment of the main Ottoman trench line . Then a joint attack by the 60th ( London ) and 74th ( Yeomanry ) Divisions captured all their objectives . Meanwhile , to the north @-@ east of Beersheba the Anzac Mounted Division cut the road from Beersheba to Hebron ( which continued to Jerusalem ) . Continuous fighting against the main redoubt and defences on Tel el Saba ( dominating the eastern approaches to the town ) , resulted eventually in its capture in the afternoon . During this fighting the 3rd Light Horse Brigade had been sent to reinforce the Anzac Mounted Division , while the 5th Mounted Brigade ( armed with swords ) remained in corps reserve . With all brigades of both mounted divisions already committed to the battle , the only brigade available ( the 4th Light Horse Brigade ) , was ordered to capture Beersheba . These sword @-@ less mounted infantrymen galloped over the plain , riding towards the town and a redoubt supported by entrenchments , on a mound of Tel es Saba south @-@ east of Beersheba . While the 4th Light Horse Regiment on the right , jumped trenches before turning to make a dismounted attack on the Ottoman infantry ( in the trenches , gun pits and redoubts on rising ground ) , most of the 12th Light Horse Regiment on the left rode on across the face of the main redoubt , to find a gap in the Ottoman defences . These squadrons rode on across the railway line and into Beersheba , to complete the first step of an offensive which would see the EEF capture Jerusalem , six weeks later .
= = Background = =
After their second defeat at Gaza in April , General Archibald Murray sacked the commander of Eastern Force , Lieutenant General Charles Dobell . Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode was promoted to command Eastern Force , while Harry Chauvel was promoted to Lieutenant General with command of the Desert Column . Major General Edward Chaytor was promoted from the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade , to command the Anzac Mounted Division replacing Chauvel . With the arrival of General Edmund Allenby in June , Murray was also relieved of command of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) , and sent back to England .
Although the strategic priorities of Enver Pasha and the Ottoman general staff , were to push the EEF back to the Suez Canal and retake Baghdad , Mesopotamia , and Persia , the EEF was fortunate that the victorious Ottoman forces , were not in a position in April 1917 , to launch a large @-@ scale counterattack immediately after their second victory at Gaza . Such an attack against rudimentary EEF defences on the northern edge of the Negev could have been disastrous for the EEF . Instead , both sides constructed permanent defences stretching from the sea west of Gaza to Shellal on the Wadi Ghazzeh . From Shellal , the lightly @-@ entrenched EEF line extended to El Gamli before continuing south 7 miles ( 11 km ) to Tel el Fara . The western sector ( stretching from Gaza to Tel el Jemmi ) was strongly entrenched , wired and defended by EEF and Ottoman infantry . The eastern sector , stretching east and south across the open plain , was patrolled by Desert Column 's mounted infantry and yeomanry . At every opportunity patrols and outposts harassed opposing forces , while wells and cisterns were mapped .
The town of Gaza was strongly defended , having been developed into " a strong modern fortress , well entrenched and wired , with good observation and a glacis on its southern and south – eastern face . " From Gaza , the formidable 30 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 48 km ) Ottoman front line stretching eastwards , dominated the country to the south , where the EEF was deployed in open , low @-@ lying country cut by deep wadis . The Ottoman defences in the centre of the line , at Atawineh and Hairpin redoubts ( at Hareira and Teiaha ) , supported each other as they overlooked the plain , making a frontal attack virtually impossible . Between Gaza and Hareira , the Ottoman defences were strengthened and extended along the Gaza @-@ to @-@ Beersheba road , east of the Palestine Railway line from Beersheba . Although these trenches did not extend to Beersheba , strong fortifications made the isolated town into a fortress .
The open eastern flank was dominated by the Wadi Ghazzeh , which , at the beginning of the stalemate , could only be crossed in five places . These were at the mouth on the Mediterranean coast , the main Deir el Belah @-@ to @-@ Gaza road crossing , the Tel el Jemmi crossing ( used during the first battle of Gaza ) , the Shellal crossing on the Khan Yunis @-@ to @-@ Beersheba road , and the Tel el Fara crossing on the Rafa @-@ to @-@ Beersheba road . The difficulty of crossing the wadi elsewhere was due to the 50 – 60 feet ( 15 – 18 m ) perpendicular banks cut into the Gaza – Beersheba plain by regular floods . Additional crossings were constructed during the stalemate .
Beersheba ( Hebrew : Be @-@ er Sheva ; Arabic : Bir es Sabe ) at the foot of the Judean Hills , was built on the eastern bank of the Wadi es Saba , which joins the Wadi Ghazzeh at Bir el Esani , before stretching to the Mediterranean Sea . Located at the north @-@ west end of a flat , treeless plain about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) long by 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) wide , the town is surrounded by rocky hills and outcrops . To the north – north – east , 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) away on the southern edge of the Judean Hills , the Tuweiyil Abu Jerwal rises to 1 @,@ 558 feet ( 475 m ) behind the town , overlooking it by 700 feet ( 210 m ) ; lower hills range east and south , with a spur of the plateau of Edom on the south @-@ east , extending towards the town .
Since ancient times , the town had been a trading centre , with roads radiating from it in all directions . To the north @-@ east the only sealed , metalled motor road in the region , stretched along a spine of the Judean Hills to Jerusalem , via Edh Dhahriye , Hebron and Bethlehem , along the Wadi el Khalil ( a tributary of the Wadi es Saba ) . To the north @-@ west the road to Gaza 26 miles ( 42 km ) away crossed the open plain , to the west the track to Rafa via Tel el Fara ( on the Wadi Ghazzeh ) , while the southern road to Asluj and Hafir el Auja continued the metalled road from Jerusalem .
Beersheba was developed by the Ottoman Empire from a camel @-@ trading centre on the northern edge of the Negev , halfway between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea . It was on the railway line which ran from Istanbul to Hafir el Auja ( the main Ottoman desert base during the raid on the Suez Canal in 1915 until the EEF advance to Rafa outflanked it ) , and which was damaged beyond repair in May 1917 during an EEF raid . Beersheba 's hospital , army barracks , railway station ( with water tower ) , engine sheds , large storage buildings , and a square of houses , were well @-@ designed and strongly @-@ constructed stone buildings , with red tiled roofs and a German beer garden . The inhabitants of the region from Beersheba northwards varied ; the population was mainly Arabs belonging to Sunni Islam , with some Jewish and Christian colonists .
The EEF had already decided to invade Ottoman territory before the first battle of Gaza , on the basis of Britain 's three major war objectives : to maintain maritime supremacy in the Mediterranean , preserve the balance of power in Europe , and protect Egypt , India and the Persian Gulf . Despite the EEF 's defeats during the first two battles of Gaza ( with about 10 @,@ 000 casualties ) , Allenby planned an advance into Palestine and the capture of Jerusalem to secure the region and cut off the Ottoman forces in Mesopotamia from those in the Levant and on the Arabian Peninsula . The capture of Gaza , which dominated the coastal route from Egypt to Jaffa , was a first step towards these aims .
= = = Lines of communication = = =
During the stalemate from April to the end of October , 1917 the EEF and the Ottoman Army improved their lines of communication , laid more railway and water lines and sent troops , guns and ammunition forward to defend their front lines . While the Ottoman lines of communication were shortened by the retreat across the Sinai , the EEF advance across the Sinai Peninsula into southern Palestine lengthened theirs , requiring a large investment in infrastructure . Since a brigade of light horse , mounted rifles , or mounted yeomanry ( including infantry divisions ) consisted of about 2 @,@ 000 soldiers requiring ammunition , rations and supplies , this was a major undertaking . By March 1917 , 203 miles ( 327 km ) of metalled road , 86 miles ( 138 km ) of wire @-@ and @-@ brushwood roads and 300 miles ( 480 km ) of water pipeline had been constructed , and 388 miles ( 624 km ) of railway lines laid at a rate of one kilometre a day . The railhead had been 30 miles ( 48 km ) from Gaza , but by mid @-@ April the line had reached Deir el Belah , with a branch line to Shellal completed . Since the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps alone could not support a large offensive in advance of the railhead , horse- and mule @-@ drawn wagon trains were established . Supply columns were designed to support military operations by infantry and mounted troops for about 24 hours beyond the railhead .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Ottoman force = = =
Several weeks after the Ottoman victory at the Second Battle of Gaza , General Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein ( commander of the victorious 3rd , 16th and 53rd Divisions of the Fourth Army ) was reinforced by the 7th and 54th Divisions . Until June 1917 , Sheria was the headquarters of the German commanded Ottoman force defending the Gaza @-@ Beersheba line , but as a consequence of EEF aerial bombing , it was moved to Huj in July . This force was reorganised into two corps to hold the Gaza @-@ to @-@ Beersheba line : the XX Corps ( 16th and 54th Infantry Divisions with the 178th Infantry Regiment and the 3rd Cavalry Division ) , and the XXII Corps ( 3rd , 7th , and 53rd Infantry Divisions ) . By July , the Ottoman force defending the Gaza @-@ to @-@ Beersheba line had increased to 151 @,@ 742 rifles , 354 machine guns and 330 artillery guns . While the XXII Corps defended Gaza with the 3rd and 53rd Divisions , the XX Corps was headquartered at Huj .
Beersheba was defended by the III Corps ; it was commanded by the recently arrived Ismet ( or Esmet ) Bey , who had his headquarters in the town . The III Corps had defended Gallipoli in 1915 . " [ T ] he Ottoman Army could still hold its own against the British Army ... [ and ] showed a high level of operational and tactical mobility " during the battles for the Gaza to Beersheba line . This corps consisted of the 67th and 81st Regiments ( 27th Division ) , a total of 2 @,@ 408 rifles ( of whom 76 percent were Arab ) , the 6th and the 8th Regiments of Lancers ( 3rd Cavalry Division ) , the 48th Regiment ( 16th Division ) and the 2nd Regiment ( 24th Divisions ) . The 143rd Regiment of the Ottoman XX Corps was about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north @-@ north @-@ west of Beersheba in the Judean Hills , but took " no part in the action " . A total of 4 @,@ 400 rifles , 60 machine guns and 28 field guns in these lancer and infantry regiments were available for the defence of Beersheba .
The tactical deployment of the Ottoman III , XX and XXII Corps defending the Gaza @-@ to @-@ Beersheba line did not change when Enver Pasa activated the Yildirim Army Group ( also known as Thunderbolt Army Group and Group F ) in June 1917 . This new group ( commanded by German General and Ottoman Marshal Erich von Falkenhayn , former Prussian Minister of War , Chief of Staff of the German field armies and commander of the Ninth Army ) was reinforced by surplus Ottoman units transferred from Galicia , Romania and Thrace after the collapse of Russia . Yildirim Army Group consisted of the Fourth Army headquarters and Syrian units commanded by Cemal Pasa which remained in Syria , and the Fourth Army headquarters in Palestine commanded by Kress von Kressenstein . The Fourth Army headquarters in Palestine was inactivated on 26 September 1917 to be reorganised into two armies and renamed . Six days later it was reactivated as the new Ottoman Eighth Army headquarters , still commanded by Kress von Kressenstein and responsible for the Palestine front . The new Seventh Army was also activated , commanded by Fevzi Pasa after the resignation of Mustafa Kemal .
= = = = Beersheba defences = = = =
The natural features around the town favoured defence . Beersheba , on a rolling plain devoid of trees or water to its west , was dotted with hills and tells to its north , south and east . These geographic features were strengthened by a series of entrenchments , fortifications and redoubts . Well @-@ constructed trenches , protected by wire , fortified defences north @-@ west , west and south @-@ west of Beersheba . This semicircle of entrenchments included well @-@ sited redoubts on a series of high points extending up to 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from the town .
Defending the east of Beersheba , Tel el Saba redoubt was manned a battalion of the 48th Regiment and a machine @-@ gun company , while the 6th and 8th Regiments of the 3rd Cavalry Division were deployed on the high ground to the north @-@ east ( in the foothills of the Judean Hills ) to guard the Jerusalem road and keep Beersheba from being surrounded . To the west and south @-@ west of the town , the 27th Division 's 67th and 81st Infantry Regiments were deployed in a fortified semicircular line of deep trenches and redoubts strengthened by barbed wire . These regiments consisted primarily of " Arab farmers from the surrounding region , and although inexperienced fighters they were defending their own fields " .
The defenders were deployed as follows :
the 67th Infantry and the 81st Infantry Regiments ( 27th Division ) , defended Beersheba from the west and from south of the Wadi el Saba ,
the 3rd Cavalry Division was deployed in the high ground northeast of the town ,
one battalion of the 48th Infantry Regiment ( 16th Division ) and a machine gun company defended Tel es Saba , with the remainder of the regiment deployed to the south from the Khalasa road to Ras Ghannam ,
two battalions of the 2nd Regiment of Anatolian riflemen from Chanak ( commanded by German officers ) were deployed in trenches defending the south @-@ east , facing the open plain south of Tel el Saba .
= = = EEF = = =
The EEF was reinforced by the arrival in June and July of the 7th and 8th Mounted Brigades and the 60th ( London ) Division , transferred from Salonika ; the 75th Division was formed in Egypt from Territorial and Indian battalions . The arrival of the two mounted brigades , made it possible to expand and reorganise the Desert Column into three divisions ( with the establishment of the Yeomanry Mounted Division ) . However , 5 @,@ 150 infantry and 400 yeomanry reinforcements were still needed in July to bring the infantry and mounted divisions that had taken part in the first two battles for Gaza , back up to strength . The last reinforcements to arrive before the battle , the 10th ( Irish ) Division , were marching north from Rafa on 29 October .
After General Edmund Allenby took command of the EEF at midnight on 28 June , he reorganised the force to reflect contemporary thinking and to resemble the organisation of Allenby 's army in France . He deactivated Eastern Force , establishing in its place two infantry and one mounted corps under his command : the XX , the XXI Corps and the Desert Mounted Corps ( formerly the Desert Column ) .
By 30 October there were 47 @,@ 500 rifles in the XX Corps ' 53rd ( Welsh ) Division , the 60th ( London ) Division , the 74th ( Yeomanry ) Division ( with the 10th ( Irish ) Division and the 1 / 2nd County of London Yeomanry attached ) and about 15 @,@ 000 troopers in two divisions of the Desert Mounted Corps , deploying for the attack on Beersheba . Most of Allenby 's infantry were Territorial Force divisions mobilised following the outbreak of the war . Several of the divisions had fought in the Gallipoli Campaign , the 52nd ( Lowland ) at Cape Helles , 53rd ( Welsh ) at Suvla Bay along with the 54th ( East Anglian ) Division . The 60th ( London ) Division had served on the Western Front and at Salonika . The 74th ( Yeomanry ) Division had recently been formed from 18 under – strength yeomanry regiments which had fought dismounted at Gallipoli . The 10th ( Irish ) Division , a New Army ( K1 ) division , had also fought at Gallipoli , at Suvla Bay and Salonika . The light horse and mounted rifle brigades in the Anzac and the Australian Mounted Divisions had also fought dismounted on Gallipoli .
= = = = Plan of attack = = = =
Chetwode 's XX Corps ( with the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade attached ) and Chauvel 's Desert Mounted Corps ( less the Yeomanry Mounted Division at Shellal ) , would make the main attack on Beersheba , while Bulfin 's XXI Corps held the Gaza sector entrenchments and the front line to the Mediterranean coast . Success at Beersheba depended on an attack with " resolution and vigour " because if unsuccessful , the dry , inhospitable country on the northern edge of the Negev would force attacking divisions to retire .
Allenby 's army – level and corps – level plans set out their objectives . The XX Corps would advance from the south and south @-@ west towards Beersheba , with the 60th ( London ) and 74th ( Yeomanry ) Divisions attacking the defences between the Khalassa @-@ to @-@ Beersheba road and the Wadi Saba . Beginning immediately after dawn , the two infantry divisions would attack the outer defences on the high ground west and south @-@ west of Beersheba in two stages , preceded by a bombardment . The left of the 60th ( London ) Division was to capture Hill 1070 ( also known as Point / Hill 1069 , part of the outer defences ) , while the main attack would begin when commanders of the 60th ( London ) and 74th ( Yeomanry ) Divisions were " satisfied that the wire was adequately cut " . Their objectives were the trenches defending Beersheba and the Ottoman artillery batteries supporting them . Subsequently , they would hold the high ground on the west side of the town .
Their left flank would be protected by " Smith 's Group " , consisting of the 158th Brigade ( 53rd Division ) minus two battalions and the Imperial Camel Brigade . This group , under orders from the 74th ( Yeomanry ) Division , held the section of the Beersheba defence stretching north from the Wadi es Saba towards the Beersheba @-@ to @-@ Tel el Fara road . The 53rd ( Welsh ) Division ( with a brigade of the 10th ( Irish ) Division attached ) was deployed on a 7 miles ( 11 km ) -long line stretching west to about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the Karm railway station . They would watch for a counterattack from Hareira to the north , and capture the Beersheba garrison if it attempted to retreat along the road to Gaza . The remainder of the 10th ( Irish ) Division in XX Corps reserve was deployed east of the Wadi Ghuzzee at Shellal , where the Yeomanry Mounted Division ( under Allenby ) was to deploy a line of outposts connecting the XX and XXI Corps ( holding the Gaza end of the line near el Mendur ) .
The first stage of the attack by the Anzac Mounted Division , with the Australian Mounted Division in reserve , was to seize the Ottoman garrison 's northern line of retreat by cutting the road to Jerusalem . Secondly , the mounted divisions were to attack and capture Beersheba ( and its water wells ) as quickly as possible to prevent the retreat of the Ottoman garrison . On their left , the 7th Mounted Brigade 's two regiments would link the XX Corps with the Desert Mounted Corps and attack the defences south of the town .
= = = = Preliminary moves = = = =
Beginning on 24 October the Australian Mounted Division moved to Rashid Bek ; the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade moved to Esani , following the 2nd Light Horse Brigade 's move to Bir ' Asluj 15 miles ( 24 km ) away , to develop the water supply , which remained inadequate on 27 October ( when two regiments of the brigade at Asluj were sent back to water at Khalasa — returning at dawn on 29 October — so there would be enough water for the Anzac Mounted Division at Asluj ) . Allenby inspected the three projects to expand the water supply , at Khalasa 10 miles ( 16 km ) from Esani , at Asluj , and the project at Shellal . He inspected preparations for the building of the forward railway ( to begin simultaneously with the attack ) , and the rear units working in the deserted camps , making them appear still in use . He also inspected EEF formations as they made their way towards their assembly places , and while they waited in the forward areas . Allenby instilled in all a sense of the importance he attached to their work . However , the Ottoman forces were informed of the build @-@ up : " There is evidence that they [ Yildirim Army Group ] were fairly accurately informed of the British dispositions " . This was confirmed on 28 October when the Yildirim Army Group knew that the camps at Khan Yunis and Rafa were empty . They placed three infantry divisions east of the Wadi Ghuzzee with a fourth — the 10th ( Irish ) Division — approaching the wadi , estimating more cavalry at Asluj and Khalasa .
Reconnaissance continued on Sunday , 28 October when the 5th Mounted Brigade rode to Ras Hablein , south of the Ras Ghannam area , reporting Ottoman troops occupying redoubts and a trench line east of Abu Shar and tents at Ras Hablein . The 6th Light Horse Regiment of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , reconnoitred the Wadi Shegeib el Soghair area , reporting that the Ras Ghannam entrenchments were occupied by Ottoman Army soldiers . By 13 : 15 on 29 October , the water supply at Asluj was reported capable of providing one " drink per day per horse for the whole division " . An hour later the Desert Mounted Corps ordered the Anzac Mounted Division ( less two brigades ) to move from Esani to Asluj " tonight " , and at dusk the Australian Mounted Division began their night march ( following the Anzac Mounted Division ) to Esani .
While the Australian Mounted Division and the Anzac Mounted Division prepared to move east on 29 October , the guns of British and French naval ships on the Mediterranean Sea joined in the bombardment of Gaza ( which had begun two days earlier ) . Under orders from XX Corps the Yeomanry Mounted Division , detached from the Desert Mounted Corps , moved from the Mediterranean coast to the Wadi Ghuzzee between Shellal and Tel el Fara ; the infantry brigades of the 74th ( Yeomanry ) Division advanced to the right of the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division , holding the line in front of el Buqqar while the leading units of the 60th ( London ) Division approached Maalaga and the 10th ( Irish ) Division approached from Rafa . By 21 : 15 on 29 October , the Anzac Mounted Division ( Desert Mounted Corps ) had assembled at Asluj , while the Australian Mounted Division began to arrive at Khalasa from Esani .
= = = = Approach marches , 30 – 31 October = = = =
The extensive and complex arrangements required to support the infantry attack from the west and the mounted attack from the east were completed by 30 October , when these attacking forces moved to positions within a day 's march of their deployment . Three divisions of XX Corps were concentrated in position : the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division at Goz el Geleib , the 60th ( London ) Division at Esani and the 74th ( Yeomanry ) Division at Khasif . In preparation for their final approach march , the Civil Service Rifles and the Queen 's Westminster Rifles ( 179th Brigade , 60th Division ) were supplied with tea and rum for the following day . In their haversack rations were five onions , a tin of bully beef , a slice of cooked bacon , biscuits and dates .
Chetwode opened his advance XX Corps headquarters at 17 : 00 at el Buqqar , and a half @-@ hour later the infantry approach marches began . The 74th ( Yeomanry ) Division advanced along the Tel el Fara @-@ to @-@ Beersheba road led by the 229th Brigade , with one brigade following to the north and another to the south of the road . The 60th ( London ) Division advanced from Abu Ghalyun , Bir el Esani and Rashid Bek in three brigade groups , the 181st Brigade ( on the left ) advanced north and south of the Wadi es Saba , while the 179th Brigade ( on the right ) advanced towards the Khalasa @-@ to @-@ Beersheba road . Their advance guard , the 2 / 13th Battalion , London Regiment , was attacked as they crossed the Wadi Halgon . Behind the 179th Brigade , the 180th Brigade in reserve advanced straight across from Esani . The XX Corps Cavalry Regiment , the Westminster Dragoons concentrated to the south @-@ east , covering the corps ' right flank with orders to connect with the Desert Mounted Corps south of Beersheba . In the rear , the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division dug in along the Wadi Hanafish ; the XX Corps artillery , the last to move , approached from el Buqqar to the Wadi Abushar , arriving at 03 : 15 on 31 October . Reconnaissance had established that the Tel el Fara @-@ to @-@ Beersheba track ( via Khasif and el Buqqar ) could be used by the mechanical transport required to move the heavy gun battery and ammunition into position before the attack . This job was done by 135 lorries in three companies which travelled across the Sinai from Cairo . In addition , ammunition was hauled forward by 134 Holt tractors .
The deployment of the infantry divisions was completed by the light of a full moon . The 60th ( London ) Division linked with the 74th ( Yeomanry ) Division , after reaching their line of deployment at 03 : 25 while being targeted by rifle and shell fire . As the Civil Service Rifles battalion approached to between 2 @,@ 000 and 2 @,@ 500 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 and 2 @,@ 300 m ) from the Ottoman trenches , snipers fired on them .
Before they could deploy , the two mounted divisions of Desert Mounted Corps had to ride between 25 to 35 miles ( 40 to 56 km ) , to bring them within striking distance of Beersheba at dawn on 31 October . Chauvel arrived at the Asluj Desert Mounted Corps headquarters during the afternoon of 30 October , when arrangements were completed for the continuation of the marches by the Anzac and Australian Mounted Divisions . The Anzac Mounted Division was at Asl | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
British force killed during the battle was 171 . The 4th Light Horse Brigade suffered a total of 35 killed and 39 wounded ; of these , the 12th Light Horse Regiment suffered 20 killed and 19 wounded . Most of the wounded light horsemen fell during the charge , with the high percentage of killed @-@ to @-@ wounded occurring during hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting in the trenches .
= = Aftermath = =
The XX Corps and Desert Mounted Corps won a tactical victory of manouevre , forcing the Ottoman garrison at Beersheba to withdraw . However , although the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division — with one brigade of the 10th ( Irish ) Division attached — had been deployed to prevent Ottoman units escaping the battle , the Beersheba garrison was able to withdraw " up the Gaza road and to the north " into the Judean Hills , along the road towards Hebron , Bethlehem and Jerusalem . And although the Beersheba garrison suffered many casualties ; " stubborn fighting " by strong Ottoman rearguards at Hareira , Tel es Sheria and Tel el Khuweilfe , delayed the EEF for seven days , as they continued to hold the remainder of the Gaza line . The Ottoman III Corps headquarters ( which had withdrawn from Beersheba to Tel es Sheria during the battle ) moved back to support the defence of the road to Hebron at Dhahriye , followed by the 143rd Regiment ( 24th Division ) and 1 @,@ 500 rifles of the former Beersheba Group ( which had been reorganised at Tel es Sheria ) . The latter group moved to reinforce the defence of Tel el Khuweilfe , where the battle began on 1 November .
On 1 November attacks by the Anzac Mounted Division towards Tel el Khuweilfe and the road to Hebron and Jerusalem concerned the Ottoman defenders , who feared that a major cavalry attack could breakthrough the Ottoman line and capture the Seventh Army headquarters at Hebron . However , the EEF planned to break the Ottoman line in the center , at Hareira and Sheria . As the fighting at Khuweilfe continued , a minor attack on Gaza was made overnight on 1 / 2 November , while the main attacks on the centre at the Battle of Hareira and Sheria began on 6 November . Gaza was found to have been evacuated by its Ottoman defenders early on 7 November and Hareira was also captured that morning . After strong resistance against the 60th ( London ) Division 's attacks against the Ottoman defenders at Sheria ( supported by a light @-@ horse charge on 7 November ) , the position was captured by infantry just before dusk on 7 November .
The British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour contacted Baron Rothschild , a wealthy banker and head of the British branch of European Jewish causes , on 2 November ( two days after the capture of Beersheba ) . In the Balfour Declaration , he proposed a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine , published in The Times on 9 November 1917 . Also on 2 November , while congratulating Allenby for the victory at Beersheba , the War Office informed him that he was unlikely to receive reinforcements :
I wish to congratulate you , all concerned upon your success , which it is to be hoped you will be able to develop ... to press the Turks opposed to you to the fullest extent of your resources , so as to force the enemy to divert troops to Palestine and thus relieve pressure upon Maude [ in Mesopotamia ] , and to take advantage of Arab situation . In deciding on the extent to which you will be able to carry out safely the policy , you will be guided by the fact that an increase in the forces now at your disposal , is improbable .
The claim that " [ f ] rom then on to the end of the war the Turks never forgot Beersheba " and that the German and Ottoman infantry , " when galloped , as ... they frequently were , invariably shot wildly and surrendered early in the conflict , " was disproved when solid Ottoman defence met the 11th and 12th Light Horse Regiments ' charge during fighting for Sheria on 7 November , and the yeomanry 's charge at Huj on 8 November 1917 .
After Gaza was occupied on 7 November , the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade ( XXI Corps ) rode through the ruins of Gaza to reach Beit Hanun at 13 : 00 ; and the 157th Brigade ( 52nd Division ) began the infantry pursuit along the Mediterranean shore , to reach Sheikh Hasan by 12 : 15 . In the centre of the line the Anzac Mounted Division found a gap on the eastern side of Sheria to begin their pursuit at daylight on 7 November . After being held up at Sheria , the Australian Mounted Division and the 60th ( London ) Division advanced to capture Huj on 8 November . By that evening , all the Ottoman positions which had made up the Gaza @-@ to @-@ Beersheba line had been captured , and the erstwhile defenders were in full retreat .
= Blakeney Point =
Blakeney Point ( designated as Blakeney National Nature Reserve ) is a National Nature Reserve situated near to the villages of Blakeney , Morston and Cley next the Sea on the north coast of Norfolk , England . Its main feature is a 6 @.@ 4 km ( 4 mi ) spit of shingle and sand dunes , but the reserve also includes salt marshes , tidal mudflats and reclaimed farmland . It has been managed by the National Trust since 1912 , and lies within the North Norfolk Coast Site of Special Scientific Interest , which is additionally protected through Natura 2000 , Special Protection Area ( SPA ) , International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) and Ramsar listings . The reserve is part of both an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ( AONB ) , and a World Biosphere Reserve . The Point has been studied for more than a century , following pioneering ecological studies by botanist Francis Wall Oliver and a bird ringing programme initiated by ornithologist Emma Turner .
The area has a long history of human occupation ; ruins of a medieval monastery and " Blakeney Chapel " ( probably a domestic dwelling ) are buried in the marshes . The towns sheltered by the shingle spit were once important harbours , but land reclamation schemes starting in the 17th century resulted in the silting up of the river channels . The reserve is important for breeding birds , especially terns , and its location makes it a major site for migrating birds in autumn . Up to 500 seals may gather at the end of the spit , and its sand and shingle hold a number of specialised invertebrates and plants , including the edible samphire , or " sea asparagus " .
The many visitors who come to birdwatch , sail or for other outdoor recreations are important to the local economy , but the land @-@ based activities jeopardize nesting birds and fragile habitats , especially the dunes . Some access restrictions on humans and dogs help to reduce the adverse effects , and trips to see the seals are usually undertaken by boat . The spit is a dynamic structure , gradually moving towards the coast and extending to the west . Land is lost to the sea as the spit rolls forward . The River Glaven can become blocked by the advancing shingle and cause flooding of Cley village , Cley Marshes nature reserve , and the environmentally important reclaimed grazing pastures , so the river has to be realigned every few decades .
= = Description = =
Blakeney Point , like most of the northern part of the marshes in this area , is part of the parish of Cley next the Sea . The main spit runs roughly west to east , and joins the mainland at Cley Beach before continuing onwards as a coastal ridge to Weybourne . It is approximately 6 @.@ 4 km ( 4 mi ) long , and is composed of a shingle bank which in places is 20 m ( 65 ft ) in width and up to 10 m ( 33 feet ) high . It has been estimated that there are 2 @.@ 3 million m3 ( 82 million ft3 ) of shingle in the spit , 97 per cent of which is derived from flint .
The Point was formed by longshore drift and this movement continues westward ; the spit lengthened by 132 @.@ 1 m ( 433 ft ) between 1886 and 1925 . At the western end , the shingle curves south towards the mainland . This feature has developed several times over the years , giving the impression from the air of a series of hooks along the south side of the spit . Salt marshes have formed between the shingle curves and in front of the coasts sheltered by the spit , and sand dunes have accumulated at the Point 's western end . Some of the shorter side ridges meet the main ridge at a steep angle due to the southward movement of the latter . There is an area of reclaimed farmland , known as Blakeney Freshes , to the west of Cley Beach Road .
Norfolk Coast Path , an ancient long distance footpath , cuts across the south eastern corner of the reserve along the sea wall between the farmland and the salt marshes , and further west at Holme @-@ next @-@ the @-@ Sea the trail joins Peddars Way . The tip of Blakeney Point can be reached by walking up the shingle spit from the car park at Cley Beach , or by boats from the quay at Morston . The boat gives good views of the seal colonies and avoids the long walk over a difficult surface . The National Trust has an information centre and tea room at the quay , and a visitor centre on the Point . The centre was formerly a lifeboat station and is open in the summer months . Halfway House , or the Watch House , is a building 2 @.@ 4 km ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) from Cley Beach car park . Originally built in the 19th century as a look @-@ out for smugglers , it was used in succession as a coast guard station , by the Girl Guides , and as a holiday let .
= = History = =
= = = To 1912 = = =
Norfolk has a long history of human occupation dating back to the Palaeolithic , and has produced many significant archaeological finds . Both modern and Neanderthal people were present in the area between 100 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years ago , before the last glaciation , and humans returned as the ice retreated northwards . The archaeological record is poor until about 20 @,@ 000 years ago , partly because of the very cold conditions that existed then , but also because the coastline was much further north than at present . As the ice retreated during the Mesolithic ( 10 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 BCE ) , the sea level rose , filling what is now the North Sea . This brought the Norfolk coastline much closer to its present line , so that many ancient sites are now under the sea in an area now known as Doggerland . Early Mesolithic flint tools with characteristic long blades up to 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) long found on the present @-@ day coast at Titchwell Marsh date from a time when it was 60 – 70 km ( 37 – 43 mi ) from the sea . Other flint tools have been found dating from the Upper Paleolithic ( 50 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 BCE ) to the Neolithic ( 5 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 500 BCE ) .
An " eye " is an area of higher ground in the marshes , dry enough to support buildings . Blakeney 's former Carmelite friary , founded in 1296 and dissolved in 1538 , was built in such a location , and several fragments of plain roof tile and pantiles dating back to the 13th century have been found near the site of its ruins . Originally on the south side of the Glaven , Blakeney Eye had a ditched enclosure during the 11th and 12th centuries , and a building known as " Blakeney Chapel " , which was occupied from the 14th century to around 1600 , and again in the late 17th century . Despite its name , it is unlikely that it had a religious function . Nearly a third of the mostly 14th- to 16th @-@ century pottery found within the larger and earlier of the two rooms was imported from the continent , suggesting significant international trade at this time .
The spit sheltered the Glaven ports , Blakeney , Cley @-@ next @-@ the @-@ Sea and Wiveton , which were important medieval harbours . Blakeney sent ships to help Edward I 's war efforts in 1301 , and between the 14th and 16th centuries it was the only Norfolk port between King 's Lynn and Great Yarmouth to have customs officials . Blakeney Church has a second tower at its east end , an unusual feature in a rural parish church . It has been suggested that it acted as a beacon for mariners , perhaps by aligning it with the taller west tower to guide ships into the navigable channel between the inlet 's sandbanks ; that this was not always successful is demonstrated by a number of wrecks in the haven , including a carvel @-@ built wooden ship .
Land reclamation schemes , especially those by Henry Calthorpe in 1640 just to the west of Cley , led to the silting up of the Glaven shipping channel and relocation of Cley 's wharf . Further enclosure in the mid @-@ 1820s aggravated the problem , and also allowed the shingle ridge at the beach to block the former tidal channel to the Salthouse marshes to the east of Cley . In an attempt to halt the decline , Thomas Telford was consulted in 1822 , but his recommendations for reducing the silting were not implemented , and by 1840 almost all of Cley 's trade had been lost . The population stagnated , and the value of all property decreased sharply . Blakeney 's shipping trade benefited from the silting up of its nearby rival , and in 1817 the channel to the Haven was deepened to improve access . Packet ships ran to Hull and London from 1840 , but this trade declined as ships became too large for the harbour .
= = = National Trust era = = =
In the decades preceding World War I , this stretch of coast became famous for its wildfowling ; locals were looking for food , but some more affluent visitors hunted to collect rare birds ; Norfolk 's first barred warbler was shot on the point in 1884 . In 1901 , the Blakeney and Cley Wild Bird Protection Society created a bird sanctuary and appointed as its " watcher " , Bob Pinchen , the first of only six men , up to 2012 , to hold that post .
In 1910 , the owner of the Point , Augustus Cholmondeley Gough @-@ Calthorpe , 6th Baron Calthorpe , leased the land to University College London ( UCL ) , who also purchased the Old Lifeboat House at the end of the spit . When the baron died later that year , his heirs put Blakeney Point up for sale , raising the possibility of development . In 1912 , a public appeal initiated by Charles Rothschild and organised by UCL Professor Francis Wall Oliver and Dr Sidney Long enabled the purchase of Blakeney Point from the Calthorpe estate , and the land was then donated to the National Trust . UCL established a research centre at the Old Lifeboat House in 1913 , where Oliver and his college pioneered the scientific study of Blakeney Point . The building is still used by students , and also acts as an information centre . Despite formal protection , the tern colony was not fenced off until the 1960s .
The Point was designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) in 1954 , along with the adjacent Cley Marshes reserve , and subsumed into the newly created 7 @,@ 700 @-@ hectare ( 19 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ) North Norfolk Coast SSSI in 1986 . The larger area is now additionally protected through Natura 2000 , Special Protection Area ( SPA ) and Ramsar listings , IUCN category IV ( habitat / species management area ) and is part of the Norfolk Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty . The Point became a National Nature Reserve ( NNR ) in 1994 , and the coast from Holkham NNR to Salthouse , together with Scolt Head Island , became a Biosphere Reserve in 1976 .
= = Fauna and flora = =
= = = Birds = = =
Blakeney Point has been designated as one of the most important sites in Europe for nesting terns by the government 's Joint Nature Conservation Committee . In the early 1900s , the small colonies of common and little terns were badly affected by egg @-@ taking , disturbance and shooting , but as protection improved the common terns population rose to 2 @,@ 000 pairs by mid @-@ century , although it subsequently declined to no more than 165 pairs by 2000 , perhaps due to predation . Sandwich terns were a scarce breeder until the 1970s , but there were 4 @,@ 000 pairs by 1992 . Blakeney is the most important site in Britain for both Sandwich and little terns , the roughly 200 pairs of the latter species amounting to eight per cent of the British population . The 2 @,@ 000 pairs of black @-@ headed gulls sharing the breeding area with the terns are believed to protect the colony as a whole from predators like red foxes . Other nesting birds include about 20 pairs of Arctic terns and a few Mediterranean gulls in the tern colony , ringed plovers and oystercatchers on the shingle and common redshanks on the salt marsh . The waders ' breeding success has been compromised by human disturbance and predation by gulls , weasels and stoats , with ringed plovers particularly affected , declining to 12 pairs in 2012 compared to 100 pairs twenty years previously . The pastures contain breeding northern lapwings , and species such as sedge and reed warblers and bearded tits are found in patches of common reed .
The Point juts into the sea on a north @-@ facing coast , which means that migrant birds may be found in spring and autumn , sometimes in huge numbers when the weather conditions force them towards land . Numbers are relatively low in spring , but autumn can produce large " falls " , such as the hundreds of European robins on 1 October 1951 or more than 400 common redstarts , on 18 September 1995 . The common birds are regularly accompanied by scarcer species like greenish warblers , great grey shrikes or Richard 's pipits . Seabirds may be sighted passing the Point , and migrating waders feed on the marshes at this time of year . Vagrant rarities have turned up when the weather is appropriate , including a Fea 's or Zino 's petrel in 1997 , a trumpeter finch in 2008 , and an alder flycatcher in 2010 . Ornithologist and pioneering bird photographer Emma Turner started ringing common terns on the Point in 1909 , and the use of this technique for migration studies has continued since . A notable recovery was a Sandwich tern killed for food in Angola , and a Radde 's warbler trapped for ringing in 1961 was only the second British record of this species at that time . In the winter , the marshes hold golden plovers and wildfowl including common shelduck , Eurasian wigeon , brent geese and common teal , while common scoters , common eiders , common goldeneyes and red @-@ breasted mergansers swim offshore .
= = = Other animals = = =
Blakeney Point has a mixed colony of about 500 harbour and grey seals . The harbour seals have their young between June and August , and the pups , which can swim almost immediately , may be seen on the mud flats . Grey seals breed in winter , between November and January ; their young cannot swim until they have lost their first white coat , so they are restricted to dry land for their first three or four weeks , and can be viewed on the beach during this period . Grey seals colonised a site in east Norfolk in 1993 , and started breeding regularly at Blakeney in 2001 . It is possible that they now outnumber harbour seals off the Norfolk coast . Seal @-@ watching boat trips run from Blakeney and Morston harbours , giving good views without disturbing the seals . The corpses of 24 female or juvenile harbour seals were found in the Blakeney area between March 2009 and August 2010 , each with spirally cut wounds consistent with the animal having been drawn through a ducted propeller .
The rabbit population can grow to a level at which their grazing and burrowing adversely affects the fragile dune vegetation . When rabbit numbers are reduced by myxomatosis , the plants recover , although those that are toxic to rabbits , like ragwort , then become less common due to increased competition from the edible species . The rabbits may be killed by carnivores such as red foxes , weasels and stoats . Records of mammals that are rare in the NNR area include red deer swimming in the haven , a hedgehog and a beached Sowerby 's beaked whale .
An insect survey in September 2009 recorded 187 beetle species , including two new to Norfolk , the rove beetle Phytosus nigriventris and the fungus beetle Leiodes ciliaris , and two very rarely seen in the county , the sap beetle Nitidula carnaria and the clown beetle Gnathoncus nanus . There were also 24 types of spider , and the five ant species included the nationally rare Myrmica specioides . The rare millipede Thalassisobates littoralis , a specialist of coastal shingle habitats , was found here in 1972 , and a red @-@ veined darter appeared in 2012 . Tens of thousands of migrant turnip sawflies were recorded for a few days in late summer 2006 , along with red @-@ eyed damselflies . The silver Y moth also appears in large numbers in some years .
The many inhabitants of the tidal flats include lugworms , polychaete worms , sand hoppers and other amphipod crustaceans , and gastropod molluscs . These molluscs feed on the algae growing on the surface of the mud , and include the tiny Hydrobia , an important food for waders because of its abundance at densities of more than 130 @,@ 000 m − 2 . Bivalve molluscs include the edible common cockle , although it is not harvested here .
= = = Plants = = =
Grasses such as sea couch grass and sea poa grass have an important function in the driest areas of the marshes , and on the coastal dunes , where marram grass , sand couch @-@ grass , lyme @-@ grass and grey hair @-@ grass help to bind the sand . Sea holly , sand sedge , bird 's @-@ foot trefoil and pyramidal orchid are other specialists of this arid habitat . Some specialised mosses and lichens are found on the dunes , and help to consolidate the sand ; a survey in September 2009 found 41 lichen species . The plant distribution is influenced by the dunes ' age as well as their moisture content , the deposits becoming less alkaline as calcium carbonate from animal shells is leached out of the sand to be replaced by more acidic humus from plant decomposition products . Marram grass is particularly discouraged by the change in acidity . A similar pattern is seen with mosses and lichens , with the various areas of the dunes containing different species according to the acidity of the sand . At least four moss species have been identified as important in dune stabilization , since they help to consolidate the sand , add nutrients as they decompose , and pave the way for more exacting plant species . The moss and lichen flora of Blakeney Point differs markedly from that of lime @-@ rich dunes on the western coasts of the UK . Non @-@ native tree lupins have become established near the Lifeboat House , where they now grow wild .
The shingle ridge attracts biting stonecrop , sea campion , yellow horned poppy , sea thrift , bird 's foot trefoil and sea beet . In the damper areas , where the shingle adjoins salt marsh , rock sea lavender , matted sea lavender and scrubby sea @-@ blite also thrive , although they are scarce in Britain away from the Norfolk coast . The saltmarsh contains European glasswort and common cord grass in the most exposed regions , with a succession of plants following on as the marsh becomes more established : first sea aster , then mainly sea lavender , with sea purslane in the creeks , and smaller areas of sea plantain and other common marsh plants . Six previously unknown diatom species were found in the waters around the point in 1952 , along with six others not previously recorded in Britain .
European glasswort is picked between May and September and sold locally as " samphire " . It is a fleshy plant which when blanched or steamed has a taste which leads to its alternative name of " sea asparagus " , and it is often eaten with fish . It can also be eaten raw when young . Glasswort is also a favourite food for the rabbits , which will venture onto the saltmarsh in search of this succulent plant .
= = Recreation = =
The 7 @.@ 7 million day visitors and 5 @.@ 5 million who made overnight stays on the Norfolk coast in 1999 are estimated to have spent £ 122 million , and secured the equivalent of 2 @,@ 325 full @-@ time jobs in that area . A 2005 survey at six North Norfolk coastal sites , including Blakeney , Cley and Morston found that 39 per cent of visitors gave birdwatching as the main purpose of their visit . The villages nearest to the Point , Blakeney and Cley , had the highest per capita spend per visitor of those surveyed , and Cley was one of the two sites with the highest proportion of pre @-@ planned visits . The equivalent of 52 full @-@ time jobs in the Cley and Blakeney area are estimated to result from the £ 2 @.@ 45 million spent locally by the visiting public . In addition to birdwatching and boat trips to see the seals , sailing and walking are the other significant tourist activities in the area .
The large number of visitors at coastal sites sometimes has negative effects . Wildlife may be disturbed , a frequent difficulty for species that breed in exposed areas such as ringed plovers and little terns , and also for wintering geese . During the breeding season , the main breeding areas for terns and seals are fenced off and signposted . Plants can be trampled , which is a particular problem in sensitive habitats such as sand dunes and vegetated shingle . A boardwalk made from recycled plastic crosses the large sand dunes near the end of the Point , which helps to reduce erosion . It was installed in 2009 at a cost of £ 35 @,@ 000 to replace its much less durable wooden predecessor . Dogs are not allowed from April to mid @-@ August because of the risk to ground @-@ nesting birds , and must be on a lead or closely controlled at other times .
The Norfolk Coast Partnership , a grouping of conservation and environmental bodies , divide the coast and its hinterland into three zones for tourism development purposes . Blakeney Point , along with Holme Dunes and Holkham dunes , is considered to be a sensitive habitat already suffering from visitor pressure , and therefore designated as a red @-@ zone area with no development or parking improvements to be recommended . The rest of the reserve is placed in the orange zone , for locations with fragile habitats but less tourism pressure .
= = Coastal changes = =
The spit is a relatively young feature in geological terms , and in recent centuries it has been extending westwards and landwards through tidal and storm action . This growth is thought to have been enhanced by the reclamation of the salt marshes along this coast in recent centuries , which removed a natural barrier to the movement of shingle . The amount of shingle moved by a single storm can be " spectacular " ; the spit has sometimes been breached , becoming an island for a time , and this may happen again . The northernmost part of Snitterley ( now Blakeney ) village was lost to the sea in the early Middle Ages , probably due to a storm . In the last two hundred years , maps have been accurate enough for the distance from the Blakeney Chapel ruins to the sea to be measured . The 400 m ( 440 yd ) in 1817 had become 320 m ( 350 yd ) by 1835 , 275 m ( 300 yd ) in 1907 , and 195 m ( 215 yd ) by the end of the 20th century . The spit is moving towards the mainland at about 1 m ( 1 yd ) per year ; and several former raised islands or " eyes " have already disappeared , first covered by the advancing shingle , and then lost to the sea . The massive 1953 flood overran the main beach , and only the highest dune tops remained above water . Sand was washed into the salt marshes , and the extreme tip of the point was breached , but as with other purely natural parts of the coast , like Scolt Head Island , little lasting damage was done .
Landward movement of the shingle meant that the channel of the Glaven was becoming blocked increasingly often by 2004 . This led to flooding of Cley village and the environmentally important Blakeney freshwater marshes . The Environment Agency considered several remedial options . It concluded that attempting to hold back the shingle or breaching the spit to create a new outlet for the Glaven would be expensive and probably ineffective , and doing nothing would be environmentally damaging . The Agency decided to create a new route for the river to the south of its original line , and work to realign a 550 m ( 600 yd ) stretch of river 200 m ( 220 yd ) further south was completed in 2007 at a cost of about £ 1 @.@ 5 million . The Glaven had previously been realigned from an earlier , more northerly , course in 1922 . The ruins of Blakeney Chapel are now to the north of the river embankment , and essentially unprotected from coastal erosion , since the advancing shingle will no longer be swept away by the stream . The chapel will be buried by a ridge of shingle as the spit continues to move south , and then lost to the sea , perhaps within 20 – 30 years .
= 2010 – 11 Temple Owls men 's basketball team =
The 2010 – 11 Temple Owls men 's basketball team ( the Owls ) represented Temple University in the 2010 – 11 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season . The team played their home games at the Liacouras Center , which has a capacity of 10 @,@ 206 . The Owls were in their 29th season as a member of the Atlantic 10 Conference . In the previous season , Temple Owls gained a record of 29 – 6 and reached the NCAA Tournament . The team returned three starters from the previous season , but leading scorer Ryan Brooks and point guard Luis Guzman left , having graduated . They were replaced by new players Aaron Brown , Anthony Lee , and Jimmy McDonnell and graduate student transfer Dutch Gaitley . In the off @-@ season , other Atlantic 10 coaches predicted that Temple Owls would win the league .
Temple Owls finished the season with a 26 – 8 record . Among the highlights of the year was an upset of # 10 Georgetown on December 9 , in coach Fran Dunphy 's 400th victory . In addition , Lavoy Allen became Temple Owls ' all @-@ time leading rebounder in a 66 – 52 rout of Saint Joseph 's . Allen snatched 12 boards to pass Temple Owls ' radio analyst Johnny Baum 's 1 @,@ 042 career rebounds . The Owls ' 14 – 2 mark in Atlantic 10 play earned them a two seed in the 2011 Atlantic 10 Men 's Basketball Tournament , where they lost in the semifinals to Richmond .
The team earned an at @-@ large bid to the 2011 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament as a seven seed , and defeated Penn State in the round of 64 on a last @-@ second shot by guard Juan Fernandez . The win ended Dunphy 's 11 @-@ game losing streak in the NCAA Tournament , the longest on record . Temple Owls ' season ended with a double overtime loss to San Diego State in the round of 32 . After the season , Allen was selected for the All @-@ Atlantic 10 First Team , Ramone Moore was selected for the All @-@ Atlantic 10 Second Team , Fernandez was an All @-@ Atlantic 10 Third Team selection , and Scootie Randall was recognized as an All @-@ Atlantic 10 Honorable Mention . Allen was drafted by the Philadelphia 76ers in the second round of the 2011 NBA Draft .
= = Preseason = =
In 2010 – 11 , the Temple Owls men 's basketball team were in their 29th season as a member of the Atlantic 10 Conference . Since 1997 , the team has played their home games at the Liacouras Center , which has a capacity of 10 @,@ 206 . In their previous season , an Atlantic 10 Preseason Poll predicted that Temple Owls would finish fifth in the conference , tied with Duquesne . Despite the low expectations , the Owls were tied with Xavier atop the Atlantic 10 standings with a 14 – 2 conference record , and won their third straight Atlantic 10 tournament title . The team drew a five seed in the 2010 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , where they lost to 12 seed Cornell in the first round , 78 – 65 , and finished with a record of 29 – 6 . Head coach Fran Dunphy was rewarded with a contract extension on May 5 , 2010 and will stay with Temple Owls until the 2017 – 18 season .
Before the 2010 – 11 season , Temple Owls men 's basketball team lost two starters from the previous year to graduation : Ryan Brooks and Luis Guzman . Brooks was the team 's highest scorer , with an average of 14 @.@ 3 points per game , and averages of 4 @.@ 2 rebounds and 2 @.@ 3 assists per game . In his final season , he was selected for the all @-@ conference second team and finished his career with 1 @,@ 225 points , the 31st highest in Temple Owls ' history . Guzman was the Owls ' starting point guard , leading the team in assist @-@ to @-@ turnover ratio at 2 @.@ 07 and averaged 4 @.@ 9 points , 4 @.@ 2 rebounds , and 3 @.@ 2 assists per game . He was the team 's captain and earned a degree in Bachelor of Business Administration in three and a half years . Walk @-@ on forward Rafael DeLeon also graduated .
Two players left Temple Owls voluntarily : sophomores Chris Clarke and Carmel Bouchman . Clarke redshirted in 2009 – 10 after transferring from Pensacola Junior College , transferred again to Division II Morehouse College . Bouchman appeared in nine games and tallied a total of 12 minutes and two points before returning to Tel Aviv , Israel . Lavoy Allen , a first team all @-@ conference selection and the team 's leading rebounder at 10 @.@ 7 rebounds per game . Allen briefly played with the 2010 NBA Draft , but returned to Temple Owls for his senior season . Forward Craig Williams had foot surgery and did not play that season .
On October 21 , 2010 , the Owls were voted by other Atlantic 10 coaches as the preseason favorite to win the league , receiving 19 first place votes . Allen was selected for the All @-@ Conference First Team and Defensive Team , while Juan Fernandez was selected for the second team . Allen was listed on the preseason Wooden and Naismith Award 50 @-@ man watchlist . Jay Bilas of ESPN named Temple Owls the third best team in the Atlantic 10 , behind Xavier and Dayton . He cited Allen 's summer experience on the USA select team and the development of Michael Eric as factors for a successful season .
= = = Recruiting = = =
= = = = Incoming signees = = = =
Anthony Lee , a center from Eustis , Florida , joined Temple Owls on September 26 , 2009 , becoming the first member of the Owls ' recruiting class . The Maryland native transferred from Eustis High School to West Oaks Academy after his junior year . As a senior , he averaged 23 @.@ 0 points , 14 @.@ 0 rebounds , and 3 @.@ 0 blocks per game while winning MVP honors from the Sunshine Independent Athletic Association . ESPN ranked him the # 38 center in his class . Lee picked Temple Owls over scholarship offers from Southern California , Georgia , and Seton Hall . After undergoing surgery for a herniated disc , Lee redshirted the season .
On November 2 , small forward Aaron Brown of Newark , New Jersey signed with the Owls . He posted per @-@ game averages of 17 @.@ 6 points , 4 @.@ 0 rebounds , 4 @.@ 5 assists , and 3 @.@ 0 steals in his senior campaign at St. Benedict 's Prep . Brown was a New Jersey All @-@ Prep First Team selection in 2010 and participated in the Jordan Brand Classic Regional . He chose Temple Owls over Harvard , Miami ( Fl . ) , Penn , Boston College , and Florida State .
Small forward Jimmy McDonnell , from Jackson , New Jersey , joined the team on August 11 , 2010 . In his senior season at Jackson Memorial High School , McDonnell averaged 13 @.@ 9 points , 6 @.@ 5 rebounds , and 4 @.@ 0 blocks per game as Jackson Memorial compiled a 16 – 8 record . McDonnell was selected for the first team all @-@ Division in the A @-@ Shore Conference , and was the most valuable player at the WOBM Holiday Classic . McDonnell was originally headed to Division II UMass Lowell , but after a strong performance at the West Virginia HoopGroup JamFest , he drew the attention of Owls coach Fran Dunphy . McDonnell redshirted the season to add bulk to his frame .
Dutch Gaitley was granted a one @-@ time transfer exception by the NCAA and was eligible immediately , instead of sitting out the customary season . The forward graduated in three years from Monmouth University , earning his Bachelor of Arts degree in 2009 . At Temple , Gaitley pursued a master 's degree in sports administration . A native of Haverford , Pennsylvania , he was a 2006 graduate of Archbishop Carroll High School . In 88 games at Monmouth , he averaged 2 @.@ 3 points and 4 @.@ 1 rebounds per game .
= = = = 2011 – 12 team recruits = = = =
The sole member of the Owls ' 2011 recruiting class was Will Cummings , a point guard from Jacksonville , Florida who committed on September 4 , 2010 . He averaged 18 @.@ 1 points , 8 @.@ 1 assists , 4 @.@ 0 steals per game as a senior at Providence School , in addition to carrying a 4 @.@ 0 grade point average . The Jacksonville Times @-@ Union named him the high school boys basketball player of the year . Cummings drew attention from Stanford , Miami ( Fl . ) , and Boston College , but chose Temple because of their winning tradition .
= = Roster = =
= = = Players = = =
= = = Coaches = = =
= = Schedule = =
= = Season = =
= = = Preconference season = = =
Temple Owls started their season with a 62 – 56 home win against Seton Hall Pirates on November 12 . Seton Hall last led with 8 : 15 in the first half , off a Herb Pope jump shot to make the score 20 – 17 . The Owls went on a 17 – 0 run to close the half . They led by up to 16 with 4 minutes and 16seconds left in the game , but Seton Hall scored the next 12 points to cut their deficit to four . Despite retaining most of their players from the 2009 @-@ 2010 season , when they were the eighth @-@ highest scoring team in Division I at 80 @.@ 1 points per game , Seton Hall was held to 30 percent shooting by Temple Owls ' defense . Juan Fernandez led Temple Owls with 12 points , and Rahlir Jefferson recorded his first double @-@ double at 10 points and 10 rebounds . Owls player Lavoy Allen sat out much of the game with foul trouble . The Owls won their next game against Toledo 82 – 49 . All five starters scored above nine , and Micheal Eric was the highest scorer , with 14 points .
Over Thanksgiving weekend , the Owls traveled to Lake Buena Vista , Florida to participate in the Old Spice Classic . Temple Owls suffered their first loss of the season on November 25 , falling to California 57 – 50 . The Golden Bears went on a 16 – 1 run late in the second half to seal a victory . The next day , Temple Owls recovered to beat Georgia 65 – 58 . Scootie Randall had a career @-@ high 18 points for the Owls , including 15 in the first half . Rahlir Jefferson 's converted a three @-@ point play with 41 @.@ 4 seconds left , securing a win for Temple Owls . In the Old Spice Classic consolation game , Temple Owls lost to Texas A & M 54 – 51 . Texas A & M took a 51 – 50 lead when B.J. Holmes scored with 18 @.@ 5 seconds left . Juan Fernandez then missed an open jumper that would have given Temple Owls the lead . " We 've got to shoot the ball better . Our defense is pretty solid . We 've got a chance to be a good basketball team , " said Temple Owls ' coach Fran Dunphy after the game .
The team 's next challenge was the Central Michigan Chippewas , which Temple Owls handled 65 – 53 . The Owls were losing 31 – 41 with 16 : 35 left in the game , but then scored the next eight points . Temple Owls permanently took the lead off a Lavoy Allen layup with 9 : 30 remaining . Juan Fernandez notched 18 points led the Owls , and Allen had a double @-@ double of 13 points and 10 rebounds . In the teams ' first meeting since 2006 , Temple Owls knocked off Maryland 63 – 61 . Despite trailing by 15 at halftime , Maryland staged a comeback led by Terrell Stoglin , who had 12 of his 16 points in the second half . James Padgett dunked with 1 : 49 left to tie the game at 56 . Afterwards , Lavoy Allen completed a three @-@ point play , and Khalif Wyatt stole a Dino Gregory pass to put Temple Owls in the lead permanently . The Owls outrebounded the Terrapins 42 – 32 , and Ramone Moore scored 16 points , leading the team .
On December 9 , Temple Owls matched up against Georgetown . Fran Dunphy earned his 400th career victory , as his Owls upset the tenth @-@ ranked Hoyas 68 – 65 . At their first home game in almost a month , Temple Owls took an early 6 – 0 lead and did not trail the entire game . They led by 11 in the first half , and a backdoor cut to Ramone Moore put the Owls up 39 – 32 at the break . The Hoyas manage to tie the game at 56 when Chris Wright sunk a pair of free throws . A three @-@ pointer from Moore and a putback shot from Rahlir Jefferson enabled Temple Owls to take a 61 – 56 lead . A hook shot by Georgetown 's Julian Vaughn cut the Hoya deficit to one with less than a minute remaining , but Hollis Thompson missed a layup that would have given the Hoyas the lead . Jefferson grabbed the rebound and then netted two foul shots , and a last @-@ second halfcourt shot by Austin Freeman went over the backboard . Temple Owls ' fans rushed the court after the buzzer , as Georgetown suffered their first loss of the year . Moore shot 12 @-@ for @-@ 18 from the floor for a career @-@ high 30 points . Dunphy congratulated his team 's defensive effort , holding the Hoyas to 44 percent shooting , and said , " it 's all about these guys . They 're all great players and great people . "
The Owls then defeated three Mid @-@ American Conference teams : Akron , Northern Illinois , and Ohio . On December 12 , behind Micheal Eric 's 16 points , Temple Owls routed Akron 82 – 47 . At halftime , the Owls led 40 – 15 after shooting 63 percent in the first half . Temple Owls shot 53 @.@ 4 percent from the field in an 84 – 74 win over Northern Illinois . Lavoy Allen had 22 points and Ramone Moore had 21 in the contest . Rahlir Jefferson 's career @-@ high 18 points led Temple Owls past Ohio 76 – 65 for the Owls ' sixth consecutive victory .
When Temple Owls squared off against # 7 Villanova on December 30 , it marked the first time since 1988 that two Philadelphia Big Five teams ranked in the Associated Press poll met . The Owls held star guard Corey Fisher to five points , but his backcourt mates Corey Stokes and Maalik Wayns tallied 24 and 21 points , respectively , to give Villanova a 78 – 74 victory . The game was back @-@ and @-@ forth all night , and Temple Owls held a 40 – 39 lead at the break . Villanova built a 10 @-@ point lead in the second half , but the Owls went on a 13 – 0 run to take a three @-@ point lead . With 2 @.@ 3 seconds left , Lavoy Allen hit a three to cut the Wildcats ' lead to 76 – 74 , but Wayns sealed the win with a pair of free throws . Allen scored 22 for Temple Owls , and Juan Fernandez had 20 points .
= = = Conference season = = =
To begin the conference season , the Owls won against Fordham 70 – 51 at the IZOD Center . Fordham last won a conference game on January 28 , 2009 , but Temple Owls had a 27 – 22 deficit in the first half . However , a balanced offensive attack , led by Juan Fernandez and Ramone Moore 's 15 points each , helped Temple Owls to take the lead . Michael Eric scored his first collegiate double @-@ double with 14 points and 11 rebounds , and Lavoy Allen was the fourth starter to score in double figures , with 12 points . On January 6 , starting point guard Juan Fernandez bruised his knee in practice and missed the January 9 game against Saint Louis . Despite shooting 30 @.@ 6 percent from the field , the Owls won 57 – 53 behind Ramone Moore 's 15 points . Temple Owls was behind 41 – 32 with 10 : 13 remaining , then went on an 11 – 2 run . Moore scored five consecutive points to break a tie at 49 , giving the Owls a lead . The Billikens missed all seven three @-@ point shots against the Temple Owls defense . Fernandez also missed the January 12 game against St. Bonaventure , but the Owls defeated the Bonnies nonetheless , 83 – 55 . Ramone Moore led all five starters in double @-@ digit scoring with 19 points . The team shot 30 of 59 from the field and 9 for 21 from three @-@ point land .
Temple Owls ' first loss in conference play was 78 – 66 against Duquesne Dukes , despite the return of Juan Fernandez . The Owls began the game by trailing 22 – 2 , missing their first 14 shots . Temple Owls scored their first field goal at the 8 : 18 mark of the first half , and shot 17 percent in the first half . Duquesne shot 67 percent in the first half en route to a 40 – 23 halftime lead . In the second half , the Owls scored the first six points , but the Dukes went on an 8 – 2 run from which Temple Owls could not recover . Ramone Moore contributed 18 points to lead the Owls . Temple Owls recovered with a 75 – 56 out @-@ of @-@ conference win against Philadelphia Big Five team Penn . Khalif Wyatt scored a career @-@ best 27 points , Ramone Moore added 12 points and Lavoy Allen scored 10 points and six blocks .
Xavier defeated Temple Owls 88 – 77 on January 22 , extending their in @-@ conference home @-@ court winning streak to 35 , surpassing Temple Owls ' 34 @-@ game in @-@ conference consecutive home victories for the longest in Atlantic 10 history . Former Xavier player Brian Grant had his jersey retired at halftime , and the team wore throwback uniforms in his honor . Grant gave the Musketeers a pep talk prior to the game , and Xavier opened an early 16 – 8 lead . Scootie Randall scored Temple Owls ' first 10 points , hitting five out of his first six shots . The Owls took their only lead of the half 29 – 28 off of a three by Randall . In the second half , the teams traded baskets before Xavier went on a 10 – 0 run . Randall led Temple Owls on an 11 – 1 run to tie the game at 66 , knocking down two fastbreak layups and a three @-@ point shot , and finished with a career @-@ high 28 points . The Owls took their final lead 69 – 68 off a Khalif Wyatt three @-@ pointer with 5 : 30 to go . Afterwards Tu Holloway hit a scoop shot and Mark Lyons had a layup and a steal to give Xavier a 75 – 69 advantage that they maintained . Holloway scored 21 points and Lyons 19 to score the most points against Temple Owls in the season .
Khalif Wyatt , who replaced Juan Fernandez after Fernandez had continuing knee problems , was key in Temple Owls ' 76 – 67 win over Charlotte . He scored 17 points , collected six dimes , and grabbed six rebounds . Ramone Moore added 16 points , Lavoy Allen recorded a double @-@ double ( 15 points and 11 rebounds ) , and Scootie Randall contributed 14 points . On January 29 , Temple Owls defeated city rival Saint Joseph 's 72 – 54 . Scootie Randall led Temple with 17 points . In their next game , Temple Owls won against La Salle by 71 – 67 . The Owls had a 61 – 47 lead with 3 : 17 left , but Aaric Murray led a late Explorers comeback as he connected on two three @-@ point shots . Khalif Wyatt scored 18 points for the Owls .
The Owls defeated Rhode Island 80 – 67 on February 5 . Scootie Randall scored 27 points as Temple Owls shot 53 @.@ 2 percent from the field . Against Fordham , Temple Owls ' 25 @-@ point lead was cut to three before winning 77 – 66 . Brandon Frazier of the Rams drained a three @-@ pointer with 13 : 17 left to trail 53 – 50 , but they would get no closer . Ramone Moore scored 22 points to lead the Owls . Lavoy Allen left the game in the second half with an injury to his right ankle . Allen missed the following game against Dayton , but Temple Owls managed a 75 – 63 victory nonetheless , sparked by Ramone Moore 's 26 points . Temple Owls missed their first seven shots , allowing Dayton to stay in the game . However , Moore hit a three @-@ pointer to start an 11 – 2 run to put the Owls ahead 18 – 12 . Their defense held Dayton to 37 percent shooting , and Temple Owls maintained their lead . After the game , Dayton coach Brian Gregory said : " ... they 're [ Temple Owls ] one of the best passing teams not just in the league , but in the country . "
Before the game against Richmond , Temple Owls announced that starting center Micheal Eric was unavailable for the season with a right patella injury . Lavoy Allen returned and Temple Owls ended the Spiders ' eight game road winning streak , scoring 73 – 53 . Ramone Moore scored 24 points . Juan Fernandez registered 20 points off of 9 – 10 shooting . Temple Owls controlled the game with a 16 – 0 run in the second half and shot 56 percent on the game . Lavoy Allen became Temple Owls ' all @-@ time leading rebounder in a 66 – 52 rout of Saint Joseph 's . Allen snatched 12 boards to surpass Temple Owls radio analyst Johnny Baum 's career 1 @,@ 042 rebounds . Ramone Moore 's 17 points led the team , and Allen scored 14 points to go along with his milestone rebounds . Temple Owls ' forward Scootie Randall was unavailable , having a foot injury . The Owls traveled to Cameron Indoor Stadium to play against top @-@ ranked Duke in a nonconference game . Temple Owls lost to the Blue Devils 78 – 61 , as Kyle Singler led Duke with 28 points . Lavoy Allen scored 17 points and had 13 rebounds for Temple Owls , but Duke increased their lead against the Owls with a second half run .
Temple Owls missed 16 of their first 18 shots against George Washington , trailing by 20 – 8 . Lavoy Allen then took control of the team , scoring 10 consecutive points ; at halftime the core was 26 – 23 . In the second half , the Temple Owls defense held the Colonials to two points over the last 11 : 22 , and Temple Owls won 57 – 41 . Allen contributed 19 points and 16 rebounds , while Khalif Wyatt scored 14 points . Juan Fernandez 's 19 points helped Temple Owls defeat UMass 73 – 67 , in the Owls ' first overtime game . Down four at halftime , Temple Owls tied the game at 65 with 48 seconds left off a free throw by Ramone Moore . Fernandez had a chance to win the game in regulation , but his layup with 1 second left was blocked by UMass 's Sampson Carter . In overtime , T.J. DiLeo hit a layup with 4 : 20 remaining that gave Temple Owls the lead . In Temple Owls ' regular season finale , the team earned a 90 – 82 win against La Salle , behind Lavoy Allen 's career @-@ high 24 points .
= = = Postseason = = =
In the 2011 Atlantic 10 Men 's Basketball Tournament , Temple Owls received a two seed by virtue of a 14 – 2 conference record and earned a bye into the quarterfinals . Due to La Salle beating St. Bonaventure in the first round , Temple Owls was matched up with La Salle . The Owls won the game 96 – 76 , posting their most points of the season in the process . Five players scored more than nine , and Ramone Moore led the charge with 23 points . Kevin Anderson of Richmond scored 22 , defeating the Owls in the semifinals 58 – 54 and ending Temple Owls ' ten @-@ game winning streak at Boardwalk Hall . Ramone Moore hit a layup to push the Owls ahead 54 – 53 with five minutes left . Richmond grabbed the lead 55 – 54 at the 3 : 48 mark as Justin Harper scored off a putback . Harper finished the game with 18 points and nine rebounds , and was involved in a controversial end @-@ of @-@ game play . With 30 seconds left , Khalif Wyatt attempted a 3 @-@ pointer and Harper came down on him , but no call was made . Wyatt proceeded to foul Harper , who hit the deciding free throws . Wyatt had 15 points , while Lavoy Allen added 12 points and 10 rebounds . Juan Fernandez made only 3 of his 17 field goal attempts .
On Selection Sunday , Temple Owls received a seven seed and was due to face Penn State in the 2011 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament on March 17 at the McKale Center in Tucson , Arizona . The two teams had played each other in a scrimmage in the preseason . They had also met in the 2001 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament when the Owls earned an 84 – 72 victory in the Sweet Sixteen . Coming into the game , Fran Dunphy had a NCAA tournament record 11 @-@ game losing streak , at Penn and Temple Owls . " I probably think about it less than others do , " said Dunphy , " but you think about it . I would be lying if I said I didn 't . But I 'm so thrilled for these kids and so thrilled to be in the tournament . We 've had a nice run – this particular group , four straight years of going to the NCAA tournament is pretty special . "
Scootie Randall returned to the Owls and earned the start , although he only played for six minutes and did not score . The game began with hot shooting by Penn State 's Talor Battle , who drained three of his first four threes to put the Nittany Lions up 20 – 11 . A 17 @-@ point first half by Juan Fernandez helped Temple Owls take a 35 – 33 lead at halftime . Jeff Brooks , a starting forward for the Nittany Lions , dislocated his right shoulder a minute into the half and sat out the rest of the game . In the second half , there were ten lead changes , and neither team led by more than four points . Ramone Moore 's 15 foot shot with 1 : 10 remaining pulled the Owls ahead 62 – 61 . In Penn State 's ensuing possession , Battle took the ball to the hoop but was blocked by Rahlir Jefferson , and Temple Owls took possession . Fernandez was fouled , and his pair of free throws with 28 seconds left extended the Owl lead to 64 – 61 . With the clock at 12 @.@ 2 , Battle hit a three pointer from beyond the NBA line to tie the game at 64 @-@ 64 . Fran Dunphy called a timeout , and Khalif Wyatt advised Dunphy to draw up a play for Fernandez . Fernandez was double @-@ teamed and was forced to take an off @-@ balance 18 @-@ footer . The ball fell through the hoop with four seconds remaining , and Temple Owls won 66 – 64 . Fernandez and Moore finished with 23 points , a season high for Fernandez .
Temple Owls ' season ended on March 19 with a 71 – 64 loss to second @-@ seeded San Diego State in double overtime . The Aztecs took an 11 @-@ point lead in the first half , but Temple Owls recovered . Off a turnover , Lavoy Allen made a seven @-@ footer to tie the game at 54 with 51 seconds left in the second half . Chase Tapley of San Diego State missed a baseline shot at the end of regulation , and the game went into overtime . At the beginning of the first overtime period , Juan Fernandez hit a three @-@ pointer to give the Owls a 57 – 54 lead . Malcolm Thomas responded with a three @-@ point play to tie the game at 61 . Thomas could not hit a shot and the game went into a second overtime . With SDSU maintaining a 69 – 64 lead , Aztec star Kawhi Leonard stole the ball from Khalif Wyatt and his uncontested dunk assured his team 's victory . Ramone Moore had 17 points , and Allen had 12 points and 11 rebounds in his final game as a Temple Owl .
= = Statistics = =
The team posted the following statistics :
= = Rankings = =
= = Awards and honors = =
Lavoy Allen
Preseason All @-@ Atlantic 10 First Team
Preseason All @-@ Atlantic 10 Defensive Team
Preseason John R. Wooden Award Watchlist
Preseason Naismith College Player of the Year Watchlist
December 6 , 2010 Atlantic 10 Conference Player of the Week
February 28 , 2011 Atlantic 10 Conference Player of the Week
March 6 , 2011 Atlantic 10 Conference Player of the Week
All @-@ Atlantic 10 First Team
All @-@ Atlantic 10 Defensive Team
Philadelphia Big Five Player of the Year
All @-@ Philadelphia Big Five First Team
Juan Fernandez
Preseason All @-@ Atlantic 10 Second Team
Bob Cousy Award Watchlist
All @-@ Atlantic 10 Third Team
All @-@ Atlantic 10 Academic Team
All @-@ Philadelphia Big Five Second Team
Ramone Moore
All @-@ Atlantic 10 Second Team
National Association of Basketball Coaches District 4 Second Team
All @-@ Philadelphia Big Five First Team
Scootie Randall
February 7 , 2011 Atlantic 10 Conference Player of the Week
All @-@ Atlantic 10 Honorable Mention
Chris Daniels Most Improved Player of the Year
Khalif Wyatt
Atlantic 10 Sixth Man of the Year
= = NBA Draft = =
In the 2011 NBA Draft , the Philadelphia 76ers drafted Lavoy Allen in the second round with the 50th pick on June 23 . Allen became the 32nd Temple player to be drafted and the first since the New York Knicks selected Mardy Collins with the 29th pick in 2006 . " I am very happy for him , " said coach Fran Dunphy . " He accomplished so much as a college basketball player . It is a great reward to be drafted , and to go to the Sixers is icing on the cake . "
= Meteor @-@ class aviso =
The Meteor class was a pair of two avisos built by the Imperial German Navy in the late @-@ 1880s ; the class comprised two ships , Meteor and Comet . They were an improvement over the preceding Wacht class , being slightly faster and armed with quick @-@ firing guns rather than the slower , old @-@ pattern guns used on the earlier ships . Meteor and Comet nevertheless proved to be disappointments , primarily a result of extreme vibration caused by their propulsion system , particularly at higher speeds . As a result , their service careers were limited . They served less than two years on active duty , from 1893 to 1895 . They returned to limited duty in 1904 as guard ships , but by 1911 they had been stricken from the naval register and used in subsidiary roles . Both were scrapped in 1919 – 21 .
= = Design = =
The Imperial Navy began building small avisos in the 1880s to serve in the main fleet in German waters . These vessels were intended to support the battle line , and so unlike the contemporary German unprotected cruisers , their designs emphasized offensive capability and high speed rather than a long cruising radius . The design for Meteor and Comet was based on the earlier Wacht class ; they were slightly smaller vessels and displaced around 25 % less than the earlier vessels . The savings in weight were used for a more powerful propulsion system , a new gun armament of quick @-@ firing guns , and slightly thicker armor plating . The Meteor class was the last aviso design produced by the Imperial Navy ; by the 1890s , German naval designers had taken the best characteristics of the avisos and the contemporary unprotected cruisers and combined them in the Gazelle class of light cruisers , the first vessels of that type of warship .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Meteor and Comet were 79 @.@ 86 meters ( 262 @.@ 0 ft ) long at the waterline and 79 @.@ 86 m ( 262 @.@ 0 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 9 @.@ 56 m ( 31 @.@ 4 ft ) and a maximum draft of 3 @.@ 68 m ( 12 @.@ 1 ft ) forward . Meteor displaced 961 metric tons ( 946 long tons ; 1 @,@ 059 short tons ) as designed and up to 1 @,@ 078 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 061 long tons ; 1 @,@ 188 short tons ) at full combat load , while Comet was slightly heavier , at 992 t ( 976 long tons ; 1 @,@ 093 short tons ) and 1 @,@ 117 t ( 1 @,@ 099 long tons ; 1 @,@ 231 short tons ) , respectively . Their hulls were constructed from transverse steel frames . Meteor was initially fitted with a single pole mainmast , while Comet had the pole mainmast along with a smaller mast further aft for wireless telegraphy . In 1901 – 02 , Meteor was fitted with the second mast as well .
The Meteor @-@ class ships had a crew of 7 officers and 108 enlisted men . The ships carried several smaller boats , including one yawl , one dinghy , and one cutter . They were poor sea boats ; they were very unstable in anything but calm weather . They also vibrated excessively due to severe cavitation , particularly at high speeds . Both ships were , however , very maneuverable vessels . Their metacentric height was .41 m ( 1 ft 4 in ) .
= = = Machinery = = =
Their propulsion system consisted of two vertical 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines that drove a pair of 2 @.@ 8 m ( 9 ft 2 in ) wide , three @-@ bladed screw propellers . Steam for the engines was provided by four coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers that were trunked into two funnels on the centerline . The ships were equipped with a pair of electric generators with a combined output of 2 | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
wasps ; they hatch out later in the springtime . The parasites locate host larvae hidden in the wood using their antennae to detect cues , including the smell of leaking drill dust or fungus mycelium , weak vibrations , or differences in temperature . The majority of these insect hyperparasites feed on honeydew and nectar , both of which affect the woodwasps ' sensitivity .
Another parasite is the nematode Beddingia ( Deladenus ) siricidicola , which was suggested in the New World in the 1970s as a possible biological control . B. siricidicola causes infertility in female wasps , but does not impair the fertility of males . Inside the host tree , the nematodes primarily feed on fungal mycelium . If they get near the wasp larvae , they infect females , which then couple with males and finally infest the wasp larvae . These eventually exit the tree carrying the nematodes with them . Competition for food between B. siricidicola and the wasp larvae also occurs , resulting in slower growth and possible starvation of the woodwasp larvae . The population of the Sirex woodwasp is very prone to infestation by B. siricidicola ; infestation rates of up to 90 % have been recorded . The nematodes are often used to combat the wasps by combining them with the symbiosis partner Amylostereum . The related species B. wilsoni has a similar effect , but as it also lives parasitically with the genus Rhyssa , it is not used for pest control .
= = Management options = =
Several biological control agents have been employed to try to limit populations of the Sirex woodwasp . B. siricidicola has been shown to infect up to 70 % of the wasps , but delivery and inoculation have been an issue when delivering the organism to the tree . The introductions of parasitic wasps . Megarhyssa nortoni nortoni , Rhyssa persuasoria persuasoria and Ibalia leucospoides leucospoides have been successful at hyperparasitism , but do not reduce wasp populations below 40 % of the local population . Although some success in slowing the population growth of the wasp has been observed , these measures are not stopping the spread of the wasp .
As a consequence of forest damage in Australia and New Zealand , wood imports to those countries have been required to be certified free from living Sirex larvae .
Treatment has also been attempted with bromomethane ( CH3Br ) , through heat , or by removing the bark .
= SMS Frithjof =
SMS Frithjof was the third vessel of the six @-@ member Siegfried class of coastal defense ships ( Küstenpanzerschiffe ) built for the German Imperial Navy . Her sister ships were Siegfried , Beowulf , Heimdall , Hildebrand , and Hagen . Frithjof was built by the AG Weser shipyard between 1890 and 1893 , and was armed with a main battery of three 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns . She served in the German fleet throughout the 1890s and was rebuilt in 1900 - 1902 . She served in the VI Battle Squadron after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , but saw no action . Frithjof was demobilized in 1915 and used as a barracks ship thereafter . She was rebuilt as a merchant ship in 1923 and served in this capacity until she was broken up for scrap in 1930 .
= = Design = =
Frithjof was 79 meters ( 259 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 14 @.@ 90 m ( 48 @.@ 9 ft ) and a maximum draft of 5 @.@ 74 m ( 18 @.@ 8 ft ) . She displaced 3 @,@ 741 long tons ( 3 @,@ 801 t ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two vertical 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines . Steam for the engines was provided by four coal @-@ fired boilers . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) and a range of approximately 1 @,@ 490 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 760 km ; 1 @,@ 710 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Frithjof had a crew of 20 officers and 256 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with three 24 cm K L / 35 guns mounted in three single gun turrets . Two were placed side by side forward , and the third was located aft of the main superstructure . They were supplied with a total of 204 rounds of ammunition . The ship was also equipped with eight 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 30 guns in single mounts . Frithjof also carried four 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes , all in swivel mounts on the deck . One was at the bow , another at the stern , and two amidships . The ship was protected by an armored belt that was 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) amidships , and an armored deck that was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick . The conning tower had 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Frithjof was laid down in 1890 at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen . She was launched on 21 July 1891 , and completed on 23 February 1893 . Following her commissioning , Frithjof joined the 1893 annual training exercises , alongside her sister ship Beowulf . On the first set of maneuvers , Frithjof and the other capital ships performed as the hostile French fleet , which was " attacked " by torpedo boats in the North Sea . The second set of maneuvers took place in the Baltic Sea , and Beowulf and the ironclads again simulated a French fleet . In 1897 , Frithjof again participated in the annual summer maneuvers , now in the IV Division , along with Heimdall and Hagen . Her other three sisters were assigned to the III Division . During the 1900 summer maneuvers , Frithjof served in the squadron that simulated the German navy , alongside the new battleship Kaiser Friedrich III and the coastal defense ship Odin .
Frithjof served on active duty with the fleet until 1902 , when she was taken into drydock at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Kiel for an extensive reconstruction . The ship was lengthened to 86 @.@ 13 m ( 282 @.@ 6 ft ) , which increased displacement to 4 @,@ 367 t ( 4 @,@ 298 long tons ; 4 @,@ 814 short tons ) . Her old boilers were replaced with eight new Marine type boilers , and a second funnel was added . Her secondary battery was increased to ten 8 @.@ 8 cm guns , and the 35 cm torpedo tubes were replaced with three 45 cm ( 18 in ) tubes . Work was completed by 1903 .
She then returned to service with the fleet . In 1905 - 1906 , Erich Raeder served aboard the ship has her navigation officer . By 1908 , she was assigned to the gunnery training squadron and tasked with training the fleet 's gunners . She remained with the fleet until the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , when she was mobilized into the VI Battle Squadron for coastal defense , along with her sister ships . On 31 August 1915 , the VI Battle Squadron was demobilized , and Frithjof 's crew was transferred to other warships . She was then used as a barracks ship in Danzig . On 17 June 1919 , she was stricken from the naval register . She was sold to A. Bernstein in Hamburg . Frithjof was rebuilt as a merchant ship in 1923 at Deutsche Werke ; she only served in this capacity for seven years , and was dismantled for scrap in Danzig in 1930 .
= I @-@ 35W Mississippi River bridge =
The I @-@ 35W Mississippi River bridge ( officially known as Bridge 9340 ) was an eight @-@ lane , steel truss arch bridge that carried Interstate 35W across the Saint Anthony Falls of the Mississippi River in Minneapolis , Minnesota , United States . During the evening rush hour on August 1 , 2007 , it suddenly collapsed , killing 13 people and injuring 145 . The bridge was Minnesota 's third busiest , carrying 140 @,@ 000 vehicles daily . The NTSB cited a design flaw as the likely cause of the collapse , noting that a too @-@ thin gusset plate ripped along a line of rivets , and asserted that additional weight on the bridge at the time of the collapse contributed to the catastrophic failure .
Immediately after the collapse , help came from mutual aid in the seven @-@ county Minneapolis @-@ Saint Paul metropolitan area and emergency response personnel , charities , and volunteers . Within a few days of the collapse , the Minnesota Department of Transportation ( Mn / DOT ) planned a replacement bridge , the I @-@ 35W Saint Anthony Falls Bridge . Construction was completed rapidly , and it opened on September 18 , 2008 .
= = Location and site history = =
Located in Minneapolis , Minnesota 's largest city , the bridge connected the Minneapolis neighborhoods of Downtown East and Marcy @-@ Holmes . The south abutment was northeast of the Metrodome , and the north abutment was northwest of the University of Minnesota East Bank campus . The bridge was the southeastern boundary of the " Mississippi Mile " downtown riverfront parkland . Downstream is the 10th Avenue Bridge , once known as the Cedar Avenue Bridge . Immediately upstream is the lock and dam at Saint Anthony Falls , where Minneapolis began . The first bridge upstream is the historic Stone Arch Bridge , built for the Great Northern Railway and now used for bicycle and pedestrian traffic .
The north foundation pier of the bridge was near a hydroelectric plant , razed in 1988 . The south abutment was in an area polluted by a coal @-@ to @-@ gas processing plant and a facility for storing and processing petroleum products . These uses effectively created a toxic waste site under the bridge , leading to a lawsuit and the removal of the contaminated soil . No relationship between these prior uses and the bridge failure has been claimed .
= = Design and construction = =
The bridge , officially designated " Bridge 9340 " , was designed by Sverdrup & Parcel to 1961 AASHO ( American Association of State Highway Officials , now American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ) standard specifications . The construction contracts , worth in total more than US $ 5 @.@ 2 million at the time , went to Hurcon Inc. and Industrial Construction Company , which built the steel trusses and deck . Construction on the bridge began in 1964 and the structure was completed and opened to traffic in 1967 during an era of large @-@ scale projects related to building the Twin Cities freeway system . When the bridge fell , it was still the most recent river crossing built on a new site in Minneapolis . After the building boom ebbed during the 1970s , infrastructure management shifted toward inspection and maintenance .
The bridge 's fourteen spans extended 1 @,@ 907 feet ( 580 m ) long . The three main spans were of deck truss construction while all but two of the eleven approach spans were steel multi @-@ girder construction , the two exceptions being concrete slab construction . The piers were not built in the navigation channel ; instead , the center span of the bridge consisted of a single 458 @-@ foot ( 140 m ) steel arched truss over the 390 @-@ foot ( 119 m ) channel . The two support piers for the main trusses , each with two load @-@ bearing concrete pylons at either side of the center main span , were located on opposite banks of the river . The center span was connected to the north and south approaches by shorter spans formed by the same main trusses . Each was 266 feet ( 81 m ) in length , and was connected to the approach spans by a 38 foot ( 11 @.@ 6 m ) cantilever . The two main trusses , one on either side , ranged in depth from 60 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) above their pier and concrete pylon supports , to 36 feet ( 11 m ) at midspan on the central span and 30 feet ( 9 m ) deep at the outer ends of the adjoining spans . At the top of the main trusses were the deck trusses , 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 6 m ) in depth and integral with the main trusses . The transverse deck beams , part of the deck truss , rested on top of the main trusses . These deck beams supported longitudinal deck stringers 27 inches ( 69 cm ) in depth , and reinforced @-@ concrete pavement . The deck was 113 ft 4 in ( 34 @.@ 5 m ) in breadth and was split longitudinally . It had transverse expansion joints at the centers and ends of each of the three main spans . The roadway deck was approximately 115 feet ( 35 m ) above the water level .
= = = Black ice prevention system = = =
On December 19 , 1985 , the temperature reached − 30 ° F ( − 34 ° C ) . Cars coming across the bridge experienced black ice and there was a major pile up on the bridge on the northbound side . In February and December 1996 , the bridge was identified as the single most treacherous cold @-@ weather spot in the Twin Cities freeway system , because of the almost frictionless thin layer of black ice that regularly formed when temperatures dropped below freezing . The bridge 's proximity to Saint Anthony Falls contributed significantly to the icing problem and the site was noted for frequent spinouts and collisions .
By January 1999 , Mn / DOT began testing magnesium chloride solutions and a mixture of magnesium chloride and a corn @-@ processing byproduct to see whether either would reduce the black ice that appeared on the bridge during the winter months . In October 1999 , the state embedded temperature @-@ activated nozzles in the bridge deck to spray the bridge with potassium acetate solution to keep the area free of winter black ice . The system came into operation in 2000 .
Although there were no additional major multi @-@ vehicle collisions since the automated de @-@ icing system was installed , it has been raised as a possibility that the potassium acetate may have contributed to the collapse of the 35W bridge by corroding the structural supports .
= = Maintenance and inspection = =
Since 1993 , the bridge was inspected annually by Mn / DOT , although no inspection report was completed in 2007 , due to the construction work . In the years prior to the collapse , several reports cited problems with the bridge structure . In 1990 , the federal government gave the I @-@ 35W bridge a rating of " structurally deficient , " citing significant corrosion in its bearings . Approximately 75 @,@ 000 other U.S. bridges had this classification in 2007 .
According to a 2001 study by the civil engineering department of the University of Minnesota , cracking had been previously discovered in the cross girders at the end of the approach spans . The main trusses connected to these cross girders and resistance to motion at the connection point bearings was leading to unanticipated out @-@ of @-@ plane distortion of the cross girders and subsequent stress cracking . The situation was addressed prior to the study by drilling the cracks to prevent further propagation and adding support struts to the cross girder to prevent further distortion . The report also noted a concern about lack of redundancy in the main truss system , which meant the bridge had a greater risk of collapse in the event of any single structural failure . Although the report concluded that the bridge should not have any problems with fatigue cracking in the foreseeable future , regular inspection , structural health monitoring , and use of strain gauges had been suggested .
In 2005 , the bridge was again rated as " structurally deficient " and in possible need of replacement , according to the U.S. Department of Transportation 's National Bridge Inventory database . Problems were noted in two subsequent inspection reports . The inspection carried out June 15 , 2006 found problems of cracking and fatigue . On August 2 , 2007 , Governor Tim Pawlenty stated that the bridge had been scheduled to be replaced in 2020 .
The I @-@ 35W bridge ranked near the bottom of federal inspection ratings nationwide . Bridge inspectors use a sufficiency rating that ranges from the highest score , 100 , to the lowest score , zero . In 2005 , they rated the bridge at 50 , indicating that replacement may have been in order . Out of over 100 @,@ 000 heavily used bridges , only about 4 % scored below 50 . On a separate measure , the I @-@ 35W bridge was rated " structurally deficient , " but was deemed to have met " minimum tolerable limits to be left in place as it is . "
In December 2006 , a steel reinforcement project was planned for the bridge . However , the project was canceled in January 2007 in favor of periodic safety inspections , after engineers realized that drilling for the retrofitting would , in fact , weaken the bridge . In internal Mn / DOT documents , bridge officials talked about the possibility of the bridge collapsing , and worried that they might have to condemn it .
The construction taking place in the weeks prior to the collapse included joint work and replacing lighting , concrete and guard rails . At the time of the collapse , four of the eight lanes were closed for resurfacing , and there were 575 @,@ 000 pounds ( 261 @,@ 000 kg ) of construction supplies and equipment on the bridge .
= = Collapse = =
At 6 : 05 p.m. CDT on Wednesday , August 1 , 2007 , with rush hour bridge traffic moving slowly through the limited number of lanes , the central span of the bridge suddenly gave way , followed by the adjoining spans . The structure and deck collapsed into the river and onto the riverbanks below , the south part toppling 81 feet ( 25 m ) eastward in the process . A total of 111 vehicles were involved , sending their occupants and 18 construction workers as far as 115 feet ( 35 m ) down to the river or onto its banks . Northern sections fell into a rail yard , landing on three unoccupied and stationary freight cars .
Sequential images of the collapse were taken by an outdoor security camera located at the parking lot entrance of the control facility for the Lower Saint Anthony Falls Lock and Dam . The immediate aftermath of the collapse was also captured by a Mn / DOT traffic camera that was facing away from the bridge during the collapse itself . The federal government immediately launched a National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) investigation . NTSB chairman Mark Rosenker , along with a number of investigators , arrived on scene 9 hours after the collapse . Rosenker remained in Minneapolis for nearly one week , serving as the government 's designated primary interface with federal , state and local officials as well as briefing the press on the status of the investigation .
Mayor R. T. Rybak and Governor Tim Pawlenty declared a state of emergency for the city of Minneapolis and for the state of Minnesota on August 2 , 2007 . Rybak 's declaration was approved and extended indefinitely by the Minneapolis City Council the next day . As of the morning following the collapse , according to White House Press Secretary Tony Snow , Minnesota had not requested a federal disaster declaration . President Bush pledged support during a visit to the site on August 4 with Minnesota elected officials and announced that United States Secretary of Transportation ( USDOT ) Mary Peters would lead the rebuilding effort . Rybak and Pawlenty gave the president detailed requests for aid during a closed @-@ door meeting . Local authorities were assisted by the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) evidence team , and by United States Navy divers who began arriving on August 5 , 2007 .
= = = Victims = = =
Only a few of the vehicles were submerged , but many people were stranded on the collapsed sections of the bridge . Several involved vehicles caught fire , including a semi @-@ trailer truck , from which the driver 's body was later pulled . When fire crews arrived , they had to route hoses from several blocks away .
A school bus carrying 63 children ended up resting precariously against the guardrail of the collapsed structure , near the burning semi @-@ trailer truck . The children were returning from a field trip to a water park as part of the Waite House Neighborhood Center Day Camp based out of the Phillips community . Jeremy Hernandez , a 20 @-@ year @-@ old staff member on the bus , assisted many of the children by kicking out the rear emergency exit and escorting or carrying them to safety . One youth worker was severely injured .
Thirteen people were killed . Triage centers at the ends of the bridge routed 50 victims to area hospitals , some in trucks , as ambulances were in short supply . Many of the injured had blunt trauma injuries . Those near the south end were taken to Hennepin County Medical Center ( HCMC ) — those near the north end , to the Fairview University Medical Center and other hospitals . At least 22 children were injured . Thirteen children were treated at Children 's Hospitals and Clinics of Minnesota , five at HCMC and four or five at North Memorial Medical Center in Robbinsdale , Minnesota . During the first 40 hours , 11 area hospitals treated 98 victims .
About 1 @,@ 400 people gathered for an interfaith service of healing held at St. Mark 's Episcopal Cathedral on August 5 , 2007 , when many of the victims were still missing . Among the presenters were representatives of the Christian , Islamic , Jewish , Hindu , Native American and Hispanic communities , police , fire and emergency responders , the governor , the mayor , a choir and several musicians . Minnesotans held a minute of silence during National Night Out , on August 7 , 2007 , at 6 : 05 pm . On August 8 , 2007 , the Twin Cities chapter of the American Red Cross lowered the flags of the United States , the state of Minnesota and the American Red Cross in remembrance of the victims of the tragedy . Gold Medal Park near the Guthrie Theater was a gathering place for those who wished to leave flowers or remembrances for those who died . During an address to the city council on August 15 , 2007 , Rybak remembered each of the victims and " the details of their lives . "
The families of the deceased , survivors , and first responders who were directly impacted by the bridge collapse — together estimated at at least several hundred people — did not have United States disaster insurance for individuals . Sandy Vargas , president and CEO of the Minneapolis Foundation , one of seven foundations that form Minnesota Helps , believes the Minnesota Helps Bridge Disaster Fund cannot cover the uninsured medical costs for the victims of the bridge collapse . The fund may be able to make small grants as a gesture of acknowledgment .
Pawlenty and his office , during the last week of November , announced a " $ 1 million plan " for the victims . State law has limits that may limit awards to below that amount . No legislative action was needed for this step . " The administration wanted approval from the Joint House @-@ Senate Subcommittee on Claims as a sign of bipartisan support " — which it received . On May 2 , 2008 , the state of Minnesota reached a $ 38 million agreement to compensate victims of the bridge collapse .
Nearly a decade after the incident , Mohamed Roble , one of the victims of the Minnesota River bridge collapse , is believed to be a member of ISIS according to court testimony .
= = = Rescue = = =
Civilians immediately took part in the rescue efforts . Minneapolis and Hennepin County received mutual aid from neighboring cities and counties throughout the metropolitan area . The Minneapolis Fire Department ( MFD ) arrived in six minutes and responded quickly , helping people who were trapped in their vehicles . They took 81 minutes to triage and transport 145 patients with the help of Hennepin County Medical Center ( HCMC ) , North Memorial and Allina paramedics . By the next morning , they had shifted their focus to the recovery of bodies , with several vehicles known to be trapped under the debris and several people still unaccounted for . Twenty divers organized by the Hennepin County Sheriff 's Office ( HCSO ) used side @-@ scan sonar to locate vehicles submerged in the murky water . Their efforts were hampered by debris and challenging currents . The United States Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) lowered the river level by two feet ( 60 cm ) downriver at Ford Dam to allow easier access to vehicles in the water . Carl Bolander & Sons , a Saint Paul @-@ based earthworks and demolition company , brought in several cranes and other heavy machinery to assist in clearing debris for rescue workers .
The Minneapolis Fire Department ( MFD ) created the National Incident Management System command center in the parking lot of the American Red Cross and an adjacent printing company on the west bank . The Minneapolis Police Department ( MPD ) secured the area , MFD managed the ground operations , and HCSO was in charge of the water operation . The city provided 75 firefighters and 75 law enforcement units .
Rescue of victims stranded on the bridge was complete in three hours . " We had a state bridge , in a county river , between two banks of a city . ... But we didn 't have one problem with any of these issues , because we knew who was in charge of the assets , " said Rocco Forte , city Emergency Preparedness Director . City , metropolitan area , county and state employees at all levels knew their roles and had practiced them since the city received FEMA emergency management training the year following 9 / 11 . Their rapid response time is also credited to the Minnesota and United States Department of Homeland Security ( DHS ) investment in 800 MHz mobile radio communications that were operating in Minneapolis and three of the responding counties , the city of Minneapolis collapsed @-@ structures rescue and dive team , and the Emergency Operations Center established at 6 : 20 p.m. in Minneapolis City Hall .
= = = Recovery = = =
Recovery of victims took over three weeks . At the request of the NTSB Chairman Mark Rosenker , the Navy sent 17 divers and a five @-@ person command @-@ and @-@ control element from their Mobile Diving and Salvage Unit ( MDSU ) 2 ( TWO ) . Divers and Underwater Search Evidence Response Team from the FBI joined the response efforts on August 7 , bringing with them " truck @-@ loads " of specialized equipment including FBI @-@ provided side @-@ scan sonar and two submarines .
The Navy team started looking in the river at 2 a.m .. The FBI teams had planned to search with an unmanned submarine , but had to abandon this plan after they found it was too big to maneuver in the debris field and cloudy water . Minneapolis Police Captain Mike Martin stated that , " The public safety divers are trained up to a level where they can kind of pick the low @-@ hanging fruit . They can do the stuff that 's easy . The bodies that are in the areas where they can sweep shore to shore , the vehicles that they can get into and search that weren 't crushed . They were able to remove some of those . Now what we 're looking at is the vehicles that are under the bridge deck and the structural pieces . "
Seventy @-@ five local , state and federal agencies were involved in the rescue and recovery including emergency personnel and volunteers from the counties of Anoka ; Carver ; Dakota ; Hennepin ; Olmsted ; Ramsey ; Scott ; Washington ; Winona and Wright in Minnesota ; and St. Croix County , Wisconsin , St. Croix EMS & Rescue Dive Team , and others standing by . Federal assistance came from the United States Department of Defense , DHS , USACE and the United States Coast Guard . Adventure Divers of Minot , North Dakota , is a private firm who assisted local authorities .
Local businesses donated wireless Internet , ice , drinks and meals for first responders . Teams of officers were sent to hospitals to follow up with the injured , who had been transported to eight different medical facilities .
The Minneapolis Police Chaplain Corps Chaplain Director , Dr. Jeffrey Stewart , arrived and was asked to setup and manage a Family Assistance Center for the victim families . He coordinated site location and staffing arrangements with the City ’ s Department of Health and Family support and relevant Hennepin County offices . When Chaplain Supervisor John LeMay and Lead Chaplain Linda Koelman arrived on the scene , they assisted in setting up the FAC at the Holiday Inn by 2000hrs . As additional Minneapolis Police Chaplains arrived , they began providing services to the victim families , assisting them in locating family members , and providing a calm presence . On August 20 , the last victim was recovered from the river .
The Salvation Army canteens served food and water to rescue workers .
A Mayo Clinic transport helicopter was standing by at Flying Cloud Airport . The Minnesota National Guard launched a MEDEVAC helicopter and had up to 10 @,@ 000 guard members ready to help .
As of August 8 , 2007 , more than 500 Red Cross volunteers and staff persons counseled 2 @,@ 000 people with grief , trauma , missing persons , and medical issues , and served 7 @,@ 000 meals to first responders .
Following the initial rescue , Mn / DOT retained Carl Bolander & Sons , an earthworks and demolition contractor of Saint Paul , Minnesota , to remove the collapsed bridge and demolish the remaining spans that did not fall . Divers left the water briefly on August 18 while the company 's crew used cranes , excavation drills and cutting torches to remove parts of the bridge deck , beams and girders , hoping to improve access for the divers . After the last person 's remains were pulled from the wreckage on August 21 , the company 's crews began dismantling the bridge 's remnants . Crews first removed the vehicles stranded on the bridge . By August 18 , 80 of the 88 stranded cars and trucks had been moved to the MPD impound lot where owners could claim their vehicles . Then workers shifted to removing the bridge deck using cranes and excavators equipped with hoe rams to break the concrete . Structural steel was then disassembled by cranes , and the concrete piers were removed by excavators . National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) officials asked demolition crews to use extreme care in removing the bridge remnants to preserve as much of the bridge materials as possible for later analysis . By the end of October 2007 , the demolition operation was substantially complete , enabling construction to begin on the new I @-@ 35W bridge on November 1 , 2007 . Much of the bridge debris was temporarily stored at the nearby Bohemian Flats as part of the ongoing investigation of the collapse ; it was removed to a storage facility in Afton , Minnesota , in the fall of 2010 . Federal officials planned to bring some of the bridge steel and concrete to the NTSB Material Laboratory in Washington , D.C. , for analysis toward determining the cause of the collapse on behalf of FHWA , Mn / DOT and Progressive Construction , Inc . NTSB also interviewed eyewitnesses .
Peters announced that USDOT had granted Minnesota US $ 5 million the day following the collapse . On August 10 , Peters announced an additional US $ 5 million " for Minneapolis " , or " the state " , " to reimburse Minneapolis for increased transit operations to serve commuters in the wake of last week ’ s bridge collapse " . U.S. Congress removed the US $ 100 million per @-@ incident cap on emergency appropriations . The United States House of Representatives and United States Senate each voted unanimously for US $ 250 million in emergency funding for Minnesota that President Bush signed into law on August 6 . On August 10 , 2007 Peters announced US $ 50 million in immediate emergency relief . The Associated Press clarified that the US $ 50 million was a downpayment on the US $ 250 million that has yet to be approved by appropriations committees . Minnesota could use the immediate relief for " clean @-@ up and recovery work , including clearing debris and re @-@ routing traffic , as well as for design work on a new bridge " . " On behalf of Minnesota , we are grateful for all of this help , " Pawlenty said .
= = = Investigation = = =
The National Transportation Safety Board immediately began a comprehensive investigation that was expected to take up to eighteen months . Immediately following the collapse , Governor Pawlenty and Mn / DOT announced that the Illinois @-@ based engineering firm of Wiss , Janney , Elstner Associates , Inc. had also been selected to provide essential analysis that would parallel the investigation being conducted by the NTSB . One week after the collapse , workers were just beginning to move debris and vehicles to further the process of recovering victims . Cameras and motion detectors were added to the site around the bridge to ward off intruders who , officials said , were hindering the investigation . Hennepin County Sheriff Richard W. Stanek stated , " We are treating this as a crime scene at this point . There 's no indication there was any foul play involved , [ but ] it 's a crime scene until we can determine what was the cause of the collapse . "
An employee of the NTSB had written his doctoral thesis on possible failure scenarios of this specific bridge while he was a student at the nearby University of Minnesota . That thesis , including his computer model of the bridge for failure mode analysis , was used by the NTSB to aid in its investigation . The Federal Highway Administration ( FHWA ) built a computer model of the bridge at the Turner Fairbank Highway Research Center in McLean , Virginia . NTSB investigators were particularly interested in learning why a part of the bridge 's southern end shifted eastward as it collapsed , but soon ruled that out as a starting point , and shifted focus to the north end of the structure .
Officials with DHS said there was no indication that terrorism was involved . Although officials emphasized that the cause of the collapse had not yet been determined , Peters cautioned states to " remain mindful of the extra weight construction projects place on bridges . " Within days , bridge inspections were stepped up throughout the United States .
FHWA advised states to inspect the 700 U.S. bridges of similar construction after identifying a possible design flaw related to large steel sheets called gusset plates , which connect girders in the truss structure . Officials raised questions as to why such a flaw would not have been discovered in over 40 years of inspections . The flaw was first discovered by Wiss , Janney , Elstner Associates , Inc . , an independent consulting firm hired by Mn / DOT to investigate the cause of the collapse .
On January 15 , 2008 , the NTSB announced it had determined that the bridge 's design specified steel gusset plates that were undersized and inadequate to support the intended load of the bridge , a load that had increased over time . This assertion was based on an interim report that calculated the demand @-@ to @-@ capacity ratio for the gusset plates . The NTSB recommended that similar bridge designs be reviewed for this problem .
" Although the Board 's investigation is still on @-@ going and no determination of probable cause has been reached , interim findings in the investigation have revealed a safety issue that warrants attention , " said NTSB Chairman Mark Rosenker . " During the wreckage recovery , investigators discovered that gusset plates at eight different joint locations in the main center span were fractured . The Board , with assistance from the FHWA , conducted a thorough review of the design of the bridge , with an emphasis on the design of the gusset plates . This review discovered that the original design process of the I @-@ 35W bridge led to a serious error in sizing some of the gusset plates in the main truss . "
On March 17 , 2008 , the NTSB announced an update on the investigation relating to load capacity , design issues , computer analysis and modeling , digital image analysis and analysis of the undersized and corroded gusset plates . The investigation revealed that photos from a June 2003 inspection of the bridge showed gusset @-@ plate bowing .
On November 13 , 2008 , the NTSB released the findings of its investigation . The primary cause was the undersized gusset plates , at 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 13 mm ) thick . Contributing to that design or construction error was the fact that 2 inches ( 51 mm ) of concrete were added to the road surface over the years , increasing the static load by 20 % . Also contributing was the extraordinary weight of construction equipment and material resting on the bridge just above its weakest point at the time of the collapse . That load was estimated at 578 @,@ 000 pounds ( 262 @,@ 000 kg ) , consisting of sand , water and vehicles . The NTSB determined that corrosion was not a significant factor , but that inspectors did not routinely check that safety features were functional .
= = = Lawsuits = = =
In August 2010 , the last of the lawsuits against URS Corporation were settled for $ 52.4M to avoid prolonged litigation . The cases were handled via a novel consortium of legal entities that worked on a pro @-@ bono basis . URS had performed fatigue analysis consulting on the bridge for the Mn / DOT .
As of August 1 , 2011 , the lawsuit brought by the state of Minnesota against Jacobs Engineering Group , the successor of Sverdrup & Parcel , the firm that designed the bridge , was still pending . In May 2012 , the United States Supreme Court turned down an appeal by Jacobs who argued too much time had passed since the 1960s design work , allowing the state of Minnesota suit to proceed . To avoid protracted litigation , Jacobs paid $ 8 @.@ 9 million in Nov. 2012 to settle the suit without admitting wrongdoing .
= = = Impacts on business , traffic , and transportation funding = = =
The collapse of the bridge affected river , rail , road , bicycle and pedestrian , and air transit . Pool 1 , created by Ford Dam , was closed to river navigation between mile markers 847 and 854 @.@ 5 . A rail spur switched by the Minnesota Commercial Railway was blocked by the collapse . The Grand Rounds National Scenic Byway bike path was disrupted as well as two roads , West River Parkway and 2nd Street SE . The 10th Avenue Bridge , which parallels this bridge about a block downstream , was closed to both vehicle and pedestrian traffic until August 31 . The Federal Aviation Administration restricted pilots in the 3 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) radius of the rescue and recovery .
Thirty @-@ five people lost their jobs when Aggregate Industries of Leicestershire , UK , a company that delivered construction materials by barge , cut production in the area .
Small businesses in metropolitan area counties that were harmed by the bridge collapse could apply beginning August 27 , 2007 for loans of up to US $ 1 @.@ 5 million at 4 % interest over up to 30 years from the U.S. Small Business Administration . The agency 's disaster declaration for Hennepin and contiguous counties came two days after Pawlenty 's request to the SBA on August 20 , 2007 . Open for business and unsure they could repay loans , owners near the collapse in some cases lost 25 % or 50 % of their income . Large retailers in a mall of chain stores lost about the same . As of early January 2008 , at least one business closed , one announced it was closing , seven of eight SBA applications had not been approved and merchants continued to explain how they are unable to shoulder more debt .
Seventy percent of the traffic served by the bridge was downtown @-@ bound . Mn / DOT published detour information , and made real @-@ time traffic information available for callers to 5 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 . The designated alternate route in the area was Trunk Highway 280 , which was converted to a temporary controlled @-@ access highway with all at @-@ grade access points closed . Other traffic was diverted to Interstates 694 , 494 , and 35E . The number of lanes was increased on several of the highways by repainting traffic lines to eliminate wide shoulders , and by widening various " choke @-@ points " .
Extra Metro Transit buses were added from park @-@ and @-@ ride locations in the northern suburbs during the rush hours . Abandoned vehicles on I @-@ 35W and 280 were towed immediately . On August 6 , I @-@ 35W was opened to local traffic at the access ramps on each side of the missing section ; some on @-@ ramps remained closed .
In the aftermath , pressure was exerted on the state legislature to increase the state fuel tax to provide adequate maintenance funding for Mn / DOT . Ultimately the tax was increased by $ 0 @.@ 055 per gallon via an override of Governor Pawlenty 's veto of the legislation .
= = = Public events and media = = =
The Minnesota Twins played their home game as scheduled , against the Kansas City Royals at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome just west of I @-@ 35W , on the evening of the accident . Public safety officials told the team that postponing the game could hamper rescue and recovery efforts , since a postponement would send up to 25 @,@ 000 people back into traffic only blocks from the collapsed bridge . Before the game , a moment of silence was held for the victims of the collapse . The Twins postponed their August 2 game as well as the traditional groundbreaking ceremonies for Target Field also located in downtown Minneapolis . The Twins and Minnesota Vikings would honor the victims of the collapse by placing a decal of a simulated I @-@ 35W shield sign with the date " 8 @-@ 1 @-@ 07 " on the backstop wall within the Metrodome , which was always visible in the typical behind @-@ the @-@ pitcher viewpoint on televised games . The decal would remain for the rest of the 2007 season .
The collapse was of interest to national and international news organizations . On the evening of the collapse , CNN , MSNBC , and Fox News Channel stayed live with its coverage during the overnight hours , along with local stations WCCO @-@ AM ( 830 ) and KSTP ( 1500 ) , with most of the coverage in the opening hours coming via satellite from Twin Cities news operations WCCO @-@ TV , KSTP @-@ TV , KMSP @-@ TV , KARE @-@ TV and Minnesota Public Radio . National TV networks sent CBS anchor Katie Couric , NBC 's Brian Williams and Matt Lauer , MSNBC 's Contessa Brewer , ABC 's Charles Gibson , CNN 's Soledad O 'Brien and Anderson Cooper , and Fox News Channel 's Greta Van Susteren and Shepard Smith to broadcast from the Twin Cities . U.S. news organizations interested in national and local bridge safety made a record number of requests for bridge information from Investigative Reporters and Editors , an organization that maintains several databases of federal information . News media made more inquiries for National Bridge Inventory data in the first 24 hours after the Minneapolis bridge collapse than for any previous data in the past 20 years .
= = = Disaster declarations = = =
The Hennepin County Board of Commissioners voted on August 7 , 2007 to request that Governor Pawlenty petition President George W. Bush to declare the city of Minneapolis and Hennepin County a major disaster area . About two weeks later , Pawlenty requested major disaster designation on August 20 . In a subsequent press release for a separate disaster declaration that month , he said , " Ordinarily , preliminary damage assessments are completed before the emergency disaster declaration is requested . " During a press conference and briefing with Bush at the Minneapolis / St.Paul Air Reserve Station base for the 934th Airlift Wing on Tuesday , August 21 , Pawlenty estimated the total cost of emergency response at over US $ 8 million including Hennepin County 's cost at US $ 7 @.@ 3 million for rescue and recovery and US $ 1 @.@ 2 million for other state agencies . He estimated the cost of the collapse to the state at US $ 400 @,@ 000 to US $ 1 million per day .
That day , Bush gave an emergency rather than major disaster declaration for the state of Minnesota , allowing local and state agencies to recover costs incurred August 1 to 15 from the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) . FEMA can provide payment as required for emergency protective measures ( part of FEMA Category B ) at no less than 75 % federal funding to Hennepin County , the designated county , up to the initial limit of US $ 5 million . Pawlenty planned to ask that the date restriction and monetary cap be lifted . FEMA aid can compensate the county for the saving of lives , protection of public safety and health , and lessening damage to improved property , but not for the disaster @-@ related needs of the victims nor for removing debris and restoration of the bridge and riverfront nor many other categories of needs .
= = Replacement bridge = =
The replacement of the collapsed I @-@ 35W Mississippi River bridge crosses the Mississippi River at the same location as the original bridge , and carries north – south traffic on I @-@ 35W . It was constructed on an accelerated schedule , because of the highway 's function as a vital link for carrying commuters and truck freight .
Mn / DOT announced on September 19 , 2007 , that Flatiron Constructors and Manson Construction Company would build the replacement bridge for $ 234 million . The I @-@ 35W Saint Anthony Falls Bridge was opened to the public on September 18 , 2008 , at 5 a.m. Using the innovative design @-@ build project delivery method , the replacement bridge opened over three months ahead of schedule , and was awarded the " Best Overall Design @-@ Build Project Award " for 2009 from the Design @-@ Build Institute of America .
= = Memorial garden = =
The 35W Bridge Remembrance Garden is a memorial commemorating the victims and survivors of the I @-@ 35W bridge collapse . The memorial is located off West River Parkway , in Minneapolis . The memorial was revealed to the public on August 1 , 2011 , the four @-@ year anniversary of the collapse . Minnesota Governor , Mark Dayton and Minneapolis Mayor R. T. Rybak were present , and both spoke at the reveal . The ceremony included reading the names of the 13 victims , followed by a moment of silence held at exactly 6 : 05 p.m. , the time of the collapse four years prior . Afterwards , there was the release of 13 doves in memory of the people who died .
This $ 900 @,@ 000 memorial was funded by the Minneapolis Foundation , and the park land was provided by the Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board . The design of the remembrance garden was created by Tom Oslund , alongside survivors and relatives of the victims .
The design was meant to incorporate symbolic natural elements , including :
Stone , for stability and immortality
Arborvitae trees , for strength and to live for centuries
Water , able to purify and regenerate
Darkness and Light , the transition between tragedy and new life
A prime feature in the garden includes 13 steel I @-@ beam and opaque glass columns . Each column has a name engraved of someone lost , along with their story , some even written in their native language . These 13 columns ' linear length totals 81 feet ( 25 m ) , signifying the date of the collapse ( 08 / 01 / 07 ) . Behind the 13 columns is a black granite water wall . On the wall , stainless steel words form the quote , " Our lives are not only defined by what happens , but by how we act in the face of it , not only by what life brings us , but by what we bring to life . Selfless actions and compassion create enduring community out of tragic events . " Along with the quote , the names of the 171 survivors are etched into the black stone . Another part of the memorial includes a path leading to the bluff , overlooking the Mississippi River and the new I @-@ 35W Bridge . At night , the columns , pathway and water wall are illuminated by LED lights .
= = Musical hommage = =
In May 2008 , an orchestral piece composed by Osmo Vänskä titled " The Bridge " was premiered by the Metropolitan Symphony Orchestra , led by William Schrickel , assistant @-@ principal bassist of the Minnesota Orchestra . Vänskä himself attended the world premiere .
= Benjamin Disraeli =
Benjamin Disraeli , 1st Earl of Beaconsfield , KG , PC , FRS ( 21 December 1804 – 19 April 1881 ) was a British politician and writer , who twice served as Prime Minister . He played a central role in the creation of the modern Conservative Party , defining its policies and its broad outreach . Disraeli is remembered for his influential voice in world affairs , his political battles with the Liberal Party leader William Ewart Gladstone , and his one @-@ nation conservatism or " Tory democracy " . He made the Conservatives the party most identified with the glory and power of the British Empire . He is the only British Prime Minister of Jewish birth .
Disraeli was born in London . His father left Judaism after a dispute at his synagogue ; young Benjamin became an Anglican at the age of 12 . After several unsuccessful attempts , Disraeli entered the House of Commons in 1837 . In 1846 the Prime Minister , Sir Robert Peel split the party over his proposal to repeal the Corn Laws , which involved ending the tariff on imported grain . Disraeli clashed with Peel in the Commons . Disraeli became a major figure in the party . When Lord Derby , the party leader , thrice formed governments in the 1850s and 1860s , Disraeli served as Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons . He also forged a bitter rivalry with Gladstone of the Liberal Party .
Upon Derby 's retirement in 1868 , Disraeli became Prime Minister briefly before losing that year 's election . He returned to opposition , before leading the party to a majority in the 1874 election . He maintained a close friendship with Queen Victoria , who in 1876 created him Earl of Beaconsfield . Disraeli 's second term was dominated by the Eastern Question — the slow decay of the Ottoman Empire and the desire of other European powers , such as Russia , to gain at its expense . Disraeli arranged for the British to purchase a major interest in the Suez Canal Company ( in Ottoman @-@ controlled Egypt ) . In 1878 , faced with Russian victories against the Ottomans , he worked at the Congress of Berlin to obtain peace in the Balkans at terms favourable to Britain and unfavourable to Russia , its longstanding enemy . This diplomatic victory over Russia established Disraeli as one of Europe 's leading statesmen .
World events thereafter moved against the Conservatives . Controversial wars in Afghanistan and South Africa undermined his public support . He angered British farmers by refusing to reinstitute the Corn Laws in response to poor harvests and cheap imported grain . With Gladstone conducting a massive speaking campaign , his Liberals bested Disraeli 's Conservatives in the 1880 election . In his final months , Disraeli led the Conservatives in opposition . He had throughout his career written novels , beginning in 1826 , and he published his last completed novel , Endymion , shortly before he died at the age of 76 .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Disraeli was born on 21 December 1804 at 6 King 's Road , Bedford Row , Bloomsbury , London , the second child and eldest son of Isaac D 'Israeli , a literary critic and historian , and Maria ( Miriam ) , née Basevi . The family was of Sephardic Jewish Italian mercantile background . All Disraeli 's grandparents and great grandparents were born in Italy ; Isaac 's father , Benjamin , moved to England from Venice in 1748 . Disraeli later romanticised his origins , claiming that his father 's family was of grand Spanish and Venetian descent ; in fact Isaac 's family was of no great distinction , but on Disraeli 's mother 's side , in which he took no interest , there were some highly distinguished forebears . Historians differ on Disraeli 's motives for rewriting his family history : Bernard Glassman argues that it was intended to give him status comparable to that of England 's ruling élite ; Sarah Bradford believes " his dislike of the commonplace would not allow him to accept the facts of his birth as being as middle class and undramatic as they really were " .
Disraeli 's siblings were Sarah ( 1802 – 1859 ) , Naphtali ( born and died 1807 ) , Ralph ( 1809 – 1898 ) , and James ( " Jem " ) ( 1813 – 1868 ) . He was close to his sister , and on affectionate but more distant terms with his surviving brothers . Details of his schooling are sketchy . From the age of about six he was a day boy at a dame school in Islington that one of his biographers later described as " for those days a very high @-@ class establishment " . Two years later or so — the exact date has not been ascertained — he was sent as a boarder to Rev John Potticary 's St Piran 's school at Blackheath . While he was there events at the family home changed the course of Disraeli 's education and of his whole life : his father renounced Judaism and had the four children baptised into the Church of England in July and August 1817 .
Isaac D 'Israeli had never taken religion very seriously , but had remained a conforming member of the Bevis Marks Synagogue . His father , the elder Benjamin , was a prominent and devout member ; it was probably from respect for him that Isaac did not leave when he fell out with the synagogue authorities in 1813 . After Benjamin senior died in 1816 Isaac felt free to leave the congregation following a second dispute . Isaac 's friend Sharon Turner , a solicitor , convinced him that although he could comfortably remain unattached to any formal religion it would be disadvantageous to the children if they did so . Turner stood as godfather when Benjamin was baptised , aged twelve , on 31 July 1817 .
Conversion to Christianity enabled Disraeli to contemplate a career in politics . Britain in the early 19th century was not a greatly anti @-@ Semitic society , and there had been Members of Parliament ( MPs ) from Jewish families since Samson Gideon in 1770 . But until 1858 MPs were required to take the oath of allegiance " on the true faith of a Christian " , necessitating at least nominal conversion . It is not known whether Disraeli formed any ambition for a parliamentary career at the time of his baptism , but there is no doubt that he bitterly regretted his parents ' decision not to send him to Winchester College . As one of the great public schools of England , Winchester consistently provided recruits to the political élite . His two younger brothers were sent there , and it is not clear why Isaac D 'Israeli chose to send his eldest son to a much less prestigious school . The boy evidently held his mother responsible for the decision ; Bradford speculates that " Benjamin 's delicate health and his obviously Jewish appearance may have had something to do with it . " The school chosen for him was run by Eliezer Cogan at Higham Hill in Walthamstow . He began there in the autumn term of 1817 ; he later recalled his education :
I was at school for two or three years under the Revd . Dr Cogan , a Greek scholar of eminence , who had contributed notes to the A [ e ] schylus of Bishop Blomfield , & was himself the Editor of the Greek Gnostic poets . After this I was with a private tutor for two years in my own County , & my education was severely classical . Too much so ; in the pride of boyish erudition , I edited the Idonisian Eclogue of Theocritus , wh. was privately printed . This was my first production : puerile pedantry .
= = = 1820s = = =
In November 1821 , shortly before his seventeenth birthday , Disraeli was articled as a clerk to a firm of solicitors — Swain , Stevens , Maples , Pearse and Hunt — in the City of London . T F Maples was not only the young Disraeli 's employer and friend of his father 's , but also his prospective father @-@ in @-@ law : Isaac and Maples entertained the possibility that the latter 's only daughter might be a suitable match for Benjamin . A friendship developed , but there was no romance . The firm had a large and profitable business , and as the biographer R W Davis observes , the clerkship was " the kind of secure , respectable position that many fathers dream of for their children " . Although biographers including Robert Blake and Bradford comment that such a post was incompatible with Disraeli 's romantic and ambitious nature , he reportedly gave his employers satisfactory service , and later professed to have learned a good deal from his time with the firm . He recalled , " I had some scruples , for even then I dreamed of Parliament . My father 's refrain always was ' Philip Carteret Webb ' , who was the most eminent solicitor of his boyhood and who was an MP . It would be a mistake to suppose that the two years and more that I was in the office of our friend were wasted . I have often thought , though I have often regretted the University , that it was much the reverse . "
The year after joining Maples 's firm , Benjamin changed his surname from D 'Israeli to Disraeli . His reasons for doing so are unknown , but the biographer Bernard Glassman surmises that it was to avoid being confused with his father . Disraeli 's sister and brothers adopted the new version of the name ; Isaac and his wife retained the older form .
Disraeli toured Belgium and the Rhine Valley with his father in the summer of 1824 ; he later wrote that it was while travelling on the Rhine that he decided to abandon his position : " I determined when descending those magical waters that I would not be a lawyer . " On their return to England he left the solicitors , at the suggestion of Maples , with the aim of qualifying as a barrister . He enrolled as a student at Lincoln 's Inn and joined the chambers of his uncle , Nathaniel Basevy , and then those of Benjamin Austen , who persuaded Isaac that Disraeli would never make a barrister and should be allowed to pursue a literary career . He had made a tentative start : in May 1824 he submitted a manuscript to his father 's friend , the publisher John Murray , but withdrew it before Murray could decide whether to publish it . Released from the law , Disraeli did some work for Murray , but turned most of his attention not to literature but to speculative dealing on the stock exchange .
There was at the time a boom in shares in South American mining companies . Spain was losing its South American colonies in the face of rebellions . At the urging of George Canning the British government recognised the new independent governments of Argentina ( 1824 ) , Colombia and Mexico ( both 1825 ) . With no money of his own , Disraeli borrowed money to invest . He became involved with the financier J. D. Powles , who was prominent among those encouraging the mining boom . In the course of 1825 , Disraeli wrote three anonymous pamphlets for Powles , promoting the companies . The pamphlets were published by John Murray , who invested heavily in the boom .
Murray had for some time had ambitions to establish a new morning paper to compete with The Times . In 1825 Disraeli convinced him that he should proceed . The new paper , The Representative , promoted the mines and those politicians who supported them , particularly Canning . Disraeli impressed Murray with his energy and commitment to the project , but he failed in his key task of persuading the eminent writer John Gibson Lockhart to edit the paper . After that , Disraeli 's influence on Murray waned , and to his resentment he was sidelined in the affairs of The Representative . The paper survived for only six months , partly because the mining bubble burst in late 1825 , and partly because , according to Blake , the paper was " atrociously edited " , and would have failed regardless .
The bursting of the mining bubble was ruinous for Disraeli . By June 1825 he and his business partners had lost £ 7 @,@ 000 . Disraeli could not pay off the last of his debts from this debacle until 1849 . He turned to writing , motivated partly by his desperate need for money , and partly by a wish for revenge on Murray and others by whom he felt slighted . There was a vogue for what was called " silver @-@ fork fiction " — novels depicting aristocratic life , usually by anonymous authors , read avidly by the aspirational middle classes . Disraeli 's first novel , Vivian Grey , published anonymously in four volumes in 1826 – 27 , was a thinly veiled re @-@ telling of the affair of The Representative . It sold well , but caused much offence in influential circles when the authorship was discovered . Disraeli , then just twenty @-@ three , did not move in high society , as the numerous solecisms in his book made obvious . Reviewers were sharply critical on these grounds of both the author and the book . Furthermore , Murray and Lockhart , men of great influence in literary circles , believed that Disraeli had caricatured them and abused their confidence — an accusation denied by the author but repeated by many of his biographers . In later editions Disraeli made many changes , softening his satire , but the damage to his reputation proved long @-@ lasting .
Disraeli 's biographer Jonathan Parry writes that the financial failure and personal criticism that Disraeli suffered in 1825 and 1826 were probably the trigger for a serious nervous crisis affecting him over the next four years : " He had always been moody , sensitive , and solitary by nature , but now became seriously depressed and lethargic . " He was still living with his parents in London , but in search of the " change of air " recommended by the family 's doctors Isaac took a succession of houses in the country and on the coast , before Disraeli sought wider horizons .
= = = 1830s = = =
Together with his sister 's fiancé , William Meredith , Disraeli travelled widely in southern Europe and beyond in 1830 – 31 . The trip was financed partly by another high society novel , The Young Duke , written in 1829 – 30 . The tour was cut short suddenly by Meredith 's death from smallpox in Cairo in July 1831 . Despite this tragedy , and the need for treatment for a sexually transmitted disease on his return , Disraeli felt enriched by his experiences . He became , in Parry 's words , " aware of values that seemed denied to his insular countrymen . The journey encouraged his self @-@ consciousness , his moral relativism , and his interest in Eastern racial and religious attitudes . " Blake regards the tour as one of the formative experiences of Disraeli 's whole career : " [ T ] he impressions that it made on him were life @-@ lasting . They conditioned his attitude toward some of the most important political problems which faced him in his later years — especially the Eastern Question ; they also coloured many of his novels . "
Disraeli wrote two novels in the aftermath of the tour . Contarini Fleming ( 1832 ) was avowedly a self @-@ portrait . It is subtitled " a psychological autobiography " , and depicts the conflicting elements of its hero 's character : the duality of northern and Mediterranean ancestry , the dreaming artist and the bold man of action . As Parry observes , the book ends on a political note , setting out Europe 's progress " from feudal to federal principles " . The Wondrous Tale of Alroy the following year portrayed the problems of a medieval Jew in deciding between a small , exclusively Jewish state and a large empire embracing all .
After the two novels were published , Disraeli declared that he would " write no more about myself " . He had already turned his attention to politics in 1832 , during the great crisis over the Reform Bill . He contributed to an anti @-@ Whig pamphlet edited by John Wilson Croker and published by Murray entitled England and France : or a cure for Ministerial Gallomania . The choice of a Tory publication was regarded as strange by Disraeli 's friends and relatives , who thought him more of a Radical . Indeed , he had objected to Murray about Croker 's inserting " high Tory " sentiment : Disraeli remarked , " it is quite impossible that anything adverse to the general measure of Reform can issue from my pen . " Moreover , at the time Gallomania was published , Disraeli was electioneering in High Wycombe in the Radical interest .
Disraeli 's politics at the time were influenced both by his rebellious streak and by his desire to make his mark . At that time , the politics of the nation were dominated by members of the aristocracy , together with a few powerful commoners . The Whigs derived from the coalition of lords who had forced through the Bill of Rights in 1689 and in some cases were their actual descendants , not merely spiritual . The Tories tended to support King and Church , and sought to thwart political change . A small number of Radicals , generally from northern constituencies , were the strongest advocates of continuing reform . In the early 1830s the Tories and the interests they represented appeared to be a lost cause . The other great party , the Whigs , were anathema to Disraeli : " Toryism is worn out & I cannot condescend to be a Whig . " There were two general elections in 1832 ; Disraeli unsuccessfully stood as a Radical at High Wycombe in each .
Disraeli 's political views embraced certain Radical policies , particularly democratic reform of the electoral system , and also some Tory ones , including protectionism . He began to move in Tory circles . In 1834 he was introduced to the former Lord Chancellor , Lord Lyndhurst , by Henrietta Sykes , wife of Sir Francis Sykes . She was having an affair with Lyndhurst , and began another with Disraeli . Disraeli and Lyndhurst took an immediate liking to each other . Lyndhurst was an indiscreet gossip with a fondness for intrigue ; this appealed greatly to Disraeli , who became his secretary and go @-@ between . In 1835 Disraeli stood for the last time as a Radical , unsuccessfully contesting High Wycombe once again .
In April 1835 Disraeli fought a by @-@ election at Taunton as a Tory . The Irish MP Daniel O 'Connell , misled by inaccurate press reports , thought Disraeli had slandered him while electioneering at Taunton ; he launched an outspoken attack , referring to Disraeli as :
a reptile ... just fit now , after being twice discarded by the people , to become a Conservative . He possesses all the necessary requisites of perfidy , selfishness , depravity , want of principle , etc . , which would qualify him for the change . His name shows that he is of Jewish origin . I do not use it as a term of reproach ; there are many most respectable Jews . But there are , as in every other people , some of the lowest and most disgusting grade of moral turpitude ; and of those I look upon Mr. Disraeli as the worst .
Disraeli 's public exchanges with O 'Connell , extensively reproduced in The Times , included a demand for a duel with the 60 @-@ year @-@ old O 'Connell 's son ( which resulted in Disraeli 's temporary detention by the authorities ) , a reference to " the inextinguishable hatred with which [ he ] shall pursue [ O 'Connell 's ] existence " , and the accusation that O 'Connell 's supporters had a " princely revenue wrung from a starving race of fanatical slaves " . Disraeli was highly gratified by the dispute , which propelled him to general public notice for the first time . He did not defeat the incumbent Whig member , Henry Labouchere , but the Taunton constituency was regarded as unwinnable by the Tories . Disraeli kept Labouchere 's majority down to 170 , a good showing that put him in line for a winnable seat in the near future .
With Lyndhurst 's encouragement Disraeli turned to writing propaganda for his newly adopted party . His Vindication of the English Constitution , was published in December 1835 . It was couched in the form of an open letter to Lyndhurst , and in Bradford 's view encapsulates a political philosophy that Disraeli adhered to for the rest of his life . Its themes were the value of benevolent aristocratic government , a loathing of political dogma , and the modernisation of Tory policies . The following year he wrote a series of satires on politicians of the day , which he published in The Times under the pen @-@ name " Runnymede " . His targets included the Whigs , collectively and individually , Irish nationalists , and political corruption . One essay ended :
The English nation , therefore , rallies for rescue from the degrading plots of a profligate oligarchy , a barbarizing sectarianism , and a boroughmongering Papacy , round their hereditary leaders — the Peers . The House of Lords , therefore , at this moment represents everything in the realm except the Whig oligarchs , their tools the Dissenters , and their masters the Irish priests . In the mean time , the Whigs bawl that there is a " collision ! " It is true there is a collision , but it is not a collision between the Lords and the People , but between the Ministers and the Constitution .
Disraeli was now firmly in the Tory camp . He was elected to the exclusively Tory Carlton Club in 1836 , and was also taken up by the party 's leading hostess , Lady Londonderry . In June 1837 William IV died , the young Queen Victoria , his niece , succeeded him , and parliament was dissolved . On the recommendation of the Carlton Club , Disraeli was adopted as a Tory parliamentary candidate at the ensuing General Election .
= = Parliament = =
= = = Back @-@ bencher = = =
In the election in July 1837 Disraeli won a seat in the House of Commons as one of two members , both Tory , for the constituency of Maidstone . The other was Wyndham Lewis , who helped finance Disraeli 's election campaign , and who died the following year . In the same year Disraeli published a novel , Henrietta Temple , which was a love story and social comedy , drawing on his affair with Henrietta Sykes . He had broken off the relationship in late 1836 , distraught that she had taken yet another lover . His other novel of this period is Venetia , a romance based on the characters of Shelley and Byron , written quickly to raise much @-@ needed money .
Disraeli made his maiden speech in Parliament on 7 December 1837 . He followed O 'Connell , whom he sharply criticised for the latter 's " long , rambling , jumbling , speech " . He was shouted down by O 'Connell 's supporters . After this unpromising start Disraeli kept a low profile for the rest of the parliamentary session . He was a loyal supporter of the party leader Sir Robert Peel and his policies , with the exception of a personal sympathy for the Chartist movement that most Tories did not share .
In 1839 Disraeli married Mary Anne Lewis , the widow of Wyndham Lewis . Twelve years Disraeli 's senior , Mary Lewis had a substantial income of £ 5 @,@ 000 a year . His motives were generally assumed to be mercenary , but the couple came to cherish one another , remaining close until she died more than three decades later . " Dizzy married me for my money " , his wife said later , " But , if he had the chance again , he would | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
marry me for love . "
Finding the financial demands of his Maidstone seat too much , Disraeli secured a Tory nomination for Shrewsbury , winning one of the constituency 's two seats at the 1841 general election , despite serious opposition , and heavy debts which opponents seized on . The election was a massive defeat for the Whigs across the country , and Peel became Prime Minister . Disraeli hoped , unrealistically , for ministerial office . Though disappointed at being left on the back benches , he continued his support for Peel in 1842 and 1843 , seeking to establish himself as an expert on foreign affairs and international trade .
Although a Tory ( or Conservative , as some in the party now called themselves ) Disraeli was sympathetic to some of the aims of Chartism , and argued for an alliance between the landed aristocracy and the working class against the increasing power of the merchants and new industrialists in the middle class . After Disraeli won widespread acclaim in March 1842 for worsting the formidable Lord Palmerston in debate , he was taken up by a small group of idealistic new Tory MPs , with whom he formed the Young England group . They held that the landed interests should use their power to protect the poor from exploitation by middle @-@ class businessmen .
For many years in his parliamentary career Disraeli hoped to forge a paternalistic Tory @-@ Radical alliance , but he was unsuccessful . Before the Reform Act 1867 , the working class did not possess the vote and therefore had little political power . Although Disraeli forged a personal friendship with John Bright , a Lancashire manufacturer and leading Radical , Disraeli was unable to persuade Bright to sacrifice his distinct position for parliamentary advancement . When Disraeli attempted to secure a Tory @-@ Radical cabinet in 1852 , Bright refused .
Disraeli gradually became a sharp critic of Peel 's government , often deliberately taking positions contrary to those of his nominal chief . The best known of these stances were over the Maynooth Grant in 1845 and the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 . But the young MP had attacked his leader as early as 1843 on Ireland and then on foreign policy interventions . In a letter of February 1844 , he slighted the Prime Minister for failing to send him a Policy Circular . He laid into the Whigs as freebooters , swindlers and conmen but Peel 's own Free Trade policies were directly in the firing line .
The President of the Board of Trade , William Gladstone , resigned from the cabinet over the Maynooth Grant . The Corn Laws imposed a tariff on imported wheat , protecting British farmers from foreign competition , but making the cost of bread artificially high . Peel hoped that the repeal of the Corn Laws and the resultant influx of cheaper wheat into Britain would relieve the condition of the poor , and in particular the suffering caused by successive failure of potato crops in Ireland — the Great Famine .
The first months of 1846 were dominated by a battle in Parliament between the free traders and the protectionists over the repeal of the Corn Laws , with the latter rallying around Disraeli and Lord George Bentinck . An alliance of free @-@ trade Conservatives ( the " Peelites " ) , Radicals , and Whigs carried repeal , and the Conservative Party split : the Peelites moved towards the Whigs , while a " new " Conservative Party formed around the protectionists , led by Disraeli , Bentinck , and Lord Stanley ( later Lord Derby ) .
The split in the Tory party over the repeal of the Corn Laws had profound implications for Disraeli 's political career : almost every Tory politician with experience of office followed Peel , leaving the rump bereft of leadership . In Blake 's words , " [ Disraeli ] found himself almost the only figure on his side capable of putting up the oratorical display essential for a parliamentary leader . " Looking on from the House of Lords , the Duke of Argyll wrote that Disraeli " was like a subaltern in a great battle where every superior officer was killed or wounded " . If the Tory Party could muster the electoral support necessary to form a government , then Disraeli now seemed to be guaranteed high office . However , he would take office with a group of men who possessed little or no official experience , who had rarely felt moved to speak in the House of Commons , and who , as a group , remained hostile to Disraeli on a personal level . In the event the matter was not put to the test , as the Tory split soon had the party out of office , not regaining power until 1852 . The Conservatives would not again have a majority in the House of Commons until 1874 .
= = = Bentinck and the leadership = = =
Peel successfully steered the repeal of the Corn Laws through Parliament , and was then defeated by an alliance of all his enemies on the issue of Irish law and order ; he resigned in June 1846 . The Tories remained split and the Queen sent for Lord John Russell , the Whig leader . In the 1847 general election , Disraeli stood , successfully , for the Buckinghamshire constituency . The new House of Commons had more Conservative than Whig members , but the depth of the Tory schism enabled Russell to continue to govern . The Conservatives were led by Bentinck in the Commons and Stanley in the Lords .
In 1847 a small political crisis occurred which removed Bentinck from the leadership and highlighted Disraeli 's differences with his own party . In that year 's general election , Lionel de Rothschild had been returned for the City of London . As a practising Jew he could not take the oath of allegiance in the prescribed Christian form , and therefore could not take his seat . Lord John Russell , the Whig leader who had succeeded Peel as Prime Minister and like Rothschild was a member for the City of London , proposed in the Commons that the oath should be amended to permit Jews to enter Parliament .
Disraeli spoke in favour of the measure , arguing that Christianity was " completed Judaism " , and asking the House of Commons " Where is your Christianity if you do not believe in their Judaism ? " Russell and Disraeli 's future rival Gladstone thought it brave of him to speak as he did ; the speech was badly received by his own party . The Tories and the Anglican establishment were hostile to the bill . Samuel Wilberforce , Bishop of Oxford , spoke strongly against the measure and implied that Russell was paying off the Jews for helping elect him . With the exception of Disraeli , every member of the future protectionist cabinet then in Parliament voted against the measure . One who was not yet an MP , Lord John Manners , stood against Rothschild when the latter re @-@ submitted himself for election in 1849 . Disraeli who had attended the Protectionists dinner at the Merchant Taylors Hall , joined Bentinck in speaking and voting for the bill , although his own speech was a standard one of toleration . The measure was voted down .
In the aftermath of the debate Bentinck resigned the leadership and was succeeded by Lord Granby ; Disraeli 's own speech , thought by many of his own party to be blasphemous , ruled him out for the time being . While these intrigues played out , Disraeli was working with the Bentinck family to secure the necessary financing to purchase Hughenden Manor , in Buckinghamshire . The possession of a country house , and incumbency of a county constituency were regarded as essential for a Tory with ambitions to lead the party . Disraeli and his wife alternated between Hughenden and several homes in London for the rest of their marriage . The negotiations were complicated by Bentinck 's sudden death on 21 September 1848 , but Disraeli obtained a loan of £ 25 @,@ 000 from Bentinck 's brothers Lord Henry Bentinck and Lord Titchfield .
Within a month of his appointment Granby resigned the leadership in the Commons , feeling himself inadequate to the post , and the party functioned without a leader in the Commons for the rest of the parliamentary session . At the start of the next session , affairs were handled by a triumvirate of Granby , Disraeli , and John Charles Herries — indicative of the tension between Disraeli and the rest of the party , who needed his talents but mistrusted him . This confused arrangement ended with Granby 's resignation in 1851 ; Disraeli effectively ignored the two men regardless .
= = Office = =
= = = First Derby government = = =
In March 1851 , Lord John Russell 's government was defeated over a bill to equalise the county and borough franchises , mostly because of divisions among his supporters . He resigned , and the Queen sent for Stanley , who felt that a minority government could do little and would not last long , so Russell remained in office . Disraeli regretted this , hoping for an opportunity , however brief , to show himself capable in office . Stanley , on the other hand , deprecated his inexperienced followers as a reason for not assuming office , " These are not names I can put before the Queen . "
At the end of June 1851 , Stanley 's father died , and he succeeded to his title as Earl of Derby . The Whigs were wracked by internal dissensions during the second half of 1851 , much of which Parliament spent in recess . Russell dismissed Lord Palmerston from the cabinet , leaving the latter determined to deprive the Prime Minister of office as well . Palmerston did so within weeks of Parliament 's reassembly on 4 February 1852 , his followers combining with Disraeli 's Tories to defeat the government on a Militia Bill , and Russell resigned . Derby had either to take office or risk damage to his reputation and he accepted the Queen 's commission as Prime Minister . Palmerston declined any office ; Derby had hoped to have him as Chancellor of the Exchequer . Disraeli , his closest ally , was his second choice and accepted , though disclaiming any great knowledge in the financial field . Gladstone refused to join the government . Disraeli may have been attracted to the office by the £ 5 @,@ 000 per year salary , which would help pay his debts . Few of the new cabinet had held office before ; when Derby tried to inform the Duke of Wellington of the names of the Queen 's new ministers , the old Duke , who was somewhat deaf , inadvertently branded the new government by incredulously repeating " Who ? Who ? "
In the following weeks , Disraeli served as Leader of the House ( with Derby as Prime Minister in the Lords ) and as Chancellor . He wrote regular reports on proceedings in the Commons to Victoria , who described them as " very curious " and " much in the style of his books " . Parliament was prorogued on 1 July 1852 as the Tories could not govern for long as a minority ; Disraeli hoped that they would gain a majority of about 40 . Instead , the election later that month had no clear winner , and the Derby government held to power pending the meeting of Parliament .
Disraeli 's task as Chancellor was to devise a budget which would satisfy the protectionist elements who supported the Tories , without uniting the free @-@ traders against it . His proposed budget , which he presented to the Commons on 3 December , lowered the taxes on malt and tea , provisions designed to appeal to the working class . To make his budget revenue @-@ neutral , as funds were needed to provide defences against the French , he doubled the house tax and continued the income tax . Disraeli 's overall purpose was to enact policies which would benefit the working classes , making his party more attractive to them . Although the budget did not contain protectionist features , the opposition was prepared to destroy it — and Disraeli 's career as Chancellor — in part out of revenge for his actions against Peel in 1846 . MP Sidney Herbert predicted that the budget would fail because " Jews make no converts " .
Disraeli delivered the budget on 3 December 1852 , and prepared to wind up the debate for the government on 16 December — it was customary for the Chancellor to have the last word . A massive defeat for the government was predicted . Disraeli attacked his opponents individually , and then as a force , " I face a Coalition ... This , too , I know , that England does not love coalitions . " His speech of three hours was quickly seen as a parliamentary masterpiece . As MPs prepared to divide , Gladstone rose to his feet and began an angry speech , despite the efforts of Tory MPs to shout him down . The interruptions were fewer , as Gladstone gained control of the House , and in the next two hours painted a picture of Disraeli as frivolous and his budget as subversive . The government was defeated by 19 votes , and Derby resigned four days later . He was replaced by the Peelite Earl of Aberdeen , with Gladstone as his Chancellor . Because of Disraeli 's unpopularity among the Peelites , no party reconciliation was possible while he remained Tory leader in the House of Commons .
= = = Opposition = = =
With the fall of the government , Disraeli and the Conservatives returned to the opposition benches . Disraeli would spend three @-@ quarters of his 44 @-@ year parliamentary career in opposition . Derby was reluctant to seek to unseat the government , fearing a repetition of the Who ? Who ? Ministry and knowing that despite his lieutenant 's strengths , shared dislike of Disraeli was part of what had formed the governing coalition . Disraeli , on the other hand , was anxious to return to office . In the interim , Disraeli , as Conservative leader in the Commons , opposed the government on all major measures .
In June 1853 Disraeli was awarded an honorary degree by Oxford University . He had been recommended for it by Lord Derby , the university 's Chancellor . The start of the Crimean War in 1854 caused a lull in party politics ; Disraeli spoke patriotically in support . The British military efforts were marked by bungling , and in 1855 a restive Parliament considered a resolution to establish a committee on the conduct of the war . The Aberdeen government chose to make this a motion of confidence ; Disraeli led the opposition to defeat the government , 305 to 148 . Aberdeen resigned , and the Queen sent for Derby , who to Disraeli 's frustration refused to take office . Palmerston was deemed essential to any Whig ministry , and he would not join any he did not head . The Queen reluctantly asked Palmerston to form a government . Under Palmerston , the war went better , and was ended by the Treaty of Paris in early 1856 . Disraeli was early to call for peace , but had little influence on events .
When a rebellion broke out in India in 1857 , Disraeli took a keen interest in affairs , having been a member of a select committee in 1852 which considered how best to rule the subcontinent , and had proposed eliminating the governing role of the British East India Company . After peace was restored , and Palmerston in early 1858 brought in legislation for direct rule of India by the Crown , Disraeli opposed it . Many Conservative MPs refused to follow him and the bill passed the Commons easily .
Palmerston 's grip on the premiership was weakened by his response to the Orsini affair , in which an attempt was made to assassinate the French Emperor Napoleon III by an Italian revolutionary with a bomb made in Birmingham . At the request of the French ambassador , Palmerston put forward amendments to the conspiracy to murder statute , proposing to make creating an infernal device a felony rather than a misdemeanour . He was defeated by 19 votes on the second reading , with many Liberals crossing the aisle against him . He immediately resigned , and Lord Derby returned to office .
= = = Second Derby government = = =
Derby took office at the head of a purely " Conservative " administration , not in coalition with any other faction . He again offered a place to Gladstone , who declined . Disraeli was once more leader of the House of Commons and returned to the Exchequer . As in 1852 , Derby led a minority government , dependent on the division of its opponents for survival . As Leader of the House , Disraeli resumed his regular reports to Queen Victoria , who had requested that he include what she " could not meet in newspapers " .
During its brief life of just over a year , the Derby government proved moderately progressive . The Government of India Act 1858 ended the role of the East India Company in governing the subcontinent . Disraeli had supported efforts to allow Jews to sit in Parliament — the oaths required of new members could only be made in good faith by a Christian . Disraeli had a bill passed through the Commons allowing each house of Parliament to determine what oaths its members should take . This was grudgingly agreed to by the House of Lords , with a minority of Conservatives joining with the opposition to pass it . In 1858 , Baron Lionel de Rothschild became the first MP to profess the Jewish faith .
Faced with a vacancy , Disraeli and Derby tried yet again to bring Gladstone , still nominally a Conservative MP , into the government , hoping to strengthen it . Disraeli wrote a personal letter to Gladstone , asking him to place the good of the party above personal animosity : " Every man performs his office , and there is a Power , greater than ourselves , that disposes of all this . " In responding to Disraeli , Gladstone denied that personal feelings played any role in his decisions then and previously whether to accept office , while acknowledging that there were differences between him and Derby " broader than you may have supposed " .
The Tories pursued a Reform Bill in 1859 , which would have resulted in a modest increase to the franchise . The Liberals were healing the breaches between those who favoured Russell and the Palmerston loyalists , and in late March 1859 , the government was defeated on a Russell @-@ sponsored amendment . Derby dissolved Parliament , and the ensuing general election resulted in modest Tory gains , but not enough to control the Commons . When Parliament assembled , Derby 's government was defeated by 13 votes on an amendment to the Address from the Throne . He resigned , and the Queen reluctantly sent for Palmerston again .
= = = Opposition and third term as Chancellor = = =
After Derby 's second ejection from office , Disraeli faced dissension within Conservative ranks from those who blamed him for the defeat , or who felt he was disloyal to Derby — the former Prime Minister warned Disraeli of some MPs seeking his removal from the front bench . Among the conspirators were Lord Robert Cecil , a young Conservative MP who would a quarter century later become Prime Minister as Lord Salisbury ; he wrote that having Disraeli as leader in the Commons decreased the Conservatives ' chance of holding office . When Cecil 's father objected , Lord Robert stated , " I have merely put into print what all the country gentlemen were saying in private . "
Disraeli led a toothless opposition in the Commons — seeing no way of unseating Palmerston , Derby had privately agreed not to seek the government 's defeat . Disraeli kept himself informed on foreign affairs , and on what was going on in cabinet , thanks to a source within it . When the American Civil War began in 1861 , Disraeli said little publicly , but like most Englishmen expected the South to win . Less reticent were Palmerston , Gladstone ( again Chancellor ) and Russell , whose statements in support of the South contributed to years of hard feelings in the United States . In 1862 , Disraeli met Prussian Count Otto von Bismarck for the first time and said of him , " be careful about that man , he means what he says " .
The party truce ended in 1864 , with Tories outraged over Palmerston 's handling of the territorial dispute between the German Confederation and Denmark known as the Schleswig @-@ Holstein Question . Disraeli had little help from Derby , who was ill , but he united the party enough on a no @-@ confidence vote to limit the government to a majority of 18 — Tory defections and absentees kept Palmerston in office . Despite rumours about Palmerston 's health as he passed his eightieth birthday , he remained personally popular , and the Liberals increased their margin in the July 1865 general election . In the wake of the poor election results , Derby predicted to Disraeli that neither of them would ever hold office again .
Political plans were thrown into disarray by Palmerston 's death on 18 October 1865 . Russell became Prime Minister again , with Gladstone clearly the Liberal Party 's leader @-@ in @-@ waiting , and as Leader of the House Disraeli 's direct opponent . One of Russell 's early priorities was a Reform Bill , but the proposed legislation that Gladstone announced on 12 March 1866 divided his party . The Conservatives and the dissident Liberals repeatedly attacked Gladstone 's bill , and in June finally defeated the government ; Russell resigned on 26 June . The dissidents were unwilling to serve under Disraeli in the House of Commons , and Derby formed a third Conservative minority government , with Disraeli again as Chancellor . In 1867 , the Conservatives introduced a Reform Bill . Without a majority in the Commons , the Conservatives had little choice but to accept amendments that considerably liberalised the legislation , though Disraeli refused to accept any from Gladstone .
The Reform Act 1867 passed that August , extending the franchise by 938 @,@ 427 — an increase of 88 % — by giving the vote to male householders and male lodgers paying at least £ 10 for rooms . It eliminated rotten boroughs with fewer than 10 @,@ 000 inhabitants , and granted constituencies to 15 unrepresented towns , with extra representation to large municipalities such as Liverpool and Manchester . This act was unpopular with the right wing of the Conservative Party , most notably Lord Cranborne ( as Robert Cecil was by then known ) , who resigned from the government and spoke against the bill , accusing Disraeli of " a political betrayal which has no parallel in our Parliamentary annals " . Cranborne , however , was unable to lead an effective rebellion against Derby and Disraeli . Disraeli gained wide acclaim and became a hero to his party for the " marvellous parliamentary skill " with which he secured the passage of Reform in the Commons .
Derby had long suffered from attacks of gout which sent him to his bed , unable to deal with politics . As the new session of Parliament approached in February 1868 , he was bedridden at his home , Knowsley Hall , near Liverpool . He was reluctant to resign , reasoning that he was only 68 , much younger than either Palmerston or Russell at the end of their premierships . Derby knew that his " attacks of illness would , at no distant period , incapacitate me from the discharge of my public duties " ; doctors had warned him that his health required his resignation from office . In late February , with Parliament in session and Derby absent , he wrote to Disraeli asking for confirmation that " you will not shrink from the additional heavy responsibility " . Reassured , he wrote to the Queen , resigning and recommending Disraeli as " only he could command the cordial support , en masse , of his present colleagues " . Disraeli went to Osborne House on the Isle of Wight , where the Queen asked him to form a government . The monarch wrote to her daughter , Prussian Crown Princess Victoria , " Mr. Disraeli is Prime Minister ! A proud thing for a man ' risen from the people ' to have obtained ! " The new Prime Minister told those who came to congratulate him , " I have climbed to the top of the greasy pole . "
= = First term as Prime Minister ; opposition leader = =
= = = First government ( February – December 1868 ) = = =
The Conservatives remained a minority in the House of Commons and the passage of the Reform Bill required the calling of a new election once the new voting register had been compiled . Disraeli 's term as Prime Minister , which began in February 1868 , would therefore be short unless the Conservatives won the general election . He made only two major changes in the cabinet : he replaced Lord Chelmsford as Lord Chancellor with Lord Cairns , and brought in George Ward Hunt as Chancellor of the Exchequer . Derby had intended to replace Chelmsford once a vacancy in a suitable sinecure developed . Disraeli was unwilling to wait , and Cairns , in his view , was a far stronger minister .
Disraeli 's first premiership was dominated by the heated debate over the Church of Ireland . Although Ireland was overwhelmingly Roman Catholic , the Protestant Church remained the established church and was funded by direct taxation , which was greatly resented by the Catholic majority . An initial attempt by Disraeli to negotiate with Archbishop Manning the establishment of a Roman Catholic university in Dublin foundered in March when Gladstone moved resolutions to disestablish the Irish Church altogether . The proposal united the Liberals under Gladstone 's leadership , while causing divisions among the Conservatives .
The Conservatives remained in office because the new electoral register was not yet ready ; neither party wished a poll under the old roll . Gladstone began using the Liberal majority in the House of Commons to push through resolutions and legislation . Disraeli 's government survived until the December general election , at which the Liberals were returned to power with a majority of about 110 .
Despite its short life , the first Disraeli government succeeded in passing a number of pieces of legislation of a politically noncontentious sort . It ended public executions , and the Corrupt Practices Act did much to end electoral bribery . It authorised an early version of nationalisation , having the Post Office buy up the telegraph companies . Amendments to the school law , the Scottish legal system , and the railway laws were passed . Disraeli sent the successful expedition against Tewodros II of Ethiopia under Sir Robert Napier .
= = = Opposition leader ; 1874 election = = =
With Gladstone 's Liberal majority dominant in the Commons , Disraeli could do little but protest as the government advanced legislation . Accordingly , he chose to await Liberal mistakes . Having leisure time as he was not in office , he wrote a new novel , Lothair ( 1870 ) . A work of fiction by a former Prime Minister was a new thing for Britain , and the book became a best seller .
By 1872 there was dissent in the Conservative ranks over the failure to challenge Gladstone and his Liberals . This was quieted as Disraeli took steps to assert his leadership of the party , and as divisions among the Liberals became clear . Public support for Disraeli was shown by cheering at a thanksgiving service in 1872 on the recovery of the Prince of Wales from illness , while Gladstone was met with silence . Disraeli had supported the efforts of party manager John Eldon Gorst to put the administration of the Conservative Party on a modern basis . On Gorst 's advice , Disraeli gave a speech to a mass meeting in Manchester that year . To roaring approval , he compared the Liberal front bench to " a range of exhausted volcanoes . Not a flame flickers on a single pallid crest . But the situation is still dangerous . There are occasional earthquakes and ever and again the dark rumbling of the sea . " Gladstone , Disraeli stated , dominated the scene and " alternated between a menace and a sigh " .
At his first departure from 10 Downing Street in 1868 , Disraeli had had Victoria create Mary Anne Viscountess of Beaconsfield in her own right in lieu of a peerage for himself . Through 1872 the eighty @-@ year @-@ old peeress was suffering from stomach cancer . She died on 15 December . Urged by a clergyman to turn her thoughts to Jesus Christ in her final days , she said she could not : " You know Dizzy is my J.C. " After she died , Gladstone , who always had a liking for Mary Anne , sent her widower a letter of condolence .
In 1873 , Gladstone brought forward legislation to establish a Catholic university in Dublin . This divided the Liberals , and on 12 March an alliance of Conservatives and Irish Catholics defeated the government by three votes . Gladstone resigned , and the Queen sent for Disraeli , who refused to take office . Without a general election , a Conservative government would be another minority , dependent for survival on the division of its opponents . Disraeli wanted the power a majority would bring , and felt he could gain it later by leaving the Liberals in office now . Gladstone 's government struggled on , beset by scandal and unimproved by a reshuffle . As part of that change , Gladstone took on the office of Chancellor , leading to questions as to whether he had to stand for re @-@ election on taking on a second ministry — until the 1920s , MPs becoming ministers , thus taking an office of profit under the Crown , had to seek re @-@ election .
In January 1874 , Gladstone called a general election , convinced that if he waited longer , he would do worse at the polls . Balloting was spread over two weeks , beginning on 1 February . Disraeli devoted much of his campaign to decrying the Liberal programme of the past five years . As the constituencies voted , it became clear that the result would be a Conservative majority , the first since 1841 . In Scotland , where the Conservatives were perennially weak , they increased from seven seats to nineteen . Overall , they won 350 seats to 245 for the Liberals and 57 for the Irish Home Rule League . The Queen sent for Disraeli , and he became Prime Minister for the second time .
= = Second government ( 1874 – 80 ) = =
Disraeli 's cabinet of twelve , with six peers and six commoners , was the smallest since Reform . Of the peers , five of them had been in Disraeli 's 1868 cabinet ; the sixth , Lord Salisbury , was reconciled to Disraeli after negotiation and became Secretary of State for India . Lord Stanley ( who had succeeded his father , the former Prime Minister , as Earl of Derby ) became Foreign Secretary and Sir Stafford Northcote the Chancellor .
In August 1876 , Disraeli was elevated to the House of Lords as Earl of Beaconsfield and Viscount Hughenden . The Queen had offered to ennoble him as early as 1868 ; he had then declined . She did so again in 1874 , when he fell ill at Balmoral , but he was reluctant to leave the Commons for a house in which he had no experience . Continued ill health during his second premiership caused him to contemplate resignation , but his lieutenant , Derby , was unwilling , feeling that he could not manage the Queen . For Disraeli , the Lords , where the debate was less intense , was the alternative to resignation from office . Five days before the end of the 1876 session of Parliament , on 11 August , Disraeli was seen to linger and look around the chamber before departing the Commons . Newspapers reported his ennoblement the following morning .
In addition to the viscounty bestowed on Mary Anne Disraeli ; the earldom of Beaconsfield was to have been bestowed on Edmund Burke in 1797 , but he had died before receiving it . The name Beaconsfield , a town near Hughenden , also was given to a minor character in Vivian Grey . Disraeli made various statements about his elevation , writing to Selina , Lady Bradford on 8 August 1876 , " I am quite tired of that place [ the Commons ] " but when asked by a friend how he liked the Lords , replied , " I am dead ; dead but in the Elysian fields . "
= = = Domestic policy = = =
= = = = Reforming legislation = = = =
Under the stewardship of Richard Assheton Cross , the Home Secretary , Disraeli 's new government enacted many reforms , including the Artisans ' and Labourers ' Dwellings Improvement Act 1875 , which made inexpensive loans available to towns and cities to construct working @-@ class housing . Also enacted were the Public Health Act 1875 , modernising sanitary codes through the nation , the Sale of Food and Drugs Act ( 1875 ) , and the Education Act ( 1876 ) .
Disraeli 's government also introduced a new Factory Act meant to protect workers , the Conspiracy , and Protection of Property Act 1875 , which allowed peaceful picketing , and the Employers and Workmen Act ( 1875 ) to enable workers to sue employers in the civil courts if they broke legal contracts . As a result of these social reforms the Liberal @-@ Labour MP Alexander Macdonald told his constituents in 1879 , " The Conservative party have done more for the working classes in five years than the Liberals have in fifty . "
= = = = Patronage and Civil Service reform = = = =
Gladstone in 1870 had sponsored an Order in Council , introducing competitive examination into the Civil Service , diminishing the political aspects of government hiring . Disraeli did not agree , and while he did not seek to reverse the order , his actions often frustrated its intent . For example , Disraeli made political appointments to positions previously given to career civil servants . In this , he was backed by his party , hungry for office and its emoluments after almost thirty years with only brief spells in government . Disraeli gave positions to hard @-@ up Conservative leaders , even — to Gladstone 's outrage — creating one office at £ 2 @,@ 000 per year . Nevertheless , Disraeli made fewer peers ( only 22 , and one of those one of Victoria 's sons ) than had Gladstone — the Liberal leader had arranged for the bestowal of 37 peerages during his just over five years in office .
As he had in government posts , Disraeli rewarded old friends with clerical positions , making Sydney Turner , son of a good friend of Isaac D 'Israeli , Dean of Ripon . He favoured Low church clergymen in promotion , disliking other movements in Anglicanism for political reasons . In this , he came into disagreement with the Queen , who out of loyalty to her late husband , Albert , Prince Consort , preferred Broad church teachings . One controversial appointment had occurred shortly before the 1868 election . When the position of Archbishop of Canterbury fell vacant , Disraeli reluctantly agreed to the Queen 's preferred candidate , Archibald Tait , the Bishop of London . To fill Tait 's vacant see , Disraeli was urged by many people to appoint Samuel Wilberforce , the former Bishop of Winchester and leading figure in London society . Disraeli disliked Wilberforce and instead appointed John Jackson , the Bishop of Lincoln . Blake suggested that , on balance , these appointments cost Disraeli more votes than they gained him .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
Disraeli always considered foreign affairs to be the most critical and most interesting part of statesmanship . Nevertheless , his biographer Robert Blake doubts that his subject had specific ideas about foreign policy when he took office in 1874 . He had rarely travelled abroad ; since his youthful tour of the Middle East in 1830 – 1831 , he had left Britain only for his honeymoon and three visits to Paris , the last of which was in 1856 . As he had criticised Gladstone for a do @-@ nothing foreign policy , he most probably contemplated what actions would reassert Britain 's place in Europe . His brief first premiership , and the first year of his second , gave him little opportunity to make his mark in foreign affairs .
= = = = Suez = = = =
The Suez Canal , opened in 1869 , cut weeks and thousands of miles off the journey between Britain and India ; in 1875 , approximately 80 % of the ships using the canal were British . In the event of another rebellion in India , or of a Russian invasion , the time saved at Suez might be crucial . Built by French interests , much of the ownership and bonds in the canal remained in their hands , though some of the stock belonged to Isma 'il Pasha , the Khedive of Egypt , who was noted for his profligate spending . The canal was losing money , and an attempt by Ferdinand de Lesseps , builder of the canal , to raise the tolls had fallen through when the Khedive had threatened to use military force to prevent it , and had also attracted Disraeli 's attention . The Khedive governed Egypt under the Ottoman Empire ; as in the Crimea , the issue of the Canal raised the Eastern Question of what to do about the decaying empire governed from Constantinople . With much of the pre @-@ canal trade and communications between Britain and India passing through the Ottoman Empire , Britain had done its best to prop up the Ottomans against the threat that Russia would take Constantinople , cutting those communications , and giving Russian ships unfettered access to the Mediterranean . The French might also threaten those lines from colonies in Syria . Britain had had the opportunity to purchase shares in the canal but had declined to do so .
Disraeli had passed near Suez in his tour of the Middle East in his youth , and on taking office , recognising the British interest in the canal as a gateway to India , he sent the Liberal MP Nathan Rothschild to Paris to enquire about buying de Lesseps 's shares . On 14 November 1875 , the editor of the Pall Mall Gazette , Frederick Greenwood , learned from London banker Henry Oppenheim that the Khedive was seeking to sell his shares in the Suez Canal Company to a French firm . Greenwood quickly told Lord Derby , the Foreign Secretary , who notified Disraeli . The Prime Minister moved immediately to secure the shares . On 23 November , the Khedive offered to sell the shares for 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 francs . Rather than seek the aid of the Bank of England , Disraeli asked Lionel de Rothschild to loan funds . Rothschild did so and controversially took a commission on the deal . The banker 's capital was at risk as Parliament could have refused to ratify the transaction . The contract for purchase was signed at Cairo on 25 November and the shares deposited at the British consulate the following day .
Disraeli told the Queen , " it is settled ; you have it , madam ! " The public saw the venture as a daring British statement of its dominance of the seas . Sir Ian Malcolm described the Suez Canal share purchase as " the greatest romance of Mr. Disraeli 's romantic career " . In the following decades , the security of the Suez Canal , as the pathway to India , became a major focus of British foreign policy . A later Foreign Secretary , Lord Curzon , described the canal in 1909 as " the determining influence of every considerable movement of British power to the east and south of the Mediterranean " .
= = = = Royal Titles Act = = = =
Although initially curious about Disraeli when he entered Parliament in 1837 , Victoria came to detest him over his treatment of Peel . Over time , her dislike softened , especially as Disraeli took pains to cultivate her . He told Matthew Arnold , " Everybody likes flattery ; and , when you come to royalty , you should lay it on with a trowel " . Disraeli 's biographer , Adam Kirsch , suggests that Disraeli 's obsequious treatment of his queen was part flattery , part belief that this was how a queen should be addressed by a loyal subject , and part awe that a middle @-@ class man of Jewish birth should be the companion of a monarch . By the time of his second premiership , Disraeli had built a strong relationship with Victoria , probably closer to her than any of her Prime Ministers except her first , Lord Melbourne . When Disraeli returned as Prime Minister in 1874 and went to kiss hands , he did so literally , on one knee , and according to Richard Aldous on his book on the Disraeli / Gladstone rivalry , " for the next six years Victoria and Disraeli would exploit their closeness for mutual advantage . "
Victoria had long wished to have an imperial title , reflecting Britain 's expanding domain . She was irked when Czar Alexander II held a higher rank than her as an emperor , and was appalled that her daughter , the Prussian Crown Princess , would outrank her when her husband came to the throne . She also saw an imperial title as proclaiming Britain 's increased stature in the world . The title " Empress of India " had been used informally with respect to Victoria for some time and she wished to have that title formally bestowed on her . The Queen prevailed upon Disraeli to introduce a Royal Titles Bill , and also told of her intent to open Parliament in person , which during this time she did only when she wanted something from legislators . Disraeli was cautious in response , as careful soundings of MPs brought a negative reaction , and declined to place such a proposal in the Queen 's Speech .
Once the desired bill was prepared , Disraeli 's handling of it was not adept . He neglected to notify either the Prince of Wales or the opposition , and was met by irritation from the prince and a full @-@ scale attack from the Liberals . An old enemy of Disraeli , former Liberal Chancellor Robert Lowe , alleged during the debate in the Commons that two previous Prime Ministers had refused to introduce such legislation for the Queen . Gladstone immediately stated that he was not one of them , and the Queen gave Disraeli leave to quote her saying she had never approached a Prime Minister with such a proposal . According to Blake , Disraeli " in a brilliant oration of withering invective proceeded to destroy Lowe " , who apologised and never held office again . Disraeli said of Lowe that he was the only person in London with whom he would not shake hands and , " he is in the mud and there I leave him . "
Fearful of losing , Disraeli was reluctant to bring the bill to a vote in the Commons , but when he eventually did , it passed with a majority of 75 . Once the bill was formally enacted , Victoria began signing her letters " Victoria R & I " ( Regina et Imperatrix , that is , Queen and Empress ) . According to Aldous , " the unpopular Royal Titles Act , however , shattered Disraeli 's authority in the House of Commons " .
= = = = Balkans and Bulgaria = = = =
In July 1875 Serb populations in Bosnia and Herzegovina , then provinces of the Ottoman Empire , rose in revolt against their Turkish masters , alleging religious persecution and poor administration . The following January , Sultan Abdülaziz , who ruled the empire , agreed to reforms proposed by Hungarian statesman Julius Andrássy , but the rebels , suspecting they might win their freedom , continued their uprising , joined by militants in Serbia and Bulgaria . The Turks suppressed the Bulgarian uprising harshly , and when reports of these actions escaped , Disraeli and Derby stated in Parliament that they did not believe them . Disraeli called them " coffee @-@ house babble " and dismissed allegations of torture by the Ottomans since " Oriental people usually terminate their connections with culprits in a more expeditious fashion " .
Gladstone , who had left the Liberal leadership and retired from public life , was appalled by reports of atrocities in Bulgaria , and in August 1876 , penned a hastily written pamphlet arguing that the Turks should be deprived of Bulgaria because of what they had done there . He sent a copy to Disraeli , who called it " vindictive and ill @-@ written ... of all the Bulgarian horrors perhaps the greatest " . Gladstone 's pamphlet became an immense best @-@ seller and rallied the Liberals to urge that the Ottoman Empire should no longer be a British ally . Disraeli wrote to Lord Salisbury on 3 September , " Had it not been for these unhappy ' atrocities ' , we should have settled a peace very honourable to England and satisfactory to Europe . Now we are obliged to work from a new point of departure , and dictate to Turkey , who has forfeited all sympathy . " In spite of this , Disraeli 's policy favoured Constantinople and the territorial integrity of its empire .
Disraeli and the cabinet sent Salisbury as lead British representative to the Constantinople Conference , which met in December 1876 and January 1877 . In advance of the conference , Disraeli sent Salisbury private word to seek British military occupation of Bulgaria and Bosnia , and British control of the Turkish Army . Salisbury ignored these instructions , which his biographer , Andrew Roberts deemed " ludicrous " . Nevertheless , the conference failed to reach agreement with the Turks .
Parliament opened in February 1877 , with Disraeli now in the Lords as Earl of Beaconsfield . He spoke only once there in the 1877 session on the Eastern Question , stating on 20 February that there was a need for stability in the Balkans , and that forcing Turkey into territorial concessions would do nothing to secure it . The Prime Minister wanted a deal with the Ottomans whereby Britain would temporarily occupy strategic areas to deter the Russians from war , to be returned on the signing of a peace treaty , but found little support in his cabinet , which favoured partition of the Ottoman Empire . As Disraeli , by then in poor health , continued to battle within the cabinet , Russia invaded Turkey on 21 April , beginning the Russo @-@ Turkish War .
= = = = Congress of Berlin = = = =
The Russians pushed through Ottoman territory and by December 1877 had captured the strategic Bulgarian town of Plevna ; their march on Constantinople seemed inevitable . The war divided the British , but the Russian success caused some to forget the atrocities and call for intervention on the Turkish side . Others hoped for further Russian successes . The fall of Plevna was a major story for weeks in the newspapers , and Disraeli 's warnings that Russia was a threat to British interests in the eastern Mediterranean were deemed prophetic . The jingoistic attitude of many Britons increased Disraeli 's political support , and the Queen acted to help him as well , showing her favour by visiting him at Hughenden — the first time she had visited the country home of her Prime Minister since the Melbourne ministry . At the end of January 1878 , the Ottoman Emperor appealed to Britain to save Constantinople . Amid war fever in Britain , the government asked Parliament to vote £ 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to prepare the Army and Navy for war . Gladstone , who had involved himself again in politics , opposed the measure , but less than half his party voted with him . Popular opinion was with Disraeli , though some thought him too soft for not immediately declaring war on Russia .
With the Russians close to Constantinople , the Turks yielded and in March 1878 , signed the Treaty of San Stefano , conceding a Bulgarian state which would cover a large part of the Balkans . It would be initially Russian @-@ occupied and many feared that it would give them a client state close to Constantinople . Other Ottoman possessions in Europe would become independent ; additional territory was to be ceded directly to Russia . This was unacceptable to the British , who protested , hoping to get the Russians to agree to attend an international conference which German Chancellor Bismarck proposed to hold at Berlin . The cabinet discussed Disraeli 's proposal to position Indian troops at Malta for possible transit to the Balkans and call out reserves . Derby resigned in protest , and Disraeli appointed Salisbury as Foreign Secretary . Amid British preparations for war , the Russians and Turks agreed to discussions at Berlin .
In advance of the meeting , confidential negotiations took place between Britain and Russia in April and May 1878 . The Russians were willing to make changes to the big Bulgaria , but were determined to retain their new possessions Bessarabia in Europe and Batum and Kars on the east coast of the Black Sea . To counterbalance this , Britain required a possession in the Eastern Mediterranean where it might base ships and troops , and negotiated with the Ottomans for the cession of Cyprus . Once this was secretly agreed , Disraeli was prepared to allow Russia 's territorial gains .
The Congress of Berlin was held in June and July 1878 , the central relationship in it that between Disraeli and Bismarck . In later years , the German chancellor would show visitors to his office three pictures on the wall : " the portrait of my Sovereign , there on the right that of my wife , and on the left , there , that of Lord Beaconsfield " . Disraeli caused an uproar in the congress by making his opening address in English , rather than in French , hitherto accepted as the international language of diplomacy . By one account , the British ambassador in Berlin , Lord Odo Russell , hoping to spare the delegates Disraeli 's awful French accent , told Disraeli that the congress was hoping to hear a speech in the English tongue by one of its masters .
Disraeli left much of the detailed work to Salisbury , concentrating his efforts on making it as difficult as possible for the broken @-@ up big Bulgaria to reunite . Disraeli did not have things all his own way : he intended that Batum be demilitarised , but the Russians obtained their preferred language , and in 1886 , fortified the town . Nevertheless , the Cyprus Convention ceding the island to Britain was announced during the congress , and again made Disraeli a sensation .
Disraeli gained agreement that Turkey should retain enough of its European possessions to safeguard the Dardanelles . By one account , when met with Russian intransigence , Disraeli told his secretary to order a special train to return them home to begin the war . Although Russia yielded , Czar Alexander II later described the congress as " a European coalition against Russia , under Bismarck " .
The Treaty of Berlin was signed on 13 July 1878 at the Radziwill Palace in Berlin . For the first time , the title of Britain 's lead signatory was given as " Prime Minister " . Disraeli and Salisbury returned home to heroes ' receptions at Dover and in London . At the door of 10 Downing Street , he received flowers sent by the Queen . There , he told the gathered crowd , " Lord Salisbury and I have brought you back peace — but a peace I hope with honour . " The Queen offered him a dukedom , which he declined , though accepting the Garter , as long as Salisbury also received it . In Berlin , word spread of Bismarck 's admiring description of Disraeli , " Der alte Jude , das ist der Mann ! "
= = = = Afghanistan to Zululand = = = =
In the weeks after Berlin , Disraeli and the cabinet considered calling a general election to capitalise on the public applause he and Salisbury had received . Parliaments were then for a seven @-@ year term , and it was the custom not to go to the country until the sixth year unless forced to by events . Only four and a half years had passed since the last general election . Additionally , they did not see any clouds on the horizon that might forecast Conservative defeat if they waited . This decision not to seek re @-@ election has often been cited as a great mistake by Disraeli . Blake , however , pointed out that results in local elections had been moving against the Conservatives , and doubted if Disraeli missed any great opportunity by waiting .
As successful invasions of India generally came through Afghanistan , the British had observed and sometimes intervened there since the 1830s , hoping to keep the Russians out . In 1878 the Russians sent a mission to Kabul ; it was not rejected by the Afghans , as the British had hoped . The British then proposed to send their own mission , insisting that the Russians be sent away . The Viceroy , Lord Lytton , concealed his plans to issue this ultimatum from Disraeli , and when the Prime Minister insisted he take no action , went ahead anyway . When the Afghans made no answer , the British advanced against them in the Second Anglo @-@ Afghan War , and under Lord Roberts easily defeated them . The British installed a new ruler , and left a mission and garrison in Kabul .
British policy in South Africa was to encourage federation between the British @-@ run Cape Colony and Natal , and the Boer republics , the Transvaal ( annexed by Britain in 1877 ) and the Orange Free State . The governor of Cape Colony , Sir Bartle Frere , believing that the federation could not be accomplished until the native tribes acknowledged British rule , made demands on the Zulu and their king , Cetewayo , which they were certain to reject . As Zulu troops could not marry until they had washed their spears in blood , they were eager for combat . Frere did not send word to the cabinet of what he had done until the ultimatum was about to expire . Disraeli and the cabinet reluctantly backed him , and in early January 1879 resolved to send reinforcements . Before they could arrive , on 22 January , a Zulu impi , or army , moving with great speed and stealth , ambushed and destroyed a British encampment in South Africa in the Battle of Isandlwana . Over a thousand British and colonial troops were killed . Word of the defeat did not reach London until 12 February . Disraeli wrote the next day , " the terrible disaster has shaken me to the centre " . He reprimanded Frere , but left him in charge , attracting fire from all sides . Disraeli sent General Sir Garnet Wolseley as High Commissioner and Commander in Chief , and Cetewayo and the Zulus were crushed at the Battle of Ulundi on 4 July 1879 .
On 8 September 1879 Sir Louis Cavagnari , in charge of the mission in Kabul , was killed with his entire staff by rebelling Afghan soldiers . Roberts undertook a successful punitive expedition against the Afghans over the next six weeks .
= = = 1880 election = = =
Gladstone , in the 1874 election , had been returned for Greenwich , finishing second behind a Conservative in the two @-@ member constituency , a result he termed more like a defeat than a victory . In December 1878 , he was offered the Liberal nomination at the next election for Edinburghshire , a constituency popularly known as Midlothian . The small Scottish electorate was dominated by two noblemen , the Conservative Duke of Buccleuch and the Liberal Earl of Rosebery . The Earl , a friend of both Disraeli and Gladstone who would succeed the latter after his final term as Prime Minister , had journeyed to the United States to view politics there , and was convinced that aspects of American electioneering could be translated to the United Kingdom . On his advice , Gladstone accepted the offer in January 1879 , and later that year began his Midlothian campaign , speaking not only in Edinburgh , but across Britain , attacking Disraeli , to huge crowds .
Conservative chances of re @-@ election were damaged by the poor weather , and consequent effects on agriculture . Four consecutive wet summers through 1879 had led to poor harvests in the United Kingdom . In the past , the farmer had the consolation of higher prices at such times , but with bumper crops cheaply transported from the United States , grain prices remained low . Other European nations , faced with similar circumstances , opted for protection , and Disraeli was urged to reinstitute the Corn Laws . He declined , stating that he regarded the matter as settled . Protection would have been highly unpopular among the newly enfranchised urban working classes , as it would raise their cost of living . Amid an economic slump generally , the Conservatives lost support among farmers .
Disraeli 's health continued to fail through 1879 . Owing to his infirmities , Disraeli was three @-@ quarters of an hour late for the Lord Mayor 's Dinner at the Guildhall in November , at which it is customary that the Prime Minister speaks . Though many commented on how healthy he looked , it took him great effort to appear so , and when he told the audience he expected to speak to the dinner again the following year , attendees chuckled — Gladstone was then in the midst of his campaign . Despite his public confidence , Disraeli recognised that the Conservatives would probably lose the next election , and was already contemplating his Resignation Honours .
Despite this pessimism , Conservatives hopes were buoyed in early 1880 with successes in by @-@ elections the Liberals had expected to win , concluding with victory in Southwark , normally a Liberal stronghold . The cabinet had resolved to wait before dissolving Parliament ; in early March they reconsidered , agreeing to go to the country as soon as possible . Parliament was dissolved on 24 March ; the first borough constituencies began voting a week later .
Disraeli took no public part in the electioneering , it being deemed improper for peers to make speeches to influence Commons elections . This meant that the chief Conservatives — Disraeli , Salisbury , and India Secretary Lord Cranbrook — would not be heard from . The election was thought likely to be close . Once returns began to be announced , it became clear that the Conservatives were being decisively beaten . The final result gave the Liberals an absolute majority of about 50 .
= = Final months , death , and memorials = =
Disraeli refused to cast blame for the defeat , which he understood was likely to be final for him . He wrote to Lady Bradford that it was just as much work to end a government as to form one , without any of the fun . Queen Victoria was bitter at his departure as Prime Minister . Among the honours he arranged before resigning as Prime Minister on 21 April 1880 was one for his private secretary , Montagu Corry , who became Baron Rowton .
Returning to Hughenden , Disraeli brooded over his electoral dismissal , but also resumed work on Endymion , which he had begun in 1872 and laid aside before the 1874 election . The work was rapidly completed and published by November 1880 . He carried on a correspondence with Victoria , with letters passed through intermediaries . When Parliament met in January 1881 , he served as Conservative leader in the Lords , attempting to serve as a moderating influence on Gladstone 's legislation .
Suffering from asthma and gout , Disraeli went out as little as possible , fearing more serious episodes of illness . In March , he fell ill with bronchitis , and emerged from bed only for a meeting with Salisbury and other Conservative leaders on the 26th . As it became clear that this might be his final sickness , friends and opponents alike came to call . Disraeli declined a visit from the Queen , " She would only ask me to take a message to Albert . " Almost blind , when he received the last letter from Victoria of which he was aware on 5 April , he held it momentarily , then had it read to him by Lord Barrington , a Privy Councillor . One card , signed " A Workman " , delighted its recipient , " Don 't die yet , we can 't do without you . "
Despite the gravity of Disraeli 's condition , the doctors concocted optimistic bulletins , for public consumption . The Prime Minister , Gladstone , called several times to enquire about his rival 's condition , and wrote in his diary , " May the Almighty be near his pillow . " There was intense public interest in the former Prime Minister 's struggles for life . Disraeli had customarily taken the sacrament at Easter ; when this day was observed on 17 April , there was discussion among his friends and family if he should be given the opportunity , but those against , fearing that he would lose hope , prevailed . On the morning of the following day , Easter Monday , he became incoherent , then comatose . Disraeli 's last confirmed words before dying in the early morning of 19 April were " I had rather live but I am not afraid to die " .
Disraeli 's executors decided against a public procession and funeral , fearing that too large crowds would gather to do him honour . The chief mourners at the service at Hughenden on 26 April were his brother Ralph and nephew Coningsby , to whom Hughenden would eventually pass . Queen Victoria was prostrated with grief , and considered ennobling Ralph or Coningsby as a memorial to Disraeli ( without children , his titles became extinct with his death ) but decided against it on the ground that their means were too small for a peerage . Protocol forbade her attending Disraeli 's funeral ( this would not be changed until 1965 , when Elizabeth II attended the rites for the former Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill ) but she sent primroses ( " his favourite flowers " ) to the funeral , and visited the burial vault to place a wreath of china blooms four days later .
Disraeli is buried with his wife in a vault beneath the Church of St Michael and All Angels which stands in the grounds of his home , Hughenden Manor , accessed from the churchyard . There is also a memorial to him in the chancel in the church , erected in his honour by Queen Victoria . His literary executor was his private secretary , Lord Rowton . The Disraeli vault also contains the body of Sarah Brydges Willyams , the wife of James Brydges Willyams of St Mawgan in Cornwall . Disraeli carried on a long correspondence with Mrs. Willyams , writing frankly about political affairs . At her death in 1865 , she left him a large legacy , which helped clear up his debts . His will was proved at £ 84 @,@ 000 .
Disraeli has a memorial in Westminster Abbey . This monument was erected by the nation on the motion of Gladstone in his memorial speech on Disraeli in the House of Commons . Gladstone had absented himself from the funeral , with his plea of the press of public business met with public mockery . His speech was widely anticipated , if only because his dislike for Disraeli was well known , and caused the Prime Minister much worry . In the event , the speech was a model of its kind , in which he avoided comment on Disraeli 's politics , while praising his personal qualities .
= = Legacy = =
= = | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
= Literary = = =
Blake comments that Disraeli " produced an epic poem , unbelievably bad , and a five @-@ act blank verse tragedy , if possible worse . Further he wrote a discourse on political theory and a political biography , the Life of Lord George Bentinck , which is excellent ... remarkably fair and accurate . " But it is on his novels that Disraeli 's literary achievements are generally judged . They have from the outset divided critical opinion . The writer R. W. Stewart observed that there have always been two criteria for judging Disraeli 's novels — one political and the other artistic . The critic Robert O 'Kell , concurring , writes , " It is after all , even if you are a Tory of the staunchest blue , impossible to make Disraeli into a first @-@ rate novelist . And it is equally impossible , no matter how much you deplore the extravagances and improprieties of his works , to make him into an insignificant one . "
Disraeli 's early " silver fork " novels Vivian Grey ( 1826 ) and The Young Duke ( 1831 ) featured romanticised depictions of aristocratic life ( despite his ignorance of it ) with character sketches of well @-@ known public figures lightly disguised . In some of his early fiction Disraeli also portrayed himself and what he felt to be his Byronic dual nature : the poet and the man of action . His most autobiographical novel was Contarini Fleming ( 1832 ) , an avowedly serious work that did not sell well . The critic William Kuhn suggests that Disraeli 's fiction can be read as " the memoirs he never wrote " , revealing the inner life of a politician for whom the norms of Victorian public life appeared to represent a social straitjacket — particularly with regard to what Kuhn sees as the author 's " ambiguous sexuality " .
Of the other novels of the early 1830s , Alroy is described by Blake as " profitable but unreadable " , and The Rise of Iskander ( 1833 ) , The Infernal Marriage and Ixion in Heaven ( 1834 ) made little impact . Henrietta Temple ( 1837 ) was Disraeli 's next major success . It draws on the events of his affair with Henrietta Sykes to tell the story of a debt @-@ ridden young man torn between a mercenary loveless marriage and a passionate love @-@ at @-@ first @-@ sight for the eponymous heroine . Venetia ( 1837 ) was a minor work , written to raise much @-@ needed cash .
In the 1840s Disraeli wrote a trilogy of novels with political themes . With Coningsby ; or , The New Generation ( 1844 ) , Disraeli , in Blake 's view , " infused the novel genre with political sensibility , espousing the belief that England 's future as a world power depended not on the complacent old guard , but on youthful , idealistic politicians . " Coningsby was followed by Sybil ; or , The Two Nations ( 1845 ) , another political novel , which was less idealistic and more clear @-@ eyed than Coningsby ; the " two nations " of its sub @-@ title referred to the huge economic and social gap between the privileged few and the deprived working classes . The last in Disraeli 's political novel trilogy was Tancred ; or , The New Crusade ( 1847 ) , promoting the Church of England 's role in reviving Britain 's flagging spirituality .
Disraeli 's last completed novels were Lothair ( 1870 ) and Endymion ( 1880 ) . The first , described by Daniel R Schwarz as " Disraeli 's ideological Pilgrim 's Progress " , is a story of political life with particular regard to the roles of the Anglican and Roman Catholic churches . Endymion , despite having a Whig as hero , is a last exposition of the author 's economic policies and political beliefs . Disraeli continued to the last to pillory his enemies in barely disguised caricatures : the character St Barbe in Endymion is widely seen as a parody of Thackeray , who had offended Disraeli more than thirty years earlier by lampooning him in Punch as " Codlingsby " . Disraeli left an unfinished novel in which the priggish central character , Falconet , is unmistakably a caricature of Gladstone .
= = = Political = = =
In the years after Disraeli 's death , as Salisbury began his reign of more than twenty years over the Conservatives , the party emphasised the late leader 's " One Nation " views , that the Conservatives at root shared the beliefs of the working classes , with the Liberals the party of the urban élite . Disraeli had , for example , stressed the need to improve the lot of the urban labourer . The memory of Disraeli was used by the Conservatives to appeal to the working classes , with whom he was said to have had a rapport . This aspect of his policies has been re @-@ evaluated by historians in the 20th and 21st centuries . In 1972 B H Abbott stressed that it was not Disraeli but Lord Randolph Churchill who invented the term " Tory democracy " , though it was Disraeli who made it an essential part of Conservative policy and philosophy . In 2007 Parry wrote , " The tory democrat myth did not survive detailed scrutiny by professional historical writing of the 1960s [ which ] demonstrated that Disraeli had very little interest in a programme of social legislation and was very flexible in handling parliamentary reform in 1867 . " Despite this , Parry sees Disraeli , rather than Peel , as the founder of the modern Conservative party . The Conservative politician and writer Douglas Hurd wrote in 2013 , " [ Disraeli ] was not a one @-@ nation Conservative — and this was not simply because he never used the phrase . He rejected the concept in its entirety . "
Disraeli 's enthusiastic propagation of the British Empire has also been seen as appealing to working class voters . Before his leadership of the Conservative Party , imperialism was the province of the Liberals , most notably Palmerston , with the Conservatives murmuring dissent across the aisle . Disraeli made the Conservatives the party that most loudly supported both the Empire and military action to assert its primacy . This came about in part because Disraeli 's own views stemmed that way , in part because he saw advantage for the Conservatives , and partially in reaction against Gladstone , who disliked the expense of empire . Blake argued that Disraeli 's imperialism " decisively orientated the Conservative party for many years to come , and the tradition which he started was probably a bigger electoral asset in winning working @-@ class support during the last quarter of the century than anything else " . Some historians have commented on a romantic impulse behind Disraeli 's approach to Empire and foreign affairs : Abbott writes , " To the mystical Tory concepts of Throne , Church , Aristocracy and People , Disraeli added Empire . " Others have identified a strongly pragmatic aspect to his policies . Gladstone 's biographer Philip Magnus contrasted Disraeli 's grasp of foreign affairs with that of Gladstone , who " never understood that high moral principles , in their application to foreign policy , are more often destructive of political stability than motives of national self @-@ interest . " In Parry 's view , Disraeli 's foreign policy " can be seen as a gigantic castle in the air ( as it was by Gladstone ) , or as an overdue attempt to force the British commercial classes to awaken to the realities of European politics . "
During his lifetime Disraeli 's opponents , and sometimes even his friends and allies , questioned whether he sincerely held the views he propounded , or whether they were adopted by him as essential to one who sought to spend his life in politics , and were mouthed by him without conviction . Lord John Manners , in 1843 at the time of Young England , wrote , " could I only satisfy myself that D 'Israeli believed all that he said , I should be more happy : his historical views are quite mine , but does he believe them ? " Blake ( writing in 1966 ) suggested that it is no more possible to answer that question now than it was then . Nevertheless , Paul Smith , in his journal article on Disraeli 's politics , argues that Disraeli 's ideas were coherently argued over a political career of nearly half a century , and " it is impossible to sweep them aside as a mere bag of burglar 's tools for effecting felonious entry to the British political pantheon . "
Stanley Weintraub , in his biography of Disraeli , points out that his subject did much to advance Britain towards the 20th century , carrying one of the two great Reform Acts of the 19th despite the opposition of his Liberal rival , Gladstone . " He helped preserve constitutional monarchy by drawing the Queen out of mourning into a new symbolic national role and created the climate for what became ' Tory democracy ' . He articulated an imperial role for Britain that would last into World War II and brought an intermittently self @-@ isolated Britain into the concert of Europe . "
Frances Walsh comments on Disraeli 's multifaceted public life :
The debate about his place in the Conservative pantheon has continued since his death . Disraeli fascinated and divided contemporary opinion ; he was seen by many , including some members of his own party , as an adventurer and a charlatan and by others as a far @-@ sighted and patriotic statesman . As an actor on the political stage he played many roles : Byronic hero , man of letters , social critic , parliamentary virtuoso , squire of Hughenden , royal companion , European statesman . His singular and complex personality has provided historians and biographers with a particularly stiff challenge .
= = Cartoons , 1846 – 86 = =
= = Works by Disraeli = =
= = = Novels = = =
Vivian Grey ( 1826 )
Popanilla ( 1828 )
The Young Duke ( 1831 )
Contarini Fleming ( 1832 )
Ixion in Heaven ( 1832 / 3 )
The Wondrous Tale of Alroy ( 1833 )
The Rise of Iskander ( 1833 )
The Infernal Marriage ( 1834 )
Henrietta Temple ( 1837 )
Venetia ( 1837 )
Coningsby , or the New Generation ( 1844 )
Sybil , or The Two Nations ( 1845 )
Tancred , or the New Crusade ( 1847 )
Lothair ( 1870 )
Endymion ( 1880 )
Falconet ( unfinished 1881 )
= = = Poetry = = =
The Revolutionary Epick ( 1834 )
= = = Drama = = =
The Tragedy of Count Alarcos ( 1839 )
= = = Non @-@ fiction = = =
An Inquiry into the Plans , Progress , and Policy of the American Mining Companies ( 1825 )
Lawyers and Legislators : or , Notes , on the American Mining Companies ( 1825 )
The present state of Mexico ( 1825 )
England and France , or a Cure for the Ministerial Gallomania ( 1832 )
What Is He ? ( 1833 )
The Vindication of the English Constitution ( 1835 )
The Letters of Runnymede ( 1836 )
Lord George Bentinck ( 1852 )
= Naomi ( Skins ) =
" Naomi " is the sixth episode of the third series of the British teen drama Skins , which first aired on 26 February 2009 on E4 in both Ireland and the United Kingdom . The episode was written by Atiha Sen Gupta and Jack Thorne , and was directed by Simon Massey . The episode focuses on the character of Naomi Campbell ( Lily Loveless ) as she competes against James Cook ( Jack O 'Connell ) in their college 's elections for Student President . She enters a romantic relationship with her classmate Emily Fitch ( Kathryn Prescott ) while also receiving affection from her teacher Kieran ( Ardal O 'Hanlon ) .
The episode was filmed in October 2008 . The weather was so cold during filming that one scene taking place in a lake had to be shortened when Prescott was taken to a standby ambulance with suspected hypothermia . " Naomi " brought in 957 @,@ 000 viewers and was E4 's highest @-@ rated programme of the week . Critical reviews of the episode were generally positive .
= = Plot = =
Naomi lives with her hippy mother Gina ( Olivia Colman ) and fifteen other people in a communal living arrangement . This is a source of annoyance to Naomi , whose privacy is invaded when she wakes up one morning , naked , to discover that a male hippy is sleeping in her bed . At college , she avoids Emily to meet with her politics teacher Kieran instead . In the students ' common room , they are informed of the upcoming elections for Student President . Emily encourages Naomi to run for president , but Naomi refuses . She later comes across Cook , who tries to persuade her to have sex with him . She jokingly tells him that he has a better chance of winning the student elections , which he sees as a challenge and decides to register . Kieran walks her home at the end of the day and urges her to run in the elections , giving her a registration form . When she arrives at her house , she finds Emily waiting in her bedroom with another registration form . Emily starts to leave when Naomi is rude and standoffish to her — despite taking Emily 's advice to enter the elections — but returns and confronts her . She coldly tells her that she is not obsessed with pursuing a sexual relationship with her , and Naomi suggests she stay the night with her .
The next morning , Naomi wakes up , with Emily asleep next to her . She is tempted to stroke her hair , but instead gets dressed and goes to college , leaving Emily in her bed . At college , she sees the massive presidential campaign staged by Cook and JJ ( Ollie Barbieri ) . She launches her own campaign to rival Cook , but finds that most of her classmates ' support is for Cook 's anarchist ideas . She is doubly humiliated in front of the form when Cook ridicules her and Emily subsequently stands up for her . She flees to Kieran for comfort but leaves him , shocked and disgusted , when he kisses her . She goes home and , after finding a note from Emily in her bed , cries herself to sleep .
Naomi and Emily escape to the countryside later that evening and cycle to one of Emily 's favourite places by a lake before sunset . After swimming in the lake , they light a campfire , and share a cannabis joint . An act of blowbacking the joint leads the two to share a kiss and they proceed to make love . Emily wakes up the following morning to find Naomi preparing to leave . She pleads with Naomi not to leave her a second time and tells her that she should accept that she needs to be loved . Naomi goes home to find Kieran in bed with her mother , and leaves for college , devastated . She sees her teachers rigging the election to prevent Cook from winning , and reveals this to the form when she is announced the winner . As his first presidential act , Cook starts a riot . In the ensuing chaos , Naomi forgives Kieran , encouraging him that if he likes her mother , he should tell her so . Naomi begins to have sex with Cook before she realises that it " isn 't right " . Surprisingly , Cook doesn 't seem to mind , as he says that she must have a good reason not to follow through because she 's clever . Naomi leaves , with her and Cook now sharing a better understanding of each other . That night , she visits Emily 's house , but Emily refuses to open the door , not wanting Naomi to see her after she had been crying . They sit on opposite sides of the door , and Naomi admits that she does need somebody to love her . Emily offers her hand through the door 's cat flap to Naomi , who finally reciprocates Emily 's feelings .
= = Production = =
" Naomi " was filmed in October 2008 , in the same production block as the series ' fourth episode , " Pandora " , and the series ' opening title sequence . The riot scene in front of the college was filmed with 100 extras ; Cook 's petrol @-@ bombing of the car was described by costume assistant Ros Marshall as " probably the most hi @-@ tech special effect we 've had while filming Skins " . The students ' college common room was filmed in the show 's production canteen . Originally , an entire scene was supposed to be filmed with Naomi and Emily in the lake , but the water was so cold that the actors were unable to stay in the water , and Kathryn Prescott was taken to a standby ambulance with suspected hypothermia . Director Simon Massey choreographed Naomi and Emily 's sex scene prior to filming so that , on the set , the actions would come instinctively to the actors and they would be able to complete the scene in a limited number of takes . While Lily Loveless enjoyed filming those scenes because " stuff like that gives you experience " , Prescott said that it concerned her , though she said that she was not pressured to do anything in the script that made her uncomfortable .
Stylist Kirstie Stanway began to differentiate between Emily and her twin sister Katie 's hair and makeup with this episode to show that the twins are starting to " move along their own paths " . She re @-@ styled Katie 's character in particular to illustrate that she is now " desperate not to be lumped with her sister as she really doesn 't approve of the new girl in her life " . Ardal O 'Hanlon grew a beard for his role as Kieran and was given a scar under one eye to give his character a " more rugged look " . Ros Marshall said that Cook 's mock @-@ presentation of himself as " Cook Guevara " paid homage to The Clash 's Joe Strummer and " the youth cultures of days gone by " , and that his Dr. Martens brogues were a reference to skinheads of the 1980s . Marshall made Cook and JJ 's campaign rosettes by hand from Rizla rolling papers .
= = Reception = =
" Naomi " drew 957 @,@ 000 viewers and was E4 's highest @-@ rated programme of the week .
Sarah Warn , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of lesbian @-@ based website AfterEllen.com wrote that the episode 's focus on Naomi and Emily " was one of the best @-@ developed and most honest depictions of a lesbian teenage relationship that I 've ever seen on TV . " A critic for PopSugar.com thought both Naomi and Cook to be more likable after the episode and enjoyed the development of their friendship throughout . They found Emily 's plea to Naomi as Naomi left the campsite " heartbreaking " and called Kieran " one of my favourite recurring characters this series " . Digital Spy 's Dan French gave the episode a positive review , describing it as " chaotic " and " full of lady @-@ lovin ' " . He praised Naomi 's relationship with Kieran , which he saw as a reference to the affair between Chris Miles , a first generation character from Skins ' first and second series , and his teacher Angie . The entertainment editor for eurOut.org , a website for European lesbians , thought that Naomi and Emily 's storyline was " definitely one of the best portrayals of teenage lesbians I 've ever seen " , writing that " when the focus is more on cute girls falling for each other , this show isn 't half bad " . Another eurOut.org writer , Cate O 'Neil , said that " Naomi " was " probably the best individual lesbian episode I have seen on TV . Ever . " In response to O 'Hanlon 's nude scene as Kieran , Sara Nathan of The Sun said , " If seeing [ him ] clad in lycra as Thermoman in My Hero wasn 't bad enough , now he 's leaving nothing to the imagination . "
= Myxogastria =
Myxogastria ( myxogastrids , ICZN ) or Myxomycetes ( ICBN ) , is a class of Myxogastria , itself a grouping of slime moulds , that contains 5 orders , 14 families , 62 genera and 888 species . They are colloquially known as the plasmodial or acellular slime moulds .
All species pass through several , very different morphologic phases , such as microscopic individual cells , slimy amorphous organisms visible with the naked eye and conspicuously shaped fruit bodies . Although they are monocellular , they can reach immense widths and weights : in extreme cases they can be up to 1 metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) across and weigh up to 20 kilograms ( 44 lb ) .
The class Myxogastria is distributed worldwide , but it is more common in temperate regions where it has a higher biodiversity than in polar regions , the subtropics or tropics . They are mainly found in open forests , but also in extreme regions such as deserts , under snow blankets or underwater . They also occur on the bark of trees , sometimes high in the canopy . These are known as corticolous myxomycetes . Most species are very small .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
= = = Nomenclature = = =
The Latin name Myxomycota comes from the Ancient Greek words μύξα ( myxa ) , which means " mucus " , and μύκης ( myces ) , which means " fungus " . The name Myxogastria was introduced in 1970 by Lindsay Shepherd Olive to describe the family Myxogastridae , which was introduced in 1899 by Thomas Huston Macbride . Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries described numerous slime moulds as Myxogasteres in 1829 . Species in the class Myxomycota are colloquially known as plasmodial or acellular slime moulds . Some consider the Myxomycota to be a separate kingdom , with an unsettled phylogeny because of conflicting molecular and developmental data . The relations among Myxogastrid orders are as yet unclear .
= = = Range = = =
The continuous classification of new taxa reveals that the class is not fully described . The class comprises around 900 to 1000 species . According to a 2000 inquiry , there were 1012 officially accepted taxa , including 866 on species level . Another study in 2007 stated a number of more than 1000 , in which the Myxogastria comprised the biggest group of slime moulds , with over 900 species . On the basis of sequenced environmental samples it is estimated that the group has between 1200 and 1500 species , more than previously estimated . Among the 1012 taxa only a few species are common : 305 were discovered in a single location or groupings , a further 258 species were found in a few areas between two and 20 times , and only 446 were common in several locations with over 20 discoveries .
Reclassifications encounter problems because the Myxogastriae are morphologically very plastic , which is to say susceptible to environmental influences ; only a few characteristics are diagnostic for a small number of species . In the past authors have unsuccessfully tried to describe a new taxon based on a small number of examples , but this leads to numerous duplications , sometimes even at genus level . For example , Squamuloderma nullifila is actually a species from the genus Didymium .
= = = Classification and phylogeny = = =
The following classification is based on Adl et al . 2005 , while the classes and further divisions on Dykstra and Keller 2000 , who described the Myxogastria as " Mycetozoa " . The sister taxon is the subclass Dictyostelia . Together with the Protostelia they formed the taxon of the Eumycetozoae . Other subclasses differ from the other species mainly in the development of fruit bodies ; while Protostelia create a separate fruit body from each single mononuclear cell , Dictyostelia develop cell complexes – the so @-@ called pseudo @-@ plasmodia – from separate cells , which then become fruit bodies .
Order Liceida
Family Liceidae
Family Listerelliidae
Family Enteridiidae
Order Trichiida
Family Dianemidae
Family Trichiidae
Order Stemonitida
Family Stemonitidae
Subclass Myxogastromycetidae
Order Echinosteliida
Family Echinosteliedae
Family Clastodermidae
Order Physarida
Family Elaeomyxidae
Family Physaridae
Family Didymiidae
This is a traditional classification based on Lister and Lister , made in the early 20th century . Molecular genetical studies confirm and stabilise this classification . The most basal group is Echinosteliida . Other groups further contain two superclades , which are morphologically definable by spore colour .
= = Characteristics and life cycle = =
= = = Monocellular , mononuclear phase = = =
= = = = Spores = = = =
The spores of Myxogastria are haploid , mainly round and measure between 5 µm and 20 µm , rarely up to 24 µm in diameter . Their surface is generally reticular , sharp , warty or spiky and very rarely smooth . The typical colour of the spore mass becomes visible through the structure , since the spores themselves are not pigmented . In some species , especially of the genus Badhamia , the spores produce lumps . The colour , shape and diameter of spores are important characteristics for identifying species .
Important factors for the germination of spores are mainly moisture and temperature . The spores usually remain germinable after several years ; there were even spores preserved in herbarium specimens which germinated after 75 years . After the spores ' development , they first receive a diploid nucleus , and the meiosis takes place in the spore . At the germination , the spore shells open either alongside special germinal pores or chinks , or rip irregularly and then release one to four haploid protoplasts .
= = = = Myxamoebae and Myxoflagellates = = = =
In those species which reproduce sexually , haploid cells bud from the spores . Depending on the environmental conditions , either a myxamoeba or a myxoflagellate buds from the spore . Myxamoebae move like amoebae – that is , crawling on the substrate – and are produced in dry conditions . Myxoflagellates , which are peritrichous and can swim , develop in moist to wet environments . Myxoflagellates almost always have two flagella ; one is generally shorter than the other and sometimes only vestigial . The flagella are used for locomotion and to help to move food particles closer . If the humidity changes , cells can switch between the two manifestations . Neither form has a cell wall . This developmental stage ( and the next one ) serves as a nourishment provider and is also known as the first trophic phase ( nourishment phase ) . In this monocellular phase , the Myxogastria consume bacteria and fungus spores , and probably dissolved substances , and they reproduce through simple cell division . If the environmental conditions change adversely in this phase , for example extreme temperature , extreme dryness or food shortage , the Myxogastria may switch to very long @-@ lived , thin @-@ shelled quiescent states – the so @-@ called microcysts . For that to happen , the myxamoebae assume a round shape and secrete a thin cell wall . In this state they can easily survive one year or longer . If living conditions improve , they become active again .
= = = = Zygogenesis = = = =
If two cells of the same type meet in this phase , they cross @-@ fertilise to a diploid zygote through the fusion of protoplasms and nuclei . The conditions which trigger this are not known . The diploid zygote becomes a multinucleated plasmodium through multiple nuclear divisions without further cell division . If the resulting cells were peritrichous , they change their shape before the fusion from the peritrichous form to the myxamoeba . For the production of a zygote , cells of different mating types ( heterothallic ) are required .
= = = Plasmodium = = =
The second trophic phase begins with the development of the plasmodium . The multinucleated organism now absorbs via phagocytosis as many nutrients as possible . These are bacteria , protists , dissolved substances , moulds , higher fungi and small particles of organic material . This enables the cell to undergo enormous growth . The nucleus divides multiple times , and the cell soon becomes visible to the naked eye and usually has a surface area – depending on the species – up to one square metre ; however , in 1987 one artificially cultivated cell of Physarum polycephalum attained a surface area of 5 @.@ 5 sq m . Myxogastria species have numerous nuclei in their trophic plasmodium phase ; the small , non @-@ veined proto @-@ plasmodia have between 8 and 100 nuclei , while large , veined meshworks have between 100 and 10 million nuclei . All of these remain part of a single cell , which has a viscous , slimy consistency and may be transparent , white or brightly coloured in orange , yellow or pink .
The cell has chemotactic and negative phototactic capabilities in this phase , meaning that it is able to move towards nutrients and away from dangerous substances and light . The movements originate in the grainy cytoplasm , which streams by pulsation in one direction within the cell . In this way the cell reaches a speed of up to 1000 µm per second – the speed in plant cells is 2 to 78 µm per second . A resting state , the so @-@ called sclerotium , may occur in this phase . The sclerotium is a hardened , resistant form composed of numerous " macrocysts " , which enable the myxogastria to survive in adverse conditions , for example during winter or dry periods , in this phase .
Fruit bodies of the myxogastria
= = = Fructification = = =
Mature plasmodia can produce fruit bodies under appropriate circumstances , the exact triggers for this process are unknown . According to laboratory researchers , changes in humidity , temperature or pH value as well as starvation periods were thought to be the triggers in some species . The plasmodia abandon their nutrient intake and crawl , attracted by light – a positive phototaxis – towards a dry , light area , to get an optimal spread of the spores . Once the fructification begins , it can not be stopped . If disturbances occur , malformed spore @-@ bearing fruit bodies are often produced .
The plasmodium or parts of the fruit bodies can be smaller than one millimetre , in extreme cases they are up to a square metre and weigh up to 20 kilograms ( 44 lb ) ( Brefeldia maxima ) . Their shape is often pediculated or unstiped sporangia with non @-@ cellular stems , but can also appear as veined ar netted plasmodiocarps , pincushion @-@ shaped aethaliae or seemingly pincushion @-@ shaped pseudo @-@ aethaliae . The fruit bodies almost always have a hypothallus on the edge . The abundantly produced spores are stored in a reticular or filamentous structure – the so @-@ called capillitium – and are found on nearly all species except Liceida and other species from the genus Echinostelium . When the open fruit bodies have dried , the spores are dispersed by wind or by small animals such as woodlice , mites or beetles , which either pick up the spores through contact with the fruit bodies or ingest and then excrete them . Dispersal by running water is also possible , but it plays a minor role .
= = = Asexual forms = = =
Some Myxogastria species may produce asexually . These are continuously diploid . There is no meiosis before the germination of the spores and the production of the plasmodium proceeds without germination of two cells .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
= = = Distribution = = =
Myxogastria are distributed worldwide ; species were found by early researchers on all continents . However , as many parts of the world were yet not discovered or explored , the exact distribution is not fully known . Europe and North America are often considered the basic habitat of the Myxogastria species . According to recent research , the majority of species are not widely distributed . The Myxogastria are most commonly found in temperate latitudes , and rarely in the polar regions , the subtropics or tropics . The physical features of the substrate and climatic conditions are the major aspects of the species ' presence . Endemism is rare .
In the northern areas , the species can be found in Alaska , Iceland , northern Scandinavia , Greenland and Russia . These are not only particular , specialised species ; according to an overview study , more than 150 species were found in the arctic and subarctic regions of Iceland , Greenland , northern Russia and Alaska . These distinctly exceed the tree line . In Greenland , the habitat may reach the 77th latitude line . The Myxogastria species reach their largest biodiversity and highest frequency in forests of temperate regions , which are ideal habitats because of the amount of rich organic material , suitable humidity ( not too high ) and long @-@ lasting snow cover for snow @-@ inhabiting species .
Few Myxogastria species are found in the tropics and subtropics , mainly because of the high humidity which prevents the necessary dehydration of the fruit bodies to permit spore dispersal and promotes infestation by moulds . Other factors are low light levels under the forest canopy which reduces phototaxis , light winds , poor soils , natural enemies and heavy rainfall which can wash away or destroy cells . Species living in soil or deadwood decrease as humidity increases . In a study from Costa Rica , 73 % of the total findings were in the relatively dry Tropical Moist Forest , while 18 % were in the very moist Tropical Premontane Wet Forests and only 9 % in Lower Premontane Rain Forest .
In the Antarctic , species were found in the South Shetland Islands , South Orkney Islands , South Georgia and the Antarctic Peninsula . Species from the Antarctic or subantarctic regions are rarer than specimens in the Arctic regions , although lack of access may be a factor . Until 1983 , only five records were made , with only individual finds since then . According to two studies of the myxomycete flora of these regions , more species were discovered in the subantarctic forests , for example 67 species in Argentinian Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego , and 22 on high ground on Macquarie Island .
= = = Habitats = = =
The majority of Myxogastria species live terrestrially in open forests . The most important microhabitat is deadwood , but also the bark of living trees ( corticolous myxomycetes ) , rotting plant material , soil and animal excrements . Slime moulds may be found in numerous unusual locations . The comprehensive group of the nivicol Myxogastria populate closed snow blankets , to quickly fructificate at exposure – for example during thaws – and release their spores . Other habitats are deserts – 33 species were found in the Sonora desert , for example – or living on leaves from plants in the tropics . Some species live in aquatic environments , such as those of the genera Didymium , Physarum , Perichaena , Fuligo , Comatricha and Licea , which were found living underwater as myxoflagelletes and plasmodia . All but one species , Didymium difforme , fructificated only when the water ebbed or when they left it .
= = = Relationship to other creatures = = =
The relationships of the Myxogastria to other creatures have not been thoroughly researched as of 2012 . Their natural predators include many arthropods , including mites and springtails , and especially beetles such as the rove beetles , round fungus beetles , wrinkled bark beetles , Eucinetidae , Clambidae , Eucnemidae ( false click beetles ) , Sphindidae , Cerylonidae , and minute brown scavenger beetles . Various Nematodes have also been observed to be their predators ; they attach their posterior portion on the cytosol of the plasmodia or even live within the strands . Certain Diptera species have evolved to specialise in this way : these are mostly representatives of the Mycetophilidae , Sciaridae and Drosophilidae . The species Epicypta testata was especially frequently found , especially on Enteridium lycoperdon , Enteridium splendens , Lycogala epidendrum and Tubifera ferruginosa .
Some true fungi specialise in the colonisation of the Myxogastriae : almost all of these are species of sac fungi . The most common such fungus is Verticillium rexianum – mainly species from Comatricha or Stemonitis . Gliocladium album and Sesquicillium microsporum are often found on Physaridae , while Polycephalomyces tomentosus is often found on certain species of Trichiidae . Nectriopsis violacea specialises on Fuligo septica . Bacterial associates , mainly from the family Enterobacteriaceae , were discovered on plasmodia . The combination of plasmodia and bacteria can bind atmospheric nitrogen or produce enzymes which make possible the decomposition of e.g. lignin , carboxymethylcellulose or xylan . In a few cases , the plasmodia acquired salt tolerance or tolerance of heavy metals through this association .
= = Fossil records = =
Fossil records of Myxogastria are extremely rare . Due to their short lifespan and the fragile structures of the plasmodia and the fruit body , fossilisation and similar processes are not possible . Only their spores can be mineralised . The few known examples of fossilised living states are preserved in amber . Up to 2010 , three fruit bodies , two spores and one plasmodium have been described . Two older taxa – Charles Eugène Bertrand 's Myxomycetes mangini and Bretonia hardingheni from 1892 – are now considered dubious and are today often disregarded . Friedrich Walter Domke described in 1952 a 35 to 40 million year old find in Baltic amber of Stemonitis splendens , an extant species . The state and completeness of the fruit bodies are remarkable , enabling accurate determination . From the same period , location and material is an Arcyria sulcata , first described in 2003 by Heinrich Dörfelt and Alexander Schmidt , a species very similar to today 's Arcyria denudata . Both discoveries imply that the fruit bodies of the Myxogastria have changed only slightly in the last 35 to 40 million years .
However , the Protophysarum balticum from Baltic amber , first described by Dörfelt and Schmidt in 2006 , is considered questionable . The fossil was inconsistent with the typical characteristics of the genus and it was not a valid publication because no Latin name was identified with it . Also , important details of its fruit bodies were not visible or contradicted the identification . Today it is assumed that the fossil belongs to a lichen similar to the genus Chaenotheca . The only known discovery of a preserved plasmodium was found in amber in the Dominican Republic , and was then grouped into the Physarida . However , this claim is also considered doubtful as the publication was later classified as insufficient due to lack of evidence . The only known mineralised fossils are the two spore findings from 1971 , one of which , Trichia favoginea , is assumed to be from the postglacial period . In palynologian researches , by absorbing Myxogastria spores , the fossil was not recognised .
= = History of research = =
Because of their unprepossessing nature , the Myxogastriae were for a long time not well researched . Thomas Panckow first named the mould Lycogala epidendrum as " Fungus cito crescentes " in his 1654 book Herbarium Portatile , oder behendes Kräuter- und Gewächsbuch . In 1729 , Pier Antonio Micheli thought that fungi are different from moulds , and Heinrich Friedrich Link agreed with this theory in 1833 . Elias Magnus Fries documented the plasmodial stage in 1829 , and 35 years later Anton de Bary observed the germination of the spores . De Bary also discovered the cyclosis in the cell for the movement , he saw them as animal @-@ like creatures and reclassified them as Mycetozoa , which literally translates " Fungus animals " . This theory dominated until the second half of the 20th century .
From 1874 to 1876 , Jósef Tomasz Rostafinski , a pupil of De Barys , published the first extensive monography of the group . Three monographs by Arthur Lister and Guilielma Lister were published in 1894 , 1911 and 1925 . These were groundbreaking works about the Myxogastria , as was the 1934 book The Myxomycetes by Thomas H. Macbride and George Willard Martin . Important works in the late 20th century were the 1969 monographs by George Willard Martin and Constantine John Alexopoulos , and the 1975 monograph by Lindsay Shepherd Olive . The first is perhaps the most notable , as with it " the modern era of the taxonomy of the Myxogastria began " . Other notable researchers were Persoon , Rostafinski , Lister , Macbridge , and Martin and Alexopoulos , who discovered and classified many species .
= The Otto Show =
" The Otto Show " is the twenty @-@ second episode of The Simpsons ' third season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 23 , 1992 . In the episode , Bart decides that he wants to become a rock star after attending a Spinal Tap concert , so Homer and Marge buy him a guitar . He shows the guitar to Otto the bus driver , who plays it and consequently makes the children late for school . Racing to Springfield Elementary , Otto crashes the school bus and is suspended until he can get his license back . Bart , who respects Otto , invites him to move in with the Simpson family .
The episode was written by Jeff Martin and directed by Wes Archer . It was the first episode of the show to feature Otto Mann in a prominent role . " The Otto Show " features an appearance from Spinal Tap , a parody band that first appeared in the 1984 mockumentary film This Is Spinal Tap . The episode guest stars Michael McKean as David St. Hubbins and Christopher Guest as Nigel Tufnel . Harry Shearer , who is a regular Simpsons cast member , also starred in This Is Spinal Tap and reprises his role as Derek Smalls .
In its original airing on the Fox Network , the episode had an 11 @.@ 5 Nielsen rating and finished the week ranked 41st . The episode received positive reviews and Spinal Tap was ranked as the 18th best guest appearance on the show by IGN .
= = Plot = =
Bart and Milhouse attend a Spinal Tap concert , which degenerates into a riot . Nonetheless , Bart is impressed by the band and wants to become a rock guitarist . Homer and Marge decide to buy Bart his own electric guitar , but he finds it impossible to play as he is not musically gifted like Lisa ( when she tries to play a duet with her sax ) . The next morning on the school bus , Bart tells Otto he thinks his guitar is broken , but Otto wows his passengers with an impromptu concert . The performance meant that they are now late for school , so Otto is forced to drive recklessly to get there in time . The bus causes numerous incidents before turning over onto its side in the town square , where it also smashes into the statue of Jebediah Springfield .
When Officer Lou asks for Otto 's driver 's license , Otto is forced to admit he does not have a license ( nor is he wearing his own underwear on which he wrote his name as proof of his identity ) . He is suspended without pay , and Principal Skinner takes over his route . However , Skinner finds driving the bus hard going , being a less aggressive driver than Otto , and ends up being trapped at a busy intersection for an entire day . Otto , meanwhile , goes to the Springfield Department of Motor Vehicles but he fails the driver 's test that is administered by Marge 's sister Patty partly due to his poor driving ability and partly due to the fact he asks Patty if she was born male . He is also unable to find a new job , and therefore cannot pay his rent and is evicted from his apartment . Bart finds him living in a Trash Co . Waste Disposal Unit , and agrees to let him live in the Simpsons ' garage . Homer and Marge disapprove of this but reluctantly agree to let him stay .
Otto quickly makes a nuisance of himself . Homer begins to lose patience with Otto and demands that he be sent on his way . Marge and Bart encourage him to give the driving test one last try . Otto goes to the DMV to take the test again , angry that Homer called him a " sponge " . Patty refuses to let him take the test after a comment he made about her being born a man . However , when Otto tells her that he wants to pass so he can prove Homer wrong and " staple his licence to Homer Simpson 's Big Bald Head " , she relents out of spite for her brother @-@ in @-@ law . Otto performs even worse in his second test , but Patty grants Otto his license anyway after he entertains her with stories of Homer 's crude behavior . Now a properly licensed driver ( albeit under probationary status ) , Otto regains his job and Skinner is happy to return to his normal job as Principal .
= = Production = =
" The Otto Show " was written by Jeff Martin and directed by Wes Archer . The episode 's title is a pun on auto show . The episode was the first to feature bus driver Otto Mann in a prominent role . Otto 's full name is revealed for the first time . Writers Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky had originally wanted to name him Otto Mechanic , but the animators gave him the last name Mann .
" The Otto Show " features an appearance from Spinal Tap , a parody band that first appeared in the 1984 mockumentary film This Is Spinal Tap . The episode guest stars Michael McKean as David St. Hubbins and Christopher Guest as Nigel Tufnel . Harry Shearer , who is a regular Simpsons cast member , also starred in This Is Spinal Tap and reprises his role as Derek Smalls , the third member of the group . The episode follows the approach of the film by presenting the band as if they were a real group . According to executive producer Al Jean , the executives at Fox were unhappy about having the band guest star , partially because it cost a lot of money to purchase rights to play | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
ie Kumatani , Seirou Okamoto and Hideaki Kobayashi of Wave Master . Steve Conte and Runblebee performed the vocal tracks . The music maintains the guitar @-@ based rock style of previous Sonic titles , adding elements of traditional Middle Eastern music to complement the game 's theme and aesthetic . Sega released a video game soundtrack album , Seven Rings in Hand : Sonic and the Secret Rings Original Sound Track , on March 15 , 2007 . The main theme and album title track of Secret Rings is " Seven Rings in Hand " .
= = Reception = =
Sonic and the Secret Rings received scores of 70 @.@ 71 % and 69 % on review aggregators GameRankings and Metacritic , respectively ; Metacritic classifies its score as " mixed or average " . The game charted well ; it was the eleventh best @-@ selling game of February 2007 worldwide , and third for the Wii . It proved the best @-@ selling Wii game and fifth among all platforms in the United Kingdom . In North America , it was thirteenth overall , and fourth for the Wii , with 83 @,@ 000 copies . In June , July , and August 2007 , the game was the fourth , third , and seventh best @-@ selling game for the Wii , respectively .
Critics felt Secret Rings was a general improvement over recent Sonic games , whose popularity and critical reception had declined . According to Empire , which gave the game 3 / 5 stars , Secret Rings " reclaims the bewildering blend of platforming and racing that made the series famous " while " fixing the erratic stop @-@ start gameplay that marred recent editions " and showcasing " the best graphics the Wii has to offer this side of Zelda . " However , " the occasionally sluggish controls and spasmodic in @-@ game camera mean Sonic 's Wii debut is far from perfect . " Electronic Gaming Monthly stated that it " does a decent job at stopping the bleeding caused by the recent 360 / PS3 / PSP Sonics " , and 1UP.com 's Shane Bettenhausen wrote that the Sonic series was " definitely on the mend " after suffering progressively @-@ worse games after the release of Sonic Adventure . GameSpy 's Patrick Joynt agreed , writing that Sonic had been " reanimated to a lurching existence " . IGN 's Matt Casamassina , Nintendo Power 's Chris Shepperd , and GameSpot 's Greg Mueller named Secret Rings the best 3D Sonic game , but criticized 3D Sonic games in general . Eurogamer 's Rob Fahey praised the game for employing Sonic as the only playable character .
The game 's level design received mixed reviews . Joynt preferred fast levels and felt that the ones requiring players to " move carefully " detracted from the experience . Bettenhausen praised the visual appeal of Secret Rings and compared it to that of Resident Evil 4 , a game which critics acclaimed for its visuals . Casamassina agreed that the " Sonic Team has done a lot with [ the seven levels ] " , and praised the varying missions and levels ' aesthetic contrast . However , he criticized the placement of obstacles . Fahey denounced levels ' " avoidable blind spots and leaps of faith " , and found the number of stages and their re @-@ use over multiple missions " a little bit disconcerting " . He conceded that it added to the game 's replay value , comparing the levels to tracks in racing games .
Control and camera movement concerned reviewers . Bettenhausen called the controls " a tad reckless at first – Sonic 's momentum takes some getting used to , and trying to go in reverse is a pain – but become more natural and fluid as you get acclimated to the fast @-@ paced , twitchy action . " Casamassina and Mueller offered similar opinions , while Shepperd criticized the game 's low camera angle and arbitrary targeting system . Bettenhausen dismissed the game 's multiplayer mode as a failed adaptation of the Mario Party series . Fahey concurred , adding that a multiplayer racing mode would have been preferable to " lame " minigames . Casamassina compared the games to those in Super Monkey Ball : Banana Blitz : " only a handful of them really stand out and some are downright pointless , but overall gamers will probably be happy that they were included . " Shepperd agreed , but decried the necessity to " play the story mode extensively to unlock some of the party mode 's best features . "
= = Legacy = =
To mark Sonic 's introduction in the 2008 Wii game Super Smash Bros. Brawl , Nintendo used " Seven Rings in Hand " and other Sonic series music as backing for the " Green Hill Zone " stage . Sonic Team and Sega later created Sonic and the Black Knight , a sequel to Secret Rings released on March 3 , 2009 . The two form the Storybook series ; Secret Rings is based on Arabian Nights , and Black Knight casts Sonic into the world of King Arthur . On March 18 , Secret Rings and Super Monkey Ball : Banana Blitz were compiled in a Wii release titled Sega Fun Pack : Sonic and the Secret Rings & Super Monkey Ball : Banana Blitz .
= The Moms =
" The Moms " is the twentieth episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 78th overall episode of the series . It was written by co @-@ producer Kay Cannon and co @-@ show runner and executive producer Robert Carlock . The episode was directed by co @-@ executive producer John Riggi . It originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on May 6 , 2010 . Guest stars in " The Moms " include Buzz Aldrin , John Anderson , Elizabeth Banks , Kyoko Bruguera , Will Ferrell , Anita Gillette , Jan Hooks , Cheyenne Jackson , Patti LuPone , Novella Nelson , and Elaine Stritch .
In the episode , the fictitious show The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) celebrate the Mother 's Day holiday by having the mothers of its cast and staff ( Bruguera , Gillette , Hooks , LuPone , Nelson , and Stritch ) visit . Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) must deal with a visit from his mother Colleen Donaghy ( Stritch ) who begins to meddle in his relationships with Avery Jessup ( Banks ) and Nancy Donovan ( Julianne Moore ) .
" The Moms " received generally positive reviews from television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 420 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 6 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . For her performance in this episode , Elaine Stritch received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in the category for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series .
= = Plot = =
Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) , the head writer of the TGS with Tracy Jordan show , brings her boss Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) a budget approval on the show 's planned Mother 's Day episode by gathering around its cast and staff mothers . Liz reminds Jack that Mother 's Day is coming up , prompting Jack to realize he forgot to send his mother Colleen Donaghy ( Elaine Stritch ) flowers and informs his office assistant Jonathan ( Maulik Pancholy ) to send her flowers , however , Colleen is waiting outside Jack 's office door . Colleen 's real reason for visiting her son is that she learned from her friend in Florida that Jack is dating Nancy Donovan ( Julianne Moore ) , a recent divorcée , and a woman who happens to be Jack 's high school sweetheart . During dinner , Colleen does not bring Nancy up , but tells Jack she knows about his involvement with CNBC host Avery Jessup ( Elizabeth Banks ) after an awkward encounter between Avery and Jack in an elevator with Colleen present ; because of the encounter , Colleen knows that Avery and Jack are sleeping together . Colleen is appalled that Jack is dating two women at the same time , and demands that he end it and make a choice between Nancy and Avery .
While trying on her bridesmaid 's dress in the TGS fitting room , Colleen , Sylvia Rossitano ( Patti LuPone ) , and Verna Maroney ( Jan Hooks ) criticize Liz for not being married by now as she is in her late thirties , but Liz does not care what they think . Later , Liz has a conversation with her mother Margaret Lemon ( Anita Gillette ) regarding Liz being single . During their conversation , Margaret reveals that her true love was Buzz Aldrin and not Liz 's father Dick Lemon ( Buck Henry ) , which shocks Liz . She tells Jack about what her mother has revealed to her and ponders why her mother did not choose to be with Buzz . Jack offers to introduce her to Buzz with Liz accepting , and wanting to find out what her mother missed out on . During their meet , Buzz confesses that it was a good decision that Margaret did not stay with him as he spent many of his years as an alcoholic . After her encounter with Buzz , Liz tells her mother that she respects the decision she made by not ending up with Buzz .
At the same time , Verna visits Jack in hopes of getting the rest of the money he promised to give her in the episode " Verna " — as Jack paid her off to be a good mother to her daughter Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) and to visit her daughter on a regular basis — but Jack will give her the rest of the money once he believes Jenna is happy around her . While discussing what to wear for the Mother 's Day episode , Verna suggests that Jenna wear an outfit that she made , but Jenna does not want to . Nonetheless , Verna and Jenna make up and wear each other 's clothes on the broadcast . Meanwhile , TGS producer Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) learns that Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) does not know where his mother is , so he decides to cast actress Novella Nelson to be his mother for the Mother 's Day episode . Tracy and Novella have a dislike to one another , however , the two make amends with each other and sing together on the holiday episode .
= = Production = =
" The Moms " was written by co @-@ producer Kay Cannon and co @-@ show runner and executive producer Robert Carlock . The episode was directed by 30 Rock co @-@ executive producer and staff writer John Riggi . This was Cannon 's seventh writing credit , and Carlock 's fifteenth penned episode . This was Riggi 's third directed episode for the series after " Goodbye , My Friend " and " The Problem Solvers " . " The Moms " originally aired on NBC in the United States on May 6 , 2010 , as the twentieth episode of the show 's fourth season and the 78th overall episode of the series . This episode of 30 Rock was filmed on March 5 and March 10 , 2010 .
Actresses Anita Gillette , Jan Hooks , Patti LuPone , and Elaine Stritch reprised their roles as Margaret Lemon , Verna Maroney , Sylvia Rossitano , and Colleen Donaghy , respectively , the mothers of the characters Liz Lemon , Jenna Maroney , Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) , and Jack Donaghy , respectively . John Lutz appears as the mother of his character , TGS writer J.D. Lutz , but it is unclear whether this is portrayed as a casting joke on the part of 30 Rock or whether the character of Lutz is impersonating his own mother within the show . In addition , actress Novella Nelson guest starred as herself as Tracy Jordan 's fake " mother " for the first time . Former astronaut Buzz Aldrin played himself in the episode as it is revealed that he was in a relationship with Liz 's mother . In an interview with TV Guide in discussion of his guest spot , Aldrin said " That was wonderful , carrying on a conversation with very professional actors I greatly admired . I felt very honored to be paired up with something that also has another connection to me . [ ... ] That was a lot of fun . " Aldrin revealed that when first notified about the guest appearance he had to " think about it a little bit " , and he mistook 30 Rock with the show 3rd Rock from the Sun , a program that previously aired on NBC .
The show made reference of Jack 's love triangle storyline with CNBC host Avery Jessup and his high school sweetheart Nancy Donovan , played by actresses Elizabeth Banks and Julianne Moore , respectively . This plot was first introduced in the April 22 , 2010 , episode " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " . The love triangle dilemma would continue throughout the season . Moore was announced as a love interest for Alec Baldwin 's Jack in November 2009 , while Banks ' guest spot as a love interest for the Jack character was confirmed in December 2009 . Actor Cheyenne Jackson made his sixth appearance as his 30 Rock character Danny Baker . In this episode , Danny introduces his mother Miho ( Kyoko Bruguera ) to J.D. Lutz ( John Lutz ) and Lutz tells Danny that he had no idea he was adopted as Miho is Asian and Danny is not . Actor John Anderson made his third appearance on the show and was credited as Astronaut Mike Dexter , an individual whom Liz considers to be her imaginary perfect husband . During a flashback of her younger years , Margaret — played by Tina Fey — is walking with a man named " Ed " — played by Anderson — later revealed that " Ed " was Buzz Aldrin , her first love .
Comedian actor Will Ferrell had a brief appearance in " The Moms " . In the beginning of the episode , Liz tells Jack that NBC wants TGS to have a Mother 's Day themed episode after the network received criticism for re @-@ airing the offensive action drama Bitch Hunter . In a clip , Ferrell — as the character Shane Hunter — says " Put the mimosas down , bitch ! " . 30 Rock staff writer Jack Burditt and Mad Men creator Matthew Weiner are credited as the writers of that Bitch Hunter episode . This was Ferrell 's second appearance as Shane Hunter having first appeared as the character in " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " . Ferrell has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Fey was the head writer on SNL from 1999 until 2006 . The song Sincerely by The Moonglows featured in this episode .
= = Cultural references = =
Verna confesses that she once sexually assaulted former professional basketball player Scottie Pippen . When Pete tells Tracy that actress Novella Nelson will be his " mother " , Tracy says he had his sights on actress Phylicia Rashad or professional tennis player Serena Williams to be his " mother " . When Liz learns that her mother could have been an astronaut 's wife , Margaret explains that it was not that simple as she had just graduated from secretary school and got a job as a secretary at Sterling Cooper . The latter is a fictional advertising agency on the AMC program Mad Men . In addition , actor Jon Hamm , who plays the lead role on Mad Men , has had a recurring role on 30 Rock as a love interest for Tina Fey 's character . Later , Liz gets angry at her mother 's admission of not marrying Buzz Aldrin and tells her that actress Laura Linney " could 've played you in the HBO original movie Moon Wives . "
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Moms " was watched by 5 @.@ 420 million households , according to the Nielsen Media Research . It received a 2 @.@ 6 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning that 2 @.@ 6 percent of all people in that group , and 7 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " Argus " , which was watched by 5 @.@ 439 million households . Elaine Stritch received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards for her performance in this episode , but lost it to actress Betty White for hosting SNL .
IGN contributor Robert Canning gave the episode an 8 @.@ 7 out of 10 rating saying he liked all the mothers coming back and loved Buzz Aldrin 's appearance , writing that despite Aldrin not being a great actor " he had enough good lines to overcome this short fall . " The A.V. Club 's Todd VerDan Werff gave " The Moms " episode a B grade rating , noting " ... I just liked the episode for having all of the characters have their moms wandering around . " Entertainment Weekly contributor Emily Exton gave the episode a positive review , writing that it was fun to see " the resemblances between all the moms and their kids " and enjoyed Will Ferrell 's cameo here . At the beginning of his review , Adam Mersel of TV Guide said that this episode was not funny and was " amused , a bit confused , and left wanting more . " After recapping the episode he said that he took his comments back , explaining that the episode " did have laughs . " Television columnist Alan Sepiwall for HitFix wrote this episode of 30 Rock " wasn 't a very funny episode of the show ... yet it did some nice things in trying to pull Liz and some of the other characters back into reality . " Sepinwall commented that Tracy and Jenna 's stories with their mothers were " nice grounded moments for the show 's two broadest main characters , and the sort of thing 30 Rock needs to do with them a few times a season . " Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad liked this episode better than the previous episode " Argus " , enjoyed Elaine Stritch 's return as Jack 's mother , and that Tracy 's story with Novella Nelson was " actually well done " , explaining that his situation makes sense in the TGS world . The Houston Press ' Daniel Carlson wrote that " The Moms " was " fun but lighter than air , content to string together a mild plot with a series of good jokes and callbacks . " Nick Catucci for New York magazine was positive about the episode , and reported that Tracy and Novella Nelson had the best chemistry of the night .
Time contributor James Poniewozik noted that " The Moms " had a lot of potential , explaining that the return of the television character 's mothers " [ had ] the ability to bring out the insecure children in their respective grown kids . But rather than advance any themes or storylines of the show , the episode mostly repeated them " , regarding Jack 's love triangle . Sean Gandert of Paste said that Jack 's relationship troubles in choosing between Nancy and Avery " feels like it 's been dragging on forever . " Nonetheless , Gandert commented Liz 's story " was the real heart of the episode . "
The return of Bitch Hunter received positive reviews from television critics . Exton said " thank you NBC for re @-@ airing Bitch Hunter , more Will Ferrell for us ! " Canning opined that 30 Rock " may want to be careful of overdoing this funny but one @-@ note joke . " Carlson enjoyed the reappearance , noting it was " a welcome touch . "
= Prior to the Fire =
Prior to the Fire is the second studio album by Canadian hard rock group Priestess . Recorded in Los Angeles with producer David Schiffman , the album was initially released on October 20 , 2009 , by Indica Records in Canada . By design , the album lacks the production values of the band 's debut album , Hello Master , in order to achieve a more natural sound . As the band took more progressive rock influences and applied them to their songwriting , they changed their lyrical focus and wrote about themes considered to be more unusual for rock music , such as film and television characters , for this album .
The record is known for the difficulty Priestess encountered in trying to release it . The band 's extensive touring schedule for their previous album Hello Master consumed much of the time they would have used to write new material , and after they began doing so , they had disputes with RCA Records , their international distributor at the time , as to whether the new songs were acceptable . After the completion of the recording sessions , which were themselves problematic , RCA ultimately refused to release the album , fearing it was not commercial enough , but allowed the group to release it on another label . Tee Pee Records signed the group thereafter and released the album internationally . Priestess were still signed to Indica Records , but only for Canadian distribution ; the release on Indica was withheld until an international distributor was found .
Critical reaction to the album was mixed , but largely positive . The departure in style from Hello Master was frequently noted for better or for worse , and comparisons of the group to influential hard rock and heavy metal acts such as Thin Lizzy and Black Sabbath were once again made .
= = Background = =
In 2005 , Priestess released its debut album Hello Master , which spawned two minor hits : " Lay Down " became popular because it was included as a playable track in the best @-@ selling video game Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock , and " Talk to Her " peaked at # 33 on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart in 2006 . Even though the group have admitted that they were ultimately displeased with the sound of the record , which they described as " so tight and really produced " , they remain proud of their Guitar Hero achievement . The band spent roughly two and a half years performing concerts on behalf of Hello Master , supporting such acts as Dinosaur Jr . , the Sword , Mastodon and Megadeth . During that time they concentrated mostly on the existing material and had little chance to write anything new , and writing for the new album would not begin in earnest until the summer of 2007 .
Lead singer and guitarist Mikey Heppner , who listened to progressive rock in his youth , wrote things that he initially withheld from the band , because he felt that his bandmates would not understand him - he described his work as being " way too proggy " . Despite his initial doubt , they loved his work when he showed it to them . Thereafter , Heppner began describing the forthcoming record in progressive rock terms during interviews . He told the Whistler Question that it " is a little more musically complex ; deeper into the sort of metal side where we started out from " , but that " It still sounds like us " . He also told Jam ! that the new songs were " leaning toward progressive ( rock ) territory " .
However , RCA Records , their former label who released Hello Master outside their native Canada in all other territories starting in 2006 , became hopeful that the band 's next record would have similar success . As a result , the label continually rejected the material represented by the demo recordings the group were sending in , believing that none of the songs could perform as commercially @-@ successful singles . RCA continually delayed the band from entering the studio in hopes that they could write such a song , but by the time the group had written 20 songs ( including material that was eventually phased out of their concert setlist ) the label still had no confidence in the new material . " We really were in an amazing place , writing , jamming four to five times a week and coming up with great stuff , " recalled Heppner . " We felt at the peak of our creativity . [ ... ] And they were like , ' Can you write more songs ? ' ( We were , like ) , ' This is insane . ' " RCA would continue to differ with Priestess on the issue , even after the album was finished .
= = Recording = =
Realizing that the arguments were only consuming time , RCA relented for the time being and allowed the band to make studio arrangements . In December 2007 , the band made their first attempt at recording the album with producer Matt Bayles , who after only a few days was dismissed as he " wasn 't really the right fit " . In 2008 , after the band spent the winter looking for another producer , their A & R representative at RCA Records tried to schedule sessions with Tool guitarist Adam Jones but was unsuccessful ; as a result , the process did not begin in earnest for six more months . This also meant they could not plan a concert tour until they had the problems with their studio schedule resolved . Following several more attempts at securing a producer , Priestess finally got the recording sessions scheduled for October 2008 when David Schiffman signed on to the project after meeting with the group through their A & R representative ; Schiffman , whose résumé included artists from Johnny Cash to System of a Down , had expressed interest in helming the album for the band if they were in need of his services . After extensive pre @-@ production in Montreal , Priestess went to Los Angeles to record the album .
Once the recording sessions got off the ground , Priestess encountered another problem – this time with the law . The band were working in a house in a neighborhood , and the close proximity to other houses meant that they had to keep the amount of noise generated to a minimum . They had been assured that the house had not previously been served with noise violations of any kind , but after they had finished recording drums and many of the guitar parts , they learned that they had the volume set too high when working on the bass guitar tracks ; law enforcement came to the door and forced them to take their work elsewhere because they were shaking neighboring houses with the noise they were generating . The band did so with no objection , quickly moving their equipment to another studio , although they recalled the incident rather humorously later . Schiffman was able to arrange for the group to use another facility as early as the following day , and the band moved production to that new location the night of the incident . The sessions were completed in November 2008 .
During the sessions , the band played a single " secret " show in Los Angeles where they showed fans everything being recorded for the album .
= = Music and lyrics = =
The band were enthusiastic about working with David Schiffman . His approach was more minimalistic compared to that of Gus van Go ( who produced Hello Master ) and did not involve many of the studio techniques van Go employed . Heppner stated , " Everything was way simpler [ than it had been for Hello Master ] . " He noted that Prior to the Fire more accurately reflected the band 's live sound , whereas Hello Master was , as he put it , a " studio production " . The recording was not specifically intended to emulate their live concert sound , but to sound more natural – " This is Priestess playing in a room , " Heppner clarified , thus emphasizing that they wanted to simply record the band and nothing else . Schiffman gave the band a lot of creative freedom as well , not interfering with song arrangements and simply allowing the band to record as they desired , which led Heppner to enthusiastically state that he was " all about recording it and not fucking with it . " Heppner noted that if Schiffman had any suggestions , he never forced them onto the group , which made them more willing to consider his suggestions . At least 14 of the 20 songs the band wrote were recorded at the sessions .
After Heppner introduced his bandmates to progressive rock , the band integrated minor influences from the genre in their songwriting and compositions , including touches of keyboards , while trying not to deviate too much from the sound of Hello Master . The change in style was largely adopted so they could challenge themselves musically , but not specifically to be heavier : " I don 't think we go in wanting to write a heavier record , " guitarist Dan Watchorn stated . " I don 't think we have a preconceived notion of what we want , the riffs and melodies just kind of come . The fact that Hello Master was a bit more on the poppy side and Prior to the Fire has a bit more edge to it is just where we 're at right now with music . " Of the end result , drummer Vince Nudo said , " Our individual tastes came out more [ on this record than they did on Hello Master ] . [ ... ] It 's more organic . We 're not holding back so much . "
The writing process for this album was more communal compared to that for Hello Master ; Heppner had written much of the band 's debut album himself and his bandmates helped him in arranging the material , but the sophomore album featured more contributions from each band member . Nudo once again wrote and sang a song for the record , and although Watchorn did not write the lyrics to an entire song by himself for this album , he and Heppner collaborated on several of them , including " Lady Killer " . Watchorn explained that the songs changed drastically between the time they were first written and when they got recorded , and that the songs " weren 't complete until they actually made the record . " He also said that the album 's protracted production history enabled the group to experiment with the songs and repeatedly alter them to taste , thus ironically yielding a record that was considered better than if they had been able to simply record it and be done with it sooner .
Lyrically , the album focused on more unusual themes for rock music than the band had written for Hello Master as they instead wrote about personal interests . For his part , Heppner described the songs as being about " mega geek shit " , and recalled some advice he had been given to simply write about things he liked , which became how most of the songs on the album were written . Heppner wrote " Murphy 's Law " as an ode to his favorite film , RoboCop ; he was inspired to write it when he was writing songs in his room and saw his poster for the movie on the wall . His lyrics to " It Baffles the Mind " recount a tournament in the manga / anime series Dragon Ball , while the seminal Lone Wolf and Cub inspired him to write " Sideways Attack " . The influential serial drama Twin Peaks served as the basis for a song that he wrote that did not make it into the final track listing ; outtakes from the album , of which there were at least three , were set for separate release on 7 " singles . Watchorn has noted that this album was not the first time the band had described their favorite films in songs ; although he did not specify which ones , he did note that there were songs from Hello Master that pertained to films as well .
Other themes were more general . " Lady Killer " has been cited as having a considerable thrash metal influence , and its topic of revenge against a serial killer is comparable to songs such as Iron Maiden 's " Murders in the Rue Morgue " and Judas Priest 's " The Ripper " . The song emerged when the band attempted to " write a theme song for Jack the Ripper , " according to Heppner , and its distinctive intro was created by generating feedback on a 1976 Gibson SG run through a 1970s MXR rack flanger . " The Gem " portrays the apocalypse as being a good thing because it wipes humanity off the planet ; whoever sets it in motion ( Heppner explained as by " open [ ing ] Pandora 's Box " ) is hailed as a hero for having done the right thing . " Communicating Via @-@ Eyes " is " the werewolf song " , as Heppner put it ; he wrote much of that song while on tour with Megadeth in the UK . He later stated a song loosely inspired by An American Werewolf in London was written for the album , but it is not clear whether he was referring to a song already on the album or an outtake from it .
= = Title and artwork = =
The Cincinnati CityBeat reported that the album had been titled Life Giver , but Heppner coined the album 's current name while at a hotel on tour . Flipping through the channels on the hotel television in search of shows like CSI , he was just in time to see a segment on A & E where a detective commented on a woman 's death in a house fire . He said something to the effect of , " The amount of carbon monoxide in the victim 's lungs proves that she had died prior to the fire , " and Heppner liked the way the last words sounded .
The artwork was designed by a friend named Mike Yardley in response to a mass e @-@ mail sent to all the artists Heppner knew . The band do not ascribe any particular meaning to it ; Heppner commented that the artwork , combined with the title , could be " a pre @-@ creation thing " or even " a Billy Joel reference . " In any case , the meaning of the artwork and title has been left open to interpretation , and the artwork was chosen specifically because it did not conform to an existing standard .
= = Continuing dispute with RCA = =
Much as the label had argued with the band over the quality of the songs before production , RCA continued to debate the issue with Priestess after the album sessions were finished in the fall of 2008 . Despite the confidence the band themselves had in the strength of the album 's material , RCA still did not share that sentiment and refused to release the album , as they felt it still lacked a potential single . Reflecting on the situation , Heppner remarked , " You can 't force write a single , it 's impossible to do that . At least it 's impossible for us . We 're not Tin Pan Alley songwriters ; we 're a rock band . "
RCA subsequently released the group from their contract . Despite having funded the album 's production , RCA gave the band the opportunity to find another label to release the finished product instead , thus losing any money the company had invested in it . The group had hoped to release the album in March 2009 , but RCA 's reluctance caused Priestess to miss this anticipated timeframe completely . A Canadian release ( on Indica Records , which has always been the band 's Canadian label ) was withheld until the band could find a new label to replace RCA . By all accounts , the band lost a year trying to get Prior to the Fire released .
Because of RCA 's leniency in the end , the band 's departure was peaceful despite complications , and they still hold respect for RCA for what the label allowed them to do . Heppner credits the label for allowing the record that RCA funded to go to some other company who would want it instead , while Watchorn acknowledges that recent economic troubles would have mandated that record labels only keep " the things that are going to sell " on their rosters . Heppner noted that labels usually shelve albums permanently if they are deemed unfit for commercial sale rather than give them to the artists who recorded them , and that the band were " really , really lucky " in comparison . Priestess found and signed with New York City independent record label Tee Pee Records to replace RCA in late 2009 ; Tee Pee Records had offered to sign the group years earlier , but the band chose RCA over Tee Pee . They enjoy being signed to Tee Pee Records rather than RCA , where they feel more " at home " . The band have stated that they feel less pressure to succeed on Tee Pee Records , and they do not feel any less important to the label compared to its higher @-@ profile artists , such as American Idol contestants . " Tee Pee is the perfect label for us right now , because they totally understand what we want to do , " Heppner stated . " I am alas [ sic ] stoked to be labelmates with so many wicked bands . " He additionally noted that the only advantage the band had when signed to RCA was more money , and that having a different kind of music meant that Priestess were not as lucrative as a band such as the Foo Fighters , who were more heavily promoted .
= = Release and reception = =
Prior to the Fire was released on October 20 , 2009 in Canada , and on February 2 , 2010 ( the soonest possible date Tee Pee Records could give the band ) in the United States . Priestess chose for an earlier release in Canada so that they could begin touring in support of the record at last . All CD pressings of the album contain 11 tracks , but with the deluxe edition from Tee Pee Records comes a code to obtain a 13 @-@ track edition from the Internet . It contains the original 11 tracks , plus two bonus tracks . ( As the band are signed only to Indica Records in Canada , all deluxe editions from Tee Pee Records are only released outside of Canada . ) Two deluxe editions were released by Tee Pee Records : both came with the code for the Internet download , and one came with an exclusive T @-@ shirt as well .
Critical opinions of the album have been mixed , but largely positive . Metacritic gave the album a rating of 68 out of 100 , based on 12 reviews .
AllMusic 's Phil Freeman said that the album , which he gave 4 out of 5 stars , was well worth the wait after the amount of time it took to get released , and that the stylistic variety of material , combined with the cover art ( which bore a striking resemblance to that of The Resistance , also released that year ) , could make Priestess " retro hard rock 's answer to Muse " . Rock Sound made a favorable comparison to Thin Lizzy for the track " Lunar " , and to Baroness for " The Gem " , giving the album a score of 9 out of 10 . The PRP described the album as " heavier " than Hello Master , with its songs having " an alarming amount of depth " , but referred to the track " Murphy 's Law " as " questionable " in an otherwise favorable review which gave the album 4 out of 5 stars . Artrocker 's Stuart Gadd also gave the album 4 out of 5 stars , as he enjoyed the stylistic reminders of Iron Maiden and other classic metal he heard on the album , and went as far as to say that despite being released in early 2010 it was already the best metal record of the year . David Marchese , writing for Spin , also praised the album with a score of 8 out of 10 , even saying that " Someone should be fired for the delay [ between Hello Master and Prior to the Fire ] , because this baby burns " .
By contrast , Pitchfork Media 's Tom Breihan offered a mixed opinion of 5 @.@ 9 out of 10 , stating that on its own the album is good , but it pales in comparison to an album like High on Fire 's Snakes for the Divine . PopMatters scored the record 5 out of 10 stars and wondered if RCA 's instincts were right in regards to the album 's lack of " catchier " material , as Adrien Begrand said that Heppner 's vocals were in general weaker on this album as compared to the band 's previous record . Nonetheless , he did compliment Vince Nudo for his vocals on " Lunar " , which he favorably compared to Black Sabbath , and also compared " Lady Killer " to Judas Priest . The Boston Phoenix reviewer Mikael Wood gave the album a star and a half out of four , and wrote that despite the cleverness behind the album 's title , the songs within were empty , and while fans of the style would be comfortable with it , " Everybody else should seek out Hello Master . "
Prefix writer Craig Hubert rated the album 5 out of 10 , and said it had more " definable hooks " than most other metal albums , but that still made the record no better or more accessible . He did note that he looked forward to when the band reached their full potential , which he felt the new record 's music indicated would be soon . Speaking from his perspective as an aged listener and someone who is not a fan of modern rock music , Jay Bennett of the Phoenix New Times gave the album a grade of B. He described the album as “ a pleasant surprise ” , saying that he was not a fan of metal from recent years but that the album has “ a lot more in common with the late- ‘ 70s and early- ‘ 80s @-@ era Judas Priest and Iron Maiden ” , which he liked .
After the album 's release in Canada , the band embarked on a tour in that country with Early Man and Trigger Effect in November 2009 . February 2010 saw them return to the UK and Europe with Bigelf , and the group spent that spring supporting High on Fire in concert in the US . July saw them in Canada once more touring with High on Fire , and that November they played concerts as the headliner supported by new labelmates Naam in the US .
The band made a music video for " Lady Killer " ; it was shot in the band 's hometown of Montreal and directed by David Valiquette . Released on February 4 , 2010 via Pitchfork Media , the video made extensive use of fur and taxidermy , which were noted by ChartAttack as qualities PETA would not approve of : " I can hear Ingrid Newkirk screaming right now . " The video features the band members performing quite prominently in spite of Heppner 's previous assertion that no music video made for the album would feature the band members performing , citing his embarrassment from the production process of the band 's previous music videos . " Lady Killer " was listed by Noisecreep as the tenth best metal song of 2010 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = = Priestess = = =
Mikey Heppner – lead guitar , lead vocals
Dan Watchorn – rhythm guitar , backing vocals
Mike Dyball – bass guitar
Vince Nudo – drums , backing vocals , lead vocals on " Lunar "
= = = Additional personnel = = =
Credits taken from AllMusic .
David Schiffman – producer , engineer
Gordon Ball – photography
Mike Yardley – illustrations , design
Jon Cranfeld & Brian Kehew – second engineers
Adrian Popovich – mixing
Ryan Morey – audio mastering
Ace – guitar technician
Lee Smith – drum technician
= Sussex Spaniel =
The Sussex Spaniel is a breed of dog developed in Sussex in southern England . It is a low , compact spaniel and is similar in appearance to the Clumber Spaniel . They can be slow paced , but can have a clownish and energetic temperament . They suffer from health conditions common to spaniels and some large dogs , as well as a specific range of heart conditions and spinal disc herniation .
First bred in 1795 in Hastings , East Sussex for specific hunting conditions , they nearly became extinct during the Second World War . They are now more popular in the United States than any other country and are recognised by all major kennel clubs . Notably , a Sussex Spaniel won the best in show in 2009 at the 133rd Westminster Kennel Club .
= = Description = =
The Sussex Spaniel is a low compact spaniel similar in appearance to a small , dark Clumber Spaniel . It is normally no taller than 13 – 1 | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the Byzantine nobility and rose to the highest ranks of the hierarchy . Two women of his family became empresses of the Byzantine Empire and others became military commanders or high @-@ ranking officials . He was an ancestor of the Byzantine emperor John II Komnenos .
= = Life before the accession of the throne = =
Ivan Vladislav was the son of Aron , the brother of Emperor Samuel ( r . 997 – 1014 ) of the Cometopuli dynasty . In 976 or 987 Samuel ordered his brother Aron executed for treason together with his entire family near Razmetanitsa . Ivan Vladislav was the only survivor , being spared through the intercession of his cousin , Samuel 's son Gavril Radomir . His life during the subsequent decades and until his accession is unknown .
= = = Assumption of power = = =
By 1015 , Bulgaria had been embroiled in almost thirty years of war with the Byzantine Empire , and Gavril Radomir had succeeded Samuel , who died on 6 October 1014 after the disastrous Battle of Kleidion . However , from the outset Radomir 's position was insecure : Ivan Vladislav , as a son of the elder of the Cometopouli brothers , could lay claim on the throne based on seniority . During that time the Byzantine king Basil II campaigned deep into Bulgarian territory . He retook the previously lost town of Voden ( Edessa ) and laid siege to the massive fortress of Maglen , situated to the north @-@ west . Gavril Radomir did not have enough forces and was unable to interfere and could only watch the course of the events from the nearby Lake Ostrovo . His inability to cope with the Byzantine threat aroused discontent among the nobility and Ivan Vladislav became their chosen leader . The fall of Maglen sealed Gavril Radomir 's fate — in the late summer of 1015 , while hunting near Ostrovo ( Arnissa ) , he was murdered by his cousin , perhaps at the behest of Byzantine agents . Ivan Vladislav then seized the Bulgarian throne and took steps to ensure his position against potential rivals .
= = Emperor = =
= = = First months of the reign = = =
After assuming the throne , Ivan Vladislav immediately sent a delegation to Basil II , which arrived five days after the fall of Maglen . In his letter , Ivan Vladislav notified Basil that he had personally murdered Gavril Radomir and had seized all the power in the country and promised Basil deep humility and obedience , an act of submission which some in the nobility supported . After Ivan Vladislav firmly secured his hold on the throne , however , he openly declared to be against any kind of compromise with the Byzantines and quickly began to follow the determined policy of his predecessors against the ongoing Byzantine conquest . Basil II soon understood that Ivan Vladislav 's letter was a ruse and plotted a retaliatory action , bribing the kavkhan Theodore , who was in Byzantine captivity , to murder the Bulgarian ruler . Theodore in turn paid a trusted man in Ivan Vladislav 's employ to commit the murder , but in the event the assassin actually killed Theodore himself . In the meantime Basil II continued his march , forcing the Bulgarian emperor to retreat to the Albanian mountains , and advanced into the heart of the Bulgarian state . The Byzantines took the capital Ohrid and burned the imperial palaces ; news , however , arrived that Ivan Vladislav had laid siege to Dyrrhachium and that to the south the Bulgarian general Ibatzes had defeated the Byzantine rear army near Bitola . With his supply routes cut , Basil II had to retreat back to Thessalonica leaving a small garrison in Ohrid , which was swiftly retaken by the Bulgarians . Back in his base at Mosynopolis , Basil divided the Byzantine army to harass the areas of Strumitsa and Sofia . In January 1016 the Byzantine emperor returned to Constantinople .
= = = Consolidation = = =
Meanwhile , Ivan Vladislav consolidated his positions in the mountains of Albania and Macedonia . As early as October 1015 he began the reconstruction of many strongholds destroyed during the war , including the fortress at Bitola ( as testified in the Bitola inscription ) . In 1016 he invited his vassal Prince Jovan Vladimir of Doclea , who was married to Gabriel Radomir 's sister Theodora Kosara , to come to his court . The emperor probably desired to seize the prince and so secure his western flank . The Prince was determined to attend the invitation of Tsar , but his wife Theodora Kosara did not trust the murderer of her brother , and fearing for her husband 's life persuaded him not to go . Ivan Vladislav however vowed not to threaten his vassal 's life , and sent him a golden cross as a proof of good will . Jovan Vladimir still hesitated , saying that God was nailed to a wooden not golden cross , but Ivan Vladislav repeated his vow and gave him a guarantee of safe @-@ conduct , also guaranteed by the Bulgarian patriarch David . Eventually Jovan Vladimir travelled to the court of the Tsar in Prespa , but upon his arrival on 22 May , he was immediately beheaded , and the emperor refused to allow the burial of his body . It was not until a number of miraculous events related to the corpse of the prince were observed that Vladislav returned the body to Kosara .
In the spring of 1016 Basil II led his armies along the Struma valley and besieged the strong fortress of Pernik . The fort 's defence was headed by the capable commander Krakra , who remained loyal to the Bulgarian cause . As all the previous attempts against Pernik , the 88 @-@ day siege was a failure , costing the Byzantines many casualties before they were forced to retreat south and regroup at Mosynopolis .
= = = Fighting in 1017 = = =
In the early days of 1017 the Byzantine emperor renewed his campaigns . He sent David Arianites and Constantine Diogenes to pillage along the River Vardar and captured the castle of Longos . After that he marched south and besieged Kastoria . Under the walls of the town Basil II received messages from Tzitzikios , the Byzantine strategos of Dorostolon ( Silistra ) , that Ivan Vladislav had sent Krakra to negotiate assistance from the Pechenegs and that they were crossing the Danube . The Byzantine emperor immediately abandoned the siege and hurried northwards , but in the vicinity of Lake Ostrovo he learned that the Pechenegs were unwilling to risk war . Returning south , Basil II captured Setina , where Samuel used to have a palace and acquired for himself the large amount of provisions that were stored there . Ivan Vladislav , who was closely monitoring the Byzantine movements , ambushed the troops who were under the command of Constantine Diogenes , who would have perished had not Basil II come to relieve him . According to John Skylitzes , the Emperor charged alone in front of his army to Diogenes ' rescue . When the Bulgarians saw him , they shouted " Run , the Emperor " ( " Βεγεῖτε Τσαῖσαρ " ) and retreated in panic . Contented with their victory , the Byzantines moved on to Voden and returned to Constantinople .
= = = Death = = =
In the early 1018 Ivan Vladislav besieged Dyrrhachium , but in February he was killed under the walls of the city . The accounts of his death are contradictory . According to some he became victim of a plot and was killed by his servants ; according to others , he perished in battle . The Bulgarian additions to the Skylitzes Chronicle are more detailed , saying that Ivan Vladislav dueled with the strategos of Dyrrhachium , the patrikios Niketas Pegonites , on horseback , and while fighting , two Byzantine infantrymen from the audience rushed to the emperor and wounded him mortally in the belly . A later Byzantine historian claimed that the duel was fair and Pegonites stabbed Ivan Vladislav in the chest with his spear , killing him instantly . The Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja reports an altogether different story : while having a meal in his camp , the emperor was attacked by an unknown soldier , in whom Ivan Vladislav seemed to have recognized the murdered Jovan Vladimir . Terrified , he cried for help but no one rushed to his rescue and the unknown soldier mortally wounded the Bulgarian ruler .
His death marked the effective end of the Bulgarian Empire . Ivan Vladislav 's sons were young and inexperienced , and even the strongest Bulgarian leaders doubted the advisability of further resistance . Upon learning of the death of the Tsar , Basil II left Constantinople . In Adrianople he was met by the brother of Krakra who acknowledged Byzantine authority . His example was followed by the larger part of the Bulgarian nobility who pledged loyalty to Basil II , giving up their fortresses . In Serres , Krakra along with the commanders of 35 castles met the emperor and surrendered , and in Strumitsa he received a message sent by the Empress @-@ dowager Maria to negotiate the surrender of the capital and the country . Basil II richly awarded those who surrendered , allowing them to keep their lands , wealth and titles . Short @-@ lived resistance continued under Ivan Vladislav 's eldest son Presian II and his brothers , but they also surrendered by the end of 1018 .
= = Legacy = =
Living more than one hundred years after Ivan Vladislav , the historian known as the Priest of Duklja , who wrote from a Dukljan perspective , was outraged by the murder of Jovan Vladimir , and wrote that after the Tsar died , he was " forever connected with the angels of Satan " . Many modern Bulgarian historians , including Vasil Zlatarski , also criticize the emperor , claiming that his actions hastened the fall of Bulgaria and that instead of raising the morale of the nation he turned into a murderer and was unable to cope with the intrigues and the corruption in court . Steven Runciman is also critical of the emperor , noting that his assassination of Gavril Radomir unleashed a general confusion where each noble started looking out for his own personal interests , but nevertheless credits him with " a considerable ruthless energy " . Jordan Andreev is more favourable to Ivan Vladislav , noting that he had reasons for his acts — he had to revenge the murder of his family according to the old Bulgarian pagan beliefs , but he only killed Gavril Radomir and his wife without harming the rest of Gavril Radomir 's family . He had to cope with Jovan Vladimir who , as a husband of one of Samuel 's daughters , was a threat to his position , and had also attempted a compromise with the Byzantines . According to Andreev , Ivan Vladislav 's struggle to defend the Bulgarian state and his heroic death serve to mitigate his ill deeds . He cites a Byzantine historian who claimed that during Ivan Vladislav 's reign the Byzantine state " hanged in the balance , because that barbarian like Goliath resisted the Romans and they were all despaired by that invincible foe . " The Polish historian Kazimierz Zakrzewski also writes with sympathy for the last ruler of the First Empire , in light of the fact that Ivan Vladislav managed to sustain a guerilla war which he skilfully run until his death .
Ivan Vladislav Point on Rugged Island in the South Shetland Islands , Antarctica is named after Ivan Vladislav of Bulgaria .
= = Family = =
Ivan Vladislav married Maria , possibly the daughter of Tsar Boris II of Bulgaria and a Byzantine noblewoman , by whom he left progeny . Maria was named zoste patrikia by Basil II , and the descendants of Ivan Vladislav entered Byzantine service , becoming part of the Byzantine nobility and forming close ties with the Komnenos clan in particular . Both his daughter Catherine and an unnamed ( possibly Anna ) granddaughter married ( future ) Byzantine emperors . His second son Alusian took part in the Uprising of Petar Delyan against Byzantine rule but eventually betrayed the Bulgarian cause .
Maria and Ivan Vladislav had several children , including :
Presian , who briefly succeeded as emperor of Bulgaria 1018 , later Byzantine magistros
Aron , Byzantine general
Alusian , Byzantine patrikios in 1019 , strategos of Theodosiopolis in Anatolia , briefly emperor of Bulgaria in 1041
Trayan / Troianus , father of Maria of Bulgaria , who married Andronikos Doukas .
Catherine ( Ekaterina ) , who married the future Byzantine Emperor Isaac I Komnenos
= Bill Masterton =
William John " Bill " Masterton ( August 13 , 1938 – January 15 , 1968 ) was a Canadian – American professional ice hockey centre who played in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Minnesota North Stars in 1967 – 68 . He is the only player in NHL history to die as a direct result of injuries suffered during a game , the result of massive head injuries suffered following a hit during a January 13 , 1968 , contest against the Oakland Seals .
A college standout with the Denver Pioneers , Masterton was a member of National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) championship teams in 1960 and 1961 , was twice an NCAA All @-@ Star and was the most valuable player of the 1961 NCAA Division I Men 's Ice Hockey Tournament . He briefly played in the Montreal Canadiens organization before settling in Minnesota where he played senior hockey . The NHL 's 1967 expansion offered an opportunity to play for the newly founded North Stars , for whom he scored the first goal in the franchise 's history .
Masterton 's death sparked a long @-@ running debate in hockey about the merits of wearing helmets , as few NHL players did so in that time . Despite several efforts to mandate their use , it was 11 years before the NHL made them compulsory for all new players beginning in the 1979 – 80 season . In his memory , the NHL created the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy which it has awarded since 1968 to a player who demonstrates perseverance and dedication to hockey . The North Stars retired his jersey number 19 , an honour that followed the franchise when it later relocated to Dallas , Texas .
= = Playing career = =
A native of Winnipeg , Manitoba , Masterton played two seasons of junior hockey with the St. Boniface Canadiens in the Manitoba Junior Hockey League ( MJHL ) . He averaged a goal per game and finished with 49 points in 22 games in 1955 – 56 as the Canadiens won the Turnbull Cup . He added eight points in six games during the Memorial Cup playdowns , however St. Boniface failed to reach the national championship final . Following a second season in which he recorded 53 points in 30 games , Masterton chose to attend the University of Denver where he was offered a scholarship to play with the Denver Pioneers hockey program .
Masterton played three seasons in Denver between 1958 and 1961 , appearing in a total of 89 games , scoring 66 goals and 196 points in that time . At the time of his graduation , he was the Pioneers ' all @-@ time leading point scorer , a record he held for 25 years . He was a two @-@ time NCAA All @-@ American and was twice named to the Western Collegiate Hockey Association ( WCHA ) All @-@ Star team , earning both awards in 1960 and 1961 . Masterton led the WCHA in scoring in 1959 – 60 with 44 points in conference play , and led Denver to the 1960 NCAA national championship . Masterton served as team captain for 1960 – 61 , and was named the most valuable player of the 1961 national championship as he led Denver to a second consecutive title . The Pioneers finished the season with a 30 – 1 – 1 record and were hailed as " the greatest hockey team to ever represent an American college or university . "
Turning to professional hockey after graduating with an engineering degree , Masterton signed a contract with the Montreal Canadiens in 1961 . Led by Jean Béliveau and Henri Richard , the Canadiens were extremely deep at centre , so Masterton was assigned to the Hull @-@ Ottawa Canadiens of the Eastern Professional Hockey League . He had 31 goals and 65 points for Hull @-@ Ottawa , placing him in the top ten in both categories . Masterton was promoted to the Cleveland Barons of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) for the 1962 – 63 season , where he led the team with 82 points . He finished as the runner up to Doug Robinson for the Dudley " Red " Garrett Memorial Award as the AHL 's top rookie .
Faced with little opportunity to make the Montreal roster , Masterton left the professional game to complete his master 's degree at the University of Denver . He settled in Minneapolis , Minnesota , where he took a job in contracts administration . He joined the Honeywell Corporation where he worked on the Apollo program . He and his wife Carol adopted two children , Scott and Sally .
After taking a year off hockey in 1964 , Masterton regained his amateur status so that he could play senior hockey in the United States Hockey League . He played two seasons with the St. Paul Steers between 1964 and 1966 . Masterton became a naturalized American citizen , allowing him to join the United States National Team in 1966 – 67 . He served as captain on that team and was considered its most valuable player .
= = = Minnesota North Stars = = =
The NHL expanded in 1967 , doubling from 6 teams to 12 . Among the new entries was the Minnesota North Stars . The new team 's coach and general manager , Wren Blair , had scouted Masterton while he played with the US Nationals and purchased his NHL playing rights from the Canadiens . Masterton was the first player to sign with Minnesota , agreeing to a two @-@ year contract . He said prior to the start of the 1967 – 68 season that being able to play in Minnesota was key as he would have been unlikely to consider an offer with any other team .
At the age of 29 , Masterton made his NHL debut in the North Stars ' inaugural game , played October 11 , 1967 , against the St. Louis Blues . In that game , a 2 – 2 tie , Masterton scored the first goal in Minnesota franchise history . His wife Carol later recalled that it was a " dream come true " for her husband : " He always wanted a shot at the NHL , and expansion was a wonderful thing for him and guys like him . " By mid @-@ season , Masterton had scored 4 goals and 12 points in 38 games .
= = = Death = = =
Masterton suffered a severe internal brain injury during the first period of Minnesota 's January 13 , 1968 , game against the Oakland Seals at the Met Center . He carried the puck up the ice at full speed , passing it off as two Seals defenders , Larry Cahan and Ron Harris , converged on him . Masterton was knocked backward in the resulting collision and landed on his head . Like most players of his era , he wasn 't wearing a helmet . Referee Wally Harris compared the hit to an explosion , adding " he was checked hard , but I 'm sure it wasn 't a dirty play . " The force of the impact caused Masterton to bleed from his nose , ears and mouth . The impact of the hit caused him to lose consciousness before he hit the ice ; according to some accounts , he briefly came to and muttered , " Never again , never again " before passing back out . He received treatment on the ice and in the dressing room before being rushed to Fairview @-@ Southdale Hospital .
Carol , who was watching the game from the stands , and Masterton 's parents , who were listening to the game from their home in Winnipeg , rushed to his bed side at the hospital . He was attended to by two neurosurgeons and three other doctors . They soon concluded that the injury was too severe for surgery to be a viable option . Some 30 hours after his fall , on January 15 , Masterton died without ever regaining consciousness . His parents , brother , wife and two children were at his side . Masterton 's Minnesota teammates , who were playing a game in Boston on the 14th , were informed that he had been removed from life support in the dressing room in what was ultimately a 9 – 2 loss to the Bruins . He is the only player in NHL history to die as a direct result of an injury suffered on the ice . To date , he is the last player to die as a direct result of an in @-@ game injury in one of the major North American professional sports .
Ron Harris was haunted for many years by his role in Masterton 's death : " It bothers you the rest of your life . It wasn 't dirty and it wasn 't meant to happen that way . Still , it 's very hard because I made the play . It 's always in the back of my mind . " But Masterton 's family held no animosity towards the players involved or the game . Carol referred to the incident as a fluke , saying that it could have happened to anyone .
= = Legacy = =
Few NHL players wore helmets in 1968 , and Masterton 's death sparked an immediate debate on whether their use should be compulsory . Legislators in New York considered a law to make their use mandatory , and the NHL voted on and rejected a rule requiring players wear helmets three times by 1971 .
Some players began to wear helmets following Masterton 's death , but adoption was slow . Three years later , only six Minnesota players wore them , the most of any of the NHL 's teams . The " macho " attitude of the game , including fear of being called a coward , was an often cited reason for reluctance . It was 11 years before the NHL finally mandated the use of helmets by all players entering the league beginning in the 1979 – 80 season .
A later analysis by the Toronto Star in 2011 suggested that the " macho " attitude of the NHL in that era , as well as his aggressive playing style , played a significant role in Masterton 's death . Coach Wren Blair believed that Masterton was playing despite a pre @-@ existing brain hemorrhage , and was concerned enough that he wanted to have Masterton checked out by a doctor . However , Masterton brushed it off . Longtime NHL coach John Muckler , who was then the coach of the Stars ' second @-@ tier farm team , the Memphis South Stars , believed that Masterton may have suffered a brain injury as early as training camp . During the season , several players and coaches recalled seeing Masterton black out during rushes in practice . Goaltender Cesare Maniago recalled that the night before the fatal hit , Masterton had been complaining of severe migraines that he 'd had for over a week . They felt it caused what was otherwise viewed as a routine , albeit hard , bodycheck to turn fatal . Toronto neurosurgeon and concussion expert Charles Tator reviewed Masterton 's autopsy and opined that Masterton had suffered second @-@ impact syndrome , which occurs when a person suffers a second concussion on top of an earlier , untreated concussion . When this happens , it can cause rapid and often fatal brain swelling .
Several awards were named in Masterton 's memory . The Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy was created in 1968 under the trusteeship of the Professional Hockey Writers ' Association and is presented annually to the " National Hockey League player who best exemplifies the qualities of perseverance , sportsmanship and dedication to hockey " . The University of Denver Pioneers hockey team named its most valuable player award after him , and his Winnipeg high school , Miles MacDonnell Collegiate , presents a scholarship in his name . High schools in Bloomington , where the North Stars played their games , also award scholarships in Masterton 's name . The Minnesota North Stars pulled his jersey number 19 out of circulation following his death and formally retired it in 1987 . That honour followed the franchise when it relocated south to become the Dallas Stars .
Masterton was inducted into the Colorado Sports Hall of Fame in 1985 , and named to the NCAA 's 50th anniversary team in 1997 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception ( Moscow ) =
The Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception of the Holy Virgin Mary is a neo @-@ Gothic church that serves as the cathedral of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Moscow . Located in the Central Administrative Okrug , it is one of only two Catholic churches in Moscow and the largest in Russia .
The construction of the cathedral was proposed by the Tsarist government in 1894 . Groundbreaking was in 1899 ; construction work began in 1901 and was completed ten years later . Three @-@ aisled and built from red brick , the cathedral is based on a design by architect Tomasz Bohdanowicz @-@ Dworzecki . The style was influenced by Westminster Abbey and Milan Cathedral . With the help of funds from Catholic parishes in Russia and its neighbouring states , the church was consecrated as a chapel for Moscow 's Polish parish in 1911 . In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution in 1917 , the Provisional Government was overthrown by the Bolsheviks and Russia became part of the newly formed Soviet Union . Because the promotion of state atheism was a part of Marxist – Leninist ideology , the government ordered many churches closed ; the cathedral was closed in 1938 . During World War II , it was threatened with demolition , and was used after the war for civil purposes , as a warehouse and then a hostel . Following the fall of communism in 1991 , it returned to being a church in 1996 . In 2002 it was elevated to the status of cathedral . Following an extensive and costly programne of reconstruction and refurbishment , the cathedral was reconsecrated in 2005 .
In the 21st century , after 58 years of non @-@ religious use , the cathedral is once again the setting for regular liturgical celebrations in multiple languages — Russian , Polish , Korean , English , French , Spanish , Armenian and Latin — as well as benefit concerts featuring organ and church music . Its organ , the third since the cathedral 's construction , was donated by the Basel Münster . The cathedral is listed as a heritage building in the Russian Federation , and is a protected monument .
= = History = =
= = = First construction period = = =
At the end of the 19th century , only two Catholic churches existed in Moscow : the Saint Louis des Français church for the French population and the St. Peter and Paul church for the Polish parishioners . As the congregation for the Polish church had increased to around 30 @,@ 000 members , the existing buildings were too small . Following the submission of a petition to the Governor @-@ General of Moscow , the local council voted for a new church in 1894 . Construction of a new church was permitted with several conditions , including two pertinent to the building site : the structure was to be built away from the old city centre , and was not to be located in the vicinity of any Orthodox sacred sites .
Bearing in mind the council 's requirements , on 16 May 1895 the parish purchased a 10 hectare ( 22 acre ) site on Malaya Gruzinskaya Street , then located on the city outskirts and surrounded by fields and vegetable gardens . Today , the site is in the Central Administrative Okrug , outside of the Garden Ring road defining the old walled city , just beyond the Moscow Metro 's Koltsevaya Line , and is surrounded by 20th century urban development . The purchase of the land was funded by donations , and cost 10 @,@ 000 rubles in gold ( roughly US $ 7 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 as of 2012 ) . The purchase agreement and a full list of donations are today kept in the city archives of Moscow and St. Petersburg .
A further condition imposed by the city read as follows : " In the light of the two existing Roman Catholic churches , the future church shall be larger , with a cross on the gable , but without spires and exterior sculpture " . The plans for the building were produced by a Russian architect of Polish descent , Tomasz Bohdanowicz @-@ Dworzecki . Although his plan did not follow the council 's latter condition , it was accepted . The plan provided seating for up to 5 @,@ 000 worshippers . Groundbreaking was in 1899 , and construction took place from 1901 to 1911 . The construction cost was 290 @,@ 000 roubles in gold ( roughly US $ 207 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 as of 2012 ) , much of which was donated by members of the Polish parish of Moscow . More funding came from Catholic parishes throughout Russia , Poland and Byelorussia .
The church was consecrated on 21 December 1911 as the " Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception of the Holy Virgin Mary " . It soon obtained the status of a chapel in the Peter and Paul parish . The consecration received extensive coverage in the Russian and Polish press . The Moscow newspaper , Russkoye Slovo , wrote :
In the filthy , wretched Malaya Gruzinskaya ( Little Georgian ) Street , forsaken by God and the city , there rose the wonderful , highly artistic solidity of the new Roman Catholic church , dedicated to the Immaculate Conception of Holy Virgin Mary . Tremendous in magnitude and height , ... with a plenty of conning turrets and towers with crosses . The new cathedral makes a deep impression ... [ Every detail ] looks impressive and eminent : Not the slightest stylistic flaw could be seen or detected .
From 1911 to 1917 , money was collected for interior furnishings , which were relatively sparse apart from the impressive main altar . ( These original furnishings remained until the 1930s . ) Parts of the draft plan were abandoned : the floor was not constructed from marble as intended , but poured from plain concrete ; outside there were no pinnacles on the façade . Writings vary on when the pinnacles were built : some claim they were built in 1923 , but others argue that they were not completed until the renovation of the cathedral in 1999 . Observers that argue for an earlier construction date state that they were damaged during World War II and left dismantled for some time .
= = = Closure and conversions = = =
In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution in 1917 , the Provisional Government was overthrown by the Bolsheviks , and Russia became part of the new Soviet Union . As the promotion of state atheism was a part of Marxist – Leninist ideology , the Soviet government ordered many churches closed . The Peter and Paul parish was formally dissolved by the communist government in 1929 , and celebrating Mass was forbidden . The church lost much of its surrounding gardens in 1935 — a school was built there the following year — and the church was finally closed on 30 July 1938 ( the St. Peter and Paul church had met the same fate nine days earlier ) . The church was plundered after its closure , and many items , including the main altar and the organ , were irretrievably lost . The church was used for several months as a vegetable store , and was then reconstructed as a hostel and its interior divided into four floors .
The main tower 's spire was removed during the Battle of Moscow to prevent the Luftwaffe from using it as a landmark . Shortly after the war ended in 1945 , sections of the gardens were annexed for the building of an apartment block . A fire in 1956 caused the collapse of the lantern over the principal tower 's dome . Existing tenants were slowly rehoused , and members of the Mosspetspromproyekt ( Russian : Мосспецпромпроект ) research institute took possession of the former church . The research institute dealt primarily with project drawings for industrial facilities , but also designed the Olympic cauldron used at Lenin Stadium for the 1980 Summer Games .
During the 1960s and 1970s , the building 's exterior became increasingly dilapidated ; among those concerned about the church 's deterioration was Russian bard Vladimir Vysotsky , who lived in a house across the street . In the late 1970s the city considered renovating the building , possibly to use as a concert hall for organ recitals , or as a general cultural administration centre . These projects were never carried out due to resistance from the research institute .
= = = Return to religious use = = =
The glasnost ( openness ) policy , introduced during the rule of Mikhail Gorbachev , played a major role in developing religious freedom in the Soviet Union . Consequently , in 1989 , a group of Moscow Catholics and the cultural association " The Polish House " ( Russian : Дом Польский ) , suggested that the building should again be used for religious purposes . Following the city 's assent , the first Mass at the site in 60 years was celebrated on the church stairs during the feast of the Immaculate Conception on 8 December 1990 . The Mass was celebrated by the Polish priest Tadeusz Pikus , who later became an auxiliary bishop for the Archdiocese of Warsaw .
In January 1990 , a group of Catholics in Moscow formally founded the parish of the Immaculate Conception of the Holy Virgin Mary . On 13 April 1991 Pope John Paul II promulgated the encyclical Providi quae , establishing the " Apostolic administration for European Russia " . Its apostolic administrator , Tadeusz Kondrusiewicz , issued a decree for the reconstruction of the church on 21 April 1991 . With the city 's permission , on the Polish National Day ( 3 May ) a second Mass was held , again on the stairs . The constitution of the parish was officially acknowledged on 31 May by the department of justice of the city council . Meanwhile , parts of the church were subleased by Mosspetspromproyekt to various companies .
From 7 June 1991 , Masses were celebrated each Sunday in the churchyard — the institute still occupied the building . On 15 July 1991 , Father Josef Sanewski , a member of the Salesians of Don Bosco , was appointed the new parish priest . Religious education had been given regularly under the direction of the Salesian Sisters since 29 November 1991 . At the same time , the first charities were founded for nursing and aid to the poor . The vice @-@ mayor of Moscow , Yury Luzhkov , signed a decree in favour of the Church on 1 February 1992 ordering the institute to vacate the property by 1994 . Parish members entered the building on 2 July 1992 , and occupied the institute 's workshop . Moscow City Council agreed to allow the church to occupy the space , which was subsequently walled off from the remainder of the building . There , in the former workshop , Mass was celebrated regularly .
The dividing wall was removed by parish members on 7 March 1995 , while others started clearing the truss . The institute called the police , OMON , for help . The following day , more conflict with the police occurred and several parish members , among them a nun , were injured . Others were arrested , including a priest and a seminarian , but were released the next day . After these events , the Apostolic Administrator , Tadeusz Kondrusiewicz , wrote an open letter to the Russian President , Boris Yeltsin , on 9 March 1995 , requesting his intervention : " It seems that persecution of the church was history . Is that the case ? I can 't remember seeing a priest arrested , and I can 't remember seeing a nun beaten up . "
As a result , Senior Moscow Mayor Yuri Luzhkov , a Yeltsin appointee , signed a decision for the removal of the institute . The decision , dated 7 March 1995 , ordered the institute 's departure by 1996 . Simultaneously , the institute wrote to Luzhkov describing the earlier events from their perspective , and requested compensation for loss of the building . In a meeting with the Polish Ambassador , Stanisław Ciosek , on 15 March 1995 , the acting mayor of Moscow , Alexander Musykantski , assured him that the return of the church would be complete by the end of the year .
On 19 March 1995 , a Mass was celebrated in the reclaimed part of the church under the direction of Papal Nuncio John Bukowski , who delivered Pope John Paul II 's blessing to the parish . In a new decision dated 2 November 1995 , Luzhkov ordered Mosspetspromproyekt to leave the building by the end of the year at the latest . When the order was still not implemented , parish members entered the institute on 2 January 1996 and began the removal . Institute director Evgeny Afanasyev called the police once again , but on this occasion , they declined to intervene . Subsequently , the institute director asked the parish priest for a final extension of the removal date by two weeks — Mosspetspromproyekt vacated the building on 13 January 1996 . On 2 February 1996 , the Archdiocese of Mother of God at Moscow obtained official permission to use the church indefinitely .
= = = Restoration and reconsecration = = =
In the early 1990s , plans were made by the Office for Monument Protection to restore the church by 1997 , the 850th anniversary of Moscow 's foundation . This proposal was not implemented because of the dispute over occupancy . However , in 1995 , the city determined that the parish would be responsible for restoration costs . A commission was founded for the planned restoration , chaired by parish priest Josef Sanevski , Russian historian Stanislav Durnin , and Polish building contractor and politician Grzegorz Tuderek .
From 1996 to 1999 , the church was restored with the help of sponsors EnergoPol , a Polish company , and Renovabis , a German association for Roman Catholic churches . The Russian government provided funds towards the conclusion of the project . Reconstruction took place initially under the direction of Polish companies PKZ and Budimex , who completely restored the façade and roof . From September 1998 , Father Andrzey Stetskevich and Jan Tajchman , architect and restorer from Toruń , Poland , jointly oversaw the work ; they had previously headed the restoration of the Catholic Assumption Cathedral in St. Petersburg . ( Stetskevich later rose to become vicar general of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Moscow . ) The interior fittings and the new altar were built by Ukrainian , Belarusian and Russian experts . Companies in Moscow carried out all the internal and external marble work . The church furnishings were produced , under the direction of Vladimir Mukhin , by students from the St. Petersburg renovating school . Stained glass for the façade 's rose window were made in Toruń , other windows were produced by Tolotschko , a Belarusian company from Hrodna . The Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception was ceremonially reopened on 12 December 1999 and was reconsecrated by the Secretary of State of the Roman Curia , Angelo Cardinal Sodano . The cathedral incorporates a library , the editorial office of the Russian Catholic magazine The Catholic Messenger — The Light of the Gospel ( Russian : Католический вестник — Свет Евангелия ) as well as the local office for the Caritas charity .
= = Architecture and facilities = =
The cathedral , built in a neo @-@ Gothic style , is a three @-@ aisled cross @-@ shaped pseudo @-@ basilica , which has three naves and an apse . It was constructed entirely from red brick , and was not rendered externally . The five @-@ bay main aisle extends for 65 metres ( 213 ft ) , each with lateral arms 13 metres ( 43 ft ) long . The octagonal lantern tower above the crossing is 30 metres ( 98 ft ) high . The façade is based on the design of Westminster Abbey , and the tower loosely on that of Milan Cathedral . Typically for old @-@ style church buildings , each side aisle is strengthened by five buttresses , the ten together symbolising the Ten Commandments . Crosses were erected , as part of the renovation , surmounting each principal tower ; the central façade pinnacle and two other façade pinnacles feature the crests of John Paul II and archbishop Tadeusz Kondrusiewicz .
The first ten steps to the portal symbolise the Commandments , the eleventh symbolises Jesus Christ . The portal symbolises Heaven 's gate , reached by obeying the Commandments and the teachings of Jesus . The portal is surrounded by columns and crowned by a wimperg , the gable spire of which is formed as a finial . The wimperg is decorated with a relief ornament , in the centre of which is a golden monogram " VMIC " ( Virgo Maria Immaculata Concepta , Latin for " Virgin Mary , conceived unblemished " ) . The original architectural design provided a Star of David instead of the monogram , a reference to the Jewish faith of the Virgin Mary . Above the wimperg is a 3 @-@ metre ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) tall rose window , built from a light @-@ coloured , translucent stone .
= = = Interior = = =
On each side on the entry of the cathedral is a stone crucifix and a holy water font . High on the left side there is a brick from the Lateran Basilica , and on the right side a jubilee 2000 medal . The crypt is accessed through the door in the right wall of the vestibule , then up to the organ matroneum and finally down through the door on the left wall . In the crypt , there is an oratory , as well as Catechism rooms and the office of the Caritas charity .
There are benches in the main aisle and confessionals in the side aisles . The confessionals contained benches until the closure of the church in 1938 . After its reconstruction , the left side was reserved for women , and the right for men . Both side aisles are separated from the main aisle by pillar files , consisting of four columns and two half columns . The columns and the roof are painted in white , and the walls in cream . The floor is constructed from light and dark grey marble slabs in a chequered pattern .
Most of the 8 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 28 ft ) high stained glass windows have abstract designs . Those in front feature crests of Apostolic Nuncios John Cardinal Burkowski and Francesco Cardinal Colasuonno . The windows in the transept are slightly larger and have a more complex design . The window in the right lateral arm depicts Saint Peter and Saint Andrew , who symbolise the Western and Eastern branches of the Catholic Church . On the window on the opposite side of the left lateral arm is depicted Pope John Paul II , who is gazing at the Marian apparition of Fátima . In the nave , under the windows , are fourteen reliefs depicting the Stations of the Cross .
The entry to the vestry is located at the end of the right side aisle next to the choir ; at the end of the left side aisle is the Chapel for Mercy of God . The tabernacle is situated on the chapel 's altar . The church 's main altar is faced with a dark green marble , and houses relics of Saints Andrew , Zenon of Verona , Gregory of Nyssa , Gregory of Nazianzus , Cosmas , Damian and Anastasia , as well as the Virgin Mary 's scarf and a donation from the Diocese of Verona . The ambo — a projection coming out from the soleas — is on the right side of the altar , and is faced with the same marble . Behind the altar , on the wall of the apse , there is a nine @-@ metre high stone crucifix with a three @-@ metre high figure of Christ . Plaster figures depicting the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist by architect Svyatoslav Sakhlebin are located on the left and the right sides ( respectively ) of the corbels . On the opposite side of the altar and above the cathedral 's vestibule is the organ loft , which had originally room for 50 choristers ; a large part of it is now occupied by the organ .
= = = Organ and bells = = =
The present pipe organ is one of the largest in Russia and the third since the church 's foundation . The first organ was taken by the state in 1938 and the second , an electronic organ with 60 stops , was installed as part of the renovations in 1999 . It was donated by the American charity " Aid to the Church in Russia " , headed by priest Marcel Guarnizo , who received consecration as a deacon during the renovation in 1997 . The electronic organ was replaced by a pipe organ during 2002 – 2005 .
The cathedral 's pipe organ was built in 1955 by Orgelbau Kuhn AG of Männedorf , Switzerland , for the Reformed Evangelical Basel Münster Cathedral in Basel , Switzerland . The Swiss cathedral donated the organ , dismantled it in 2002 , and all pipes but without the largest — Nr. 65 principal bass 32 ' , 10 m ( 32 ft ) long — were transferred to Moscow . The pipes were transported wrapped in new garments donated by the people of Basel , which were later distributed to Moscow 's poor . The installation of the pipe organ in Moscow was performed by the Orgelbau Schmid company from Kaufbeuren , Germany , headed by Gerhard Schmid , who refused payment for his work . During the work , Schmid was killed in a fall from a scaffold on 9 September 2004 ; his son Gunnar finished the work .
The original 10 @-@ metre , 32 ' pipe stayed in Switzerland and was built into a new organ in the Münster Cathedral , which belongs to the Swiss Inventory of Cultural Property of National and Regional Significance . This pipe , capable of reproducing a tone of 16 @.@ 35 Hz , the bass note C0 four octaves below middle C , was recreated in Moscow and added to the cathedral 's organ in 2009 .
The five church bells are located on the cathedral 's roof behind a tripartite screen of lancet arches on the left side of the façade . They were poured by the Felczyński bell foundry in Przemyśl , Poland and donated by bishop Wiktor Skworc The bells are electronically activated . The largest weighs 900 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 000 lb ) and bears the name " Our Lady of Fátima " . The other bells are named , from the smallest to the largest : " John Paul II " ; " St. Jude " , named after the patron saint of archbishop Tadeusz Kondrusiewicz ; " Anniversary @-@ 2000 " ; and " St. Victor " , named after the patron saint of Bishop Wiktor Skworc .
= = 21st century = =
On 11 February 2002 , Pope John Paul II created the administration for the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Moscow and named Apostolic Administrator Tadeusz Kondrusiewicz as archbishop and metropolitan . However , this decision was criticised by Patriarch Alexy II , who called it " unfriendly " , as he believed the Roman Catholic Church saw Russia as a field for missionary activity . At the same time , the Church of the Immaculate Conception acquired the status of cathedral of the archdiocese . In March 2002 , members of the cathedral and Catholics from other European cities participated in a rosary led by the Pope via video conference . Since the reopening , many services take place daily in the cathedral . The main liturgical language for Masses is Russian , but services are also held in Polish , English , French , Spanish , Korean , Latin and Armenian ( based on an Armenian Rite ) .
The re @-@ installed organ — with 74 stops , 4 manuals and 5 @,@ 563 pipes — was consecrated by Archbishop Tadeusz Kondrusiewicz of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Moscow on 16 January 2005 . The mass was followed by the opening concert for the First International Festival for Organ Music . The month @-@ long festival saw several organ concerts in the cathedral . The closing concert was performed by chief organist James Edward Goettsche from St. Peter 's Basilica . Organ and church music concerts take place regularly in the cathedral ; entry is normally free , except for selected concerts , for which admission is by ticket . A service in remembrance of those killed in the 2010 Polish Air Force Tu @-@ 154 crash was held on 12 April 2010 .
= Haane Manahi =
Haane Te Rauawa Manahi DCM ( 28 September 1913 – 29 March 1986 ) was a New Zealand soldier of Te Arawa and Ngāti Raukawa descent who served in the Second World War as a member of the Māori Battalion .
Born in Ohinemutu , New Zealand in 1913 , Manahi worked as a laborer before he volunteered for service in the newly raised Māori Battalion of the New Zealand Military Forces following the outbreak of the Second World War . He participated in the Battle of Greece and fought in the Battle of Crete during which he was wounded . After recovering from his wounds he returned to the Māori Battalion , and fought through the Western Desert and Tunisian Campaigns during which he was nominated for a Victoria Cross ( VC ) for his actions at Takrouna . Despite the support of four generals , his VC nomination was downgraded to an award of a Distinguished Conduct Medal .
In June 1943 , he returned to New Zealand on a three @-@ month furlough but when this was completed , was not required to return to active duty . After his discharge from the New Zealand Military Forces , he was employed as a traffic inspector . He was killed in a car crash in 1986 . After his death , representations by his Te Arawa iwi ( tribe ) were made to Buckingham Palace for a posthumous award of the VC . These representations were ultimately unsuccessful due to the period of time that had elapsed since the war . In 2007 , he eventually received a special citation for bravery from the Queen .
= = Early life = =
Haane Te Rauawa Manahi , the youngest son of a farm labourer , was born on 28 September 1913 in Ohinemutu , a village on the shores of Lake Rotorua in the North Island of New Zealand . Of Te Arawa and Ngāti Raukawa descent ( and a little Scottish from his mother ) , he attended local schools in the area up to secondary school level . After leaving school , he worked in road construction and undertook farm work . He also spent time in the timber and building industries alongside his uncle , Matiu , who had served in the first contingent of New Zealand Māori to be raised for military duty during the First World War .
= = Second World War = =
Following the outbreak of the Second World War , Manahi was one of the first men to enlist in November 1939 in the newly formed Māori Battalion . The battalion was composed of a headquarters company and four rifle companies , which were organised along tribal lines . Manahi was assigned to B Company , made up largely of other men from Te Arawa . In May 1940 , after a period of training at Trentham Military Camp , the battalion embarked for the Middle East as part of the second echelon of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) . En route , the convoy carrying the second echelon was diverted to England , where it would remain until January 1941 engaged in further training and defensive duties .
= = = Greece and Crete = = =
On 27 March 1941 , Manahi 's battalion , having spent two months in Egypt , arrived in Greece to assist in its defence against an anticipated German invasion . It initially took up defensive positions around Olympus Pass , and in the days following the beginning of the invasion on 6 April , rebuffed initial contact by the advancing Germans . The battalion had to withdraw as the flanks of the Allied positions were threatened . B Company was the last of the battalion 's units to abandon its positions , and together with the rest of the Allies , withdrew over the following days to Porto Rafti , where it boarded a transport ship for Crete .
On Crete , the Allies dug in for the expected airborne attack by German paratroopers . The Māori Battalion was positioned near the town of Platanias , as a reserve for 5th Infantry Brigade which was tasked with the defence of Maleme Airfield . On 20 May , the attack commenced . Manahi was returning to his trench , having just had breakfast , as planes and gliders flew overhead , discharging paratroopers . During fighting for the airfield , Manahi was wounded in the chest . Despite his wounds , he would remain with his company as it was forced to withdraw to the southwest in the following days and was eventually evacuated from Crete on 31 May .
= = = North Africa = = =
After a period of recuperation , Manahi returned to the normal routine of training for desert warfare and constructing defensive positions around the Baggush Box . In November he , along with rest of the 2nd Division , participated in Operation Crusader . This involved near constant fighting across Libya for well over a month , during which Manahi , with two others , captured and commandeered a German tank which had been stuck in B Company 's trenches . In early 1942 , the New Zealanders | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
to which female students were restricted " for fear their presence would distract the studious Harvard men " in the Main Reading Room . In 1923 a sequence of communications between Librarian William Coolidge Lane and another Harvard official dealt with " the incident of Miss Alexander 's intrusion into the reading room " , : 37 @,@ 86 and Keyes Metcalf , Director of University Libraries from 1937 to 1955 , wrote that early in his tenure a Classics professor " rushed into my office , looking as if he were about to have an apoplectic stroke , and gasped , ' I 've just been in the reading room , and there is a Radcliffe girl in there ! ' " By then female graduate students were permitted to enter the stacks , but only until 5 p.m. , " after which time it was thought they would not be safe there . "
" Even the ever @-@ present problem of inadequate lavatories worked to deny functional access to women " , wrote Battles . " Patrons requesting directions to a women 's restroom were routinely misled , denied access , or simply told that such things did not exist at a college for men such as Harvard . " : 115
By World War II ( Elizabeth Colson recalled years later ) " we could go into the [ Main Reading Room ] and use the encyclopedias and things like that there , if we stood up , but we couldn 't sit down " ; : 56 @-@ 7 but only by special permission ( which even female faculty members had to request in writing ) could a woman work in the building in the evening . : 112 @-@ 4
= = Renovation = =
A five @-@ year , $ 97 million renovation completed in 2004 ( the first since the building opened ) added fire suppression and environ men tal control systems , upgraded wiring and communica tions , remodeled various public spaces , and enclosed the light courts to create additional reading rooms ( beneath which several levels of new offices and mechanical equipment were hidden ) . " Claustro pho bia @-@ inducing " elevators were replaced , the bottom shelves on the lowest stacks level were removed in recognition of chronic seepage problems , Widener 's " olfactory nostal gia ... actually the smell of decaying books " was addressed , and unrestricted light and air — seen as desirable when Widener was built but now considered " public enemies one and two for the long @-@ term safety of old books " — were brought under control .
Some changes required that the Widener family grant relief from the terms of Eleanor Widener 's gift , which forbade that " structures of any kind [ be ] erected in the courts around which the [ Library ] is constructed , but that the same shall be kept open for light and air " . : 79 : 42 The need to relocate each of the building 's 3 @.@ 5 million volumes twice — first to temporary locations , then back , as work proceeded aisle by aisle — was turned to advantage , so that by the end of the renova tion related materials in the library 's two classifica tion systems ( see § Parallel classifica tion systems ) were physically adjacent for the first time ; the chart showing the floor and wing location , within the stacks , of each subject classifica tion was revised sixty @-@ five times during construction . The project received the 2005 Library Building Award from the American Library Associa tion and the American Institute of Architects .
= Eusèbe Jaojoby =
Eusèbe Jaojoby ( born 29 July 1955 ) , commonly known by his surname Jaojoby [ ˈdzodzubʲ ] , is a Malagasy composer and singer of salegy , a musical style of northwestern Madagascar . Critics consider him to be one of the originators of the modern salegy style that emerged in the 1970s , and credit him with transforming the genre from an obscure regional musical tradition into one of national and international popularity . Jaojoby also contributed to the creation of two salegy subgenres , malessa and baoenjy . Jaojoby has been called the most popular singer in Madagascar and the Indian Ocean islands , and is widely referred to as the " King of Salegy " . His success has earned him such honors as Artist of the Year in Madagascar for two consecutive years ( 1998 – 1999 ) and the role of Goodwill Ambassador for the United Nations Population Fund in 1999 .
In 1970 Jaojoby began singing in the northern coastal town of Diego @-@ Suarez . He performed with bands that were experimentally blending American soul and funk with the Malagasy musical traditions of the region . The artist gained popularity and toured regionally , producing four singles with The Players before the band broke up in 1979 . After a short break in the 1980s to pursue a career in journalism , Jaojoby resumed his musical career and rose to national prominence with his 1988 hit " Samy Mandeha Samy Mitady " . He then reoriented his career toward music , recording his first full @-@ length album in 1992 and becoming a full @-@ time professional musician the following year . He has since released eight full @-@ length albums and has toured extensively in Madagascar and abroad accompanied by his wife and adult children , who perform in the band with him .
= = Early years = =
Eusèbe Jaojoby was born on 29 July 1955 , in the village of Anboahangibe , near Sambava in the northeastern coastal Sava Region of Madagascar . Jaojoby and his twelve younger brothers and sisters were raised Catholic ; early experiences singing hymns in the local church choir and traditional folk songs at local Betsimisaraka moonlight village festivals made him realize he possessed vocal talent . At the age of 15 , Jaojoby 's father sent him to continue his studies in Diego @-@ Suarez , one of the six regional capitals at the time . The town was home to a large contingent of French soldiers and expatriates , and contemporary Western genres were commonly heard on the radio and in the town 's many nightclubs . Jaojoby was inspired by these styles and particularly by Freddy Ranarison , who in the 1960s became the first Malagasy musician to use an electric guitar to perform coastal musical styles .
One month after moving to Diego @-@ Suarez , Jaojoby entered a local talent competition and managed to win despite singing unaccompanied and without a microphone . He began to perform in nightclubs whenever the opportunity presented itself . The uncle with whom he was lodging sent word of Jaojoby 's activities to the young singer 's parents , who consulted a priest before giving their son permission to continue exploring his musical talents on the condition that he continue to perform well at school . Jaojoby agreed to this provision , studying during the day and performing at night for several years . In 1972 he began singing with Los Matadores , the well @-@ established house band of the Saigonais nightclub in Diego @-@ Suarez . This group catered to the club 's primarily Western clientele by performing cover songs and rhythm and blues compositions in French and English , occasionally incorporating traditional instruments like kabosy and drums , or experimenting with local musical styles using electric guitar , bass , and drum kit , accompanied by traditional Malagasy language vocal performance .
Experimental blending of Western and Malagasy musical elements was occurring simultaneously among a number of northwestern bands and musicians of Jaojoby 's generation . Although no single individual can be credited with creating the modern salegy genre , Jaojoby ranks among the earliest originators of the nascent musical style . A desire for greater freedom to write songs and further develop the syncretic modern salegy style led Jaojoby to leave Los Matadores in 1975 for The Players , another regional band that was less well @-@ established but more willing to take risks . The band was managed by a Chinese shopkeeper who provided them with a sound system and generator . The band toured northwestern Madagascar for the next four years with increasing success , recording two 45rpm singles and performing in Mahajanga , Diego @-@ Suarez , and other towns and villages throughout the region before disbanding in 1979 .
After briefly performing with a band named Kintana , Jaojoby moved to Antananarivo where he studied sociology for two years at the University of Antananarivo before accepting an offer to work for the national radio station as a journalist at the end of 1980 . The following year , Jaojoby met the manager of the local Hilton hotel by chance while the two were waiting together at a bus stop . Accepting the manager 's invitation to audition at the hotel 's Papillon bar that same night , Jaojoby performed a cover of James Brown 's " Sex Machine " . The manager interrupted him mid @-@ song to offer Jaojoby a contract to give regular evening performances there with the Rabeson family , a popular jazz act . For the next three years Jaojoby spent his days at the national radio and his evenings singing at the Papillon with the exception of a short interlude in 1982 when he was sent to East Berlin to complete an advanced course at the International Institute of Journalism . Jaojoby was promoted to Director of the Regional Information Service in Diego @-@ Suarez in 1984 , necessitating his relocation back to the northwest coast and bringing his cabaret performances to an end .
= = King of Salegy = =
After several years having focused entirely on his career with the Regional Information Service , Jaojoby was approached in 1987 by Frenchman Pierre Henri Donat to contribute several recordings to Madagascar 's first salegy compilation album , Les Grands Maîtres du Salegy ( " Grand Masters of Salegy " ) . The runaway success of one of the tracks he composed and performed , " Samy Mandeha Samy Mitady " , elevated salegy from a regional genre to one of nationwide popularity , leading a newspaper to declare him the " King of Salegy " . High demand for live performances led the singer to return to Antananarivo in 1988 to form a band named " Jaojoby " that included former bandmates from Los Matadores and The Players . Jaojoby begin touring regularly at home and abroad , performing his first international concerts in Paris in 1989 . In the meantime , he worked as a press attaché for the Ministry of Transport , Meteorology and Tourism from 1990 until 1993 , at which point he left his job to become a full @-@ time musician .
The 1992 release of Jaojoby 's first full @-@ length album , titled Salegy ! , was facilitated by fRoots magazine editor Ian Anderson , who had worked with Jaojoby to record several of his tracks for a radio broadcast two years previously . Jaojoby 's second album , Velono , was the first salegy album to be recorded in France , as well as the first of his albums to be produced in a professional @-@ quality recording studio . Following the 1994 release of Velono , Jaojoby became a regular on the international music festival circuit and has performed at such events as WOMAD in Reading , the Festival du Bout du Monde in Brittany , WOMEX in Spain , the Festival des Musiques Métisses in Angoulême , the MASA Festival in Abidjan , and similar events in Germany , the Netherlands , and Portugal . Jaojoby 's excitement over his rise to international celebrity was attenuated by the 1995 death of the band 's original drummer , Jean @-@ Claude Djaonarana , who had first performed with Jaojoby as a member of Los Matadores .
Jaojoby 's success and popularity attained new heights in 1998 with the release of E ! Tiako . He was named " Artist of the Year " in Madagascar for two consecutive years ( 1998 – 1999 ) , and the single " Malemilemy " received regular airplay across the island more than a year after the album was released . In July 1999 , Jaojoby was named Goodwill Ambassador to the United Nations Population Fund and supported the United Nations ' activities in Madagascar related to raising awareness of sexually transmitted diseases , unintended pregnancy , and other concerns relevant to the Malagasy youth population . The lyrics of his songs commonly address social issues , typified by a track on E ! Tiako that encourages the use of condoms to avoid contracting HIV / AIDS .
Aza Arianao was recorded over five days in the summer of 2000 and released the following year . In the wake of its success , Jaojoby performed at a political rally to an audience of 50 @,@ 000 partisans of candidate Marc Ravalomanana less than a month before the divisive 2001 presidential elections that nearly resulted in the secession of the island 's coastal provinces . Jaojoby 's 2004 follow @-@ up album Malagasy , which was recorded in semi @-@ live conditions on the island of Réunion in a small venue before an audience of the artist 's friends , featured lyrics that sought to promote optimism and national reconciliation ; the artist announced that he would not involve himself in national politics in the future . The same year he toured extensively in France , the United States and Canada .
The March 2008 release of Donnant @-@ Donnant celebrated Jaojoby 's roots as a cabaret performer of soul , funk , and other Western popular genres . The track listing included previously unreleased pop songs written by the artist in the 1970s and 1980s in French , Malagasy , Creole , and English . Later that year , in September , he became the second Malagasy musical act ( after supergroup Mahaleo , in 2007 ) to perform at the prestigious and historic Olympia music hall in Paris . Seating was specially removed at his request to provide space for dancing . The live album Live au Bato Fou : Jaojoby was released in 2010 and features a diverse sampling of Jaojoby 's greatest hits . A selection of new salegy tracks written and performed by Jaojoby was released in 2012 under the album title Mila Anao , which was ranked by NPR as one of the ten best international albums of the year .
= = Style and legacy = =
The roots of Jaojoby 's musical style began with his childhood exposure to the Western @-@ Malagasy syncretism of local church hymns , and the rhythm , harmonies , and form of the traditional antsa style of northern Madagascar . The antsa is a choral style common across northern Madagascar characterized by large group performance of minor polyharmonies over a highly syncopated multi @-@ rhythmic hand @-@ clap or other percussive accompaniment . Upon relocating to Diego @-@ Suarez , Jaojoby was exposed to Western artists and musical genres , as well as the music of Freddy Ranarison , the first local artist to popularize the adaptation of traditional Malagasy styles to the electric guitar . Singing with Los Matadores provided Jaojoby with the opportunity to cover the hits of his idols , including Otis Redding , Percy Sledge , and James Brown . During his years performing with this band and his subsequent group , Les Players , Jaojoby adeptly covered hits from a vast range of regional and international genres ranging from the jerk , tango and , cha @-@ cha @-@ cha to the sega and slow romantic ballads . Together , these musical influences formed the basis of Jaojoby 's style .
In the 1960s bands such as Orchestra Liberty began performing the antsa rhythm on modern drum kits with accompanying guitar or accordion replacing the traditional vocals . It was not until the 1970s that bands like Los Matadores and Les Players adapted the traditional vocal style to the newly electrified antsa . Guitar solos were inspired by the performance style of traditional Malagasy instruments like the valiha and marovany , combined with that of guitar solo work popularized in the Congo and Côte d 'Ivoire . As a singer with Los Matadores , Jaojoby occasionally filled the instrumental breaks of rhythm and blues covers with improvised vocals inspired by the salegy tradition , to the jubilation of the young Malagasy listeners gathered outside the club 's doors . Later , with The Players , Jaojoby and a handful of peers in northern urban areas experimented with incorporating vocals into the early instrumental salegy . Jaojoby described the adaptation of the traditional antsa style to modern instruments in the following terms : " The singing is that of the cattle herders moving their herds . The guitar imitates the great masters of the valiha . The keyboards provide the feeling of the traditional accordions , and the bass draws from the sound of the five traditional tuned drums . As far as the drum kit , well , it reproduces the ambiance of a Malagasy crowd on a day of celebration with all the hand clapping , shakers , and feet stomping the earth . " The salegy rhythm was adapted to the modern drum kit by Jean Claude Djaonarana , drummer of Los Matadores , who later rejoined Jaojoby 's band from 1988 until his death in 1995 .
French world music magazine Mondomix has called Jaojoby the most popular singer in Madagascar and the Indian Ocean islands . He is widely referred to as the " King of Salegy " by his fans and the press . He composes all of his own music and writes the lyrics to his songs himself . According to Zomaré magazine , the quality of Jaojoby 's " supple tenor " voice , the creativity of his compositions and the singer 's willingness to experiment have helped to distinguish him from his peers . Radio France Internationale described his vocal performance as " clear , powerful and energetic ... his trademark , which makes him stand out in the Madagascan musical panorama " . Critics have credited Jaojoby with popularizing the salegy genre both within Madagascar and on the international music scene , and have identified him as an originator of two derivative versions of salegy , malessa and baoenjy .
= = Family and personal life = =
Since the mid @-@ 1990s , Jaojoby 's wife and children have formed part of the standard lineup of his band . His wife , Claudine Robert Zafinera , provides backing and occasional lead vocals . The couple 's son , Elie Lucas , plays lead guitar while their daughters , Eusebia and Roseliane , provide backing vocals and stage dancing . His children also formed a band called Jaojoby Jr. that performs covers of their father 's music as well as some of their own original salegy compositions . Saramba , a group created by Claudine in 2005 , performs the traditional form of salegy using only accordion , percussion , and vocals .
While traveling to Antananarivo after a performance at the 2006 Donia Festival in Nosy Be , Jaojoby and his family were involved in a road accident . The singer suffered four broken ribs , lung damage and a fractured pelvis that necessitated emergency surgery in Réunion , three weeks of hospitalization , and prolonged physical therapy to enable Jaojoby to regain the ability to walk . Fans of the singer used mail and the Internet to successfully raise the funds required to cover medical expenses related to the accident . After several weeks of bed rest following the surgery , Joajoby went on to make a full recovery .
On 3 June 2011 , Jaojoby opened a new cabaret venue called " Jao 's Pub " in the Ambohipo neighborhood of Antananarivo , where the singer and his family reside .
= = Discography = =
= The Ghost Ship =
The Ghost Ship ( 1943 ) is an American black @-@ and @-@ white psychological thriller film , with elements of mystery and horror , directed by Mark Robson , starring Richard Dix and featuring Russell Wade , Edith Barrett , Ben Bard and Edmund Glover , along with Skelton Knaggs . It was produced by Val Lewton for RKO Radio Pictures as part of a series of low @-@ budget horror films . The film can be seen as a " low @-@ key psychological thriller " , a " suspense drama " , and a " waterlogged melodrama " .
The film is about a young merchant marine officer who begins to suspect that his ship 's captain is mentally unbalanced and endangering the lives of the ship 's crew . The ship 's crew , however , believes the vessel to be haunted and cursed and several mysterious deaths occur .
Upon its theatrical release on Christmas Eve , 1943 , the film was a box office success but received a mixed critical reception . However , in February 1944 , Lewton was sued for plagiarism by playwrights Samuel R. Golding and Norbert Faulkner , who claimed that the script was based on a play that was submitted to Lewton for a possible film . Because of the suit , The Ghost Ship was withdrawn from theatrical release and not shown for nearly 50 years . It was not until the film 's copyright was not renewed and it entered the public domain in the 1990s , that it began to be available again , and was released as part of the Val Lewton Horror Collection DVD set in 2005 . The film , with its predominantly male cast , has been argued by several film critics to have homosexual undertones .
It is in sharp contrast to the majority of patriotic wartime films , especially among the plethora of those that take place primarily on a ship , which usually feature themes such a brotherhood , respect for higher @-@ ranking officers , and able , hard working seamen .
= = Plot = =
Tom Merriam ( Russell Wade ) , a young merchant marine officer , joins the crew of the ship Altair . At first , all seems well and Merriam bonds with the captain , Will Stone ( Richard Dix ) . The ship , already shorthanded due to the death of a crew member before it left port , loses another ( " the Greek " ) when he develops appendicitis . ( Taking direction over the ship 's radio , the captain is to perform the appendectomy , but he is unable to make the incision . Instead , Merriam successfully removes the sailor 's appendix , but – feeling he should be loyal to the captain and spare him embarrassment – swears the radio operator to secrecy . Afterward , the captain has a self @-@ serving explanation for his failure . )
One of the crew , Louie ( an uncredited Lawrence Tierney ) , tells the captain he should pull in to port and take on new crew . The captain says " You know , there are captains who might hold this against you , Louie . " Shortly after , the captain closes the hatch to the chain locker with Louie inside , and Louie is crushed to death by the chain . Merriam believes that Captain Stone , who is obsessed with authority , did it intentionally . When they dock at the fictional Caribbean island of " San Sebastian " ( which had appeared in RKO 's I Walked with a Zombie — another Lewton production — and later in RKO 's Zombies on Broadway ) , Merriam attempts to expose the Captain 's madness at a board of inquiry . The crew all speak favorably of the captain , including the Greek , who credits the captain with saving his life . Merriam states his intention to leave the Altair .
After the inquiry , the captain admits to a female friend ( Edith Barrett , who had appeared in I Walked with a Zombie ) that he fears he is losing his mind . Soon after , Merriam is involved in a fight in port and knocked unconscious . One of his former shipmates – unaware that he has left the Altair – brings the unconscious man back aboard ship before the vessel departs . Merriam wakes up on the ship and fears that the pathologically insane Captain Stone may now attempt to kill him , a fear that is only reinforced when the captain , referring to the young officer 's accusations , says " You know , Mr. Merriam , there are some captains who would hold this against you . "
Merriam , scorned by the crew , finds that he can no longer lock the door to his cabin . Fearing for his life , he tries to steal a gun from the ship 's weapons locker , but is confronted by Captain Stone . Stone dares Merriam to try to get the support of the crew , but Merriam is rebuffed in this effort . This changes when Radioman Winslow ( Edmund Glover ) receives a radiogram asking if Merriam is on board , and Captain Stone orders Winslow to lie , replying that Merriam is not aboard . The radioman shows Merriam the captain 's reply radiogram and says that he now mistrusts the captain and will send a message to the company expressing his concerns about Stone 's mental health . However , as he leaves Merriam 's cabin , Winslow encounters the captain . As the two walk side @-@ by @-@ side , Winslow drops the captain 's radiogram to the deck , and it is picked up by an illiterate crewman , Finn the Mute ( Skelton Knaggs ) , whose internal monologues serve as a sort of one @-@ man Greek chorus throughout the film .
Captain Stone now orders Merriam to send a radio message to the corporate office advising them that Winslow has been washed overboard . Merriam accuses the captain of murdering Winslow , and the two fight . Crew members intervene , and the captain has the crew tie up Merriam and put him in his bunk . The captain then has First Officer Bowns ( Ben Bard ) administer a sedative to Merriam . Finn finally delivers the captain 's radiogram to Bowns , who can read . Bowns becomes deeply alarmed . The first officer talks to several other crew members , all of whom now begin questioning the captain 's sanity .
Captain Stone overhears Bowns ' conversation with the crew , and goes insane . He takes a knife and enters Merriam 's cabin to kill the young officer , but Finn arrives to try to stop him . While the crew is up on deck singing , Finn and the captain engage in a desperate struggle in the dark , during which Finn kills the captain . After the captain 's death , Merriam is reinstated and the ship returns to its home port of San Pedro .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
RKO had scored a major financial success with Cat People ( 1942 ) . The film , which cost $ 141 @,@ 659 , brought in almost $ 4 million in its first two years and saved the studio from financial disaster . RKO wanted to move quickly on a sequel to build on the success of Cat People , but producer Val Lewton wished to make the fantasy @-@ comedy story " The Amorous Ghost " instead . As Lewton and studio wrangled , Lewton commenced production on The Seventh Victim , a horror @-@ murder mystery film , and on May 12 , 1943 , RKO announced it was delaying production on the sequel The Curse of the Cat People due to the unavailability of key performers . RKO production chief Charles Koerner did not want Lewton to be idle once filming on The Seventh Victim ended nor did he favor the idea of Lewton working on comedy , so Koerner suggested that Lewton direct a horror film set at sea , utilizing the studio 's existing ship set , built for Pacific Liner ( 1939 ) . According to Robert Wise , a longtime collaborator with Lewton , it was this set that gave Lewton the idea for the film . " He would find what we call a ' standing set , ' and then tailor his script to the set , whatever it was . That 's how he made The Ghost Ship . He walked onto a set and saw a tanker , then cooked up the idea for this ship with a murderous captain . " One scholar has suggested that Lewton accepted the assignment in part because , as an amateur sailor himself , the ship captain 's behavior mirrored Lewton 's own views on how to manage a ship , but also because Lewton saw the plot as a way of criticizing his micro @-@ managing superiors at RKO . The budget , as with all of Lewton 's films , was set at $ 150 @,@ 000 .
At the time screenwriting began , Lewton claimed that the idea for the film was an original one attributable to himself . Leo Mittler did the treatment and Donald Henderson Clarke wrote the script , although Lewton significantly revised the screenplay and wrote many lines of dialogue himself .
Mark Robson was assigned to direct in June 1943 . Robson was the RKO director " most in tune with [ Lewton 's ] idea of psychological terror " . Robson had just finished editing Orson Welles ' Journey Into Fear , and there are distinct stylistic similarities between the two films . Robson and Lewton chose to use single @-@ source lighting throughout the film in order to make the sets and performances more interesting , and sets were designed to utilize this type of lighting . The two men also agreed to continue Lewton 's emphasis on unseen and implied terror . Cinematographer Nicholas Musuraca , art directors Albert S. D 'Agostino and Walter E. Keller , and composer Roy Webb all regularly worked with Lewton , and did so on The Ghost Ship as well . Richard Dix was cast because he was already on contract with RKO to do several " quickie " pictures at a set fee per film , and doing The Ghost Ship would help fulfill his contract without much effort . Russell Wade had provided a disembodied voice in The Leopard Man , and this was his first starring role in a Lewton production . His performance here led him to be cast in Lewton 's later The Body Snatcher ( 1945 ) . Edith Barrett , Ben Bard , Dewey Robinson , and Charles Lung all had worked with Lewton before . Skelton Knaggs , Edmund Glover , and future film noir star Lawrence Tierney , whom Lewton had seen modeling clothing in a Sears , Roebuck catalog , all made their motion picture debuts in the movie . Sir Lancelot , a well @-@ known calypso singer , who later influenced the career of Harry Belafonte ) , had already appeared in singing roles in three prior films ( including I Walked with a Zombie ) . Atmosphere is created in the film by the contrast between murder and the joviality of the calypso songs sung on board .
Production began on 3 August 1943 . Many details about the performances , lighting , camera angles , action , and effects were worked out ahead of time in order to not only keep the film under budget but also help achieve suspense on such a low budget . Dr. Jared Criswell , former pastor of the Fifth Avenue Spiritualist Church of New York City , served as a technical consultant on the film regarding psychic phenomena . The picture 's final fight scene between the Finn , Pollo , and the mad Captain was shot on a dimly lit set to heighten the suspense and keep the audience from guessing who the victor might be , similar to the way Jacques Tourneur and Lewton had shot a similar scene in Cat People .
= = Release and lawsuit = =
The film was released in theaters on Christmas Eve , 1943 . The poster art was most likely painted by William Rose . The film did well at the box office until Lewton was sued for plagiarism in February 1944 by playwrights Samuel R. Golding and Norbert Faulkner , who claimed that the script was based on a play that was submitted to Lewton for a possible film . Because of the suit , The Ghost Ship was withdrawn from theatrical release . Lewton disputed the claim , but the court ruled against him . RKO paid the authors $ 25 @,@ 000 in damages and attorney fees of $ 5 @,@ 000 , and lost all future booking residuals and the right to sell the film for airing on television . Elliot Lavine , a film historian , says that losing the lawsuit deeply disturbed Lewton , leaving him depressed for a significant period of time .
The film did not see release for nearly another 50 years due to the suit . The Ghost Ship did make it into a package of RKO films sold by " C & C Television Films " to local TV stations , but it was quickly withdrawn . It was not until the film 's copyright was not renewed and it entered the public domain in the 1990s , that it began to be available again . The film was released as part of the Val Lewton Horror Collection DVD set in 2005 .
= = Reception = =
At the time of its initial release , the film had a mixed reception , with both positive and negative reviews . Bosley Crowther of the New York Times enjoyed the film , calling it " ... a nice little package of morbidity , all wrapped around in gloom . " Paul Meehan calls it " a tepid potboiler of malfeasance and murder on the high seas . " John Brosnan described The Ghost Ship as " a more conventional mystery @-@ thriller involving a number of deaths on board a ship , but was produced with Lewton 's customary attention to atmosphere . " The script has come in for significant praise , with Captain Stone being compared to Captain Queeg in The Caine Mutiny , Captain Ahab in Moby @-@ Dick , and Captain Wolf Larsen in The Sea @-@ Wolf . Other critics have pointed out that Stone and Merriam seem to have a father @-@ son relationship , but that the perverseness of the script is that the father @-@ figure becomes so enraged at his " son 's " failings that he seeks to murder him .
Modern film critics have also praised the picture 's acting , cinematography , and lighting , as well as its ability to scare . Actor Richard Dix is almost uniformly praised for bringing a depth of character , moodiness , and pathos to the role of Captain Stone . The film 's direction , cinematography and lighting , too , display a depth of artistry not usually seen in cinema . Cinematographer Nicholas Musuraca won high praise for his chiaroscuro lighting design . Film historian Edmund Bansak has written one scene in particular which is highly effective :
An excellent set @-@ piece early in the film showcases Robson 's underrated directorial skill . Robson creates a dynamic sense of menace from a physical object : a massive giant hook hanging from upon an enormous chain , pendulumlike , inches above the deck . ... [ The ] hook remains unattended and unsecured . ... In a tightly directed , genuinely exciting scene , the monstrous hook sways back and forth in a direct path toward the camera , making one wonder how cinematographer , Nicholas Musuraca , kept his camera ( and head ) intact during the shooting . ... The lighting is also used to great advantage , the shadows and fog accenting the terror . Half the time the swinging hook is so hidden in the darkness that aside from the creak of its sway , there is no telling which direction it will take .
The set design , too , has been praised for being " suitably claustrophobic . " Robson 's direction has earned kudos for heightening the suspense by leaving certain actions and motives vague . In the scene in which Seaman Parker ( Lawrence Tierney ) dies , crushed by the anchor chain , Robson left it unclear whether Captain Stone committed murder by trapping Parker in the anchor chain locker or whether he merely shut the door . The vagueness leaves the audience unsure whether to believe Merriam 's accusations against the Captain , and builds an atmosphere of paranoia and doubt which is critical to the picture 's success . Contemporary critic Gary Giddins has pointed out that the film incorporates classic Lewton scare tactics but in new ways . " His trademark scare tactic , a high point in practically all of his films , is a long , dark , nightmarish walk , where every sound is magnified and every object threatening . In The Ghost Ship , that " walk " is transferred to the cabin of the victimized third officer ... " Others have pointed out another Lewton device , the gradual stalking of a main character by a murderer , as another deft touch in the film .
Modern critics have also pointed out that the film , unlike so many motion pictures of the 1940s , has an almost exclusively male cast and avoids the trope of a man " redeemed by the love of a good woman . " The picture is " entirely concerned with male conflict " , one critic noted , and at the end of the film a woman appears only in shadow and fog " as the possibility of salvation " rather than bringing emotional closure . Other film critics have made sustained arguments that the film is a lengthy if coded study of repressed homosexuality , similar to that in Herman Melville 's novel , Billy Budd . Indeed , the focus on men and men 's problems has led one modern critic to declare the film " one of the most homoerotic films Hollywood ever made . "
Contemporary film programmers seem to have a high opinion of the film as well . A 1993 Film Forum series , " Val Lewton : Horror Most Noir " , screened The Ghost Ship 42 times , while I Walked With A Zombie screened only 10 times and Cat People a mere eight . Film director Alison Maclean chose The Ghost Ship for a retrospective of classic RKO films , arguing that the film was " genuinely eccentric " and a cinematic revelation . When The Ghost Ship was shown on French cable television in the late 1990s , it was introduced as a prime example of Val Lewton 's genius at presenting " unseen horror . "
= Beyond the Sea ( film ) =
Beyond the Sea is a 2004 American biographical film based on the life of singer / actor Bobby Darin . Starring in the lead role and using his own singing voice for the musical numbers , Kevin Spacey co @-@ wrote , directed , and co @-@ produced the film , which takes its title from Darin 's hit version of the song of the same name .
Beyond the Sea depicts Darin 's rise to success in both the music and film industry during the 1950s and 1960s , as well as his marriage to Sandra Dee , portrayed by Kate Bosworth .
As early as 1986 , Barry Levinson intended to direct a film based on the life of Darin , and he began pre @-@ production on the project in early 1997 . When he eventually vacated the director 's position , Spacey , along with Darin 's son Dodd , acquired the film rights .
Beyond the Sea was released in December 2004 to mixed reviews from critics and bombed at the box office . Dodd Darin , Sandra Dee and former Darin manager Steve Blauner responded with enthusiastic feedback to Spacey 's work on the film . Despite a number of negative reviews , some critics praised Spacey 's performance , largely due to his decision to use his own singing voice . He received a Golden Globe nomination .
= = Plot = =
Rather than providing a straightforward biography , the film weaves fantasy sequences with scenes containing somewhat fictionalized accounts of events in Darin 's life , and throughout it , the adult singer interacts with his younger self . It chronicles his determination to rise from his working class roots as Walden Robert Cassotto , a frail Bronx boy plagued by multiple bouts of rheumatic fever , and become a singer more famous than Frank Sinatra . To achieve that goal , he forms a band and struggles to find gigs at any nightclub that will hire him .
His agent gets Darin a recording contract with Atlantic Records , where the singer enjoys teen idol success with " Splish Splash " . Not wanting to limit his appeal to rock and roll audiences , he changes his niche to big band singing and records major hits , such as " Mack the Knife . " To capitalize on his popularity with teenage and young adult audiences , Darin is cast in Come September opposite Sandra Dee . He falls in love with the eighteen @-@ year @-@ old actress and , determined to marry her , he romantically seduces and enchants her with songs like " Beyond the Sea " and " Dream Lover . " The two elope , angering her mother . Darin finally realizes his own mother 's dream when he is signed to appear at the famed Copacabana nightclub in Manhattan .
As success takes him on the road and away from home , Dee begins to drink heavily , and the couple fights frequently . Eventually they separate , then reconcile . She gives birth to a son , Dodd . To his actress wife 's chagrin , Darin is nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance as a shell shocked soldier in Captain Newman , M.D ..
In the late 1960s , Darin becomes involved in the campaign to elect Robert F. Kennedy for President and contemplates a political career of his own . His sister Nina , knowing his past will be investigated closely if Bobby opts to enter the political arena , shocks him with the news his beloved mother actually was his grandmother and he is Nina 's illegitimate child , the son of a father she cannot identify .
Devastated , Darin becomes a recluse living in a trailer on the Big Sur coast in California . He finds himself out of step with changing music trends , and when he tries to adapt by incorporating folk music and protest songs into his repertoire , he finds himself rejected by the audience that once embraced him . Undaunted , he stages a show , complete with a gospel choir , at the Flamingo Hotel in Las Vegas , and against all odds it is a huge success .
But his triumph is short @-@ lived . Suffering from blood poisoning following surgery to repair his mechanical heart valve , Darin is rushed to the hospital , where he dies at the age of thirty @-@ seven . Following his death , he meets the younger counterpart of himself once again , and the two duet with " As Long As I 'm Singing . "
= = Cast = =
Kevin Spacey as Bobby Darin , who rises from his lower class roots to become one of the most popular rock and roll and big band performers of all time .
Kate Bosworth as Sandra Dee , the popular actress who marries Bobby . Although they divorced in 1967 , Sandra said she has always truly and deeply loved him , and that she always will , and thus never remarried .
Bob Hoskins as Charlie Maffia , who serves as a father figure and considers Bobby to be his son .
John Goodman as Stephen Blauner , Bobby 's dedicated talent manager . Blauner later becomes a successful film producer with movies such as The King of Marvin Gardens ( 1972 ) and Drive , He Said ( 1971 ) .
Brenda Blethyn as Polly Cassotto , Bobby 's biological maternal grandmother , who teaches him the art of music as a child .
Caroline Aaron as Nina Cassotto Maffia , Bobby 's biological mother , whom he believed to be his older sister . Nina tells him the shocking truth when he is thirty @-@ three years old .
Greta Scacchi as Mary Douvan , Sandra 's overprotective mother .
Peter Cincotti as Dick Behrke , Bobby 's arranger and pianist .
Matt Rippy as David Gershenson , Bobby 's publicist .
William Ullrich as young Bobby .
Cathy Moriarty @-@ Gentile and Vanessa Redgrave were originally cast in Beyond the Sea , but both actresses dropped out for unspecified reasons .
= = Development = =
= = = Barry Levinson = = =
Beginning in 1986 , Barry Levinson intended to produce and direct a biopic based on the life of Bobby Darin with funding from his own production company , Baltimore Pictures . With writer Lewis Colick , Levinson pitched the idea to Warner Bros. Pictures , who agreed to co @-@ finance The Bobby Darin Story and cover distribution duties . Producer Arthur Friedman , a fan of Darin 's work , began to laboriously negotiate for crucial music licensing rights with Darin 's ex @-@ wife , Sandra Dee ; his son , Dodd ; and former manager Steve Blauner . Colick wrote the first draft in 1987 before Warner Bros. and Levinson commissioned rewrites from Paul Attanasio and Paul Schrader . Their scripts , which kept The Bobby Darin Story title , concentrated on Sandra Dee 's alcoholism and childhood molestation by her stepfather . David Gershenson , Darin 's longtime friend , publicist and manager , joined the project as a historical consultant . Tom Cruise was reportedly under consideration to portray Darin .
Meanwhile , in May 1994 , Warner Bros. optioned Dodd Darin 's book , Dream Lovers ( ISBN 0 @-@ 446 @-@ 51768 @-@ 2 ) . James Toback and Lorenzo Carcaterra were hired to rewrite Attanasio 's The Bobby Darin Story , which they re @-@ titled Dreamer , in an attempt to incorporate the information present in Dodd Darin 's Dream Lovers . Toback 's script heavily focused on Darin 's childhood rheumatic fever and lifelong struggle with heart disease . It also followed the previous Attanasio and Schrader scripts . Carcaterra 's detailed research included Darin 's music records , home videos , early television clips , authorized and unauthorized biographies , newspaper articles and magazine interviews . " I decided to meet with a lot of real @-@ life people associated with Bobby Darin until [ Levinson ] said it was taking the focus off of Bobby , " Carcaterra explained . As a result , some of the writer 's favorite scenes , including a Las Vegas confrontation with Elvis Presley , were omitted from his third and final draft , which came in at a lengthy 164 pages .
Beginning in 1994 , Kevin Spacey first offered his services to portray Bobby Darin , but the filmmakers believed the actor was too old . Around this time , Spacey coincidentally performed the cover version of Darin 's " That Old Black Magic " for the soundtrack of Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil . The actor explained that after 1994 , " at least three times a year , my manager would call over to Warner Bros. and say , ' Hey , what 's happening with that Bobby Darin movie ? You guys ever going to make it ? ' "
With filming to originally begin in late @-@ 1997 , pre @-@ production for Dreamer was commencing , and Levinson began to discuss the film with various actors . This included Johnny Depp as Bobby Darin , Drew Barrymore as Sandra Dee , Bette Midler as Darin 's birth mother Nina and Bruno Kirby as Nina 's husband / Darin 's right @-@ hand man , Charlie Mafia . Levinson eventually vacated the director 's position in favor of Liberty Heights ( 1999 ) ; because he was unable to get Dreamer into production , Warner Bros. lost the music licensing rights , which reverted to the Darin estate .
= = = Kevin Spacey = = =
In March 1999 , Dick Clark Productions announced their teaming with Dodd Darin on a biopic , with collaboration from producer Arthur Friedman , who had been developing both The Bobby Darin Story and Dreamer with Levinson at Warner Bros. since 1986 . Shortly afterwards , Spacey was in discussions with Dodd Darin to star in the lead role . Spacey was able to acquire the film rights from Warner Bros. in early @-@ 2000 . With the help of Dodd Darin , the actor also received exclusive music rights for no charge . With his Academy Award @-@ winning performance in American Beauty ( 1999 ) , Paramount Pictures became interested in distributing / financing Beyond the Sea . The deal fell apart when Paramount told Spacey was that he was too old for the role and instead wanted Leonardo DiCaprio . Beginning in October 2000 , Spacey took vocal training lessons from Darin collaborator Roger Kellaway to give an accurate portrayal of the singer .
Spacey also kept close relations with the Darin family as a means to know he would treat the film " with respect " . He sent letters to that effect to Sandra Dee and son Dodd . Steve Blauner ( who is portrayed by John Goodman in the film ) also served as a historical consultant . Dodd originally considered Spacey 's plan to sing his father 's material a sacrilege , but eventually fell into sync with Spacey 's deeply empathetic approach to Darin 's life .
Tom Epperson , who had struck up a friendship with Spacey while writing an early screenplay draft of The Shipping News , was hired to write a new draft for Beyond the Sea . Epperson 's script included Darin 's penchant for orgies after his divorce with Sandra Dee . Spacey , finding the Epperson script to be overtly dark and morbid , began to rewrite Beyond the Sea , incorporating info from the 1987 Lewis Colick script . Spacey acknowledged he portrayed Darin in an exaggeratedly sympathetic way , and decided not to centrally depict the darker side of Darin 's life . " The other scripts made Bobby [ Darin ] a rather unlikable figure , " he explained . " I was not interested in making a conventional biopic , as you can see from the results . I was interested in making an exuberant celebration of an entertainer in a way that would be uplifting for an audience . "
By making the biopic , Dodd Darin and Spacey acknowledged the similar career experiences between Darin and Spacey . " A lot of people doubted my dad 's abilities , and Kevin 's had doubters and naysayers , " Dodd commented . " But both [ men ] were willing to take risks , and both were very resilient . My dad would always try new things . You could never pin him down . Kevin 's career is similar . " David Evanier , author of Roman Candle : The Life of Bobby Darin ( ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 59486 @-@ 010 @-@ 2 ) , said " You can put Kevin 's obsessiveness about getting the film made right up there with Bobby 's obsessiveness . He 's also the ideal person to play Bobby . He has an uncanny physical resemblance to him , and he also has Bobby 's intensity and dark side . Also , there 's the connection with his mother . Bobby 's mother 's belief in him sent him soaring . Kevin 's mother wanted him to make this film . Kevin sees the film as an act of devotion to his mother . "
" I think the movie is about mothers and sons , " Spacey said , referring to Darin 's relationship with his mother Polly and sister Nina . Spacey 's mother , Kathleen Fowler , died of brain cancer just before production started . " I made the movie for all mothers , but especially for my mother . She introduced me to Bobby Darin . When she got very ill in 2002 , I stopped everything and took care of her . We constantly played Bobby Darin records , and I 'd let her listen to the tracks I was recording . I 'm glad she passed knowing this was the movie I was going to make . " After his award @-@ winning performances in The Usual Suspects and American Beauty , Spacey " chose to move away from dark , sarcastic characters , and instead play damaged but good @-@ hearted men " in films like Pay It Forward , K @-@ PAX and The Shipping News . The actor was criticized for his career move ; Spacey acknowledged the similarities when Darin integrated into folk music and protest songs .
= = = Production = = =
In February 2003 , it was announced that production for Beyond the Sea was becoming fast tracked with Spacey as lead actor , co @-@ writer , producer and director , and Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) agreed to cover distribution duties in North America . The following August , with principal photography to begin in just weeks , MGM dropped out as distributor and main financier over scheduling conflicts . To accumulate financing of the film 's $ 25 million budget , which came from foreign production companies , Spacey performed six songs at the November 2003 American Film Market . Lions Gate Entertainment quickly picked up the distribution duties and Spacey found enough investors from England and Germany to continue to move forward on production .
In addition , Spacey declined to be paid for his work as actor , director , co @-@ writer and producer on Beyond the Sea . A portion of the $ 25 million budget came from his own Trigger Street Productions . Producer Arthur Friedman , who had shepherded the biopic since 1987 , commented that he and Spacey experienced creative differences during pre @-@ production . Friedman remarked that he was not involved with Beyond the Sea once production began in Germany . Filming was originally set to begin in June 2003 before it was pushed to November 7 , 2003 , lasting until late @-@ January 2004 . 80 % of Beyond the Sea was shot using sound stages at Babelsberg Studios in Germany and Pinewood Studios in England . Lulworth Cove , Dorset , South West England doubled for Darin 's setting of reclusiveness in Big Sur , California . In an attempt to convincingly portray Darin , particularly during the early stages of the singer 's life depicted in the film , Spacey hired prosthetic makeup designer Peter King from The Lord of the Rings film trilogy .
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing = = =
To promote Beyond the Sea , Spacey and Phil Ramone devised a 12 @-@ city United States concert tour titled An Evening Celebrating the Music of Bobby Darin , which consisted of Spacey performing with a 19 @-@ piece band . " It 's me singing Bobby and talking about Bobby and talking a little bit about the movie , " Spacey explained in June 2004 . Spacey dressed in costumes from the movie for the tour , which started in San Francisco and traveled through Los Angeles , New York City , Boston , Chicago , Miami and Atlantic City before ending in the Wayne Newton Theatre at the Stardust Hotel in Las Vegas . Spacey 's performance at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel on December 11 , 2004 received a standing ovation . Dodd Darin commented , " It was said about my dad that he had some big brass ones . To do a film about my dad is one thing , but it 's another thing to go out and attempt to work a nightclub . Kevin 's got a lot of courage . I think he sounds good . " The film was shown and promoted at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 11 , 2004 .
= = = WGA arbitration = = =
Beginning in October 2004 , the Writers Guild of America , west conducted arbitration through the scripts that had been written since Barry Levinson developed the film at Warner Bros. in 1987 . Lewis Colick , James Toback and Tom Epperson disassociated themselves for credit by the WGA . The Guild justified credit to Lewis Colick , who wrote the first draft of The Bobby Darin Story in 1987 , and Kevin Spacey . Actor @-@ writer Jeffrey Meek believed he should have deserved credit ; he was paid $ 85 @,@ 000 of a promised $ 125 @,@ 000 to settle his claim to have performed writing services .
Spacey said Meek was " not a hired writer " on Beyond the Sea . " He turned in a draft , but it was a draft based on earlier material based on my own screenplays , " Spacey commented . Meek said he was hired by producer Harvey Friedman , a friend who stood up at his wedding and helped connect him with Spacey , with whom he claims to have produced 12 drafts , including one that was reported by Variety to have received a greenlight from MGM in early 2003 . " He bought my material and then acted like I didn 't exist , " Meek explained . " I 'm not saying I 'm Rembrandt , but it 's like someone buying a painting and then scratching the name off of it and putting their own there . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Beyond the Sea received mixed reviews from critics . Based on 147 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , 42 % of the critics gave the film a positive review , with an average score of 5 @.@ 2 / 10 . Metacritic calculated a weighted average score of 46 / 100 , based on 35 reviews .
Sandra Dee , Dodd Darin , Jimmy Scalia and Steve Blauner responded enthusiastically to Spacey 's work on the film . Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle felt Spacey looked too old to portray Darin convincingly and called the film " one of the most embarrassing spectacles of 2004 " and " jaw @-@ droppingly awful , a misbegotten and ill @-@ conceived vanity project . " Desson Thomson from The Washington Post praised the actor 's work , but also felt Spacey did not convincingly portray Darin in his early music career . Internet reviewer James Berardinelli found the storyline to be overtly clichéd , but added , " Despite the choppy narrative and inappropriate casting of Spacey , Beyond the Sea managed to keep me entertained . "
Roger Ebert gave a largely positive review , stating that , " Kevin Spacey believes he was born to play Bobby Darin . I believe he was born to play more interesting characters ... In his own best work , Spacey has achieved genius ; he is better as an actor than Darin ever was as a singer . " Stephen Holden of The New York Times felt that " with Beyond the Sea , Spacey crawls back from his doomed quest to be a Tom Hanks @-@ like everyman to his niche on the underbelly of Hollywood 's pantheon . The movie 's a mess , and at 45 , Spacey is far too old to play Darin . Yet the star captures his desperation , his braggadocio , and yes , his magnetism . " Peter Travers , writing in Rolling Stone magazine , believed Spacey could not prevent " the movie from groaning under the weight of biopic clichés . But the actor forges a bond with his subject that rights all wrongs . Doing his own singing ( an uncanny imitation ) , Spacey is a marvel . "
= = = Box office = = =
The film opened in limited release in the United States on December 17 , 2004 and went into wider release on December 29 . It grossed $ 6 @,@ 318 @,@ 709 in the US and $ 2 @,@ 128 @,@ 906 in international markets for a total worldwide box office of $ 8 @,@ 447 @,@ 615 . It was declared a box office bomb because it did not make back its $ 25 million budget .
= = = Accolades = = =
Spacey was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy but lost to Jamie Foxx for Ray . He and Phil Ramone were also nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture , Television or Other Visual Media , but lost to the producers of Ray .
= = Home media = =
On June 7 , 2005 , the film was released on DVD in widescreen anamorphic format for Region 1 markets . It features two Dolby Digital English audio tracks ( one in 2 @.@ 0 Stereo and the other in 5 @.@ 1 Surround Sound ) , director 's commentary by Spacey , and a making @-@ of featurette .
= Reign in Blood =
Reign in Blood is the third studio album and major label debut by American thrash metal band Slayer . It was released on October 7 , 1986 , on Def Jam Recordings . The album was the band 's first collaboration with record producer Rick Rubin , whose input helped the band 's sound evolve . Reign in Blood was well received by both critics and fans , and was responsible for bringing Slayer to the attention of a mainstream metal audience . Kerrang ! magazine described the record as " the heaviest album of all " . Alongside Anthrax 's Among the Living , Megadeth 's Peace Sells ... but Who 's Buying ? and Metallica 's Master of Puppets , Reign in Blood helped define the sound of the emerging US thrash metal scene in the mid @-@ 1980s , and has remained influential subsequently .
Reign in Blood 's release was delayed because of concerns regarding its graphic artwork and lyrical subject matter . The opening track , " Angel of Death " , which refers to Josef Mengele and describes acts , such as human experimentation , that Mengele committed at the Auschwitz concentration camp , provoked allegations of Nazism . However , the band stated numerous times that it does not condone Nazism , and are merely interested in the subject . The album was Slayer 's first to enter the Billboard 200 ; the release peaked at # 94 , and was certified Gold on November 20 , 1992 .
= = Background = =
Following the positive reception Slayer 's previous release , Hell Awaits , had received , the band 's producer and manager Brian Slagel realized the band were in a position to hit the " big time " with their next album . Slagel negotiated with several record labels , among them Rick Rubin and Russell Simmons 's Def Jam Recordings . However , Slagel was reluctant to have the band signed to what was at the time primarily a hip hop label . Slayer drummer Dave Lombardo was made aware of Rubin 's interest , and initiated contact with the producer . However , Slayer 's remaining members were apprehensive at leaving Metal Blade Records , with which they were already under contract .
Lombardo contacted Columbia Records , which was Def Jam 's distributor , and managed to get in touch with Rubin , who along with photographer Glen E. Friedman agreed to attend one of the band 's concerts . Friedman had produced Suicidal Tendencies 's self @-@ titled debut album , in which Slayer vocalist Tom Araya made a guest appearance in the music video for the album 's single " Institutionalized " , pushing Suicidal Tendencies 's vocalist Mike Muir . Around this time , Rubin asked Friedman if he knew Slayer .
Guitarist Jeff Hanneman was surprised by Rubin 's interest in the band , and was impressed by his work with the hip hop acts Run DMC and LL Cool J. During a visit by Slagel to a European music convention , Rubin spoke with the band directly , and persuaded them to sign with Def Jam . Slagel paid a personal tribute to Rubin , and said that Rubin was the most passionate of all the label representatives the band were in negotiations with . Following the agreement , Friedman brought the band members to Seattle for two days of publicity shots , possible record shots , and photos for a tour book ; Rubin felt no good photos of the band had been taken before that point . One of the photos was used on the back cover of the band 's 1988 release South of Heaven . The album became an American Recordings album after Rubin ended his partnership with Russell Simmons . It was one of only two Def Jam titles to be distributed by Geffen Records through Warner Bros. Records because of the original distributor 's refusal to release work by the band .
= = Recording = =
Reign in Blood was recorded and produced in Los Angeles with Rubin . The album was the label boss ' first professional experience with heavy metal , and his fresh perspective led to a drastic makeover of Slayer 's sound . Steve Huey of AllMusic believed Rubin drew tighter and faster songs from the band , and delivered a cleanly produced sound that contrasted sharply with their previous recordings . This resulted in drastic changes to Slayer 's sound , and changed audiences ' perception of the band . Araya has since stated their two previous releases were not up to par production @-@ wise . Guitarist Kerry King later remarked that " [ i ] t was like , ' Wow — you can hear everything , and those guys aren 't just playing fast ; those notes are on time . ' "
Hanneman later admitted that while the band was listening to Metallica and Megadeth at the time , they were finding the repetition of guitar riffs tiring . He said , " If we do a verse two or three times , we 're already bored with it . So we weren 't trying to make the songs shorter — that 's just what we were into , " which resulted in the album 's short duration of 29 minutes . King had stated that while hour @-@ long records seem to be the trend , " [ y ] ou could lose this part ; you could cut this song completely , and make a much more intense record , which is what we 're all about . " When the record was completed , the band met with Rubin , who asked : " Do you realize how short this is ? " Slayer members looked at each other , and replied : " So what ? " The entire album was on one side of a cassette ; King stated it was " neat , " as " You could listen to it , flip it over , and play it again . " The music is abrasive and faster than previous releases , helping to narrow the gap between thrash metal and its predecessor hardcore punk , and is played at an average of 220 beats per minute .
= = Critical response = =
Although the album received no radio airplay , it was the band 's first release to enter the Billboard 200 , where it debuted at # 127 , and attained its peak position of 94 in its sixth week . The album also reached # 47 on the UK Album Chart , and on November 20 , 1992 , it was certified gold in the US .
Reign in Blood was well received by the underground and mainstream music press . Reviewing for AllMusic , which was established in 1991 , Steve Huey awarded the album five out of five , describing it a " stone @-@ cold classic . " Stylus Magazine critic Clay Jarvis awarded the album an A + grade , calling it a " genre @-@ definer , " as well as " the greatest metal album of all time . " Jarvis further remarked the song " Angel of Death " " smokes the asses of any band playing fast and / or heavy today . Lyrically outlining the horrors to come , while musically laying the groundwork for the rest of the record : fast , lean and filthy . " Kerrang ! magazine described it as the " heaviest album of all time , " and listed the album at # 27 among the " 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Albums of All Time " . Metal Hammer magazine named it " the best metal album of the last 20 years " in 2006 . Q Magazine ranked Reign in Blood among their list of the " 50 Heaviest Albums of All Time " , and Spin Magazine ranked the album # 67 on their list of the " 100 Greatest Albums , 1985 – 2005 " . Critic Chad Bowar stated : " 1986 's Reign in Blood is probably the best thrash album ever recorded . " In August 2014 , Revolver placed the album on its " 14 Thrash Albums You Need to Own " list .
Adrien Begrand of PopMatters observed that " [ t ] here 's no better song to kick things off than the masterful ' Angel of Death ' , one of the most monumental songs in metal history , where guitarists Kerry King and Jeff Hanneman deliver their intricate riffs , drummer Dave Lombardo performs some of the most powerful drumming ever recorded , and bassist / vocalist Tom Araya screams and snarls his tale of Nazi war criminal Josef Mengele . " When asked why Reign in Blood has retained its popularity , King replied : " If you released Reign in Blood today , no one would give a shit . It was timing ; it was a change in sound . In thrash metal at that time , no one had ever heard good production on a record like that . It was just a bunch of things that came together at once . "
= = Lombardo 's departure = =
Slayer embarked on the Reign in Pain tour with the bands Overkill in the United States and Malice in Europe ; they also served as the opening act for W.A.S.P. ' s U.S. tour in 1987 . In late November 1986 , drummer Lombardo quit the band ; he said : " I wasn 't making any money . I think I had just gotten married , and I figured if we were gonna be doing this professionally — on a major label — I wanted my rent and utilities paid . " To continue the tour Slayer enlisted Whiplash drummer Tony Scaglione .
Rubin called Lombardo daily to insist he return , telling him : " Dude , you gotta come back in the band . " Rubin offered Lombardo a salary , but he was still hesitant about returning ; at this point Lombardo had been out of the band for several months . Lombardo 's wife convinced him to return in 1987 ; Rubin came to his house and picked him up in his Porsche , taking him to a Slayer rehearsal .
= = Legacy = =
Reign in Blood is regarded by critics as one of the most influential and extreme thrash metal albums ever produced . In its " Greatest Metal Bands Of All Time " poll , MTV praised Slayer 's " downtuned rhythms , infectious guitar licks , graphically violent lyrics and grisly artwork , " which they stated " set the standard for dozens of emerging thrash bands , " while " Slayer 's music was directly responsible for the rise of death metal . " MTV described Reign in Blood as essential listening , and the album was ranked number 7 on IGN 's " Top 25 Most Influential Metal Albums " .
When asked during a press tour for 1994 's Divine Intervention about the pressure of having to live up to Reign in Blood , King replied that the band did not try to better it , but rather just wanted to make music . In 2006 , Blabbermouth 's Don Kaye drew a comparison to the band 's 2006 album Christ Illusion , and concluded that " Slayer may never make an album as incendiary as Reign in Blood again . "
Rapper Necro was heavily influenced by the album , and has remarked that it takes him back to the 1980s , | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
thought the cover was odd : " It took me a minute and a half to find a spot in the song where I knew where she was . It 's so weird . If she had never told us , we would have never known . You could have played it for us and we 'd have been like , ' What 's that ? ' Like a minute and a half through I heard a line and was like , ' I know where she 's at ! ' " The band , however , liked the cover enough to send Slayer T @-@ shirts to Tori Amos . The song was also covered by Malevolent Creation , Chimaira , Vader , Dokaka , Reggie and the Full Effect and Killick Erik Hinds , who covered the entire album on a H 'arpeggione .
In 2005 , the Slayer tribute band Dead Skin Mask released an album with eight Slayer tracks , including " Angel of Death " . The death metal band Monstrosity covered the song in 1999 , while the track was featured on the classical band Apocalyptica 's 2006 album Amplified / A Decade of Reinventing the Cello . A Slayer tribute album titled Al Sur del Abismo ( Tributo Argentino a Slayer ) , compiled by Hurling Metal Records , featured sixteen tracks covered by Argentina metal bands , including Asinesia 's version of " Angel of Death " . " Raining Blood " was also covered by the New Zealand drum and bass band Concord Dawn on their 2003 album Uprising , and by Nashville , Tennessee band Asschapel on their 7 " " Satanation " .
Bulgarian alternative rock band Hipodil covered the intro of " Raining Blood " as " Reigun v kruv " ( Reagan in Blood ) on their debut album Alkoholen delirium in 1993 .
= = Popular culture = =
" Raining Blood " was featured in the 127th South Park episode , Die Hippie , Die , aired on 16 March 2005 . The plot centers on the town of South Park , which has been overrun by hippies . Eric Cartman states " Hippies can 't stand death metal " and proceeds to drill through a hippie concert onto the main stage to change the audio to " Raining Blood " , making the hippies run away . King found the episode humorous and expressed his interest in the show ending the interview with " It was good to see the song being put to good use , if we can horrify some hippies we 've done our job . " " Angel of Death " also appears in several movies , including Gremlins 2 , at the point when the character Mohawk turns into a spider , Jackass : The Movie , where it is played during a car stunt scene , and in the 2005 Iraq War documentary Soundtrack to War .
" Angel of Death " was featured in the multi – platform video game Tony Hawk 's Project 8 . Nolan Nelson , who selected the soundtrack for the game , asserts : " one of the greatest heavy metal songs ever recorded . Don 't know who Slayer is ? I feel sorry for you . " " Raining Blood " was included in the Grand Theft Auto : Vice City in – game radio station V @-@ Rock . " Raining Blood " is also one of the songs featured in Guitar Hero 3 : Legends of Rock , and is considered one of the most difficult songs in the game , if not the hardest of the career song list . " Angel of Death " and " Raining Blood " are both available as DLC for Rocksmith 2014 .
= = Track listing = =
1 " Aggressive Perfector " was shorter and had clearer production than the previous version featured on the reissue of the EP Haunting the Chapel . The reissue also fixed a problem with some CD pressings which incorrectly set the beginning of " Raining Blood " into the blank pause in " Postmortem " .
= = Personnel = =
Tom Araya – bass , vocals
Jeff Hanneman – lead and rhythm guitar
Kerry King – lead and rhythm guitar
Dave Lombardo – drums
Production
Rick Rubin – production
Larry Carroll – artwork
Howie Weinberg – mastering
Andy Wallace – engineering
= = Charts and certifications = =
= The Video Collection 93 : 99 =
The Video Collection 93 : 99 is the second music video compilation by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . Released by Warner Music Vision , Warner Reprise Video and Warner Bros. Records on November 2 , 1999 , it contained the music video of Madonna 's singles released between 1993 to 1999 . Originally , the collection was titled The Video Collection 92 – 99 , and had included the 1992 hit " Erotica " , but was omitted due to the explicit sexual content in the video ; instead the 1998 song " The Power of Good @-@ Bye " was added . The videos in the collection were selected personally by Madonna , who felt the 14 videos to be her best work .
After its release , the collection was critically appreciated , with one group of reviewers noting the artistic capabilities of Madonna while the others noting her ability to re @-@ invent her image from one video to another . It reached a peak of eight on Billboard 's Top Music Video sales chart . In 2008 , was certified platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 100 @,@ 000 copies across United States . A box set titled The Ultimate Collection was released in 2000 , which contained The Video Collection 93 : 99 and The Immaculate Collection compilations .
= = Background = =
On September 2 , 1999 , Warner Bros. Records announced the release of the video album , then titled as The Video Collection 92 – 99 . Released in VHS and DVD , the collection featured 14 videos , including " Drowned World / Substitute for Love " , which was not released in the United States as a single , hence was not commercially available prior to the release of Video Collection . The videos in the collection was selected personally by Madonna , who felt the 14 videos to be her best work . The collection had included the 1992 song " Erotica " , but it was later omitted due to the sexual content present in the music video ; instead the song " The Power of Good @-@ Bye " was added and the collection was renamed as The Video Collection 93 : 99 .
The video release was supposed to be in mid @-@ October , but was pushed to November 2 , 1999 . The DVD release was to also include an accompanying compact disc with the audio to the videos as a dual @-@ disc Greatest hits album , but was cancelled and the release only included a DVD . The original plan was to have the release coincide with the 1999 world tour which Madonna mentioned in an interview with Larry King the same year . This was also cancelled and postponed until 2001 , Madonna instead releasing an audio greatest hits collection GHV2 and embarked on the Drowned World Tour that same year .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Heather Phares from Allmusic gave it five out of five stars and said : " Madonna 's Video Collection : 1993 @-@ 1999 adds to her status as one of the best represented artists on DVD . [ ... ] Though it doesn 't offer much in the way of DVD @-@ specific features , the artistry of directors like Mark Romanek , Stephane Sedaoui , David Fincher , Jean @-@ Baptiste Mondino , as well as Madonna herself , is on full display with videos like ' Take a Bow ' , ' Bedtime Story ' , ' Human Nature ' , ' Frozen ' , and ' Ray of Light ' . All in all , it 's a worthwhile collection of memorable videos from one of pop 's trendsetters . " Bryan Chin from University Wire commented " Some people really dislike the Madonna of the ' 90s . ' Oh , she got so slutty ! , they quibble . ' She doesn 't have the same kind of cultural impact that she had in the ' 80s , ' they whine . Obviously , these people haven 't been paying much attention . With the recent release of The Video Collection 93 : 99 , however , those naysayers are certain to realize what they 've been missing . These videos have always been the perfect outlet to chronicle Madonna 's smorgasbord of personas . " Francis Dass from New Straits Times commented : " Madonna , the pop icon of the 20th century , remains at the forefront of self @-@ promotion and marketing with the release of her music video compilation on VCD format . The collection shows that she is still able to maintain her relevance to the nasty world of music and she is still the queen of re @-@ invention . " Jay Webb from The Dallas Morning News felt that the videos on the collection showed " Madonna 's true artistic self " but added that such artistic phase was incompletely catalogued in the collection . Jeremy Kinser from The Advocate gave the collection a positive review , complimenting " the showcase of such classic and artistic videos " . He listed " Ray of Light " , " Bad Girl " and " Take a Bow " as the high @-@ points of the collection , while the inclusion of " Fever " and " Human Nature " was criticized . Jose Promis from Allmovie felt that " [ t ] he decision to include virtual non @-@ hits such as ' Love Don 't Live Here Anymore ' over smashes such as ' You 'll See ' or ' I 'll Remember ' is bewildering , making this collection a decidedly mixed bag . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
The collection debuted at 36 on Billboard 's Top Music Videos chart on December 4 , 1999 and the second week it moved 23 places to 13 . The next week it reached a peak of eight on the chart , remaining at the position for three additional weeks . Video Collection reached the peak of eight again on the Billboard issue dated February 5 , 2000 . It was present on the Music Video chart for a total of 32 weeks . On November 13 , 2008 , the DVD was certified platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 100 @,@ 000 copies . It was also certified platinum in Argentina by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers ( CAPIF ) for shipment of 15 @,@ 000 copies , as well as gold in Brazil by the Associação Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos ( ABPD ) for shipment of 25 @,@ 000 copies . After ten weeks of staying at the top of the Danish Top 10 DVD chart , Video Collection made a re @-@ entry on the chart at five , on February 14 , 2001 .
= = The Ultimate Collection = =
On September 18 , 2000 , a box set titled The Ultimate Collection was released , which contained The Video Collection 93 : 99 and The Immaculate Collection . R.S. Murthy from New Straits Times said that " this boxed set offers Madonna fans and the Madonna initiates a very good collection of her videos , and helps them understand the wonder that Madonna is . " Jeremy Jennings from the St. Paul Pioneer Press listed the box set as one of the most promising collection in his list of " Best Fall CDs " for 2000 . Robin Givhan from The Washington Post called the collection " A veritable homage to the many faces of Madonna , from her current ghetto cowboy incarnation to her old boy @-@ toy persona , the collection featured duded @-@ up music videos and many pictures — a reminder of Madonna as the queen of re @-@ invention . "
= = Track listing and formats = =
The collection was released on VHS , LaserDisc , VCD ( Asia only ) and DVD . A special limited edition karaoke VCD was also released with the same track list . This VCD showed the lyrics of the song on the video , and the user was able to mute the right audio channel , which contained the full vocal version of the song , or the left audio channel , which contained the instrumental version of the song .
= = Certifications = =
= Bockscar =
Bockscar , sometimes called Bock 's Car , is the name of the United States Army Air Forces B @-@ 29 bomber that dropped a Fat Man nuclear weapon over the Japanese city of Nagasaki during World War II in the second – and last – nuclear attack in history . One of 15 Silverplate B @-@ 29s used by the 509th , Bockscar was built at the Glenn L. Martin Aircraft Plant at Bellevue , Nebraska , at what is now Offutt Air Force Base , and delivered to the United States Army Air Forces on 19 March 1945 . It was assigned to the 393d Bombardment Squadron , 509th Composite Group to Wendover Army Air Field , Utah in April .
Bockscar was used in 13 training and practice missions from Tinian , and three combat missions in which it dropped pumpkin bombs on industrial targets in Japan . On 9 August 1945 , Bockscar , piloted by the 393d Bombardment Squadron 's commander , Major Charles W. Sweeney , dropped a Fat Man nuclear bomb with a blast yield equivalent to 21 kilotons of TNT over the city of Nagasaki . About 44 % of the city was destroyed ; 35 @,@ 000 people were killed and 60 @,@ 000 injured .
After the war , Bockscar returned to the United States in November 1945 . In September 1946 it was given to the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base , Ohio . The aircraft was flown to the Museum on 26 September 1961 , and its original markings were restored . Bockscar is now on permanent display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force , Dayton , Ohio , next to a replica of a Fat Man .
= = Airplane history = =
Bockscar , B @-@ 29A @-@ 40 @-@ MO 44 @-@ 27297 , Victor number 77 , was assigned to the 393d Bombardment Squadron of the 509th Composite Group . One of 15 Silverplate B @-@ 29s used by the 509th , Bockscar was built at the Glenn L. Martin Aircraft Plant at Bellevue , Nebraska , at what is now Offutt Air Force Base , as a Block 35 aircraft . It was one of 10 modified as a Silverplate and re @-@ designated " Block 36 " .
Silverplate involved extensive modifications to the B @-@ 29 to carry nuclear weapons . The bomb bay doors and the fuselage section between the bomb bays were removed to create a single 33 @-@ foot ( 10 m ) bomb bay . British suspensions and bracing were attached for both shape types , with the gun @-@ type suspension anchored in the aft bomb bay and the implosion type mounted in the forward bay . Weight reduction was also accomplished by removal of gun turrets and armor plating . These B @-@ 29s also had an improved engine , the R @-@ 3350 @-@ 41 . The Silverplate aircraft represented a significant increase in performance over the standard variants .
Delivered to the United States Army Air Forces on 19 March 1945 , Bockscar was assigned to Captain Frederick C. Bock and crew C @-@ 13 , and flown to Wendover Army Air Field , Utah in April . The name chosen for the aircraft , and painted on it after the mission , was a pun on the name of the aircraft commander . It left Wendover on 11 June 1945 for Tinian , where it arrived 16 June . It was originally given the Victor ( unit @-@ assigned identification ) number 7 but on 1 August was given the triangle N tail markings of the 444th Bombardment Group as a security measure , and had its Victor changed to 77 to avoid misidentification with an actual 444th aircraft .
Bockscar was used in 13 training and practice missions from Tinian , and three combat missions in which it dropped pumpkin bombs on industrial targets in Japan , in which Bock 's crew bombed Niihama and Musashino , and First Lieutenant Charles Donald Albury and crew C @-@ 15 bombed Koromo .
= = Atomic bomb mission = =
= = = Mission and crew = = =
Bockscar was flown on 9 August 1945 , by the crew of another B @-@ 29 , The Great Artiste , and piloted by Major Charles W. Sweeney , commander of the 393d Bombardment Squadron . The plane was co @-@ piloted by First Lieutenant Charles Donald Albury , the normal aircraft commander of Crew C @-@ 15 . The Great Artiste was designated as the observation , instrumentation support plane for the second mission , and another B @-@ 29 , The Big Stink , flown by Group Operations Officer Major James I. Hopkins , Jr . , as the photographic aircraft . The mission had as its primary target the city of Kokura , where the Kokura Arsenal was located . Its secondary target was Nagasaki , where two large Mitsubishi armament plants were located .
Bockscar had been flown by Sweeney and crew C @-@ 15 in three test drop rehearsals of inert Fat Man assemblies in the eight days leading up to the second mission , including the final rehearsal the day before . The Great Artiste , which was the assigned aircraft of the crew with whom Sweeney most often flew , had been designated in preliminary planning to drop the second bomb , but the aircraft had been fitted with observation instruments for the Hiroshima mission . Moving the instrumentation from The Great Artiste to Bockscar would have been a complex and time @-@ consuming process , and when the second atomic bomb mission was moved up from 11 August to 9 August because of adverse weather forecasts , the crews of The Great Artiste and Bockscar instead exchanged aircraft . The result was that the bomb was carried by Bockscar , but flown by the crew C @-@ 15 of The Great Artiste .
= = = Kokura and Nagasaki = = =
During pre @-@ flight inspection of Bockscar , the flight engineer notified Sweeney that an inoperative fuel transfer pump made it impossible to use 640 US gallons ( 2 @,@ 400 l ; 530 imp gal ) of fuel carried in a reserve tank . This fuel would still have to be carried all the way to Japan and back , consuming still more fuel . Replacing the pump would take hours ; moving the Fat Man to another aircraft might take just as long and was dangerous as well , as the bomb was live . Group Commander Colonel Paul Tibbets and Sweeney therefore elected to have Bockscar continue the mission .
Bockscar took off from Tinian 's North Field at 03 : 49 . The mission profile directed the B @-@ 29s to fly individually to the rendezvous point , changed because of bad weather from Iwo Jima to Yakushima Island , and at 17 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 200 m ) cruising altitude instead of the customary 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) , increasing fuel consumption . Bockscar began its climb to the 30 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) bombing altitude a half hour before rendezvous . Before the mission , Tibbets had warned Sweeney to take no more than fifteen minutes at the rendezvous before proceeding to the target . Bockscar reached the rendezvous point and assembled with The Great Artiste , but after circling for some time , The Big Stink failed to appear . As they orbited Yakushima , the weather planes Enola Gay and Laggin ' Dragon reported both Kokura and Nagasaki within the accepted parameters for the required visual attack .
Though ordered not to circle longer than fifteen minutes , Sweeney continued to wait for The Big Stink , at the urging of Commander Frederick Ashworth , the plane 's weaponeer , who was in command of the mission . After exceeding the original departure time limit by a half hour , Bockscar , accompanied by The Great Artiste , proceeded to Kokura , thirty minutes away . The delay at the rendezvous had resulted in clouds and drifting smoke from fires started by a major firebombing raid by 224 B @-@ 29s on nearby Yawata the previous day covering 70 % of the area over Kokura , obscuring the aiming point . Three bomb runs were made over the next 50 minutes , burning fuel and exposing the aircraft repeatedly to the heavy defenses of Yawata , but the bombardier was unable to drop visually . By the time of the third bomb run , Japanese anti @-@ aircraft fire was getting close , and Second Lieutenant Jacob Beser , who was monitoring Japanese communications , reported activity on the Japanese fighter direction radio bands .
The increasingly critical fuel shortage resulted in the decision by Sweeney and Ashworth to reduce power to conserve fuel and divert to the secondary target , Nagasaki . The approach to Nagasaki twenty minutes later indicated that the heart of the city 's downtown was also covered by dense cloud . Ashworth decided to bomb Nagasaki using radar , but , according to Bockscar 's bombardier , Captain Kermit Beahan , a small opening in the clouds at the end of the three @-@ minute bomb run permitted him to identify target features . Bockscar visually dropped the Fat Man at 10 : 58 local time . It exploded 43 seconds later with a blast yield equivalent to 21 kilotons of TNT at an altitude of 1 @,@ 650 feet ( 500 m ) , approximately 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) northwest of the planned aiming point , resulting in the destruction of 44 % of the city .
The failure to drop the Fat Man at the precise bomb aim point caused the atomic blast to be confined to the Urakami Valley . As a consequence , a major portion of the city was protected by the intervening hills , but even so , the bomb was dropped over the city 's industrial valley midway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works in the south and the Mitsubishi @-@ Urakami Ordnance Works in the north . An estimated 35 @,@ 000 people were killed and 60 @,@ 000 injured during the bombing at Nagasaki . Of those killed , 23 @,@ 200 @-@ 28 @,@ 200 were Japanese munitions workers , 2 @,@ 000 were Korean slave laborers , and 150 were Japanese soldiers .
= = = Landing and debriefing = = =
Because of the delays in the mission and the inoperative fuel transfer pump , the B @-@ 29 did not have sufficient fuel to reach the emergency landing field at Iwo Jima , so Sweeney flew the aircraft to Okinawa . Arriving there , he circled for 20 minutes trying to contact the control tower for landing clearance , finally concluding that his radio was faulty . Critically low on fuel , Bockscar barely made it to the runway at Yontan Airfield on Okinawa . With only enough fuel for one landing attempt , Sweeney and Albury brought Bockscar in at 150 miles per hour ( 240 km / h ) instead of the normal 120 miles per hour ( 190 km / h ) , firing distress flares to alert the field of the uncleared landing . The number two engine died from fuel starvation as Bockscar began its final approach . Touching the runway hard , the heavy B @-@ 29 slewed left and towards a row of parked B @-@ 24 bombers before the pilots managed to regain control . The B @-@ 29 's reversible propellers were insufficient to slow the aircraft adequately , and with both pilots standing on the brakes , Bockscar made a swerving 90 @-@ degree turn at the end of the runway to avoid running off the runway . A second engine died from fuel exhaustion by the time the plane came to a stop . The flight engineer later measured fuel in the tanks and concluded that less than five minutes total remained .
Following the mission , there was confusion over the identification of the plane . The first eyewitness account by war correspondent William L. Laurence of the New York Times , who accompanied the mission aboard the aircraft piloted by Bock , reported that Sweeney was leading the mission in The Great Artiste . However , he also noted its " Victor " number as 77 , which was that of Bockscar , writing that several personnel commented that 77 was also the jersey number of the football player Red Grange . Laurence had interviewed Sweeney and his crew in depth and was aware that they referred to their airplane as The Great Artiste . Except for Enola Gay , none of the 393d 's B @-@ 29s had yet had names painted on the noses , a fact which Laurence himself noted in his account , and unaware of the switch in aircraft , Laurence assumed Victor 77 was The Great Artiste . In fact , The Great Artiste was Victor 89 .
= = Current status = =
After the war , Bockscar returned to the United States in November 1945 and served with the 509th at Roswell Army Air Field , New Mexico . It was nominally assigned to the Operation Crossroads task force , but there are no records indicating that it deployed for the tests . In August 1946 , it was assigned to the 4105th Army Air Force Unit at Davis @-@ Monthan Army Air Field , Arizona , for storage .
At Davis @-@ Monthan it was placed on display as the aircraft that bombed Nagasaki , but in the markings of The Great Artiste . In September 1946 , title was passed to the Air Force Museum ( now the National Museum of the United States Air Force ) at Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base , Ohio . The aircraft was flown to the Museum on 26 September 1961 , and its original markings were restored . Bockscar is now on permanent display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force , Dayton , Ohio . This display , a primary exhibit in the Museum 's Air Power gallery , includes a replica of a Fat Man bomb and signage that states that it was " The aircraft that ended WWII " .
In 2005 , a short documentary was made about Charles Sweeney 's recollections of the Nagasaki mission aboard Bockscar , including details of the mission preparation , titled " Nagasaki : The Commander 's Voice . "
= = Crew members = =
= = = Regularly assigned crew = = =
Crew C @-@ 13 ( manned The Great Artiste on the Nagasaki mission ) :
Captain Frederick C. Bock , Aircraft Commander , Greenville , MI
First Lieutenant Hugh Cardwell Ferguson , Sr. , Co @-@ pilot , Highland Park , MI
First Lieutenant Leonard A. Godfrey , Jr . , Navigator , Greenfield , MA
First Lieutenant Charles Levy , Bombardier , Philadelphia , PA
Master Sergeant Roderick F. Arnold , Flight Engineer , Rochester , MI
Sergeant Ralph D. Belanger , Assistant Flight Engineer , Thendara , NY
Sergeant Ralph D. Curry , Radio Operator , Hoopeston , IL
Sergeant William C. Barney , Radar Operator , Columbia City , IN
Sergeant Robert J. Stock , Tail Gunner , Fort Wayne , IN
= = = Nagasaki mission crew = = =
Crew C @-@ 15 ( normally assigned to The Great Artiste ) :
Major Charles W. Sweeney , Aircraft Commander , North Quincy , MA
Captain Charles Donald " Don " Albury , Co @-@ pilot ( pilot of Crew C @-@ 15 ) , Miami , FL
Second Lieutenant Frederick " Fred " J. Olivi , Regular Co @-@ pilot
Captain James F. Van Pelt , Jr . , Navigator , Oak Hill , WV
Captain Kermit K. Beahan , Bombardier , Houston , TX
Master Sergeant John D. Kuharek , Flight Engineer , Columbus , NE
Staff Sergeant Raymond C. Gallagher , Gunner , assistant flight engineer , Chicago , IL
Staff Sergeant Edward K. Buckley , Radar Operator , Lisbon , OH
Sergeant Abe M. Spitzer , Radio Operator , Bronx , NY
Sergeant Albert T. " Pappy " DeHart , Tail Gunner , Plainview , TX
Also on board were the following additional mission personnel :
Commander Frederick Ashworth , USN , Weaponeer
Lieutenant Philip M. Barnes , USN , Assistant Weaponeer
Second Lieutenant Jacob Beser , Radar Countermeasures , Baltimore , MD ( Lt. Beser flew on both atomic missions , serving as the radar countermeasures crewman on the Enola Gay , August 6 , 1945 , and Bockscar , August 9 , 1945 ) .
= = National Museum of the United States Air Force display = =
= Hard rock =
Hard rock or heavy rock is a loosely defined subgenre of rock music that began in the mid @-@ 1960s , with the garage , psychedelic and blues rock movements . It is typified by a heavy use of aggressive vocals , distorted electric guitars , bass guitar , drums , and often accompanied with pianos and keyboards .
Hard rock developed into a major form of popular music in the 1970s , with bands such as Led Zeppelin , The Who , Deep Purple , Aerosmith , AC / DC and Van Halen . During the 1980s , some hard rock bands moved away from their hard rock roots and more towards pop rock , while others began to return to a hard rock sound . Established bands made a comeback in the mid @-@ 1980s and it reached a commercial peak in the 1980s , with glam metal bands like Bon Jovi and Def Leppard and the rawer sounds of Guns N ' Roses , which followed up with great success in the later part of that decade . Hard rock began losing popularity with the commercial success of grunge and later Britpop in the 1990s .
Despite this , many post @-@ grunge bands adopted a hard rock sound and in the 2000s there came a renewed interest in established bands , attempts at a revival , and new hard rock bands that emerged from the garage rock and post @-@ punk revival scenes . In the 2000s , only a few hard rock bands from the 1970s and 1980s managed to sustain highly successful recording careers .
= = Definitions = =
Hard rock is a form of loud , aggressive rock music . The electric guitar is often emphasised , used with distortion and other effects , both as a rhythm instrument using repetitive riffs with a varying degree of complexity , and as a solo lead instrument . Drumming characteristically focuses on driving rhythms , strong bass drum and a backbeat on snare , sometimes using cymbals for emphasis . The bass guitar works in conjunction with the drums , occasionally playing riffs , but usually providing a backing for the rhythm and lead guitars . Vocals are often growling , raspy , or involve screaming or wailing , sometimes in a high range , or even falsetto voice .
Hard rock has sometimes been labelled cock rock for its emphasis on overt masculinity and sexuality and because it has historically been predominantly performed and consumed by men : in the case of its audience , particularly white , working @-@ class adolescents .
In the late 1960s , the term heavy metal was used interchangeably with hard rock , but gradually began to be used to describe music played with even more volume and intensity . While hard rock maintained a bluesy rock and roll identity , including some swing in the back beat and riffs that tended to outline chord progressions in their hooks , heavy metal 's riffs often functioned as stand @-@ alone melodies and had no swing in them . Heavy metal took on " darker " characteristics after Black Sabbath 's breakthrough at the beginning of the 1970s . In the 1980s it developed a number of subgenres , often termed extreme metal , some of which were influenced by hardcore punk , and which further differentiated the two styles . Despite this differentiation , hard rock and heavy metal have existed side by side , with bands frequently standing on the boundary of , or crossing between , the genres .
= = History = =
The roots of hard rock can be traced back to the 1950s , particularly electric blues , which laid the foundations for key elements such as a rough declamatory vocal style , heavy guitar riffs , string @-@ bending blues @-@ scale guitar solos , strong beat , thick riff @-@ laden texture , and posturing performances . Electric blues guitarists began experimenting with hard rock elements such as driving rhythms , distorted guitar solos and power chords in the 1950s , evident in the work of Memphis blues guitarists such as Joe Hill Louis , Willie Johnson , and particularly Pat Hare , who captured a " grittier , nastier , more ferocious electric guitar sound " on records such as James Cotton 's " Cotton Crop Blues " ( 1954 ) . Other antecedents include Link Wray 's instrumental " Rumble " in 1958 , and the surf rock instrumentals of Dick Dale , such as " Let 's Go Trippin ' " ( 1961 ) and " Misirlou " ( 1962 ) .
= = = Origins ( 1960s ) = = =
In the 1960s , American and British blues and rock bands began to modify rock and roll by adding harder sounds , heavier guitar riffs , bombastic drumming , and louder vocals , from electric blues . Early forms of hard rock can be heard in the work of Chicago blues musicians Elmore James , Muddy Waters , and Howlin ' Wolf , The Kingsmen 's version of " Louie Louie " ( 1963 ) which made it a garage rock standard , and the songs of rhythm and blues influenced British Invasion acts , including " You Really Got Me " by The Kinks ( 1964 ) , " My Generation " by The Who ( 1965 ) , " Shapes of Things " ( 1966 ) by The Yardbirds , " Inside Looking Out " ( 1966 ) by The Animals and " ( I Can 't Get No ) Satisfaction " ( 1965 ) by The Rolling Stones . From the late 1960s , it became common to divide mainstream rock music that emerged from psychedelia into soft and hard rock . Soft rock was often derived from folk rock , using acoustic instruments and putting more emphasis on melody and harmonies . In contrast , hard rock was most often derived from blues rock and was played louder and with more intensity .
Blues rock acts that pioneered the sound included Cream , The Jimi Hendrix Experience , and The Jeff Beck Group . Cream , in songs like " I Feel Free " ( 1966 ) combined blues rock with pop and psychedelia , particularly in the riffs and guitar solos of Eric Clapton . Jimi Hendrix produced a form of blues @-@ influenced psychedelic rock , which combined elements of jazz , blues and rock and roll . From 1967 Jeff Beck brought lead guitar to new heights of technical virtuosity and moved blues rock in the direction of heavy rock with his band , The Jeff Beck Group . Dave Davies of The Kinks , Keith Richards of The Rolling Stones , Pete Townshend of The Who , Hendrix , Clapton and Beck all pioneered the use of new guitar effects like phasing , feedback and distortion . The Beatles began producing songs in the new hard rock style beginning with the White Album in 1968 and , with the track " Helter Skelter " , attempted to create a greater level of noise than the Who . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic has described the " proto @-@ metal roar " of " Helter Skelter , " while Ian MacDonald argued that " their attempts at emulating the heavy style were without exception embarrassing . "
Groups that emerged from the American psychedelic scene about the same time included Iron Butterfly , MC5 , Blue Cheer and Vanilla Fudge . San Francisco band Blue Cheer released a crude and distorted cover of Eddie Cochran 's classic " Summertime Blues " , from their 1968 debut album Vincebus Eruptum , that outlined much of the later hard rock and heavy metal sound . The same month , Steppenwolf released its self @-@ titled debut album , including " Born to Be Wild " , which contained the first lyrical reference to heavy metal and helped popularise the style when it was used in the film Easy Rider ( 1969 ) . Iron Butterfly 's In @-@ A @-@ Gadda @-@ Da @-@ Vida ( 1968 ) , with its 17 @-@ minute @-@ long title track , using organs and with a lengthy drum solo , also prefigured later elements of the sound .
By the end of the decade a distinct genre of hard rock was emerging with bands like Led Zeppelin , who mixed the music of early rock bands with a more hard @-@ edged form of blues rock and acid rock on their first two albums Led Zeppelin ( 1969 ) and Led Zeppelin II ( 1969 ) , and Deep Purple , who began as a progressive rock group but achieved their commercial breakthrough with their fourth and distinctively heavier album , In Rock ( 1970 ) . Also significant was Black Sabbath 's Paranoid ( 1970 ) , which combined guitar riffs with dissonance and more explicit references to the occult and elements of Gothic horror . All three of these bands have been seen as pivotal in the development of heavy metal , but where metal further accentuated the intensity of the music , with bands like Judas Priest following Sabbath 's lead into territory that was often " darker and more menacing " , hard rock tended to continue to remain the more exuberant , good @-@ time music .
= = = Expansion ( 1970s ) = = =
In the early 1970s the Rolling Stones developed their hard rock sound with Exile on Main St. ( 1972 ) . Initially receiving mixed reviews , according to critic Steve Erlewine it is now " generally regarded as the Rolling Stones ' finest album " . They continued to pursue the riff @-@ heavy sound on albums including It 's Only Rock ' n ' Roll ( 1974 ) and Black and Blue ( 1976 ) . Led Zeppelin began to mix elements of world and folk music into their hard rock from Led Zeppelin III ( 1970 ) and Led Zeppelin IV ( 1971 ) . The latter included the track " Stairway to Heaven " , which would become the most played song in the history of album @-@ oriented radio . Deep Purple continued to define hard rock , particularly with their album Machine Head ( 1972 ) , which included the tracks " Highway Star " and " Smoke on the Water " . In 1975 guitarist Ritchie Blackmore left , going on to form Rainbow and after the break @-@ up of the band the next year , vocalist David Coverdale formed Whitesnake . 1970 saw The Who release Live at Leeds , often seen as the archetypal hard rock live album , and the following year they released their highly acclaimed album Who 's Next , which mixed heavy rock with extensive use of synthesizers . Subsequent albums , including Quadrophenia ( 1973 ) , built on this sound before Who Are You ( 1978 ) , their last album before the death of pioneering rock drummer Keith Moon later that year .
Emerging British acts included Free , who released their signature song " All Right Now " ( 1970 ) , which has received extensive radio airplay in both the UK and US . After the breakup of the band in 1973 , vocalist Paul Rodgers joined supergroup Bad Company , whose eponymous first album ( 1974 ) was an international hit . The mixture of hard rock and progressive rock , evident in the works of Deep Purple , was pursued more directly by bands like Uriah Heep and Argent . Scottish band Nazareth released their self @-@ titled début album in 1971 , producing a blend of hard rock and pop that would culminate in their best selling , Hair of the Dog ( 1975 ) , which contained the proto @-@ power ballad " Love Hurts " . Having enjoyed some national success in the early 1970s , Queen , after the release of Sheer Heart Attack ( 1974 ) and A Night at the Opera ( 1975 ) , gained international recognition with a sound that used layered vocals and guitars and mixed hard rock with heavy metal , progressive rock , and even opera . The latter featured the single " Bohemian Rhapsody " , which stayed at number one in the UK charts for nine weeks .
In the United States , macabre @-@ rock pioneer Alice Cooper achieved mainstream success with the top ten album School 's Out ( 1972 ) . In the following year blues rockers ZZ Top released their classic album Tres Hombres and Aerosmith produced their eponymous début , as did Southern rockers Lynyrd Skynyrd and proto @-@ punk outfit New York Dolls , demonstrating the diverse directions being pursued in the genre . Montrose , including the instrumental talent of Ronnie Montrose and vocals of Sammy Hagar and arguably the first all American hard rock band to challenge the British dominance of the genre , released their first album in 1973 . Kiss built on the theatrics of Alice Cooper and the look of the New York Dolls to produce a unique band persona , achieving their commercial breakthrough with the double live album Alive ! in 1975 and helping to take hard rock into the stadium rock era . In the mid @-@ 1970s Aerosmith achieved their commercial and artistic breakthrough with Toys in the Attic ( 1975 ) , which reached number 11 in the American album chart , and Rocks ( 1976 ) , which peaked at number three . Blue Öyster Cult , formed in the late 60s , picked up on some of the elements introduced by Black Sabbath with their breakthrough live gold album On Your Feet or on Your Knees ( 1975 ) , followed by their first platinum album , Agents of Fortune ( 1976 ) , containing the hit single " ( Don 't Fear ) The Reaper " , which reached number 12 on the Billboard charts . Journey released their eponymous debut in 1975 and the next year Boston released their highly successful début album . In the same year , hard rock bands featuring women saw commercial success as Heart released Dreamboat Annie and The Runaways débuted with their self @-@ titled album . While Heart had a more folk @-@ oriented hard rock sound , the Runaways leaned more towards a mix of punk @-@ influenced music and hard rock . The Amboy Dukes , having emerged from the Detroit garage rock scene and most famous for their Top 20 psychedelic hit " Journey to the Center of the Mind " ( 1968 ) , were dissolved by their guitarist Ted Nugent , who embarked on a solo career that resulted in four successive multi @-@ platinum albums between Ted Nugent ( 1975 ) and his best selling Double Live Gonzo ( 1978 ) .
From outside the United Kingdom and the United States , the Canadian trio Rush released three distinctively hard rock albums in 1974 – 75 ( Rush , Fly by Night and Caress of Steel ) before moving toward a more progressive sound with the 1976 album 2112 . The Irish band Thin Lizzy , which had formed in the late 1960s , made their most substantial commercial breakthrough in 1976 with the hard rock album Jailbreak and their worldwide hit " The Boys Are Back in Town " , which reached number 8 in the UK and number 12 in the US . Their style , consisting of two duelling guitarists often playing leads in harmony , proved itself to be a large influence on later bands . They reached their commercial , and arguably their artistic peak with Black Rose : A Rock Legend ( 1979 ) . The arrival of Scorpions from Germany marked the geographical expansion of the subgenre . Australian @-@ formed AC / DC , with a stripped back , riff heavy and abrasive style that also appealed to the punk generation , began to gain international attention from 1976 , culminating in the release of their multi @-@ platinum albums Let There Be Rock ( 1977 ) and Highway to Hell ( 1979 ) . Also influenced by a punk ethos were heavy metal bands like Motörhead , while Judas Priest abandoned the remaining elements of the blues in their music , further differentiating the hard rock and heavy metal styles and helping to create the new wave of British heavy metal which was pursued by bands like Iron Maiden , Saxon and Venom .
With the rise of disco in the US and punk rock in the UK , hard rock 's mainstream dominance was rivalled toward the later part of the decade . Disco appealed to a more diverse group of people and punk seemed to take over the rebellious role that hard rock once held . Early punk bands like The Ramones explicitly rebelled against the drum solos and extended guitar solos that characterised stadium rock , with almost all of their songs clocking in around two minutes with no guitar solos . However , new rock acts continued to emerge and record sales remained high into the 1980s . 1977 saw the début and rise to stardom of Foreigner , who went on to release several platinum albums through to the mid @-@ 1980s . Midwestern groups like Kansas , REO Speedwagon and Styx helped further cement heavy rock in the Midwest as a form of stadium rock . In 1978 , Van Halen emerged from the Los Angeles music scene with a sound based around the skills of lead guitarist Eddie Van Halen . He popularised a guitar @-@ playing technique of two @-@ handed hammer @-@ ons and pull @-@ offs called tapping , showcased on the song " Eruption " from the album Van Halen , which was highly influential in re @-@ establishing hard rock as a popular genre after the punk and disco explosion , while also redefining and elevating the role of electric guitar .
= = = Glam metal era ( 1980s ) = = =
The opening years of the 1980s saw a number of changes in personnel and direction of established hard rock acts , including the deaths of Bon Scott , the lead singer of AC / DC , and John Bonham , drummer with Led Zeppelin . Whereas Zeppelin broke up almost immediately afterwards , AC / DC pressed on , recording the album Back in Black ( 1980 ) with their new lead singer , Brian Johnson . It became the fifth @-@ highest @-@ selling album of all time in the US and the second @-@ highest @-@ selling album in the world . Black Sabbath had split with original singer Ozzy Osbourne in 1979 and replaced him with Ronnie James Dio , formerly of Rainbow , giving the band a new sound and a period of creativity and popularity beginning with Heaven and Hell ( 1980 ) . Osbourne embarked on a solo career with Blizzard of Ozz ( 1980 ) , featuring American guitarist Randy Rhoads . Some bands , such as Queen , moved away from their hard rock roots and more towards pop rock , while others , including Rush with Moving Pictures ( 1981 ) , began to return to a hard rock sound . The creation of thrash metal , which mixed heavy metal with elements of hardcore punk from about 1982 , particularly by Metallica , Anthrax , Megadeth and Slayer , helped to create extreme metal and further remove the style from hard rock , although a number of these bands or their members would continue to record some songs closer to a hard rock sound . Kiss moved away from their hard rock roots toward pop metal : firstly removing their makeup in 1983 for their Lick It Up album , and then adopting the visual and sound of glam metal for their 1984 release , Animalize , both of which marked a return to commercial success . Pat Benatar was one of the first women to achieve commercial success in hard rock , with three successive Top 5 albums between 1980 and 1982 .
Often categorised with the new wave of British heavy metal , in 1981 Def Leppard released their second album High ' n ' Dry , mixing glam @-@ rock with heavy metal , and helping to define the sound of hard rock for the decade . The follow @-@ up Pyromania ( 1983 ) , reached number two on the American charts and the singles " Photograph " , " Rock of Ages " and " Foolin ' " , helped by the emergence of MTV , all reached the Top 40 . It was widely emulated , particularly by the emerging Californian glam metal scene . This was followed by US acts like Mötley Crüe , with their albums Too Fast for Love ( 1981 ) and Shout at the Devil ( 1983 ) and , as the style grew , the arrival of bands such as Ratt , White Lion , Twisted Sister and Quiet Riot . Quiet Riot 's album Metal Health ( 1983 ) was the first glam metal album , and arguably the first heavy metal album of any kind , to reach number one in the Billboard music charts and helped open the doors for mainstream success by subsequent bands .
Established bands made something of a comeback in the mid @-@ 1980s . After an 8 @-@ year separation , Deep Purple returned with the classic Machine Head line @-@ up to produce Perfect Strangers ( 1984 ) , which reached number five in the UK , hit the top five in five other countries , and was a platinum @-@ seller in the US . After somewhat slower sales of its fourth album , Fair Warning , Van Halen rebounded with the Top 3 album Diver Down in 1982 , then reached their commercial pinnacle with 1984 . It reached number two on the Billboard album chart and provided the track " Jump " , which reached number one on the singles chart and remained there for several weeks . Heart , after floundering during the first half of the decade , made a comeback with their eponymous ninth studio album which hit number one and contained four Top 10 singles including their first number one hit . The new medium of video channels was used with considerable success by bands formed in previous decades . Among the first were ZZ Top , who mixed hard blues rock with new wave music to produce a series of highly successful singles , beginning with " Gimme All Your Lovin ' " ( 1983 ) , which helped their albums Eliminator ( 1983 ) and Afterburner ( 1985 ) achieve diamond and multi @-@ platinum status respectively . Others found renewed success in the singles charts with power ballads , including REO Speedwagon with " Keep on Loving You " ( 1980 ) and " Can 't Fight This Feeling " ( 1984 ) , Journey with " Don 't Stop Believin ' " ( 1981 ) and " Open Arms " ( 1982 ) , Foreigner 's " I Want to Know What Love Is " , Scorpions ' " Still Loving You " ( both from 1984 ) , Heart ’ s " What About Love " ( 1985 ) and " These Dreams " ( 1986 ) , and Boston 's " Amanda " ( 1986 ) .
Bon Jovi 's third album , Slippery When Wet ( 1986 ) , mixed hard rock with a pop sensitivity and spent a total of 8 weeks at the top of the Billboard 200 album chart , selling 12 million copies in the US while becoming the first hard rock album to spawn three top 10 singles — two of which reached number one . The album has been credited with widening the audiences for the genre , particularly by appealing to women as well as the traditional male dominated audience , and opening the door to MTV and commercial success for other bands at the end of the decade . The anthemic The Final Countdown ( 1986 ) by Swedish group Europe was an international hit , reaching number eight on the US charts while hitting the top 10 in nine other countries . This era also saw more glam @-@ infused American hard rock bands come to the forefront , with both Poison and Cinderella releasing their multi @-@ platinum début albums in 1986 . Van Halen released 5150 ( 1986 ) , their first album with Sammy Hagar on lead vocals , which was number one in the US for three weeks and sold over 6 million copies . By the second half of the decade , hard rock had become the most reliable form of commercial popular music in the United States .
Established acts benefited from the new commercial climate , with Whitesnake 's self @-@ titled album ( 1987 ) selling over 17 million copies , outperforming anything in Coverdale 's or Deep Purple 's catalogue before or since . It featured the rock anthem " Here I Go Again ' 87 " as one of 4 UK top 20 singles . The follow @-@ up Slip of the Tongue ( 1989 ) went platinum , but according to critics Steve Erlwine and Greg Prato , " it was a considerable disappointment after the across @-@ the @-@ board success of Whitesnake " . Aerosmith 's comeback album Permanent Vacation ( 1987 ) would begin a decade long revival of their popularity . Crazy Nights ( 1987 ) by Kiss was the band 's highest charting release in the US since 1979 and the highest of their career in the UK . Mötley Crüe with Girls , Girls , Girls ( 1987 ) continued their commercial success and Def Leppard with Hysteria ( 1987 ) hit their commercial peak , the latter producing seven hit singles ( a record for a hard rock act ) . Guns N ' Roses released the best @-@ selling début of all time , Appetite for Destruction ( 1987 ) . With a " grittier " and " rawer " sound than most glam metal , it produced three top 10 hits , including the number one " Sweet Child O ' Mine " . Some of the glam rock bands that formed in the mid @-@ 1980s , such as White Lion and Cinderella experienced their biggest success during this period with their respective albums Pride ( 1987 ) and Long Cold Winter ( 1988 ) both going multi @-@ platinum and launching a series of hit singles . In the last years of the decade , the most notable successes were New Jersey ( 1988 ) by Bon Jovi , OU812 ( 1988 ) by Van Halen , Open Up and Say ... Ahh ! ( 1988 ) by Poison , Pump ( 1989 ) by Aerosmith , and Mötley Crüe 's most commercially successful album Dr. Feelgood ( 1989 ) . New Jersey spawned five Top | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
it ( John 18 : 10 – 11 ) .
= = = = Trials by the Sanhedrin , Herod , and Pilate = = = =
After his arrest , Jesus is taken to the Sanhedrin , a Jewish judicial body . The gospel accounts differ on the details of the trials . In Matthew 26 : 57 , Mark 14 : 53 and Luke 22 : 54 , Jesus is taken to the house of the high priest , Caiaphas , where he is mocked and beaten that night . Early the next morning , the chief priests and scribes lead Jesus away into their council . John 18 : 12 – 14 states that Jesus is first taken to Annas , Caiaphas ' father @-@ in @-@ law , and then to the high priest .
During the trials Jesus speaks very little , mounts no defense , and gives very infrequent and indirect answers to the priests ' questions , prompting an officer to slap him . In Matthew 26 : 62 Jesus ' unresponsiveness leads Caiaphas to ask him , " Have you no answer ? " In Mark 14 : 61 the high priest then asks Jesus , " Are you the Messiah , the Son of the Blessed One ? " Jesus replies , " I am " , and then predicts the coming of the Son of Man . This provokes Caiaphas to tear his own robe in anger and to accuse Jesus of blasphemy . In Matthew and Luke , Jesus ' answer is more ambiguous : in Matthew 26 : 64 he responds , " You have said so " , and in Luke 22 : 70 he says , " You say that I am " .
They take Jesus to Pilate 's Court , but Pilate proves extremely reluctant to condemn Jesus ; according to Robert W. Funk , it is the Jewish elders who are to blame for Jesus ' crucifixion . Augustine of Hippo says that Pilate was not free from blame , since he exercised his power to execute Jesus . The Jewish elders ask the Roman governor Pontius Pilate to judge and condemn Jesus , accusing him of claiming to be the King of the Jews . The use of the word " king " is central to the discussion between Jesus and Pilate . In John 18 : 36 Jesus states , " My kingdom is not from this world " , but he does not unequivocally deny being the King of the Jews . In Luke 23 : 7 – 15 Pilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean , and thus comes under the jurisdiction of Herod Antipas . Pilate sends Jesus to Herod to be tried , but Jesus says almost nothing in response to Herod 's questions . Herod and his soldiers mock Jesus , put an expensive robe on him to make him look like a king , and return him to Pilate , who then calls together the Jewish elders and announces that he has " not found this man guilty " .
Observing a Passover custom of the time , Pilate allows one prisoner chosen by the crowd to be released . He gives the people a choice between Jesus and a murderer called Barabbas . Persuaded by the elders ( Matthew 27 : 20 ) , the mob chooses to release Barabbas and crucify Jesus . Pilate writes a sign in Hebrew , Latin , and Greek that reads " Jesus of Nazareth , the King of the Jews " ( abbreviated as INRI in depictions ) to be affixed to Jesus ' cross ( John 19 : 19 – 20 ) , then scourges Jesus and sends him to be crucified . The soldiers place a Crown of Thorns on Jesus ' head and ridicule him as the King of the Jews . They beat and taunt him before taking him to Calvary , also called Golgotha , for crucifixion .
= = = = Crucifixion and entombment = = = =
Jesus ' crucifixion is described in all four canonical gospels . After the trials , Jesus is led to Calvary carrying his cross ; the route traditionally thought to have been taken is known as the Via Dolorosa . The three Synoptic Gospels indicate that Simon of Cyrene assists him , having been compelled by the Romans to do so . In Luke 23 : 27 – 28 Jesus tells the women in the multitude of people following him not to weep for him but for themselves and their children . At Calvary , Jesus is offered a concoction usually offered as a painkiller . According to Matthew and Mark , he refuses it .
The soldiers then crucify Jesus and cast lots for his clothes . Above Jesus ' head on the cross is Pilate 's inscription , " Jesus of Nazareth , the King of the Jews " ; soldiers and passersby mock him about it . Jesus is crucified between two convicted thieves , one of whom rebukes Jesus , while the other defends him . The Roman soldiers break the two thieves ' legs ( a procedure designed to hasten death in a crucifixion ) , but they do not break those of Jesus , as he is already dead . In John 19 : 34 , one soldier pierces Jesus ' side with a lance , and blood and water flow out . In Matthew 27 : 51 – 54 , when Jesus dies , the heavy curtain at the Temple is torn and an earthquake breaks open tombs . Terrified by the events , a Roman centurion states that Jesus was the Son of God .
On the same day , Joseph of Arimathea , with Pilate 's permission and with Nicodemus ' help , removes Jesus ' body from the cross , wraps him in a clean cloth , and buries him in his new rock @-@ hewn tomb . In Matthew 27 : 62 – 66 , on the following day the chief Jewish priests ask Pilate for the tomb to be secured , and with Pilate 's permission the priests place seals on the large stone covering the entrance and post a guard .
= = = Resurrection and Ascension = = =
In all four gospels , Mary Magdalene goes to Jesus ' tomb on Sunday morning and is surprised to find it empty . Jesus , she learns , has risen from the dead . Despite Jesus ' teaching , the disciples had not understood that Jesus would rise again . After the discovery of the empty tomb , Jesus makes a series of appearances to the disciples .
In Mark , Salome and a second Mary are with her ( Mark 16 : 1 ) . A young man in a white robe ( an angel ) tells them that Jesus will meet his disciples in Galilee , as he had told them ( referring to Mark 14 : 28 ) . The gospel then ends abruptly .
In Matthew , there 's an earthquake when the women discover the tomb , and an angel of the Lord descends from heaven , terrifying the guards . Jesus appears to the eleven remaining disciples in Galilee and commissions them to baptize all nations in the name of the Father , Son and Holy Spirit .
In Luke , Mary and the other women meet two angels , and the eleven disciples do not believe their story ( Luke 25 : 1 – 12 ) . Jesus appears that same day to his disciples in Jerusalem ( Luke 24 : 13 – 43 ) . Although he appears and vanishes mysteriously , he also eats and lets them touch him to prove that he is not a spirit . He repeats his command to bring his teaching to all nations ( Luke 24 : 51 ) .
In John , Mary is alone at first , but Peter and the beloved disciple come and see the tomb as well . Jesus then appears to Mary at the empty tomb . He later appears to the disciples , breathes on them , and gives them the power to forgive and retain sins . In a second visit , he proves to a doubting disciple ( " Doubting Thomas " ) that he is flesh and blood . The catch of 153 fish is a miracle by the Sea of Galilee , after which Jesus encourages Peter to serve his followers .
Jesus ' Ascension into Heaven is described in Luke 24 : 50 @-@ 53 , Acts 1 : 1 – 11 and mentioned in 1 Timothy 3 : 16 . In Acts , forty days after the Resurrection , as the disciples look on , " he was lifted up , and a cloud took him out of their sight " . 1 Peter 3 : 22 states that Jesus has " gone into heaven and is at the right hand of God " .
The Acts of the Apostles describes several appearances of Jesus in visions after his Ascension . Acts 7 : 55 describes a vision experienced by Stephen just before his death . On the road to Damascus , the Apostle Paul is converted to Christianity after seeing a blinding light and hearing a voice saying , " I am Jesus , whom you are persecuting " ( Acts 9 : 5 ) . In Acts 9 : 10 – 18 , Jesus instructs Ananias of Damascus to heal Paul . It is the last conversation with Jesus reported in the Bible until the Book of Revelation , in which a man named John receives a revelation from Jesus concerning the last days , when Jesus is predicted to return victoriously ( Revelation 19 : 11 – 21 ) . In the closing lines of the New Testament , Jesus promises that he is coming soon ( Revelation 22 : 12 @-@ 21 ) .
= = Historical views = =
Prior to the Enlightenment , the gospels were usually regarded as accurate historical accounts , but since then scholars have emerged who question the reliability of the gospels and draw a distinction between the Jesus described in the gospels and the Jesus of history . Since the 18th century , three separate scholarly quests for the historical Jesus have taken place , each with distinct characteristics and based on different research criteria , which were often developed during the quest that applied them . While there is widespread scholarly agreement on the existence of Jesus , and a basic consensus on the general outline of his life , the portraits of Jesus constructed in the quests have often differed from each other , and from the image portrayed in the gospel accounts .
Approaches to the historical reconstruction of the life of Jesus have varied from the " maximalist " approaches of the 19th century , in which the gospel accounts were accepted as reliable evidence wherever it is possible , to the " minimalist " approaches of the early 20th century , where hardly anything about Jesus was accepted as historical . In the 1950s , as the second quest for the historical Jesus gathered pace , the minimalist approaches faded away , and in the 21st century , minimalists such as Price are a very small minority . Although a belief in the inerrancy of the gospels cannot be supported historically , many scholars since the 1980s have held that , beyond the few facts considered to be historically certain , certain other elements of Jesus ' life are " historically probable " . Modern scholarly research on the historical Jesus thus focuses on identifying the most probable elements .
= = = Judea and Galilee in the 1st century = = =
In AD 6 , Judea , Idumea , and Samaria were transformed from a client kingdom of the Roman Empire into an imperial province . A Roman prefect , rather than a client king , ruled the land . The prefect ruled from Caesarea , leaving Jerusalem to be run by the high priest . As an exception , the prefect came to Jerusalem during religious festivals , when religious and patriotic enthusiasm sometimes inspired unrest or uprisings . Gentile lands surrounded the Jewish territories of Judea and Galilee , but Roman law and practice allowed Jews to remain separate legally and culturally . Galilee was evidently prosperous , and poverty was limited enough that it did not threaten the social order . Jewish religion was unusual in that Jews acknowledged only one God , they considered themselves chosen by him , and they wanted Gentiles to accept their God as the only God . Jews based their faith and religious practice on the Torah , five books said to have been given by God to Moses . The three prominent religious parties were Pharisees , Essenes , and Sadducees . Together these parties represented only a small fraction of the population . Most Jews looked forward to a time that God would deliver them from their pagan rulers , possibly through war against the Romans .
= = = Chronology = = =
Most scholars agree that Jesus was a Galilean Jew , born around the beginning of the first century , who died between 30 and 33 AD in Judea . The general scholarly consensus is that Jesus was a contemporary of John the Baptist and was crucified by the Roman governor Pontius Pilate , who held office from 26 to 36 AD .
The gospels offer several clues concerning the year of Jesus ' birth . Matthew 2 : 1 associates the birth of Jesus with the reign of Herod the Great , who died around 4 BC , and Luke 1 : 5 mentions that Herod was on the throne shortly before the birth of Jesus , although this gospel also associates the birth with the Census of Quirinius which took place ten years later . Luke 3 : 23 states that Jesus was " about thirty years old " at the start of his ministry , which according to Acts 10 : 37 – 38 was preceded by John 's ministry , itself recorded in Luke 3 : 1 – 2 to have begun in the 15th year of Tiberius ' reign ( 28 or 29 AD ) . By collating the gospel accounts with historical data and using various other methods , most scholars arrive at a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC for Jesus , but some propose estimates that lie in a wider range .
The years of Jesus ' ministry have been estimated using several different approaches . One of these applies the reference in Luke 3 : 1 – 2 , Acts 10 : 37 – 38 and the dates of Tiberius ' reign , which are well known , to give a date of around 28 – 29 AD for the start of Jesus ' ministry . Another approach uses the statement about the temple in John 2 : 13 – 20 , which asserts that the temple in Jerusalem was in its 46th year of construction at the start of Jesus ' ministry , together with Josephus ' statement that the temple 's reconstruction was started by Herod in the 18th year of his reign , to estimate a date around 27 – 29 AD . A further method uses the date of the death of John the Baptist and the marriage of Herod Antipas to Herodias , based on the writings of Josephus , and correlates it with Matthew 14 : 4 and Mark 6 : 18 . Given that most scholars date the marriage of Herod and Herodias as AD 28 – 35 , this yields a date about 28 – 29 AD .
A number of approaches have been used to estimate the year of the crucifixion of Jesus . Most scholars agree that he died between 30 and 33 AD . The gospels state that the event occurred during the prefecture of Pilate , the Roman governor of Judea from 26 to 36 AD . The date for the conversion of Paul ( estimated to be 33 – 36 AD ) acts as an upper bound for the date of Crucifixion . The dates for Paul 's conversion and ministry can be determined by analyzing Paul 's epistles and the Book of Acts . Astronomers since Isaac Newton have tried to estimate the precise date of the Crucifixion by analyzing lunar motion and calculating historic dates of Passover , a festival based on the lunisolar Hebrew calendar . The most widely accepted dates derived from this method are April 7 , 30 AD , and April 3 , 33 AD ( both Julian ) .
= = = Historicity of events = = =
Historians have reached a limited consensus on the basics of Jesus ' life .
= = = = Family = = = =
Jesus was Jewish and born to Mary and Joseph . He grew up in Nazareth in Galilee . Leading scholars such as Bart Ehrman , E. P. Sanders , and Géza Vermes generally consider Joseph to be Jesus ' father . Jesus also had brothers and sisters . The natural assumption is these offspring resulted from Joseph and Mary having sex , contrary to Catholic tradition . It is unusual that in Mark 6 : 3 , Jesus ' neighbors refer to Jesus as Mary 's son , because sons were identified by their fathers . This reference has led some scholars to suggest that Jesus was illegitimate and that Joseph is a fictional character . Mary 's identity as a historical figure , however , is certain . Joseph may well have died by the time Jesus ' career began , but several of the earliest sources report that Mary outlived Jesus .
It is common for extraordinary charismatic leaders , such as Jesus , to come into conflict with their ordinary families . In Mark , Jesus ' family comes to get him , fearing that he is mad ( Mark 3 : 20 – 34 ) , and this account is likely historical because early Christians wouldn 't have invented it . John also reports that Jesus ' brothers did not believe him ( John 7 : 5 ) . After Jesus ' death , many members of his family joined the Christian movement and enjoyed positions of respect within it . His brother James served as a leader in the Jerusalem . James may have had a change of heart after having a vision of the resurrected Jesus ( 1 Corinthians 15 : 7 ) .
Stories of Jesus ' birth , along with other key events , have so many mythic elements that some scholars have suggested that Jesus himself was a myth . Historians say that the doctrine of Jesus ' virgin birth arose from theological development rather than from historical events . Michael Coogan says that Paul considered Jesus to have been conceived by Joseph . Other scholars take it as significant that the virgin birth is attested by two separate gospels , Matthew and Luke , ( see the criterion of multiple attestation ) .
The two different genealogies in Matthew and Luke each show Jesus as a direct descendant of King David , one of Jesus ' main predecessors in salvation history . According to E. P. Sanders , both genealogies are based not on historical information but on the authors ' desire to show that Jesus was the universal Jewish savior . Jesus ' family may have considered themselves to be descended from the House of David , but it is impossible to say . In any event , once the doctrine of Jesus ' virgin birth became established , that tradition superseded the earlier tradition that he was descended from David through Joseph .
Luke reports that Jesus was related to John the Baptist , but scholars general consider this connection to be invented .
= = = = Baptism and John the Baptist = = = =
Most modern scholars consider Jesus ' baptism to be a definite historical fact , along with his crucifixion . James D.G. Dunn states that they " command almost universal assent " and " rank so high on the ' almost impossible to doubt or deny ' scale of historical facts " that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus . Scholars adduce the criterion of embarrassment , saying that early Christians would not have invented a baptism that might imply that Jesus committed sins and wanted to repent .
John 's ministry was one of many renewal movements that sought to strengthen Judaism against the pressure of Hellenistic influence . His movement was unusual in that it opposed the Jewish leadership rather than the Roman occupiers . He was the first of many 1st @-@ century prophets who raised hopes for divine intervention . Jesus was inspired by John and took over from him many elements of his teaching . Jesus ' teaching , however , emphasized grace and forgiveness over judgment .
= = = = Ministry in Galilee = = = =
Most scholars hold that Jesus lived in Galilee and Judea and did not preach or study elsewhere . They agree that Jesus debated with Jewish authorities on the subject of God , performed some healings , taught in parables and gathered followers . According to E. P. Sanders , Jesus may well have debated other Jews about how to interpret the Law and the Sabbath , as recorded in the Synoptics . Sanders , however , concludes that it is not plausible that these disagreements would have led Jewish authorities to want Jesus killed , as the Synoptics report .
Jesus ' parables about the Kingdom of God used striking and original imagery , such as likening it to a tiny mustard seed or to leaven . Jesus ' Jewish critics considered his ministry to be scandalous because he feasted with sinners , fraternized with women , and allowed his followers to pluck grain on the Sabbath .
Jesus was an exorcist , as demonstrated by Graham H. Twelftree . The stories of Jesus exorcising demons occur only in the earliest traditions and were not added by later writers . While Jesus ' miracles fit within the social context of antiquity , he defined them differently . First , he attributed them to the faith of those healed . Second , he connected them to end times prophecy . Jesus ' healings were long considered literally true and sometimes dismissed as fraudulent , but today an understanding of psychosomatic therapy leads more people to believe that faith healing could be possible .
Historians say Jesus called disciples as part of his ministry . Jesus chose twelve disciples ( the " Twelve " ) , evidently as an apocalyptic message . All three Synoptics mention the Twelve , although the names on Luke 's list vary from those in Mark and Matthew , suggesting that Christians weren 't sure who all the disciples were . E. P. Sanders says that 12 may have been a symbolic number , and that the number of actual disciples might have varied . The twelve disciples represented the twelve original tribes of Israel , which would be restored once God 's rule was instituted . The disciples were reportedly meant to be the rulers of the tribes in the coming Kingdom ( Matthew 19 : 28 , Luke 22 : 30 ) . According to Bart Ehrman , Jesus ' promise that the Twelve would rule is historical because the Twelve included Judas , and no Christians would have invented a line from Jesus promising rulership to the disciple who betrayed him . In Mark , the disciples play hardly any role other than a negative one . While other sometimes respond to Jesus with complete faith , his disciples are puzzled and doubtful . They serve as a foil to Jesus and to other characters . The failings of the disciples are probably exaggerated in Mark , and the disciples make a better showing in Matthew and Luke .
= = = = Role = = = =
Jesus taught that an apocalyptic figure , the " Son of Man , " would soon come on clouds of glory to gather the elect , or chosen ones ( Mark 13 : 24 @-@ 27 , Matthew 24 : 29 @-@ 31 , Luke 21 : 25 @-@ 28 ) . He referred to himself as a " son of man " in the colloquial sense of " a person , " but historians don 't know whether he also meant himself when he referred to the heavenly " Son of Man . " Paul and other early Christians interpreted the " Son of Man " as the risen Jesus .
The title Christ , or Messiah , indicates that Jesus ' followers believed him to be the anointed heir of King David , whom some Jews expected to save Israel . The Gospels refer to him not only as a Messiah but in the absolute form as " the Messiah " or , equivalently , " the Christ . " In early Judaism , this absolute form of the title is not found , but only phrases such as " his Messiah " . The tradition is ambiguous enough to leave room for debate as to whether Jesus defined his eschatological role as that of the Messiah . The Jewish messianic tradition included many different forms , some of them focused on a Messiah figure and others not . Based on the Christian tradition , Gerd Theissen advances the hypothesis that Jesus saw himself in messianic terms but did not claim the title " Messiah . " Bart Ehrman argues that Jesus did consider himself to be the Messiah , albeit in the sense that he would be the king of the new political order that God would usher in , not in the sense that most people today think of the term .
= = = = Crucifixion in Jerusalem = = = =
Around AD 30 , Jesus and his followers traveled from Galilee to Jerusalem to observe Passover .. While in Jerusalem , Jesus caused a disturbance in the Temple , which was the center of Jewish religious and civil authority . He evidently had a last meal with his disciples , and then he was arrested and tried by the Jewish authorities .. Jesus was executed on the orders of Pontius Pilate , the Roman prefect ..
Most scholars consider Jesus ' crucifixion to be factual because early Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader . It is more likely that the Sadducean high @-@ priestly leaders of the Temple had Jesus executed for political reasons than for his teaching . They may have regarded him as a threat to stability , especially after he caused a disturbance at the Temple . Other factors , such as Jesus ' triumphal entry into Jerusalem , may have contributed to this decision . Pilate most likely saw Jesus ' reference to the Kingdom of God as a threat to Roman authority and worked with the Temple elites to have Jesus executed .
= = = = Post @-@ crucifixion = = = =
After Jesus ' death , his followers said he rose from the dead , although exact details of their experiences are unclear . Some of those who claimed to have witnessed Jesus ' resurrection later died for their belief , which indicates that their beliefs were likely genuine . According to E. P. Sanders , the Gospel reports contradict each other , which , according to him , suggests competition among those claiming to have seen him first rather than deliberate fraud . On the other hand , L. Michael White suggests that inconsistencies in the Gospels reflect differences in the agendas of their unknown authors . The followers of Jesus formed a community to wait for his return and the founding of his kingdom .
= = = Portraits of Jesus = = =
Modern research on the historical Jesus has not led to a unified picture of the historical figure , partly because of the variety of academic traditions represented by the scholars . Given the scarcity of historical sources , it is generally difficult for any scholar to construct a portrait of Jesus that can be considered historically valid beyond the basic elements of his life . The portraits of Jesus constructed in these quests often differ from each other , and from the image portrayed in the gospels .
Contemporary scholarship , representing the " third quest , " places Jesus firmly in the Jewish tradition . Leading scholars in the " third quest " include E. P. Sanders , Geza Vermes , Gerd Theissen , Christoph Burchard , and John Dominic Crossan . Jesus is seen as the founder of , in the words of E. P. Sanders , a ' " renewal movement within Judaism . " This scholarship suggests a continuity between Jesus ' life as a wandering charismatic and the same lifestyle carried forward by followers after his death . The main criterion used to discern historical details in the " third quest " is the criterion of plausibility , relative to Jesus ' Jewish context and to his influence on Christianity . The main disagreement in contemporary research is whether Jesus was apocalyptic . Most scholars conclude that he was an apocalyptic preacher , like John the Baptist and the apostle Paul . In contrast , certain prominent North American scholars , such as Burton Mack and John Dominic Crossan , advocate for a non @-@ eschatological Jesus , one who is more of a Cynic sage than an apocalyptic preacher . In addition to portraying Jesus as an apocalyptic prophet , a charismatic healer or a cynic philosopher , some scholars portray him as the true Messiah or an egalitarian prophet of social change . However , the attributes described in the portraits sometimes overlap , and scholars who differ on some attributes sometimes agree on others .
Since the 18th century , scholars have occasionally put forth that Jesus was a political national messiah , but the evidence for this portrait is negligible . Likewise , the proposal that Jesus was a Zealot does not fit with the earliest strata of the Synoptic tradition .
= = = Language , ethnicity , and appearance = = =
Jesus grew up in Galilee and much of his ministry took place there . The languages spoken in Galilee and Judea during the first century AD include Jewish Palestinian Aramaic , Hebrew , and Greek , with Aramaic being predominant . There is substantial consensus that Jesus gave most of his teachings in Aramaic .
Modern scholars agree that Jesus was a Jew of first @-@ century Palestine . Ioudaios in New Testament Greek is a term which in the contemporary context may refer to religion ( Second Temple Judaism ) , ethnicity ( of Judea ) , or both . In a review of the state of modern scholarship , Amy @-@ Jill Levine writes that the entire question of ethnicity is " fraught with difficulty , " and that " beyond recognizing that ' Jesus was Jewish ' , rarely does the scholarship address what being ' Jewish ' means " .
The New Testament gives no description of the physical appearance of Jesus before his death — it is generally indifferent to racial appearances and does not refer to the features of the people it mentions . Jesus probably looked like a typical Jew of his time and according to some scholars was likely to have had a sinewy appearance due to his ascetic and itinerant lifestyle .
= = = Christ myth theory = = =
The Christ myth theory is the hypothesis that Jesus of Nazareth never existed ; or if he did , that he had virtually nothing to do with the founding of Christianity and the accounts in the gospels . Bruno Bauer ( 1809 – 1882 ) taught that the first Gospel was a work of literature that produced history rather than described it . According to Albert Kalthoff ( 1850 – 1906 ) a social movement produced Jesus when it encountered Jewish messianic expectations . Arthur Drews ( 1865 – 1935 ) saw Jesus as the concrete form of a myth that predated Christianity . Despite arguments put forward by authors who have questioned the existence of a historical Jesus , there remains a strong consensus in historical @-@ critical biblical scholarship that a historical Jesus did live in that area and in that time period .
= = Perspectives = =
Apart from his own disciples and followers , the Jews of Jesus ' day generally rejected him as the Messiah , as do the great majority of Jews today . Christian theologians , ecumenical councils , reformers and others have written extensively about Jesus over the centuries . Christian sects and schisms have often been defined or characterized by their descriptions of Jesus . Meanwhile , Manichaeans , Gnostics , Muslims , Baha 'is , and others have found prominent places for Jesus in their religions . Jesus has also had detractors , both past and present .
= = = Christian = = =
Jesus is the central figure of Christianity . Although Christian views of Jesus vary , it is possible to summarize the key beliefs shared among major denominations , as stated in their catechetical or confessional texts . Christian views of Jesus are derived from various sources , including the canonical gospels and New Testament letters such as the Pauline epistles and the Johannine writings . These documents outline the key beliefs held by Christians about Jesus , including his divinity , humanity , and earthly life , and that he is the Christ and the Son of God . Despite their many shared beliefs , not all Christian denominations agree on all doctrines , and both major and minor differences on teachings and beliefs have persisted throughout Christianity for centuries .
The New Testament states that the resurrection of Jesus is the foundation of the Christian faith ( 1 Corinthians 15 : 12 – 20 ) . Christians believe that through his sacrificial death and resurrection , humans can be reconciled with God and are thereby offered salvation and the promise of eternal life . Recalling the words of John the Baptist on the day after Jesus ' baptism , these doctrines sometimes refer to Jesus as the Lamb of God , who was crucified to fulfill his role as the servant of God . Jesus is thus seen as the new and last Adam , whose obedience contrasts with Adam 's disobedience . Christians view Jesus as a role model , whose God @-@ focused life believers are encouraged to imitate .
Most Christians believe that Jesus was both human and the Son of God . While there has been theological debate over his nature , Some early Christians viewed Jesus as subordinate to the Father , and others considered him an aspect of the Father rather than a separate person . The Church resolved the issues in ancient councils , which established the Holy Trinity , with Jesus both fully human and fully God . Trinitarian Christians generally believe that Jesus is the Logos , God 's incarnation and God the Son , both fully divine and fully human . However , the doctrine of the Trinity is not universally accepted among Christians . With the Protestant Reformation , Christians such as Michael Servetus and the Socinians started questioning the ancient creeds that had established Jesus ' two natures . Nontrinitarian Christian groups include The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints , Unitarians and Jehovah 's Witnesses .
Christians revere not only Jesus himself , but also his name . Devotions to the Holy Name of Jesus go back to the earliest days of Christianity . These devotions and feasts exist in both Eastern and Western Christianity .
In the 20th century , Protestant groups became sharply divided in terms of how much they support historical and critical inquiry into the person of Jesus . Protestant denominations allow some such investigation but differ in how far the investigation may go . The Roman Catholic Church drew definite limits , and Catholic scholars have engaged in considerable critical study within those limits . Some liberal theologians have come to doubt miracles such as the virgin birth .
= = = Jewish = = =
Judaism rejects the idea of Jesus being God , or a mediator to God , or part of a Trinity . It holds that Jesus is not the Messiah , arguing that he neither fulfilled the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh nor embodied the personal qualifications of the Messiah . According to Jewish tradition , there were no prophets after Malachi , who delivered his prophesies in the fifth century BC . Although currently disputed , David Flusser offers the Pharisee , Joshua b . Perahyah , as a possible rabbi of Jesus , but likens his social outlook to that of the Essenes and his prophetic stance to that of John the Baptist .
Judaic criticism of Jesus is long @-@ standing . The Talmud , written and compiled from the third to the fifth century AD , includes stories that since medieval times have been considered to be defamatory accounts of Jesus . In one such story , Yeshu ha @-@ nozri ( " Jesus the Christian " ) , a lewd apostate , is executed by the Jewish high court for spreading idolatry and practicing magic . The majority of contemporary historians consider that this material provides no information on the historical Jesus . The Mishneh Torah , a late 12th @-@ century work of Jewish law written by Moses Maimonides , states that Jesus is a " stumbling block " who makes " the majority of the world to err and serve a god other than the Lord " .
= = = Islamic = = =
A major figure in Islam , Jesus ( commonly transliterated as ʾĪsā ) is considered to be a messenger of God ( Allah ) and the Messiah ( al @-@ Masih ) who was sent to guide the Children of Israel ( Bani Isra 'il ) with a new scripture , the Gospel ( referred to in Islam as Injil ) . Muslims regard the gospels of the New Testament as inauthentic , and believe that Jesus ' original message was lost or altered and that Muhammad came later to restore it . Belief in Jesus ( and all other messengers of God ) is a requirement for being a Muslim . The Quran mentions Jesus by name 25 times — more often than Muhammad — and emphasizes that Jesus was a mortal human who , like all other prophets , had been divinely chosen to spread God 's message . While the Qur 'an acknowledges the Virgin birth of Jesus , He is considered to be neither the incarnation nor the son of God . Islamic texts emphasize a strict notion of monotheism ( tawhid ) and forbid the association of partners with God , which would be idolatry . Like all prophets in Islam , Jesus is considered a Muslim .
The Quran describes the annunciation to Mary ( Maryam ) by an angel that she is to give birth to Jesus while remaining a virgin . It calls the virgin birth a miracle that occurred by the will of God . The Quran ( 21 : 91 and 66 : 12 ) states that God breathed his spirit into Mary while she was chaste . Jesus is called the " Spirit of God " because he was born through the action of the Spirit , but that belief does not imply his pre @-@ existence .
To aid in his ministry to the Jewish people , Jesus was given the ability to perform miracles , by permission of God rather than by his own power . Through his ministry , Jesus is seen as a precursor to Muhammad . According to the Quran , Jesus was not crucified but was merely made to appear that way to unbelievers by Allah , who physically raised Jesus into the heavens . To Muslims , it is the ascension rather than the crucifixion that constitutes a major event in the life of Jesus . Most Muslims believe that Jesus will return to earth at the end of time and defeat the Antichrist ( ad @-@ Dajjal ) by killing him in Lud .
The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community has several distinct teachings about Jesus . Ahmadis believe that he was a mortal man who survived his crucifixion and died a natural death at the age of 120 in Kashmir , India .
= = = Bahá 'í = = =
Bahá 'í teachings consider Jesus to be a manifestation of God , a Bahá 'í concept for prophets — intermediaries between God and humanity , serving as messengers and reflecting God 's qualities and attributes . The Bahá 'í concept emphasizes the simultaneous qualities of humanity and divinity ; thus , it is similar to the Christian concept of incarnation . Bahá 'í thought accepts Jesus as the Son of God . In Bahá 'í thought , Jesus was a perfect incarnation of God 's attributes , but Bahá 'í teachings reject the idea that " ineffable essence " of the Divinity was contained within a single human body because of their beliefs regarding " omnipresence and transcendence of the essence of God " .
Bahá 'u'lláh , the founder of the Bahá 'í Faith , wrote that since each manifestation of God has the same divine attributes , they can be seen as the spiritual " return " of all previous manifestations of God , and the appearance of each new manifestation of God inaugurates a religion that supersedes the former ones , a concept known as progressive revelation . Bahá 'ís believe that God 's plan unfolds gradually through this process as mankind matures , and that some of the manifestations arrive in specific fulfillment of the missions of previous ones . Thus , Bahá 'ís believe that Bahá 'u'lláh is the promised return of Christ . Bahá 'í teachings confirm many , but not all , aspects of Jesus as portrayed in the gospels . Bahá 'ís believe in the virgin birth and in the Crucifixion , but see the Resurrection and the miracles of Jesus as symbolic .
= = = Other = = =
In Christian Gnosticism ( now a largely extinct religious movement ) , Jesus was sent from the divine realm and provided the secret knowledge ( gnosis ) necessary for salvation . Most Gnostics believed that Jesus was a human who became possessed by the spirit of " the Christ " at his baptism . This spirit left Jesus ' body during the crucifixion , but was rejoined to him when he was raised from the dead . Some Gnostics , however , were docetics , believed that Jesus did not have a physical body , but only appeared to possess one . Manichaeism , a Gnostic sect , accepted Jesus as a prophet , in addition to revering Gautama Buddha and Zoroaster .
Some Hindus consider Jesus to be an avatar or a sadhu and point out similarities between Krishna and Jesus ' teachings . Paramahansa Yogananda , an Indian guru , taught that Jesus was the reincarnation of Elisha and a student of John the Baptist , the reincarnation of Elijah . Some Buddhists , including Tenzin Gyatso , the 14th Dalai Lama , regard Jesus as a bodhisattva who dedicated his life to the welfare of people . Disciples of the Cao Đài religion worship Jesus Christ as a major religious teacher . He is revealed during communication with Divine Beings as the spirit of their Supreme Being ( God the Father ) together with other major religious teachers and founders like the Gautama Buddha , Laozi , and Confucius . The New Age movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus . Theosophists , from whom many New Age teachings originated , refer to Jesus as the Master Jesus and believe that Christ , after various incarnations , occupied the body of Jesus . Scientologists recognize Jesus ( along with other religious figures such as Zoroaster , Muhammad , and Buddha ) as part of their " religious heritage " . Atheists reject Jesus ' divinity , but not all hold a negative estimation of him ; Richard Dawkins , for instance , refers to Jesus as " a great moral teacher " , while stating in his book The God Delusion that Jesus is praiseworthy because he did not derive his ethics from biblical scripture .
Jesus had detractors , both past and present , as well . Early critics of Jesus and Christianity included Celsus in the second century and Porphyry in the third . In the 19th century , Nietzsche was highly critical of Jesus , whose teachings he considered to be " anti @-@ nature " in their treatment of topics such as sexuality . Other notable modern critics of Jesus include Sita Ram Goel , Christopher Hitchens , Bertrand Russell , and Dayananda Saraswati . In the 20th century , Russell wrote in Why I Am Not a Christian that Jesus was " not so wise as some other people have been , and He was certainly not superlatively wise " . Russell called Jesus ’ vindictive nature a defect in his moral character in that Jesus in the Gospels believed in the everlasting punishment of hell , which Russell felt that no one who is " really profoundly humane can believe in " . Russell also notes a repeated " vindictive fury against those people who would not listen to His preaching " which he felt " detract [ s ] from superlative excellence " .
= = Depictions = =
Some of the earliest depictions of Jesus at the Dura @-@ Europos church are firmly dated to before 256 . Thereafter , despite the lack of biblical references or historical records , a wide range of depictions of Jesus appeared during the last two millennia , often influenced by cultural settings , political circumstances and theological contexts . As in other Early Christian art , the earliest depictions date to the late second or early third century , and surviving images are found especially in the Catacombs of Rome .
The depiction of Christ in pictorial form was highly controversial in the early church . From the 5th century onward , flat painted icons became popular in the Eastern Church . The Byzantine Iconoclasm acted as a barrier to developments in the East , but by the ninth century , art was permitted again . The Transfiguration was a major theme in Eastern Christian art , and every Eastern Orthodox monk who had trained in icon painting had to prove his craft by painting an icon depicting it . Icons receive the external marks of veneration , such as kisses and prostration , and they are thought to be powerful channels of divine grace .
Before the Protestant Reformation , the crucifix was common in Western Christianity . It is a model of the cross with Jesus crucified on it . The crucifix became the central ornament of the altar in the 13th century , a use that has been nearly universal in Roman Catholic churches until recent times .
Jesus appears as an infant in a manger ( feed trough ) in Christmas creches , which depict the Nativity scene . He is typically joined by Mary , Joseph , animals , shepherds , angels , and the Magi . Francis of Assisi ( 1181 / 82 – 1226 ) is credited with popularizing the creche , although he probably did not initiate it . The creche reached its height of popularity in the 17th and 18th centuries in southern Europe .
The Renaissance brought forth a number of artists who focused on depictions of Jesus ; Fra Angelico and others followed Giotto in the systematic development of uncluttered images .
The Protestant Reformation brought renewed resistance to imagery , but total prohibition was atypical , and Protestant objections to images have tended to reduce since the 16th century . Although large images are generally avoided , few Protestants now object to book illustrations depicting Jesus . The use of depictions of Jesus is advocated by the leaders of denominations such as Anglicans and Catholics and is a key element of the Eastern Orthodox tradition .
= = Associated relics = =
The total destruction that ensued with the siege of Jerusalem by the Romans in AD 70 made the survival of items from first century Judea very rare and almost no direct records survive about the history of Judaism from the last part of the first century through the second century . Margaret M. Mitchell writes that although Eusebius reports ( Ecclesiastical History III 5 @.@ 3 ) that the early Christians left Jerusalem for Pella just before Jerusalem was subjected to the final lock down , we must accept that no first hand Christian items from the early Jerusalem Church have reached us . However , throughout the history of Christianity a number of relics attributed to Jesus have been claimed , although doubt has been cast on them . The 16th @-@ century Catholic theologian Erasmus wrote sarcastically about the proliferation of relics and the number of buildings that could have been constructed from the wood claimed to be from the cross used in the Crucifixion . Similarly , while experts debate whether Jesus was crucified with three nails or with four , at least thirty holy nails continue to be venerated as relics across Europe .
Some relics , such as purported remnants of the Crown of Thorns , receive only a modest number of pilgrims , while the Shroud of Turin ( which is associated with an approved Catholic devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus ) , have received millions , including popes John Paul II and Benedict XVI . There is no scholarly consensus in favor for the authenticity of any relic attributed to Jesus .
= = = Explanatory = = =
= Simpsoncalifragilisticexpiala ( Annoyed Grunt ) cious =
" Simpsoncalifragilisticexpiala ( Annoyed Grunt ) cious " , is the thirteenth episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 7 , 1997 . After Marge becomes stressed , the Simpsons hire a new nanny , a Mary Poppins parody , Shary Bobbins ( voiced by Maggie Roswell ) , who tries to help them become better people . It was directed by Chuck Sheetz and was written and executive produced by Al Jean and Mike Reiss . It would also prove to be the last episode for which Mike Reiss received a writing credit . In 2014 , Al Jean selected it as one of five essential episodes in the show 's history .
= = Plot = =
After discovering that she is losing hair at an alarming rate , Marge visits Dr. Hibbert , who informs her that stress is the cause . The Simpson family decides to hire a nanny who can help clean the house and take care of the children . They start interviewing candidates , but none of them are right for the job ( as Homer believes every candidate is a man in drag , à la Mrs. Doubtfire ) . Bart and Lisa sing a song about what they would consider to be the perfect nanny , and their wishes are answered when a woman with an umbrella glides down from the sky and introduces herself as Shary Bobbins , an obvious parody of Mary Poppins , which she vehemently denies . She seems perfect and is immediately hired .
Shary Bobbins proves to be very helpful for the Simpson family , helping the kids clean their rooms , singing them to sleep , and even making Mr. Burns happy . Marge recovers from her stress , and her hair returns to normal . The next day , as the reformed Simpsons sit down to a perfect dinner , Shary Bobbins declares that her work is finished and leaves the house . Just as she is starting to miss the Simpson family , she sees Homer strangling Bart as they are smashed through the living room window , Maggie attempting to put out a fire , and Marge losing her hair again ; the family has instantly reverted to its previous state of dysfunction . Shary realizes that she must stay .
The family now starts to treat her rudely and lose interest in her songs and zest for life . Declaring that the Simpsons would be the death of her , she becomes depressed and starts drinking ( while singing " Margaritaville " ) with Barney . The family realizes that they have " crushed her gentle spirit " , and Marge admits to Shary that nothing can be done to change the Simpsons ; through song , the family state that they are happy just the way they are . Shary accepts this , and leaves using her magical umbrella . As Shary glides away , Lisa asks whether they will see her again , and Homer is positive that they will ; both unaware that behind them , Shary is sucked into a jet engine .
= = Production = =
Although the majority of the season eight episodes were executive produced by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein , former executive producers Al Jean and Mike Reiss had signed a deal with Disney that allowed them to produce four episodes of The Simpsons . The idea for this episode originated several years before its airdate when Jean and Reiss were the regular showrunners . The idea was pitched at a writers ' retreat by Al Jean , but nobody had wanted to flesh it out . After being allowed to come back to produce some Simpsons episodes , Jean and Reiss decided to write this episode . At first , Mike Reiss was against the episode and had felt that it was a bad idea . He felt that the plot was slightly ridiculous and that the show should not feature any magic ; except for a few moments , he largely kept magic out of the episode . He now considers it one of the best liked episodes that he co @-@ wrote .
At the time , " Simpsoncalifragilisticexpiala ( Annoyed Grunt ) cious " had more music in it than any other episode . While writing , Jean thought that the songs would stretch out and make the episode the proper length , but it was considerably shorter than required . Several additional scenes , such as the Itchy & Scratchy segment , were added to pad out the episode . There was originally a sequence where Bart , Lisa and Shary Bobbins visit Patty and Selma who sing " We Love to Smoke " , a parody of " I Love to Laugh " . The song was cut because it wasn 't getting any laughs , but the full version was included on the album Go Simpsonic with The Simpsons and a brief animated version was included as a deleted scene on the Season 8 DVD . During the end song , Homer can be seen dancing along but not singing ; this was because the producers forgot to record Dan Castellaneta .
Many of the scenes were animated by Eric Stefani , a former member of No Doubt , who specialized in animation for musical numbers .
= = = Casting = = =
Julie Andrews ( who portrayed the titular role in Mary Poppins ) was originally slated to appear in the episode as Shary Bobbins , but in the end , the producers went with series regular Maggie Roswell after hearing Roswell 's reading for the part .
Quentin Tarantino was also asked to guest star , but he did not want to deliver the lines required , believing them to be insulting . Instead , regular Dan Castellaneta did the voice . Tarantino now regularly wears a " bootleg Itchy & Scratchy T @-@ shirt , " which was made by a Simpsons / Tarantino fan , Lisa S. Amsell and given to him in 2001 at the Egyptian Theatre in Hollywood during a screening of Pulp Fiction .
= = Cultural references = =
The plot of the episode is a reference to Mary Poppins ; Shary Bobbins is based on the character Mary Poppins and the episode title is a spoof of the word " Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious . " Several songs are also direct parodies of songs from the film , including " The Perfect Nanny " , " The Life I Lead " , " A Spoonful of Sugar " , " Feed the Birds " and a deleted scene featured Patty and Selma singing their version of " I Love to Laugh " . The montage of Marge losing her hair features the song " Hair " from the musical Hair ( though the version heard is The Cowsills version ) . Homer says he has seen Mrs. Doubtfire and believes that some of the candidates for the role of nanny are men in drag . Homer 's imagination is a parody of the dancing characters in Steamboat Willie and features the song " Turkey in the Straw " . While walking in the park , Groundskeeper Willie ( dressed like Bert in Mary Poppins ) is seen singing a cover version of " Maniac " by Michael Sembello . The scene where Principal Skinner attempts to sell Jimbo is a reference to a similar scene in the story Oliver Twist . The Itchy & Scratchy short " Reservoir Cats " is a parody of the scene in Reservoir Dogs where Mr. Blonde cuts off the ear of the police officer . The sequence features the same setting , camera angles and same music — " Stuck in the Middle With You " by Stealers Wheel . At the end , Itchy and Scratchy dance in a manner similar to that seen in the film Pulp Fiction . Shary Bobbins and Barney Gumble sing a drunken rendition of Jimmy Buffett 's " Margaritaville " , with Barney wearing an aloha shirt and shaking salt in his mouth after finding the " lost shaker of salt " .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Simpsoncalifragilisticexpiala ( Annoyed Grunt ) cious " finished 38th in ratings for the week of February 3 – 9 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 8 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 5 million viewing households . It was the third @-@ highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ files and King of the Hill .
Alf Clausen received an Emmy Award nomination for " Outstanding Music Direction " for this episode .
In 2014 , The Simpsons writers picked " Reservoir Cats " from this episode as one of their nine favorite " Itchy & Stratchy " episodes of all time .
= Alberto Henschel =
Alberto Henschel ( 13 June 1827 – 30 June 1882 ) was a German @-@ Brazilian photographer born in Berlin . Considered the hardest @-@ working photographer and businessman in 19th @-@ century Brazil , with offices in Pernambuco , Bahia , Rio de Janeiro , and São Paulo , Henschel was also responsible for the presence of other professional photographers in the country , including his compatriot Karl Ernst Papf — with whom he later worked .
Henschel became known for making pictorial representations of Rio de Janeiro as a landscaper photographer and for being an excellent portraitist . He earned the title of Photographo da Casa Imperial ( Photographer of the Royal House ) , allowing him to photograph the everyday life of the Brazilian monarchy during the Reign of Pedro II , even photographing the emperor Dom Pedro II and his family . This title would give his photographs increased recognition and raise their price .
But his principal contribution to the history of Brazilian photography is his photographic record of the different social classes in Brazil in the 19th century : portraits , usually in the carte de visite format , taken of the nobility , of rich tradesmen , of the middle @-@ class , and of black people , either slaves or free , in a period before the Lei Áurea .
= = Antecedents = =
As soon as the first world maps showing Brazil were printed in the Renaissance era of Albrecht Dürer , the recently discovered country aroused the interest of the German public . Among the first attractions were the enthusiastic descriptions and illustrations of the Indians , the exotic landscapes , the abundance of wild animals and the new species of plants first conveyed in the works of Hans Staden . This was followed by the writings of adventurers and scientists such as Johann Baptist Emanuel Pohl , author of Viagem no Interior do Brasil , Empreendida nos Anos de 1817 a 1821 e Publicada por Ordem de Sua Majestade o Imperador da Áustria Francisco Primeiro ( Voyage in the Interior of Brazil . Launched in the Years of 1817 to 1821 and Published by the Order of His Majesty the Emperor of Austria Franscisco First ) , in which he describes his journey through the country with wonder and enthusiasm , his words accompanied by luxuriant illustrations . About Rio de Janeiro , Pohl wrote :
If some place in the New World deserves , for its location and natural conditions , to become one day a theater of big events , a center of civilization and culture , an emporium of worldwide commerce , it is , in my opinion , Rio de Janeiro . I cannot , here , repress this observation . Willingly hovers the fantasy on the future of such charming country , that is at present little developed and , so to speak , does not have a past .
— Johann Emmanuel Pohl
Certainly these narrations and illustrations were the principal attractions for those German photographers of the 19th century that moved to Brazil , such as Revert Henrique Klumb , Augusto Stahl , Karl Ernst Papf , and Alberto Henschel .
= = Life = =
= = = In Germany = = =
Alberto Henschel was born 13 June 1827 in Berlin to Moritz and Helene Henschel . Moritz and his brothers August , Friedrich , and Wilhelm , of Jewish origin , had arrived in Berlin around 1806 . They were recognized as engravers and signed their works as the Henschel Brothers . There are no records of Alberto Henschel 's person or professional life in Germany or his reasons for emigrating to Brazil .
It has been assumed that Alberto Henschel also met the photographer Francisco Benque while still in Germany , with whom he had a successful , but short @-@ lived , relationship in Brazil .
= = = In Brazil = = =
= = = = 1860s = = = =
Henschel and his associate Karl Heinrich Gutzlaff disembarked in Recife in May 1866 , intending to create a photographic studio on Imperador street , number 38 . Initially named Alberto Henschel & Cia , the studio became Photographia Allemã ( German Photography ) , next changing to a new address on the Matriz de Santo Antônio square , number 2 . Because he was able to build up his business quickly when he came , it is assumed that Henschel was already an experienced photographer and intended to build a promising business in photography in this new market that was still so little explored .
In 1867 , Henschel separated from Gutzlaff and returned to Germany where he updated his technique and acquired new equipment for his atelier of photography . He returned to Brazil in the same year , opening another establishment with the same company name in the city of Salvador , on Piedade street , number 16 . By opening three establishments in only two years , Henschel was thought of as the most audacious and sagacious photographic businessman in 19th century Brazil .
By the end of the 1860s , Henschel 's houses of Recife and Salvador were already making portraits of people of African origin , slaves and free , differing from other photographers by portraying them freely and with dignity as people and not as objects .
= = = = 1870s = = = =
In 1870 , Henschel opened another subsidiary of his atelier , this time in Rio de Janeiro , on Ourives street ( nowadays Miguel Couto street , number 40 ) . It was in Rio , capital of the Empire , where he started his prosperous partnership with Francisco Benque . With the name of Henschel & Benque , it specialized in the production and marketing of portraits , landscapes , and the photopaintings made by Karl Ernst Papf , whose presence in Brazil was due to Henschel . There are no records dating when the relationship with Benque crumbled ; it is probable that their association remained until 1880 .
Because of the quality of his work and his success in the Court , Henschel received the title of Photographo da Casa Imperial ( Photographer of the Royal House ) on 7 September 1874 , together with Benque , which would give his photographs increased recognition and raise their price . The historian photographer Gilberto Ferrez describes the quality and importance of Henschel as follows :
Henschel photographed Rio and its surroundings [ ... ] . He made landscapes , but above all he was a distinguished portraitist . There is almost no family album where no portraits of grandparents were done by Alberto Henschel .
Henschel participated in many exhibitions of photographs , standing out in the exposition of the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts in 1872 and 1875 , for which he received the Gold Medal in the first edition . He also participated in the IV National Exposition and the Universal Exposition of Vienna , in Austria , where he received the Merit Medal .
= = = = 1880s = = = =
On 1 February 1882 , Henschel inaugurated another establishment , this time in the capital of the province of São Paulo . He gave it the name Photographia Imperial ( Imperial Photography ) because the name Photographia Allemã had already been used since 1875 by the atelier of the photographer Carlos Hoenen . His arrival in São Paulo was considered important because , besides being holder of the prestigious title of Photographo da Casa Imperial , he came directly from the Court . The newspaper A Província de São Paulo ( currently O Estado de S. Paulo ) , while describing with minimal details the new atelier in its inaugural day edition , related the enthusiasm with which Henschel was received by the residents of São Paulo .
Henschel died in Rio de Janeiro that same year , only some months after establishing himself in São Paulo . However , his companies , under the command of other businessmen , continued to strategically use his name for many years , taking advantage of the great prestige that the mark " Henschel " had acquired .
= = Technique = =
Henschel was considered the hardest @-@ working photographer and businessman in 19th @-@ century Brazil . He always remained up @-@ to @-@ date with the latest techniques on the photography market . By the time the aesthetic format of photography carte de visite became popular , Henschel was already dominating this technique which he used frequently in his establishments .
His studios possessed the latest equipment appropriate for the instantaneous portraits of children who , never still , were the headaches of the photographers . In his announcement in the Novo Almanach de São Paulo para o Anno de 1883 ( New Almanac of São Paulo for the Year of 1883 ) , Henschel advertised :
This establishment just received from Europe the negatives for the new process of instantaneous photographies that have so much success there . Through these chichets one can obtain a more perfect portrait of a moving child , of nervous people ... The public is invited to come examine in the establishment some portraits obtained by the new process .
The new process referred to in the announcement was the use of dry slabs of transparent gelatin , used as an adhesive layer for the fixation of the silver salts over the paper .
He photographed all the different social classes of Brazil in the 19th century . Besides the Brazilian monarchy and black people , he also photographed the nobility , the rich tradesmen and their families , and the white middle @-@ class .
= Trachylepis tschudii =
Trachylepis tschudii is an enigmatic skink , purportedly from Peru . First described in 1845 on the basis of a single specimen , it may be the same as the Noronha skink ( T. atlantica ) from Fernando de Noronha , off northeastern Brazil . T. tschudii represents one of two doubtful records of the otherwise African genus Trachylepis on mainland South America ; the other is T. maculata from Guyana .
The only specimen , the holotype , is mostly brownish above , with dark and light spots , and white below . The snout @-@ to @-@ vent length is 83 mm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) . Several features of the scales align it with Trachylepis over the related American genus Mabuya .
= = Taxonomy = =
In 1845 , Swiss zoologist Johann Jakob von Tschudi described the new species Trachylepis ( Xystrolepis ) punctata among other species he had collected in Peru . The species was recorded as being from the " forest region " ( Amazonia ) of Peru and was known from a single specimen , the holotype . In 1887 , G.A. Boulenger placed it at an uncertain position within the genus Mabuia , which included Tschudi 's Trachylepis . In a 1907 reappraisal of some of Tschudi 's reptiles and amphibians , J. Roux redescribed punctata under the name " Mabuia punctata " , but did not comment on its affinities . In 1935 , E.R. Dunn reviewed some American Mabuya and commented that he was unable to tell the identity of punctata , but that it probably was not a true Mabuya .
Writing in 1946 , H. Travassos considered Tschudi 's punctata to be identical to the Noronha sk | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
3 @.@ 3 in ) , head length 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) , head width 6 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 26 in ) , length of the body 33 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) , length of the forelimb 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) , length of the hindlimb 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) , and length of the ( incomplete ) tail 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) .
= Operation Coburg =
Operation Coburg ( 24 January − 1 March 1968 ) was an Australian and New Zealand military action during the Vietnam War . The operation saw heavy fighting between the 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) and North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong during the wider fighting around Long Binh and Bien Hoa . American and South Vietnamese intelligence reports had indicated that an imminent communist offensive during the Tet New Year festival was likely , and in response the Australians and New Zealanders were deployed away from their base in Phuoc Tuy Province to bolster American and South Vietnamese forces defending the Long Binh – Bien Hoa complex north @-@ east of Saigon . 1 ATF deliberately established fire support bases astride the communist lines of communication in the vicinity of the village of Trang Bom , expecting that they would attempt to destroy them . The Australians subsequently clashed with the Viet Cong during early patrols in Area of Operations ( AO ) Columbus , while later Fire Support Base ( FSB ) Andersen was repeatedly subjected to major ground assaults .
Although the operation was mounted too late to prevent the attacks on Saigon , the Australians and New Zealanders successfully disrupted the communist lines of communication , limiting their freedom of manoeuvre to attack the Long Binh – Bien Hoa complex , while they were also able to successfully interdict their withdrawal , causing heavy casualties . The operation was also significant as it was the first deployment of 1 ATF outside its Tactical Area of Responsibility ( TAOR ) in Phuoc Tuy , and in this it set a precedent for later operations outside the province . Meanwhile , the remaining Australian forces in Phuoc Tuy Province also successfully repelled repeated Viet Cong attacks against Ba Ria and Long Dien , as part of the Tet Offensive that had engulfed population centres across South Vietnam .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
At 18 : 00 on 29 January 1968 , South Vietnamese forces began a 36 @-@ hour ceasefire in celebration of the arrival of the Year of the Monkey . Earlier , the communists had declared a seven @-@ day ceasefire as part of the Tet festival , that was normally a period of truce and for community gatherings and family reunions in Vietnamese society . However , unbeknown to the South Vietnamese and their allies , the North Vietnamese leadership had decided to use the cease @-@ fire to launch a large offensive in the south in order to break the deadlock that had developed in the conflict — despite the reluctance of Democratic Republic of Vietnam President Ho Chi Minh and Defence Minister General Vo Nguyen Giap .
Primarily the brainchild of General Nguyen Chi Thanh , the upcoming offensive would be timed to provoke a popular general uprising among the South Vietnamese people against the government and its American supporters . Yet prudence required that the South Vietnamese maintain 50 per cent of their forces on standby , while American and allied forces under General William Westmoreland — the Free World Military Forces — remained on full alert . However , despite such measures the fighting at Khe Sanh had largely succeeded in diverting American resources and attention away from Saigon and towards the demilitarized zone , affording the communists the element of surprise .
Meanwhile , after a number of Viet Cong units mistakenly began the planned offensive against South Vietnam a day early — attacking several towns in I and II Corps on the morning of 30 January — the President of the Republic of Vietnam , Nguyen Van Thieu , subsequently cancelled the ceasefire . Regardless , the offensive proper began in the early hours of 31 January when 85 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops simultaneously assaulted population centres and allied installations across South Vietnam . US and South Vietnamese intelligence reports of the impending attacks had afforded some forewarning , and although failures had caught some allied units unprepared , they did not come as a complete surprise . Indeed , the growing threat had earlier prompted Lieutenant General Frederick Weyand , commander of III Corps Tactical Zone , to request the use of the 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) — now at full strength with three infantry battalions and support arms — outside of their usual base in Phuoc Tuy Province in order to defend the vital bases in the Long Binh – Bien Hoa complex north @-@ east of Saigon . The request was subsequently approved , although the Australians only agreed on the basis that one of their battalions — 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 3 RAR ) — would remain at Nui Dat to secure it in case of attack .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Opposing forces = = =
On 24 January 1968 , 1 ATF headquarters under the command of Brigadier Ron Hughes inserted by air into their new area of operations , between Bien Hoa and Long Khanh provinces east of Bien Hoa , approximately 55 kilometres ( 34 mi ) from Nui Dat . Initially the force would consist of two battalions — 2 RAR / NZ ( ANZAC ) and 7 RAR — with armour from A Squadron , 3rd Cavalry Regiment , 105 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) M2A2 Howitzers from 106th Battery and 108th Battery , 4th Field Regiment , Royal Australian Artillery , as well as aviation assets in support ; while later elements of 3 RAR would also be committed . Coincidentally they would be operating in the same area that 1 RAR had fought in as part of the US 173rd Airborne Brigade in November 1965 . On that occasion 1 RAR had encountered heavy resistance in a series of bunker systems protecting key communist supply lines at Gang Toi . This time 1 ATF would establish itself astride the communist 's lines of communication in the expectation of provoking an aggressive response from the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong . Within days the Australians would establish a fire support base in order to deny the communists access to suitable sites for launching 122 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 8 in ) rocket attacks on the important allied bases and installations in the Long Binh – Bien Hoa complex , including the airbase at Bien Hoa and the large Long Binh Logistics Depot .
As part of the plan to protect these bases a combined US @-@ Australian force would establish a screen to interdict movement along the northern approaches to Long Binh – Bien Hoa . 1 ATF was subsequently allocated the north @-@ eastern sector , into a new area of operations named AO Columbus . Only sparsely inhabited , AO Columbus was situated east of Long Binh between Highway 1 to the south , and the Song Dong Nai river to the north . Rectangular in shape , it measured 26 kilometres ( 16 mi ) from east to west and 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) from north to south . The west of the AO was mainly covered in jungle , whilst grassland predominated in the east . Meanwhile , Bien Hoa airbase itself would be defended by US 199th Light Infantry Brigade , occupying AO Uniontown to the west . Across the Song Dong Nai the US 101st Airborne Division occupied AO Manchester , while the South Vietnamese 18th Infantry Division defended its TAOR to the north @-@ west .
The concept of operations for Operation Coburg called for two infantry companies from 7 RAR to move by road with the rear echelon units in order to secure FSB Andersen , that had been established 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) north of Trang Bom for easy access to Route 1 . The remainder of the battalion was deployed by helicopter along with 2 RAR / NZ , while the 4th Field Regiment , RAA was inserted by road . The Task Force Maintenance Area was subsequently located at Andersen , with 1 ATF re @-@ supplied throughout the operation by elements of 1st Australian Logistic Support Group deployed forward in Long Binh . FSB Harrison was located 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to the west of Andersen with both bases positioned so that each could support the other in the event of attack . A small number of SASR patrols would be used to provide reconnaissance for the task force .
People 's Army of Vietnam ( PAVN ) forces identified in AO Columbus included North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong units and consistsed of a battalion group from the 274th Regiment from the Viet Cong 5th Division , a battalion of 84A Artillery ( Rocket ) Regiment ( NVA ) equipped with 122 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 8 in ) rocket launchers and 82 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) mortars and a small element of the Dong Nai Regiment , as well as other Main Force elements of the 273rd Regiment from the Viet Cong 9th Division . Local force elements included a number of company and platoon strength units in addition to various district and village guerrilla forces . These forces were believed to be lying in wait to attack the nearby American bases as part of the planned offensive .
= = Battle = =
= = = Patrolling in AO Columbus , 24 January − 16 February 1968 = = =
The Australians began an intensive patrol program in AO Columbus and were soon fighting up to platoon @-@ sized Viet Cong units in a series of bunker complexes . Between 25 − 29 January the Australians conducted reconnaissance @-@ in @-@ force operations and a series of minor patrol clashes followed up to the end of January . On 26 January B Company , 2 RAR / NZ fought a two @-@ hour action against about 25 Viet Cong entrenched in a bunker system . While on the same day 9 Platoon , C Company , 2 RAR / NZ also assaulted and occupied a camp initially believed to be of similar strength and held it for 19 hours after repeated attacks from a Viet Cong force estimated to be of company strength . Meanwhile , whilst providing flank security the New Zealanders in V Company , 2 RAR / NZ engaged in a series of skirmishes which resulted in 12 Viet Cong dead and many weapons captured with two New Zealanders wounded . On 27 January there were heavier contacts still , resulting in 14 Australians wounded and one Viet Cong killed .
Although 1 ATF was well placed to deny the communists the use of its AO , it was increasingly obvious that there was little role for the SAS . Indeed , the heavy presence of Viet Cong prevented them from operating normally , and the first attempt to insert a patrol was called off due to the presence of hostile forces in the vicinity of the landing zone ; two Viet Cong were subsequently killed and the patrol was extracted after only 30 minutes . A second attempt lasted only fifteen minutes longer , and they were also extracted following a brief contact . Finally , two patrols were joined together in an effort to provide more protection , and on 29 January they patrolled out from 7 RAR battalion headquarters . After only 30 minutes the Australians encountered a small party of Viet Cong ; however , they tried again two hours later but were detected . The following day they tried for a third time and were contacted . Unable to operate effectively , the SAS patrols were withdrawn and returned to Nui Dat on 1 February .
Meanwhile , on 29 January D Company , 7 RAR contacted a battalion concentrating in bunkers during a two and half hour battle that saw nine Australian casualties , including one killed , while seven Viet Cong were also killed . On 31 January Viet Cong overran the village of Trang Bom , just 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 yd ) south @-@ west of FSB Andersen . The Australians reclaimed it that afternoon only for the communists to attack again the next day . Once again the Australians recaptured it , this time in savage house @-@ to @-@ house fighting involving D Company , 2 RAR / NZ and A Squadron , 3 CAV . C Company , 3 RAR was subsequently inserted to assist with the protection of FSB Harrison . In response to the attack on Trang Bom , D Company , 7 RAR was dispatched forward to search the area . The lead platoon advanced on a Viet Cong camp — later found to be battalion @-@ size — and was almost destroyed in the ensuing fire @-@ fight . With half the platoon soon becoming casualties , another platoon was moved forward to aid their extraction . Close support from artillery protected the Australians from further casualties however , and the Viet Cong was eventually forced to withdraw . Six Australians had been killed and 36 wounded in the engagements up to that point , while one New Zealander had also died and one wounded . More than 40 Viet Cong had been killed and nine wounded .
In the early hours of 31 January key installations in the Long Binh – Bien Hoa complex in AO Uniontown had come under heavy attack by the Viet Cong 5th Division , as part of the second prong of the communist attacks against Saigon . With the Tet offensive erupting across South Vietnam , Bien Hoa airbase received heavy rocket fire that caused extensive damage to buildings , aircraft , and facilities , while the Long Binh Logistics Depot and the prisoner of war camp were also hit . Over the next three days the US 199th Light Infantry Brigade — later reinforced by the US 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment and an infantry battalion from the US 101st Airborne Division — were forced into heavy combat fending off communist indirect fire and ground attacks . By 1 February the Americans had gained the upper hand however , winkling out the last remaining Viet Cong following a sweep of Bien Hoa that cleared the town .
The attacks on Bien Hoa forced a change in tactics for the Australians , and 1 ATF 's mission was quickly changed from reconnaissance @-@ in @-@ force to a blocking operation designed to intercept withdrawing communist forces . Between 31 January and 1 February , the Australian battalions moved into company blocking positions and a number of minor contacts occurred , resulting in some Viet Cong casualties and the capture of more weapons and equipment . Once in position , the intensity of these clashes increased as the Australians sprung platoon ambushes . Indeed , during early February , the nature of contacts in AO Columbus began to change , with the Australians increasingly faced by larger company @-@ sized Main Force units located in static defensive positions . During the first week of February the Viet Cong began streaming through the AO , retreating from Saigon in the wake of heavy losses during Tet . Although the Viet Cong managed to avoid becoming decisively engaged , around 90 were killed and five captured , as the Australians maintained their blocking positions .
C Company , 7 RAR had been detached in order to protect the task force headquarters as well as to act as a reserve , and was particularly heavily engaged during this phase . The force had been gradually patrolling , when 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) north of Trang Bom on the morning of 5 February , it contacted a large Viet Cong force consisting of a regimental headquarters and three companies in a well constructed defensive position defended by several heavy machine @-@ guns . The Australians assaulted the position on three occasions over the next three days in vicious fighting supported by airstrikes , artillery and helicopter gunships . During one such attack on 7 February , Lieutenant Mark Moloney — one the company 's platoon commanders — charged forward with six M72 rocket launchers to attack a series of bunkers single handed . Moloney succeeded in destroying several before he fell badly wounded ; he survived , and for his actions was recommended for a Victoria Cross . Moloney 's award was never made however , although Gunner Michael Williams and Corporal Graham Griffith were both awarded the Military Medal for their actions under fire . The battle continued for seven hours , with the Australians eventually routing the bunker system in a battle later hailed as " probably one of the most brilliant actions ever fought by an Australian rifle company . " However , amidst the confusion of Tet such efforts went largely unnoticed .
Early the same morning the night harbour occupied by the New Zealanders from V Company , 2 RAR / NZ had been attacked by a Viet Cong force consisting of elements of three companies from the 274th Regiment , shortly after stand @-@ to at 06 : 15 . The incident proved to be the most intense fighting involving New Zealand forces in Vietnam to that point , and over the course of an hour the attack was successfully repelled with the assistance of highly accurate artillery support from the 108th Battery , RAA operating in direct support , as well as from mortar fire . The Viet Cong withdrew following the arrival of a light fire team of gunships , leaving behind 13 dead and a number of other blood trails . Nine New Zealanders were wounded in the engagement , six of whom subsequently required evacuation by helicopter .
Elsewhere , Tet had also engulfed Phuoc Tuy province and although stretched thin the remaining Australian forces there were soon drawn into heavy combat as Viet Cong units simultaneously attacked the main provincial towns . Dunstan was forced to dispatch the Task Force reaction force from Nui Dat , with A Company , 3 RAR under the command of Major Brian Howard moving to reinforce South Vietnamese government forces following an attack by a 600 @-@ strong force from D445 VC Battalion on Ba Ria , the provincial capital , before first light on 1 February . Fighting from street to street in a series of firefights at close quarters the Australians successfully repelled the attack , killing 40 Viet Cong . Later , on 3 February , D Company , 3 RAR spoiled a harassing attack on Long Dien , and conducted a sweep of Hoa Long . Overall , the fighting in Phuoc Tuy between 1 − 9 February resulted in 50 Viet Cong killed , 25 wounded and one prisoner . Five Australians were killed and 24 wounded .
While the Australians in AO Columbus had successfully interrupted the pre @-@ positioning of communist forces on one of the main approaches to Saigon , in hindsight they had been deployed too late to interfere seriously with the offensive . Over the period 9 − 12 February 1 ATF redeployed , moving south back towards the fire support bases . The remaining companies of 3 RAR subsequently relieved 7 RAR and moved north on 11 February , while 2 RAR / NZ returned to Nui Dat on 13 February . FSB Harrison was abandoned and all command and support elements concentrated at FSB Andersen . Contact was minimal during this period , with just three Viet Cong killed .
= = = Fighting at FSB Andersen , 17 − 28 February 1968 = = =
The Australian defence of FSB Andersen was left to 3 RAR , M113 armoured personnel carriers from 1 Troop A Squadron , 3rd Cavalry Regiment , and a troop of engineers from 1st Field Squadron . Artillery support was provided by 161st Field Battery , Royal New Zealand Artillery and the American 155 @-@ millimetre ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) M109 self @-@ propelled medium guns of B Battery , 2 / 35th Artillery Regiment . A radar detachment from 131st Divisional Locating Battery was also attached as were elements of 161st Reconnaissance Flight . A Company , 3 RAR together with the supporting arms was left to defend the base , while the other three rifle companies continued reconnaissance @-@ in @-@ force operations throughout the AO . Airstrikes and artillery also targeted known Viet Cong base areas , however the number of ground contacts was limited .
Late on the evening of 17 / 18 February the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army launched an assault on FSB Andersen . The first attack was preceded by a heavy rocket and mortar barrage in the early hours of the morning , followed by two waves of infantry each of company size . The attack focused on the south @-@ west of the perimeter manned by 3 RAR 's echelon and mortar platoon , as well as an American medium artillery battery . The perimeter wire was subsequently breached , but the attack was repulsed by mortar counter @-@ battery fire , Claymore mines and the heavy weight of machine @-@ gun fire from armoured personnel carriers and the American gunners . The communist barrage had had a devastating effect , falling among the American and New Zealand gun positions , the mortar lines and the battalion echelon , as well as scoring a direct hit on an Australian engineer standing patrol . A second attack shortly after , this time from the north , was repelled by small @-@ arms fire from the forward Australian pits . Total Viet Cong casualties were unknown , although four bodies were found on the wire at dawn , while numerous bloodstains and bandages were found during a later sweep of the perimeter and a suspected mortar base @-@ plate location . Seven Australians and one American were killed , while 22 Australians and three Americans were wounded .
As a result of the growing threat to the Australian base , the decision was made to reinforce FSB Andersen , with C Company , 3 RAR flown in by the time of the second attack two nights later . The APCs had also been redeployed to cover the south @-@ east ridge and the southern approach from Trang Bom . The communist assault commenced just before midnight on 19 February , this time focussing on the south @-@ east , and was preceded by heavy machine @-@ gun fire . The attack was stopped short of the wire , regardless the forward pits were hit by rifle grenades , while the Assault Pioneer positions were attacked with satchel charges . The only casualties were four Viet Cong killed .
The final attack on 28 February also began with a mortar attack , but the communist assault wave was broken up by mortar fire , and was forced to withdraw to the east . Three Americans were wounded . A clearing patrol later revealed that the Viet Cong had inserted a mortar team to the edge of the rubber trees by night in a Lambretta and a cart and had then manhandled the tubes into position . 3 RAR 's defence of FSB Andersen was the first occasion in the history of their operations in Vietnam that an Australian fire support base had been subjected to a ground assault while during all three attacks the cavalry and artillery in support had played a key role in the defence . Throughout the later part of the operation the patrolling rifle companies had systematically searched the AO and although contact was infrequent the patrols had been effective in denying the subsequent use of the area to launch rocket attacks against the bases in Long Binh and Bien Hoa .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Casualties = = =
Operation Coburg ended on 1 March 1968 with 3 RAR redeploying to Nui Dat by air . The fighting had cost the Australians 17 killed and 61 wounded , while allied casualties included two New Zealanders and one American killed , and eight New Zealanders and six Americans wounded . Communist casualties included at least 145 killed , 110 wounded and 5 captured , with many more removed from the battlefield . Large quantities of weapons and equipment were also captured by the Australians . Overall , Coburg was considered a success by the Australians and Americans . Although they had been inserted too late to prevent the attacks during Tet , 1 ATF had successfully disrupted the communist lines of communication , limiting their freedom of manoeuvre to attack the Long Binh – Bien Hoa complex , while the Australians had also successfully interdicting the Viet Cong withdrawal , causing heavy casualties . The operation was also significant because it had also been the first deployment of 1 ATF outside Phuoc Tuy , and in this it set a precedent for later operations outside the province . The Royal Australian Regiment and the 3rd Cavalry Regiment were subsequently awarded the battle honour " Bien Hoa " , one of only five presented to Australian units during the war .
= = = Assessment = = =
At the strategic level the general uprising never eventuated , and in late February the communist offensive collapsed . Suffering more than 45 @,@ 000 killed — against South Vietnamese and allied losses of only 6 @,@ 000 men — it had been a tactical disaster for the communists . Regardless , the offensive was a turning point in the war . Prior to Tet American commanders and politicians had talked confidently about winning the war , arguing that Westmoreland 's strategy of attrition had reached the point where the communists were losing soldiers and equipment faster than they could be replaced . Yet the scale of the fighting , and the surprise and violence with which the offensive was launched , had shocked the public , contradicting such predictions of imminent victory . Confidence in the military and political leadership collapsed , as did public support for the war in America . Ultimately , Tet was a publicity and media triumph for the communists , and Hanoi emerged with a significant political victory . In its wake President Lyndon Johnson announced that he would not seek a second term in office .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
Tet had a similar effect on Australian public opinion , and caused growing uncertainty in the government about the determination of the United States to remain militarily involved in Southeast Asia . Amid the initial shock , Prime Minister John Gorton unexpectedly declared that Australia would not increase its military commitment in Vietnam beyond the current level of 8 @,@ 000 personnel . The war continued without respite however , and between May and June 1968 1 ATF was again deployed away from Phuoc Tuy in response to intelligence reports of another impending offensive . The Australians subsequently took up positions north @-@ east of Saigon during Operation Toan Thang I to interdict communist lines of communication , fighting a series of significant actions over a 26 @-@ day period that became known as the Battle of Coral – Balmoral .
= Rupert D 'Oyly Carte =
Rupert D 'Oyly Carte ( 3 November 1876 – 12 September 1948 ) was an English hotelier , theatre owner and impresario , best known as proprietor of the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company and Savoy Hotel from 1913 to 1948 .
Son of the impresario and hotelier Richard D 'Oyly Carte , Rupert inherited the family businesses from his stepmother Helen . After serving in World War I , he took steps to revitalise the opera company , which had not appeared in Central London since 1909 , hiring new designers and conductors to present fresh productions of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas in seasons in the West End . The new productions generally retained the original text and music of the operas . Carte launched international and provincial tours , as well as the London seasons , and he released the first complete recordings of the operas . He also rebuilt the half @-@ century @-@ old Savoy Theatre in 1929 , opening the house with a season of Gilbert and Sullivan .
As an hotelier , Carte built on his father 's legacy , expanding the Savoy Hotel , refreshing the other hotels and restaurants in the Savoy group , including Claridge 's and the Berkeley Hotel , and introducing cabaret and dance bands that became internationally famous . He also increased marketing activities , including foreign marketing , of the hotels .
P. G. Wodehouse based a character in his novels , Psmith , on a Wykehamist schoolboy whom he identified as Rupert D 'Oyly Carte . At his death , Carte passed the opera company and hotels to his only surviving child , Bridget D 'Oyly Carte . The Gilbert and Sullivan operas , nurtured by Carte and his family for over a century , continue to be produced frequently today throughout the English @-@ speaking world and beyond .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life = = =
Rupert D 'Oyly Carte was born in Hampstead , London , the younger son of the impresario Richard D 'Oyly Carte and his first wife Blanche ( née Prowse ) , who died in 1885 . Like his brother , Lucas ( 1872 – 1907 ) , he was given his father 's middle name . He was educated at Winchester College , noted as among the most intellectually rigorous of English public schools . He then worked for a firm of accountants before joining his father as an assistant in 1894 .
In a newspaper interview given in the year of his death , Rupert recalled that as a young man he was entrusted , during his father 's illness , with helping W. S. Gilbert with the first revival of The Yeomen of the Guard at the Savoy Theatre . He was elected a director of the Savoy Hotel Limited in 1898 , joining his father and Sir Arthur Sullivan , who had served on the board since the Savoy Hotel was built . By 1899 he was assistant managing director . Richard D 'Oyly Carte died in 1901 , and Rupert 's stepmother , the former Helen Lenoir , who had married Richard in 1888 , assumed full control of most of the family businesses , which she had increasingly controlled during her husband 's decline . Rupert 's elder brother , Lucas , a barrister , was not involved in the family businesses and died of tuberculosis , aged 34 .
= = = Taking over the family businesses = = =
In 1903 , at the age of 27 , Rupert took over his late father 's role as chairman of the Savoy group , which included the Savoy Hotel , Claridge 's , The Berkeley Hotel , Simpson 's @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Strand and the Grand Hotel in Rome . At this time , the whole group was officially valued at £ 2 @,@ 221 @,@ 708 . He immediately issued £ 300 @,@ 000 of debentures to raise capital for a large extension to the Savoy ( the " East Block " ) . Like his father , Carte was willing to go to great lengths to secure the best employees for his hotels . When Claridge 's needed a new chef in 1904 , he secured the services of François Bonnaure , formerly chef at the Élysée Palace in Paris . The press speculated on how much Carte must have paid to persuade Bonnaure to join him , and compared the younger Carte 's audacity with his father 's coup in securing Paris 's most famous maître d 'hôtel , M. Joseph , a few years earlier .
Between 1906 and 1909 , Helen Carte , Rupert 's stepmother , staged two repertory seasons at the Savoy Theatre . Directed by Gilbert and received with much success , they revitalised the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company , which had been in decline after Richard D 'Oyly Carte 's death . In 1912 , when theatre censorship was under discussion in Britain , Carte was strongly in favour of retaining censorship , because it gave managements complete certainty about what they could or could not stage without fear of interference by the police or others . He joined with other London theatre managers , including Herbert Beerbohm Tree , George Edwardes and Arthur Bourchier in signing a petition for the retention of censorship . In the same year , together with Herbert Sullivan and theatre managers including Beerbohm Tree and Squire Bancroft , Carte was an instigator of a memorial to W. S. Gilbert at Charing Cross . In 1913 , Rupert 's stepmother Helen Carte died . She left all her holdings in the Savoy Hotel group , the Savoy Theatre and the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company to her stepson .
= = = Revitalising the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company = = =
After London seasons in 1906 – 07 and 1908 – 09 , the opera company did not perform in the West End again until 1919 , although it continued to tour in Great Britain . According to the theatre writer H. M. Walbrook , " Through the years of the Great War they continued to be on tour through the country , drawing large and grateful audiences everywhere . They helped to sustain the spirits of the people during that stern period , and by so doing they helped to win the victory . " Nevertheless , Carte later recalled , " I went and watched the Company playing at a rather dreary theatre down in the suburbs of London . I thought the dresses looked dowdy .... I formed the view that new productions should be prepared , with scenery and dresses to the design of first class artists who understood the operas but who would produce a décor attractive to the new generation . " In a 1922 memoir , Henry Lytton , having admired Richard D 'Oyly Carte 's keen eye for stagecraft , added , " That ' eye ' for stagecraft ... has been inherited in a quite remarkable degree by his son , Mr. Rupert D 'Oyly Carte . He , too , has the gift of taking in the details of a scene at a glance , and knowing instinctively just what must be corrected " . In 1911 , the company hired J. M. Gordon as stage manager , and Carte later promoted him to director . Gordon , under Carte 's supervision , preserved the company 's traditions in exacting detail for 28 years .
During World War I Carte served in the Royal Navy , and no renovation work could be undertaken . On his return , he put his aims into effect . In an interview in The Observer in August 1919 he set out his policy for staging the operas : " They will be played precisely in their original form , without any alteration to the words , or any attempt to bring them up to date . " This uncompromising declaration was modified in a later interview in which he said , " the plays are all being restaged ... Gilbert 's words will be unaltered , though there will be some freshness in the method of rendering them . Artists must have scope for their individuality , and new singers cannot be tied down to imitate slavishly those who made successes in the old days . "
Carte 's first London season , at the Prince 's Theatre , 1919 – 20 , featured ten of the thirteen extant Gilbert and Sullivan operas . These included Princess Ida , which had its first London performances since the original production . The new productions retained the text and music of the original 1870s and 1880s productions , and director J. M. Gordon preserved much of Gilbert 's original direction . As his parents had done , Carte licensed the operas to the J. C. Williamson company and to amateur companies , but he required all licensees to present them in approved productions that closely followed the libretto , score and D 'Oyly Carte production stagings . In an interview with The Times in 1922 , Carte said that the Savoy " tradition " was an expression that was frequently misunderstood : " It did not by any means imply any hidebound stage ' business ' or an attempt to standardize the performances of artists so as to check their individual method of expression . All that it implied , in his view , was the highest possible standard of production – with especial attention to clear enunciation .... Many people seemed to think that Gilbert believed in absolutely set methods but this was not by any means the case . He did not hesitate to alter productions when they were revived . "
Although he had told the press that the original words and music would not be altered , Carte was willing to make changes in certain cases . In 1919 – 20 , he authorised significant cuts and alterations in both Princess Ida and Ruddigore . In 1921 Cox and Box was produced in a drastically cut @-@ down version , to allow it to be played as a companion piece with the shorter Savoy operas . He also authorised changes to Gilbert 's text : he wrote to The Times in 1948 , " We found recently in America that much objection was taken by coloured persons to a word used twice in The Mikado . " The word in question was Gilbert 's reference to " nigger " ( blackface ) minstrels , and Carte asked A. P. Herbert to suggest an acceptable revision . " He made several alternative suggestions , one of which we adopted in America , and it seems well to go on doing so in the British Empire . "
Carte commissioned new costumes and scenery throughout his tenure with the company . For his restagings , Carte hired Charles Ricketts to redesign The Gondoliers and The Mikado , the costumes for the latter , created in 1926 , being retained by all the company 's subsequent designers . Other redesigns were by Percy Anderson , George Sheringham , Hugo Rumbold and Peter Goffin , a protégé of Carte 's daughter , Bridget D 'Oyly Carte .
For London seasons , Carte often engaged guest conductors , first Geoffrey Toye , then Malcolm Sargent , who examined Sullivan 's manuscript scores and purged the orchestral parts of accretions . So striking was the orchestral sound produced by Sargent that the press thought he had retouched the scores , and Carte had the pleasant duty of correcting their error . In a letter to The Times , he noted that " the details of the orchestration sounded so fresh that some of the critics thought them actually new ... the opera was played last night exactly as written by Sullivan . " Carte also hired Harry Norris , who started with the touring company , then was Toye 's assistant before becoming musical director . Isidore Godfrey joined the company as assistant musical director in 1925 and became musical director in 1929 , remaining in that post until 1968 .
The possibilities of the gramophone appealed to Carte . After World War I , he supervised a series of complete recordings of the scores of the operas on the HMV label , beginning with The Mikado in 1918 . The first nine sets , made between 1918 and 1925 , were recorded by the early acoustic process . At first , guest singers were chosen who were known for their ability to record well on this technology . Later in this series , more of the regular members of the company were featured . With the introduction of electrical recording and its greatly improved recording process and sound , a new round of recordings began in 1927 . For the electrical series , Carte 's own singers were mostly used | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
. Carte also recognised the potential of radio and worked with the BBC to relay live broadcasts of D 'Oyly Carte productions . A 1926 relay of part of a Savoy Theatre performance of The Mikado was heard by up to eight million people . The London Evening Standard noted that this was " probably the largest audience that has ever heard anything at one time in the history of the world . " Under Carte , the company continued to make broadcasts during the interwar years . In 1932 , The Yeomen of the Guard became the first Gilbert and Sullivan opera to be broadcast in its entirety .
= = = Rebuilding the Savoy Theatre and later years = = =
In 1929 Carte had the 48 @-@ year @-@ old Savoy Theatre rebuilt and modernised . It closed on 3 June 1929 and was gutted and completely rebuilt to designs by Frank A. Tugwell with décor by Basil Ionides . The old house had three tiers ; the new one had two . The seating capacity ( which had decreased to 986 from its original 1 @,@ 292 ) was restored nearly completely , to 1 @,@ 200 . The theatre reopened 135 days later on 21 October 1929 , with The Gondoliers , designed by Ricketts and conducted by Sargent . The critic Ernest Newman wrote , " I can imagine no gayer or more exhilarating frame for the Gilbert and Sullivan operas than the Savoy as it is now . "
Despite its historical connection with Gilbert and Sullivan , most of Carte 's London seasons were staged not at the Savoy but at two larger houses : the Prince 's ( now the Shaftesbury ) Theatre ( 1919 – 20 , 1921 – 22 , 1924 , 1926 , 1942 and Sadler 's Wells ( 1935 , 1936 , 1937 , 1939 , 1947 and 1948 ) . His three Savoy Theatre seasons were in 1929 – 30 , 1932 – 33 , and 1941 . In addition to year @-@ round UK tours , Carte mounted tours of North America in 1927 , 1928 – 29 , 1934 – 35 , 1936 – 37 , 1939 and 1947 – 48 ) . During the 1936 tour an American critic wrote , " If there were only some way of keeping them on this side permanently . I humbly suggest to the New Deal that it cancel England 's war debt in exchange for the D 'Oyly Cartians . We should be much the gainer . "
Carte was deeply affected by the death of his son Michael in 1932 , discussed below . The actor Martyn Green said , " The heart dropped right out of him . His interest in both the operas and the hotel seemed to fade away . " Nevertheless , in 1934 the company made a highly successful eight @-@ month North American tour with Green as its new principal comedian , replacing Henry Lytton . Carte gave approval for , and was closely consulted about , a 1938 film version of The Mikado produced and conducted by Geoffrey Toye , starring Green and released by Universal Pictures , but his only new stage production after 1932 was of The Yeomen of the Guard designed in 1939 by Peter Goffin . The re @-@ staging was regarded as radical , but when Goffin took fright at the storm of controversy , Carte told him , " I don 't care what they say about the production . I should care if they said nothing . "
On 3 September 1939 , at the outbreak of World War II , the British government ordered the immediate and indefinite closure of all theatres . Carte cancelled the autumn tour and disbanded the company . Theatres were permitted to reopen from 9 September , but it took some weeks to re @-@ form the company . The company resumed touring in Edinburgh on Christmas Day 1939 . It continued to perform throughout the war , but German bombing destroyed the sets and costumes for five of its productions : Cox and Box , The Sorcerer , H.M.S. Pinafore , Princess Ida and Ruddigore . The old productions of Pinafore and Cox and Box were recreated shortly after the war , but the other two operas took longer to rejoin the company 's repertory . On the other hand , for the first wartime season , Peter Goffin designed and directed a new production of The Yeomen of the Guard first seen in January 1940 , and his new Ruddigore debuted in 1948 , shortly after Carte 's death . A return of the Company to the U.S. in 1947 was very successful .
= = = Savoy Hotel group = = =
From the beginning of his career , Carte maintained the Savoy group in London , disposing in 1919 of the Grand Hotel , Rome , which his father had acquired in 1896 . In the 1920s , he ensured that the Savoy continued to attract a fashionable clientele by a continuous programme of modernisation and the introduction of dancing in the large restaurants . The Savoy Orpheans and the Savoy Havana Band were described by The Times as " probably the best @-@ known bands in Europe " . In 1927 Carte appointed his opera company 's general manager , Richard Collet , to run the cabaret at the Savoy , which began in April 1929 .
Until the 1930s , the Savoy group had not thought it necessary to advertise , but Carte and his manager George Reeves @-@ Smith changed their approach . Reeves @-@ Smith told The Times , " We are endeavouring by intensive propaganda work to get more customers ; this work is going on in the U.S.A. , in Canada , in the Argentine and in Europe . " Towards the end of World War II , Carte added to the Savoy group the bombed @-@ out site near Leicester Square of Stone 's Chop House , the freehold of which he purchased with a view to reopening the restaurant there on the lines of the group 's Simpson 's @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Strand . The revived Stone 's reopened after Carte 's death .
= = = Personal life = = =
In 1907 , Carte married Lady Dorothy Milner Gathorne @-@ Hardy ( 1889 – 1977 ) , the third and youngest daughter of the 2nd Earl of Cranbrook , with whom he had a daughter , Bridget , and a son , Michael ( 1911 – 1932 ) . Michael was killed at the age of 21 in a motor accident in Switzerland . In 1925 , Carte and his wife had a country house built for them in Devon between Paignton and Kingswear , named Coleton Fishacre . The house is still known for its design features and garden with exotic tropical plants . After her parents ' divorce , Bridget D 'Oyly Carte took over the house , which her father , who lived in London , would visit for long weekends . She sold the house after his death , and it is now owned by the National Trust .
Carte 's private pastimes included gardening , notably at Coleton Fishacre , driving and yachting . He was an early devotee of the motor car and incurred the displeasure of the courts more than once . He was fined £ 3 for driving at 19 miles an hour in 1902 , and the following year he was subject to criminal prosecution for knocking down and injuring a child when driving at the speed of 24 miles an hour . He made " every provision for the comfort of the child " , who recovered from the accident . In the years after World War I , he was a frequent competitor in yachting races . From 1919 he raced his yacht " Kali " in the Hamble River class . Later , he owned and raced a 19 @-@ ton cutter , " Content " .
In 1941 , Carte divorced his wife for adultery . The suit was undefended . Lady Dorothy moved to the Bahamas and married St Yves de Verteuil , who had been the co @-@ respondent in the divorce case . De Verteuil died in 1963 , and Lady Dorothy de Verteuil died in February 1977 .
P. G. Wodehouse based the character Psmith , seen in several of his comic novels , on either Rupert D 'Oyly Carte or his brother Lucas . In the introduction to his novel Something Fresh , Wodehouse says that Psmith ( originally named Rupert , then Ronald ) was " based more or less faithfully on Rupert D 'Oyly Carte , son of the Savoy theatre man . He was at school with a cousin of mine , and my cousin happened to tell me about his monocle , his immaculate clothes and his habit , when asked by a master how he was , of replying , ' Sir , I grow thinnah and thinnah ' . " Bridget D 'Oyly Carte , however , believed that the Wykehamist schoolboy described to Wodehouse was not her father but his elder brother Lucas , who was also at Winchester College . Rupert D 'Oyly Carte was " shy , reserved and at times distinctly taciturn . " Psmith , by contrast , is outgoing and garrulous .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
Carte died at the Savoy Hotel , after a brief illness , at the age of 71 . A memorial service was held for him at the Savoy Chapel on 23 September 1948 . His ashes were scattered on the headland at Coleton Fishacre . He left an estate valued at £ 228 @,@ 436 . At his death , the family businesses passed to his daughter , Bridget D 'Oyly Carte . The Savoy hotel group remained under the control of the Carte family and its associates until 1994 . Carte 's hotels have remained among the most prestigious in London , with the London Evening Standard calling the Savoy " London 's most famous hotel " in 2009 . The year after Carte 's death , the opera company , which had been the personal possession of Richard and Rupert D 'Oyly Carte , became a private company , of which Bridget retained a controlling interest and was chairman and managing director . She inherited a company in strong condition , but the rising costs of mounting professional light opera without any government support eventually became unsustainable , and the company closed in 1982 .
The Gilbert and Sullivan operas , nurtured by Carte and his family for over a century , continue to be produced frequently today throughout the English @-@ speaking world and beyond . By keeping the Savoy operas popular throughout the mid @-@ 20th century , Carte continued to influence the course of the development of modern musical theatre .
= Fandi Ahmad =
Fandi bin Ahmad , PBM ( born 29 May 1962 ) is a retired Singaporean footballer who was the head coach of the former LionsXII in the Malaysian Super League . He mainly played as a striker , but could also play as a midfielder . He played for Malaysia Cup state sides Singapore FA , Kuala Lumpur FA and Pahang FA , and won titles with all three , including two Doubles in 1992 and 1994 , and the Golden Boot in 1988 . Fandi also played for Niac Mitra ( Indonesia ) , Groningen ( Netherlands ) , Geylang United ( Singapore ) and SAFFC ( Singapore ) . With the Singapore national football team , Fandi won 101 caps , scored 55 goals , won three Southeast Asian Games ( SEA Games ) silver medals and was captain from 1993 to 1997 . He managed SAFFC , Pelita Raya ( Indonesia ) and Johor Darul Takzim ( Malaysia ) , served as assistant national coach and runs the Fandi Ahmad Academy . As a 1994 winner of the Pingat Bakti Masyarakat ( state medal ) , the first Singaporean footballer to play in Europe , the first Singaporean millionaire sportsperson and first Singaporean sportsperson to have a published biography , Fandi has been called a national legend . He has five children with his wife , South African model Wendy Jacobs , and his father is Ahmad Wartam , a former national goalkeeper . Fandi was ranked sixth in a list of Singapore 's 50 Greatest Athletes of the Century by The Straits Times in 1999 .
= = Early years = =
As a young child , Fandi was obsessed with football and spent much of his time kicking a ball . His family lived in two rooms in Woodbridge Hospital , and he had to sell nasi lemak to help support them . Fandi 's father , Ahmad Wartam was then a goalkeeper for the national team . Fandi started playing as a goalkeeper , but was advised by a teacher to switch to midfield . When he was 12 , his parents divorced , after which he lived with his father and paternal grandparents . At Serangoon Gardens Secondary School , Fandi played for the school football team , but neglected his studies and was retained . He then transferred to the Singapore Vocational Institute and obtained a National Trade Certificate 3 . He played for Kaki Bukit Football Club in the amateur National Football League , where he was spotted by Singapore FA coach Sebastian Yap .
= = Club career = =
Fandi joined Singapore FA in 1979 and became a regular midfield player , scoring four goals in his first Malaysia Cup season . The retirement of Arshad Khamis and Dollah Kassim prompted Jita Singh , the new Singapore FA coach , to play Fandi as a striker . During the 1980 Malaysia Cup season , Fandi scored eight goals , including the winning goal in the final against Selangor FA . He enlisted for National Service in September 1980 and was given light duties , such as collecting the camp garbage , so he could continue playing for Singapore FA . In 1981 , Fandi won the FAS Footballer of the Year award for helping Singapore FA reach the Malaysia Cup final . The following year , Singapore FA did not play in the Malaysia Cup for political reasons , and Fandi underwent a shoulder operation ; he could not play football for six weeks and was discharged early from National Service .
Selangor FA invited Fandi to play for them against Argentine club Boca Juniors in a friendly game , in which Fandi scored the only goal for Selangor FA ; the score was 2 – 1 . Fandi received offers from several Malaysia Cup teams , Indonesian side Niac Mitra , Swiss club Young Boys and Dutch side Ajax . After a three @-@ week trial , Ajax offered Fandi a three @-@ year contract , but Fandi instead signed a one @-@ year contract with Niac Mitra , where he spent one season , helped them successfully defend their Galatama League title and was the third @-@ highest scorer with 13 goals . In a friendly match between Niac Mitra and Arsenal , Fandi scored a goal in a 2 – 0 victory ; however , he left Niac Mitra due to a sudden Galatama League ban on foreign players .
In 1983 , Fandi moved to the Netherlands and signed a two @-@ year contract with FC Groningen . A thigh injury acquired in a friendly match kept him off the field for ten weeks , but in his first Eredivisie game he scored twice in a 2 – 0 victory over Go Ahead Eagles . Three days later , he played in the first leg of a UEFA Cup second @-@ round match against Italian side Internazionale , and scored the second goal in a 2 – 0 win , though in the second leg Groningen were defeated 1 – 5 . The Groningen fans voted Fandi the most popular player and the most skilful player that season ; he scored 10 goals in 29 games to help the Dutch club rise from ninth to fifth place in the Eredivisie . As an April Fools ' Day joke , The Straits Times published a front @-@ page story claiming that Manchester United had signed Fandi . However , his second season was marred by a recurrence of the thigh injury and a dispute with the coach . He played only two full games that season and Groningen did not offer him a new contract . During his time in the Netherlands , Fandi scored 11 league goals in 36 league games for Groningen .
The next club that Fandi played for was Malaysia Cup side Kuala Lumpur FA , which in 1987 won its first Malaysia Cup title . It was Malaysia Cup champions again the following season ; Fandi won the Golden Boot , having scored 21 goals . After a third season at Kuala Lumpur FA , in which it won a third consecutive Malaysia Cup , Fandi signed a two @-@ year contract with Greek club OFI Crete in 1990 . However , problems with his International Transfer Certificate prevented him from playing for Crete , so he left Greece after two months . Fandi then joined Pahang FA , where he reverted to playing mainly in midfield due to his advancing age . Fandi missed several months of games because of heel and thigh injuries , and scored three goals to help Pahang FA win the Malaysia Cup and Malaysian League Double in 1992 . That year , he also became the first Singaporean sportsperson to have career earnings exceeding a million Singapore dollars ( not adjusted for inflation ) .
Fandi rejoined Singapore FA after it was relegated to the second tier of the Malaysian League . Singapore FA was promoted and reached the Malaysia Cup final in 1993 , and finished the 1994 season as Malaysia Cup and Malaysian League champions . Captain Fandi played in 39 of Singapore FA 's 41 games in the double @-@ winning season , was the top scorer with 26 goals and was voted Player of the Season ; he was also awarded a state medal , the Pingat Bakti Masyarakat ( Public Service Medal ) . The following season , Singapore FA withdrew from the Malaysia Cup and a fully professional Singaporean league , the S.League , was formed . In its inaugural season in 1996 , Fandi captained Geylang United and was the joint top scorer with 11 goals , including the equaliser that confirmed Geylang as league champions . The Asian Football Confederation declared him the Player of the Month of June 1996 . Geylang was given special dispensation to pay Fandi thrice the S.League salary cap . His playing career concluded with three seasons at SAFFC , during which they won two S.League titles and two Singapore Cups . Because of injuries , Fandi was limited to mainly short substitute appearances , but he continued to score crucial goals , notably two against Cambodian side Royal Dolphins in the Asian Club Championship , until his retirement in 1999 .
= = International career = =
From 1979 to 1997 , Fandi made 101 appearances for the Singapore national football team , scored 55 goals and earned a place in the Asian Football Confederation Hall of Fame . He started as captain of the national youth team that won the Lion City Cup in 1976 and 1977 , then joined the senior national team on a tour of Russia , where he played in two friendly games and scored two goals in the second . His first senior cap came at 17 years , 3 months and 23 days , making him Singapore 's youngest @-@ ever full international , until his record was broken by Hariss Harun in 2007 . However , in his first international competition , the 1979 SEA Games , Fandi did not score in four matches . He scored against India and North Korea in the Olympic Games qualifiers , but did not score in three FIFA World Cup qualifying matches . In the 1981 Ovaltine Cup , Fandi scored all Singapore goals in the 3 – 2 aggregate victory over Malaysia . Fandi scored a goal in a 1 – 2 loss to Thailand in the 1981 King 's Cup and a hat @-@ trick against the Philippines at the 1981 SEA Games . In 1992 , Fandi scored twice against Nepal and once against Thailand in the King 's Cup , then scored when Singapore beat Malaysia 3 – 1 in the Ovaltine Cup .
The following year , Fandi helped Singapore win the first of three SEA Games silver medals , with two goals in a 3 – 0 group stage win over Brunei and two against Malaysia in the semi @-@ final . Despite suffering an ankle injury in the 1 – 2 final defeat by Thailand , he played in the 1983 Merlion Cup , and scored in a 1 – 0 semi @-@ final win against of China . The second SEA Games silver medal came in 1985 , when Fandi scored against Malaysia and the Philippines in the group stage , then two goals against Brunei in the semi @-@ final . At the 1989 SEA Games , Fandi scored in the 4 – 0 victory over Myanmar that took Singapore past the group stages , the last @-@ minute winner in the semi @-@ final against defending champions Indonesia and Singapore 's single goal in the 1 – 3 final defeat by Malaysia . This completed the hat @-@ trick of silver medals , though in 2007 , he said that " not winning the SEA Games gold medal " was among " his biggest regrets " . Fandi also played at the 1990 Asian Games and scored in the 6 – 1 win against Pakistan .
During the 1991 SEA Games , Fandi scored both Singapore goals against Myanmar in the group stage , but was substituted in the semi @-@ final match , after Indonesian fullback Herry Setyawan elbowed him in the eye . That match ended goalless and the Lions lost on penalties . Fandi also missed Singapore 's failed attempt to qualify for the 1992 Asian Cup , having sustained a heel injury . At the 1993 SEA Games , captain Fandi scored a hat @-@ trick in the 7 – 0 defeat of the Philippines , followed by the second Singapore goal in the 3 – 3 semi @-@ final draw with Myanmar and scored once in the 3 – 1 win over Indonesia that secured a bronze medal for Singapore . Fandi also played in the inaugural Tiger Cup , and scored an equaliser against Malaysia , a goal against Brunei and two against the Philippines . 1997 was a disappointing year for Fandi , who failed to score in the Dunhill Cup and the World Cup qualifiers . After the 1997 SEA Games , where his goal in the semi @-@ final could not prevent a 1 – 2 defeat to Indonesia , Fandi retired from international football .
= = Coaching career = =
After his retirement from playing , Fandi worked as a coach . He started as the assistant to Singapore 's national coach , Vincent Subramaniam , for the 1999 SEA Games , where Singapore finished fourth . In 2000 , Fandi became coach of SAFFC and guided them to the S.League title , and he won the S.League Coach of the Year Award . Under Fandi , SAFFC ended the 2001 season without winning a trophy and were 2002 S.League champions by a 20 @-@ point margin . Fandi then simultaneously served as assistant national coach , helping Singapore win the Tiger Cup in 2005 , and coach of the Young Lions , which rose from the bottom of the S.League in 2003 to two third @-@ place finishes in 2004 and 2006 .
From November 2006 to March 2010 , Fandi managed Indonesian side Pelita Raya , where he adopted a youth policy that helped them win promotion from the second division , then guided the club to two mid @-@ table finishes in the Indonesia Super League . Since then , he has been a scout for Italian club Vicenza Calcio , a regional project manager for the Genova International Soccer School and manager of Malaysian Super League side Johor Darul Takzim . In 2011 , he founded the Fandi Ahmad Academy , which organises training programmes and overseas opportunities for talented young Singaporean footballers . Fandi is one of seven Singaporean coaches with a professional AFC coaching diploma and is widely considered a future coach of the Singapore national football team ; in December 2013 , he became head coach of the Singapore LionsXII , with Nazri Nasir as his assistant . In May 2015 , he led LionsXII to clinch the Malaysia FA Cup , their first trophy of the season .
= = Beyond football = =
Fandi is a devout Muslim , avoids scandals , does not smoke or drink , and is often described as humble , filial and compassionate . He married South African model Wendy Jacobs in 1996 and the couple have five children ; the eldest two are youth footballers who impressed at trials at Arsenal , Chelsea and Milan . They are currently playing for Home United in the S.League. He is the first Singaporean sportsperson to be the subject of a biography , which was released in 1993 and called The Fandi Ahmad Story . It sold 17 @,@ 000 copies in two months and was translated into Malay .
Products Fandi has endorsed include Lotto sportswear , Royal Sporting House sportswear , Uncle Tobys cereal , Carnation milk and energy drink Isomax . In 1996 , he released an album of English and Malay songs and produced Meniti Pelangi , a television programme about disadvantaged Malay Singaporeans . Three years later , he opened a restaurant and a car dealership , but both closed down within two years . He has also served as an ambassador for national anti @-@ smoking and anti @-@ drug campaigns , raised funds for victims of the 2004 Indonesian tsunami and participated in a Northeast Community Development Council initiative to organise community service programmes .
In October 2014 , the Madame Tussauds Singapore museum unveiled a wax figure of Fandi , the first of any Singapore athlete . The wax figure depicts a younger Fandi in 1994 , back when he captained the Singapore Lions and led them to victory in the Malaysia Cup .
In 2015 , Fandi also became the star of the first of three videos filmed specially to promote the 2015 Southeast Asian Games , hosted in Singapore . Titled " Ordinary " , the video depicts Fandi 's rise from a simple boy playing soccer in his backyard to one of Asia 's most talented footballers . It was directed by local filmmaker , Nicole Woodford .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Honours = =
= = = Player = = =
Niac Mitra
Galatama : 1982 – 83
Kuala Lumpur
M @-@ League : 1988
Malaysia Cup : 1987 , 1988
Pahang
M @-@ League : 1992
Malaysia Cup : 1992
Singapore FA
M @-@ League : 1994
Malaysia Cup : 1980 , 1994
Geylang United
S.League : 1996
Singapore Armed Forces
S.League : 1997 , 1998
Singapore FA Cup : 1997
Singapore Cup : 1999
League Cup : 1997
Singapore
Southeast Asian Games :
Silver medal – 1983 , 1985 , 1989
Bronze medal – 1991 , 1993 , 1995
= = = Head coach = = =
Singapore Armed Forces
S.League : 2000 , 2002
LionsXII
Malaysia FA Cup ; 2015
= = = Individual = = =
S.League Coach of the Year : 2000
= Planet Relief =
Planet Relief was a proposed BBC television special dealing with the issue of global warming , originally scheduled for broadcast in January 2008 . The programme , which had been in development for 18 months , was meant to be similar to previous BBC programmes such as Comic Relief and Sport Relief . However , it was cancelled before it was broadcast , allegedly because the BBC was concerned that it would be " biased " towards promoting responses based on acceptance of mainstream climate change science .
= = Concept = =
The original idea for Planet Relief was to increase awareness of climate change . The show , unlike previous BBC specials such as Comic Relief , was not planned to be a charity event , but to increase awareness , similar to Live Earth . It was mainly inspired by Live 8 , with Planet Relief seen as its climate change counterpart . The programme would have involved an electric power station being shut down for one night , for which the BBC had spent over a year negotiating , urging viewers " to turn off all unnecessary lights and electric gadgets for the evening . " People reported to have been involved with the show included comedians Ricky Gervais and Graham Norton , entertainment personality Jonathan Ross , the head of BBC comedy Jon Plowman and environmental expert Matt Prescott . Dr Matt Prescott 's years of experience within ecology and planet conservation helped him to become the professional guidance to spearhead the campaign 's concept .
= = Cancellation = =
The BBC scrapped the idea for Planet Relief on 5 September 2007 . Peter Barron , editor of Newsnight said , " It is absolutely not the BBC 's job to save the planet . " Peter Horrocks , head of BBC television news said , " It is not the BBC 's job to lead opinion or proselytise on this or any other subject . " There were also concerns that the power station shutdown " might overload parts of the [ electricity distribution ] network . " The BBC did not , however , say that the show was cancelled due to bias , stating rather that , " The BBC is committed to programmes about climate change but after Live Earth what audiences say is they are looking for programmes of a documentary or factual nature to explain the complex subject . "
Right wing commentators opposed the idea of Planet Relief , including Keith Waterhouse who said in the Daily Mail before the show was cancelled that , " If the idea is still developing , we can only hope it gets lost in the darkroom . Heaven knows Comic Relief is puerile and patronising enough . Can you imagine what Cosmic Relief — in fact , they 're toying with calling it Planet Relief , on which note I can only warn readers of a nervous disposition to avoid any enterprise containing the word Planet — is going to be like ? "
Complaints about the programme also came from climate sceptics such as Martin Durkin , who said , " The thing that disturbs me most is that the BBC has such a leviathan position … that if it decides that it is going to adopt climate change as a moral purpose , I have got a lot of trouble with that . I don 't think it is the role of the BBC to spend my money on a moral purpose . "
For their part , climate change activists attacked the BBC for cancelling the programme . Author Mark Lynas said , " This decision shows a real poverty of understanding among senior BBC executives about the gravity of the situation we face . The only reason why this became an issue is that there is a small but vociferous group of climate ' sceptics ' lobbying against taking action , so the BBC is behaving like a coward and refusing to take a more consistent stance . "
Another critic , Friends of the Earth executive director Tony Juniper , said , " This is a very disappointing decision considering the huge potential for the BBC in helping us more quickly make the shift toward a low @-@ carbon society . The science of climate change is very clear and if approached in the right way taking up this very serious issue would not compromise the BBC ' impartiality . "
= Marsh shrew =
The marsh shrew ( Sorex bendirii ) , also known as the Pacific water shrew , Bendire 's water shrew , Bendire 's shrew and Jesus shrew is the largest North American member of the genus Sorex ( long @-@ tailed shrews ) . Primarily covered in dark @-@ brown fur , it is found near aquatic habitats along the Pacific coast from southern British Columbia to northern California . With air trapped in its fur for buoyancy , marsh shrews can run for three to five seconds on top of the water . It measures about 16 cm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) in length , including a 7 @-@ centimetre ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) -long tail , and weighs an average of 14 @.@ 5 – 16 g ( 0 @.@ 51 – 0 @.@ 56 oz ) . The marsh shrew 's diet consists mainly of invertebrates , which it hunts on land and in the water . They are rare ; their populations are thought to be in decline , and they are considered endangered in parts of their range .
= = Description = =
The marsh shrew is the largest member of the genus Sorex in North America , and mammalogist David Nagorsen described it as " an attractive mammal " . Its fur is primarily dark brown , and it has a long tail . Although the marsh shrew 's fur is usually uniformly dark on its back and abdomen , the abdominal fur of populations ( S. b. albiventer ) on the Olympic Peninsula may be white . The marsh shrew is about 16 cm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) in length , including a 7 @-@ centimetre ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) -long tail , and weighs about 14 @.@ 5 – 16 g ( 0 @.@ 51 – 0 @.@ 56 oz ) . Its hind feet , slightly fringed with coarse hairs on the toes , measure about 19 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 76 in ) .
Although in some areas the marsh shrew is sympatric with other members of the genus Sorex , no other large , velvety , gray @-@ black shrew shares this geographic range . Its size distinguishes it from all but the American water shrew ( Sorex palustris ) . Although the marsh shrew and the American water shrew ( the two largest shrews in North America ) share some features , the American water shrew has more dark @-@ grey @-@ to @-@ black fur on its back , a silver @-@ grey belly and a bi @-@ colored tail and the marsh shrew 's fringed hairs are more distinct . The American water shrew has a smaller skull , without the marsh shrew 's characteristic curvature , and its upper incisors have less @-@ distinct medial tines . The marsh shrew typically has a longer snout than that of the American water shrew , which is more streamlined when viewed from the side .
The marsh shrew 's skull is relatively large , and its condylobasal skull length is usually greater than 19 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 76 in ) . There is a distinctive , downward @-@ sloping curve along the snout ( rostrum ) . Its dental formula is incisors : 1 / 1 ; unicuspids : 5 / 1 ; premolars : 1 / 1 ; molars : 3 / 3 . Of the five upper unicuspids the third is distinctly smaller than the fourth , and they have a pigmented ridge extending to the cingulum . There is a large medial tine on the large upper incisor , in the anterior pigmented region . The reddish pigmentation of the enamel , the result of iron deposits , is thought to be an adaptation strengthening the enamel .
There are no known fossil remains . The marsh shrew 's karyotype somatic number is 2n
= 54 , and its fundamental number =
70 .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
It was first described in the scientific literature in 1884 by Clinton Hart Merriam with its original name , Atophyrax bendirii ( a monotypic taxon at the time ) . The first specimen was obtained 18 mi ( 29 km ) southeast of Fort Klamath in Klamath County , Oregon , at a location 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the Williamson River . Merriam obtained the specimen from Charles Bendire , an ornithologist and army captain stationed at Fort Klamath . The shrew was caught in late July or early August by one of the dogs in the camp , and a soldier gave it to Bendire . Merriam named it Bendire 's shrew ( Atophyrax bendirii ) in appreciation of Bendire 's contribution . Merriam reported that the animal represented a new genus , Atophyrax , deriving from the Greek and meaning " anomalous sorex " . The marsh shrew was later reclassified in the genus Sorex .
The marsh shrew and the American water shrew ( Sorex pallustris ) share many physical characteristics . The former is found in a narrower area from the northwest coast to the lower slopes of the inland mountains . The American water shrew is more widely distributed across the western mountains and through the subarctic regions of Canada and the eastern U.S. The species ' ranges are primarily allopatric ; although they may overlap ( sympatry ) in coastal regions of the Pacific Northwest , differences in elevation tend to separate them . Early taxonomists placed these mammals into separate subgenera ; Merriam assigned the marsh shrew to Atophyrax , and Jackson ( 1928 ) assigned the Pacific water shrew to Neosorex . A closer , dentition @-@ based relationship was assigned by Findley ( 1955 ) , with both species assigned to the subgenus Otisorex . Findley hypothesized that in the early Pleistocene , the ancestors of masked and vagrant shrews ( Sorex cinereus and Sorex vagrans , respectively ) diverged ; during the Yarmouth interglacial , the American water shrew and marsh shrew diverged from their vagrant @-@ shrew ancestors . Three other Sorex species evolved during the Sangamonian : the dwarf shrew ( S. nanus ) , the southeastern shrew ( Sorex longirostris ) and the ornate shrew ( Sorex ornatus ) . Findley 's assignment of the marsh shrew and the American water shrew to Otisorex was later reinforced by biochemical and genetic studies . In 2005 , findings were published ( based on mitochondrial DNA analysis ) which better defined the nature of the relationships between marsh shrews , Pacific water shrews and their respective subspecies . Variations in the sequencing of cytochrome b mitochondrial DNA were assessed , and the results of the 2005 phylogeny for the marsh shrew are shown below in detail .
= = = Subspecies = = =
The marsh shrew has three subspecies :
S. bendirii albiventer ( Merriam , 1895 )
S. bendirii bendirii ( Merriam , 1884 )
S. bendirii palmeri ( Merriam , 1895 )
S. b. albiventer is found on the Olympic Peninsula of Washington , S . b . bendirii in the Cascades and southwestern British Columbia and S. b. palmeri in coastal Oregon . These specifications have historically been based on fur markings , skull shape and dental details of unclear significance , and their validity is uncertain .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The geographic range of the marsh shrew extends from southwest British Columbia , along the western regions of the U.S. states of Washington and Oregon and through northwestern California to the area north of San Francisco . The subspecies S. b. albiventer is found on the Olympic Peninsula . S. b. palmeri is found from western Oregon ( south of the Columbia River ) to extrema northwestern California . S. b. bendirii is found from the northern parts of the range ( except for the Olympic Peninsula ) south along the eastern range to the remaining range in California . In British Columbia the eastern limits are the Chilliwack River and Agassiz , and the northern limits are the low elevations on the north shore of Burrard Inlet .
Marsh shrews typically live in wetlands ( such as marshes ) , and their habitat includes extensive forest canopy and ground cover from shrubs , logs , and debris ; they may also be found in riparian environments . During cold , rainy seasons , they may travel as much as a kilometer from wet areas to more sheltered habitats ; these generally include mixed deciduous or coniferous forest with downed logs and surface cover . Marsh shrews have been collected from near sea level to as high as 4 @,@ 356 ft ( 1 @,@ 328 m ) in the Cascades . They may inhabit forests of red alder , bigleaf maple , western hemlock or redcedar , often near marshes with western skunk cabbage . In British Columbia the marsh shrew is generally found below 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) , but it has been collected at 850 metres ( 2 @,@ 790 ft ) in Mount Seymour Provincial Park . Environmental officials in British Columbia believe that marsh shrews are one of the rarest small mammals in the province . In 1992 , Carlos Galindo @-@ Leal and Gustavo Zuleta trapped 1 @,@ 000 small mammals at 55 locations in a large area of southwestern British Columbia ; only three were Pacific water shrews .
During spring and summer 1983 , biologists in western Oregon studied small @-@ mammal distribution ( including marsh shrews ) near streams and along the riparian fringes of coniferous forests . " Riparian fringe " was defined as at least 15 – 20 m from a stream . The North American deermouse was caught in greater numbers than any other mammal , representing around 80 % of all captures . Sixteen species were trapped , with the marsh shrew representing less than two percent of mammals captured in this study . All the marsh shrews were trapped at streamside , and were found in all three ages of coniferous forests : old @-@ growth , mature and young growth .
= = Behavior and ecology = =
The marsh shrew eats invertebrates , including spiders , earthworms , sowbugs , centipedes , termites and other terrestrial and aquatic arthropods . It was observed in captivity pursuing and killing a goldfish , but not eating it . In contrast , the American water shrew has been observed killing and eating fish . A study of the gastric contents of marsh shrews in Oregon indicated that at least 25 % of their diet is aquatic , including insect larvae , slugs and snails , mayfly naiads and other , unidentified invertebrates . Other researchers have reported that their diet may also include aquatic insects ( water beetles and stonefly nymphs ) , craneflies , ground beetles , spiders , harvestmen , centipedes , earthworms , slugs and small terrestrial snails . The marsh shrew swims , making short dives in search of food ; its mobile snout , whiskers and lips are used to find and capture underwater prey . Before eating , it returns to land . Air trapped in its fur provides buoyancy , and marsh shrews can run for as long as 3 to 5 seconds along the top of the water . According to mammalogist Donald Pattie , they can " scull on the surface like whirligig beetles " . The air trapped in its fur gives it a silvery sheen . On land , its foreleg and opposite hind leg move at the same time .
It is active throughout the year , primarily at night . Gestation is about three weeks , and the female has a litter of three or four young . Nests in the wild , built from shredded bark , are in a tunnel or under a log . Marsh shrews typically live about 18 months , and males are not thought to reach sexual maturity during their first summer . Since their lifespan is short , they apparently breed for only one season . Although no breeding data exist for British Columbia , the breeding season elsewhere is from late January to late August ; most young are born in March . The number of litters a female rears is unknown .
The strong odor associated with marsh shrews ( in common with other long @-@ tailed shrews ) may be a means of communication . Similar to other shrews , they have poor eyesight . If a marsh shrew is placed in a foreign environment ( such as along an edge of a raised surface ) , it will run off the edge and continue to run after landing on the surface below . Landing in water , it dives beneath the surface . Marsh shrews are easily trapped in sunken cans , possibly due to their inability to see where the edges of surfaces drop . In captivity they vocalize when they are displaced or scuffle with other animals in their cage , twittering shrilly if disturbed while eating or in a confrontation over food ( such as a worm ) . Although it is uncertain whether marsh shrews cache ( or hoard ) food in the wild , in captivity they set aside nightcrawlers in a corner of the cage for later consumption ; no other food items were set aside in this fashion .
Acarine parasites include the Glycyphagidae ( Glycyphagus hypudaei and Orycteroxenus soricis ) ; the Laelapidae ( Androlaelaps fahrenholzi , Echinonyssus obsoletus , Haemogamasus occidentalis and Haemogamasus reidi ) ; the Listrophoridae ( Listrophorus mexicanus ) ; the Myobiidae ( Amorphacarus hengererorum , Amorphacarus soricis , Protomyobia atophyracis and Protomyobia brevisetosa ) , and the Pygmephoridae ( Pygmephorus horridus and Pygmephorus whitakeri ) . Probable predators include owls , fish and the Pacific giant salamander .
= = Human interaction = =
Before Donald Pattie 's research during the late 1960s , when his team studied marsh shrews in captivity , little was known about their behavior . Before then , most information about the marsh shrew was from notes about the mammal 's habitat and information about trapping it . Its descriptions in the literature were largely derived from the examination of museum specimens .
= = = Conservation status = = =
Marsh shrews are listed as " Endangered " by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada ( COSEWIC ) , their habitat in British Columbia limited to the lower Fraser Valley . Their available habitat continues to degrade as a result of economic activity in the area ; with little chance of the trend reversing , they are rare in that part of Canada . COSEWIC designated the marsh shrew as " Threatened " from April 1994 until May 2000 , updating its status in April 2006 to " Endangered . " According to the IUCN , marsh shrews are of " Least Concern " in terms of conservation . Although the shrew is considered a rare mammal and its numbers are thought to be in decline , no population estimates are currently provided and its rate of decline is not considered fast enough to warrant placing it in a more @-@ threatened category . Suitable wetland habitat is declining , due primarily to urbanization and the conversion of habitat to agriculture , and areas of protected habitat are expected to be provided in the shrew 's broad geographic range .
= Batman in film =
The fictional character Batman , a comic book superhero featured in DC Comics publications and created by Bob Kane and Bill Finger , has appeared in various films since his inception . The character first starred in two serial films in the 1940s , Batman and Batman and Robin . The character also appeared in the 1966 film Batman , which was a feature film adaptation of the 1960s Batman TV series starring Adam West and Burt Ward , who also starred in the film . Toward the end of the 1980s , the Warner Bros. studio began producing a series of feature films starring Batman , beginning with the 1989 film Batman , directed by Tim Burton and starring Michael Keaton . Burton and Keaton returned for the 1992 sequel Batman Returns , and in 1995 , Joel Schumacher directed Batman Forever with Val Kilmer as Batman . Schumacher also directed the 1997 sequel Batman & Robin , which starred George Clooney . Batman & Robin was poorly received by both critics and fans , leading to the cancellation of Batman Unchained .
Over the course of seven years , Warner Bros. commissioned Darren Aronofsky for an adaptation of Batman : Year One and Wolfgang Petersen for Batman vs. Superman before deciding to reboot the film franchise in 2005 with Batman Begins , directed by Christopher Nolan and starring Christian Bale . Nolan returned to direct two further installments in the trilogy , The Dark Knight in 2008 and The Dark Knight Rises in 2012 with Bale reprising his role in both films . The two sequels both earned over $ 1 billion worldwide , making Batman the second film franchise ( and to date one of only five , the others being Pirates of the Caribbean , the Marvel Cinematic Universe , Transformers and Jurassic Park ) to have two of its films earn more than $ 1 billion worldwide . Ben Affleck became the newest actor to portray Batman in 2016 with Batman v Superman : Dawn of Justice , which had put into motion a new DC Extended Universe , including a much larger crossover Justice League film in 2017 and a stand @-@ alone film that is currently in development .
Batman has also appeared in multiple animated films , both as a starring character and as an ensemble character . While most animated films were released direct @-@ to @-@ video , the 1993 animated feature Batman : Mask of the Phantasm , based on the 1990s Batman : The Animated Series , was released theatrically . Having earned a total of U.S. $ 1 @,@ 900 @,@ 844 @,@ 295 , the Batman series is the fifth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film series in North America .
= = Films = =
= = Early films and serials = =
= = = Batman ( 1943 ) = = =
Batman was a 15 @-@ chapter serial film released in 1943 by Columbia Pictures . The serial starred Lewis Wilson as Batman and Douglas Croft as Robin . J. Carrol Naish played the villain , an original character named Dr. Daka . Rounding out the cast were Shirley Patterson as Linda Page ( Bruce Wayne 's love interest ) , and William Austin as Alfred . The plot is based on Batman , a US government agent , attempting to defeat the Japanese agent Dr. Daka , at the height of World War II .
The film is notable for being the first filmed appearance of Batman and for providing two core elements of the Batman mythos . The film introduced " The Bat 's Cave " and the Grandfather clock entrance . The name was altered to the Batcave for the comic . William Austin , who played Alfred , had a trim physique and sported a thin mustache , while the contemporary comic book version of Alfred was overweight and clean @-@ shaven prior to the serial 's release . The comics version of Alfred was altered to match that of Austin 's , and has stayed that way .
= = = Batman and Robin ( 1949 ) = = =
Batman and Robin was another 15 @-@ chapter serial film released in 1949 by Columbia Pictures . Robert Lowery played Batman , while Johnny Duncan played Robin . Supporting players included Jane Adams as Vicki Vale and veteran character actor Lyle Talbot as Commissioner Gordon . The plot dealt with the Dynamic Duo facing off against the Wizard , a hooded villain whose identity remains a mystery throughout the serial until the end .
= = = Batman ( 1966 ) = = =
Batman ( also known as Batman : The Movie ) is a 1966 film adaptation of the popular Batman television series , and was the first full @-@ length theatrical adaptation of the DC Comics character . The 20th Century Fox release starred Adam West as Batman and Burt Ward as Robin , as well as Cesar Romero as the Joker , Burgess Meredith as the Penguin , Lee Meriwether as Catwoman , and Frank Gorshin as the Riddler .
The film was directed by Leslie H. Martinson , who also directed a pair of Batman episodes : " The Penguin Goes Straight " and " Not Yet , He Ain 't , " both from season one .
= = 1970s and 80s = =
In the late 1970s , Batman 's popularity was waning . CBS was interested in producing a Batman in Outer Space film . Producers Michael Uslan and Benjamin Melniker purchased the film rights of Batman from DC Comics on October 3 , 1979 . It was Uslan 's wish " to make the definitive , dark , serious version of Batman , the way Bob Kane and Bill Finger had envisioned him in 1939 . A creature of the night ; stalking criminals in the shadows . " Richard Maibaum was approached to write a script with Guy Hamilton to direct , but the two turned down the offer . Uslan was unsuccessful with pitching Batman to various movie studios because they wanted the film to be similar to the campy 1960s TV series . Columbia Pictures and United Artists were among those to turn down the film .
A disappointed Uslan then wrote a script titled Return of the Batman to give the film industry a better idea of his vision for the film . Uslan later compared its dark tone to that of The Dark Knight Returns , which his script pre @-@ dated by six years . In November 1979 , producer Jon Peters and Casablanca FilmWorks , headed by Peter Guber , joined the project . The four producers felt it was best to pattern the film 's development after that of Superman ( 1978 ) . Uslan , Melniker and Guber pitched Batman to Universal Pictures , but the studio turned it down . The project was publicly announced with a budget of $ 15 million in July 1980 at the Comic Art Convention in New York . Casablanca FilmWorks was absorbed into PolyGram Pictures in 1980 . Guber and Peters left PolyGram Pictures in 1982 and took the Batman film rights with them , although PolyGram would retain at least 7 @.@ 5 % of the profits of said rights due to a contractual agreement . Guber and Peters immediately set up shop at Warner Bros. , which finally decided to accept Batman .
Tom Mankiewicz completed a script titled The Batman in June 1983 , focusing on Batman and Dick Grayson 's origins , with the Joker and Rupert Thorne as villains , and Silver St. Cloud as the romantic interest . Mankiewicz took inspiration from the limited series Batman : Strange Apparitions ( ISBN 1 @-@ 56389 @-@ 500 @-@ 5 ) , written by Steve Englehart . Comic book artist Marshall Rogers , who worked with Englehart on Strange Apparitions , was hired for concept art . The Batman was then announced in late 1983 for a mid @-@ 1985 release date on a budget of $ 20 million . Originally , Mankiewicz had wanted an unknown actor for Batman , William Holden for James Gordon , David Niven as Alfred Pennyworth and Peter O 'Toole as the Penguin who Mankiewicz wanted to portray as a mobster with low body temperature . Holden died in 1981 and Niven in 1983 , so this would never come to pass . A number of filmmakers were attached to Mankiewicz ' script , including Ivan Reitman and Joe Dante . Reitman wanted to cast Bill Murray as Batman . For the role of Robin , Eddie Murphy and Michael J. Fox were candidates . Nine rewrites were performed by nine separate writers . Most of them were based on Strange Apparitions . However , it was Mankiewicz 's script that was still being used to guide the project .
= = Tim Burton / Joel Schumacher = =
= = = Batman ( 1989 ) = = =
Tim Burton took over as director of the first Batman film in 1986 . Steve Englehart and Julie Hickson wrote film treatments before Sam Hamm wrote the first screenplay . Numerous A @-@ list actors were considered for the role of Batman before Michael Keaton was cast . Keaton was a controversial choice for the role since , by 1988 , he had become typecast as a comedic actor and many observers doubted he could portray a serious role . Jack Nicholson accepted the role of the Joker under strict conditions that dictated a high salary , a portion of the box office profits and his shooting schedule . Nicholson 's final salary is reported to be as high as $ 50 million . Principal photography took place at Pinewood Studios from October 1988 to January 1989 . The budget escalated from $ 30 million to $ 48 million , while the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike forced Hamm to drop out . Rewrites were performed by Warren Skaaren , Charles McKeown and Jonathan Gems . Batman received positive reviews , broke numerous box office records , and won the Academy Award for Best Art Direction . The film grossed over $ 400 million , and left a legacy over the modern perception of the superhero film genre .
= = = Batman Returns ( 1992 ) = = =
Burton originally did not want to direct a sequel because of his mixed emotions over the previous film . Sam Hamm 's first script had Penguin and Catwoman searching for hidden treasure . Daniel Waters delivered a script that satisfied Burton , which convinced him to direct the film . Wesley Strick did an uncredited rewrite , deleting characterizations of Harvey Dent and Robin and rewriting the climax . Various A @-@ list actresses lobbied hard for the role of Catwoman before Michelle Pfeiffer was cast , while Danny DeVito signed on to portray the Penguin . Filming started at Warner Bros. in Burbank , California in June 1991 . Batman Returns was released with financial success , but Warner Bros. was disappointed with the film 's box office run because it earned less than its predecessor . However , Batman Returns was released to generally positive reviews , although a " parental backlash " criticized the film for containing violence and sexual innu | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
popular , prime @-@ time network television show turns out to be a " slam dunk " for skeptics . " Critic Chris Knight speculated that if The X @-@ Files is one day forgotten , those who see this episode will probably still appreciate the scene with ALF , Chewbacca , and Marvin the Martian .
= Scream ( 1996 film ) =
Scream is a 1996 American slasher film written by Kevin Williamson and directed by Wes Craven . The film stars David Arquette , Neve Campbell , Courteney Cox , Matthew Lillard , Rose McGowan , Skeet Ulrich , and Drew Barrymore . Released on December 20 , 1996 , Scream follows the character of Sidney Prescott ( Campbell ) , a high school student in the fictional town of Woodsboro , California , who becomes the target of a mysterious killer known as Ghostface . Other main characters include Sidney 's best friend Tatum Riley ( McGowan ) , Sidney 's boyfriend Billy Loomis ( Ulrich ) , Billy 's best friend Stu Macher ( Lillard ) , film geek Randy Meeks ( Jamie Kennedy ) , deputy sheriff Dewey Riley ( Arquette ) , and news reporter Gale Weathers ( Cox ) . The film combined comedy and " whodunit " mystery with the violence of the slasher genre to satirize the cliché of the horror genre popularized in films such as Halloween and Friday the 13th . The film was considered unique at the time of its release for featuring characters who were aware of real world horror films and openly discussed the cliché that Scream attempted to subvert .
Based partly on the real @-@ life case of the Gainesville Ripper , Scream was inspired by Williamson 's passion for horror films , especially Halloween ( 1978 ) . The script , originally titled Scary Movie , was bought by Dimension Films and was retitled by the Weinstein Brothers just before filming was complete . The production faced censorship issues with the Motion Picture Association of America and obstacles from locals while filming on location . The film went on to financial and critical acclaim , earning $ 173 million worldwide , and became the highest @-@ grossing slasher film in the US in unadjusted dollars . It received several awards and award nominations . The soundtrack by Marco Beltrami was also acclaimed , and was cited as " [ one ] of the most intriguing horror scores composed in years . " It has since earned " cult status . " Scream marked a change in the genre as it cast already @-@ established and successful actors , which was considered to have helped it find a wider audience , including a significant female viewership .
Scream was credited with revitalizing the horror genre in the 1990s , which was considered to be almost dead following an influx of direct @-@ to @-@ video titles and numerous sequels to established horror franchises of the 1970s and 1980s . These sequels drew decreasing financial and critical success , as they exploited clichés upon which films in the genre had become reliant . Scream 's success spawned a series of sequels , though only Scream 2 , released in 1997 , achieved a level of commercial and critical success equal to the original film . In the years following the release of Scream , the film was accused of inspiring and even inducing violent crimes and murders .
= = Plot = =
High school student Casey Becker receives a flirtatious phone call from an unknown person , asking her , " What 's your favorite scary movie ? " The situation quickly escalates as the caller turns sadistic and threatens her life . He reveals that her boyfriend Steve Orth is being held hostage . After Casey fails to answer a question correctly about horror films , Steve is murdered . When Casey refuses to cooperate with the caller , she is attacked and murdered by a masked killer . Her parents come home to find her body hanging from a tree .
The following day , the news media descend on the town and a police investigation begins . Meanwhile , Sidney Prescott struggles with the impending one @-@ year anniversary of her mother 's murder by Cotton Weary . While waiting at home for her friend , Tatum Riley , Sidney receives a threatening phone call . After she hangs up she is attacked by the killer . Sidney 's boyfriend , Billy Loomis , arrives shortly after , but after he drops his cell phone , Sidney suspects him of making the call and flees . Billy is arrested and Sidney spends the night at Tatum 's house .
Billy is released the next day . Suspicion has shifted to Sidney 's father , Neil Prescott , as the calls have been traced to his phone . School is suspended in the wake of the murders . After the students have left the school , Principal Himbry is stabbed to death in his office . Tatum 's boyfriend , Stu Macher throws a party to celebrate the school 's closure . The party is attended by Sidney , Tatum , their friend Randy Meeks , and multiple other students . Reporter Gale Weathers attends uninvited to cover the situation , as she expects the killer to strike . Tatum 's brother deputy sheriff Dewey Riley also looks out for the murderer at the party . Tatum is killed during the party after having her head crushed by the garage door . Billy arrives to speak to Sidney privately , and the two ultimately consummate their relationship . Dewey and Gale investigate a nearby abandoned car . Many party attendees are drawn away after hearing news of Himbry 's death ; Sidney , Billy , Randy , Stu , and Gale 's cameraman Kenny remain .
After having sex , Sidney and Billy are attacked by the killer , who seemingly murders Billy . Sidney escapes the killer and seeks help from Kenny , but he gets his throat slit by the killer . Sidney again flees . Gale and Dewey , having discovered that the car belongs to Neil Prescott , return to the house . They believe Neil is the killer and has come to the party to continue his spree . Gale attempts to leave the scene in her van but drives off the road and crashes to avoid hitting Sidney . Meanwhile , Dewey is stabbed in the back while investigating in the house , and Sidney takes Dewey 's gun . Stu and Randy appear and accuse each other of being the killer . Sidney retreats into the house , where she finds Billy wounded but still alive . She gives Billy the gun ; he lets Randy into the house and shoots him . Billy reveals he has feigned his injuries and is actually the killer ; Stu is his accomplice .
Billy and Stu discuss their plan to kill Sidney and frame her father , whom they have taken hostage , for their murder spree . The pair also admits to killing her mother , Maureen . Billy says he was motivated to seek revenge on Maureen because she was having an affair with Billy 's father , which drove his mother away . Gale , thought dead by the killers , intervenes , and Sidney takes advantage of this to turn the tables on her attackers , killing Stu . Randy is revealed to be wounded but alive . Billy attacks Sidney but she shoots him through the head , killing him . As the sun rises and police arrive , a badly injured Dewey is taken away by ambulance and Gale makes an impromptu news report about the night 's events .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Scream was originally developed under the title Scary Movie by Kevin Williamson , an aspiring screenwriter . Influenced by a news story he was watching about a series of grisly murders by the Gainesville Ripper , Williamson became concerned about intruders upon finding an open window in the house where he was staying . He was inspired to draft an 18 @-@ page script treatment about a young woman , alone in a house , who is taunted over the phone and then attacked by a masked killer . The treatment remained as a short story while Williamson worked on another script , Teaching Mrs. Tingle , a thriller that he would eventually sell but that would languish in development hell for many years . Struggling to pay his bills , Williamson secluded himself in Palm Springs and focused on the development of his Scary Movie treatment , hoping for a quick sale to meet his financial needs . Over the course of three days , Williamson developed a full @-@ length script as well as two separate five @-@ page outlines for potential sequels — Scary Movie 2 and Scary Movie 3 . He hoped to entice buyers with the potential for a franchise . In an interview , Williamson said that one reason he focused on the Scary Movie script was because it was a film he wanted to watch , born of his childhood love of horror films such as Halloween , but " nobody else [ was ] making it " . His appreciation for previous horror films became evident in the script , which features inspiration from and references to films such as Halloween , Friday the 13th , A Nightmare on Elm Street , When a Stranger Calls , and Prom Night . Williamson listened to the soundtrack for Halloween for inspiration while writing the script . Excerpts from the soundtrack appear in the film .
By June 1995 Williamson brought the Scary Movie script to his agent , Rob Paris , to put out for sale . Paris warned him that the level of violence and gore in his script would make it " impossible " to sell . Following the script 's purchase by Miramax , Williamson was required to remove much of the gorier content , such as graphic depictions of the internal organs of gutted murder victims " rolling " down their legs . However , once Craven was secured as director , he was able to bring much of the excised content back . Williamson was going to remove a scene in the school bathroom featuring Sidney , as he felt it was awkward and out of place in the film . Craven insisted the scene should remain , as he felt it developed the character and her relationship with her deceased mother . Williamson later confirmed that he was glad that Craven proved him wrong about the scene . Dimension Films head Bob Weinstein realized while reviewing the script that there were thirty pages ( approximately thirty on @-@ screen minutes ) without a murder , so he instructed Williamson to have another character killed .
Williamson included the death of the character Principal Himbry ( Winkler ) based on this input and in doing so inadvertently resolved a problem in the script 's finale . Williamson had struggled to find a reason for several extraneous characters to leave a party scene so that the killer could attack , finally determining that the announcement of the discovery of Himbry 's corpse would serve to remove the non @-@ essential characters who are so upset that they leave the party before ( and enabling ) the start of the murders . Concerning the killer 's motive , Williamson felt it was essential for the audience to learn why the antagonists had become killers , but he also felt it was potentially scarier if they had no motivation . Opinions at the studio were split between those who believed a motive was needed for resolution and those who felt the action was scarier without one . As there were two killers , Williamson decided to do both : Billy Loomis had the motive of maternal abandonment , while the second killer , Stu Macher , jokingly suggests " peer pressure " as his motive when prompted .
= = = Development = = =
The script for what was then known as Scary Movie went on sale on a Friday in June 1995 , but received no bids . By the following Monday , the script had become the subject of a significant bidding war among a host of established studios , including Paramount Pictures , Universal Pictures , and Morgan Creek Productions . Producer Cathy Konrad read the script and felt it was exactly what the Weinstein brothers of the fledgling Dimension Films — then a part of Miramax — were looking for . Dimension had previously released several horror films and intended to focus on that genre . Konrad brought the script to Bob Weinstein 's assistant , Richard Potter . Believing it had potential , he brought it to Weinstein 's attention . Studios began to drop out of the bidding as the price of the script increased , and the final two bidders were Oliver Stone , who was at the time working under Cinergi Pictures , and the Weinsteins of Dimension Films . Williamson agreed to a bid of $ 400 @,@ 000 from Miramax , plus a contract for two sequels and a possible fourth unrelated film . Williamson said he chose Dimension because he believed they would produce Scary Movie immediately and without significantly censoring the violence in the script . Craven read the script before he became involved in the production , and considered convincing a studio to buy it for him to direct . However , by the time Craven read the script , it had already been sold .
Bob Weinstein approached Craven early in the planning stages , because he felt Craven 's previous work in the genre that combined horror and comedy would make him the perfect person to bring Williamson 's script to screen . Craven was already busy developing a remake of The Haunting and was considering distancing himself from the horror genre . He was growing weary of the inherent misogyny and violence . Weinstein approached other directors , including Robert Rodriguez , Danny Boyle , George A. Romero , and Sam Raimi . Williamson said that they " didn 't get it " ; he was concerned that having read the script , many of the directors believed the film to be purely a comedy . Craven was approached again but continued to pass in spite of repeated requests . When production of The Haunting collapsed , Craven was freed from that commitment and found himself in need of a project . Meanwhile , Drew Barrymore had signed on to the film at her own request . When he heard an established actress wanted to be involved , Craven reasoned that Scary Movie might be different from other films of the genre he had previously undertaken , and he contacted Weinstein to accept the job .
As the film neared completion , the Weinstein brothers changed the film 's title from Scary Movie to Scream . They were inspired by the Michael Jackson song of the same name . Bob Weinstein considered Scary Movie to be an unsuitable title as , in addition to the horror and violence , the film contained elements of satire and comedy ; Weinstein wished for that to be better conveyed by the title . The change was effected so late into production that congratulatory gifts bore the original name . Williamson and Craven immediately disliked the new title , and considered it " stupid " . Both later remarked that the change turned out to be positive , and that Weinstein had been wise to pick the new title . Following a highly successful screening of the film in front of a test audience and Miramax executives , Craven was offered a two @-@ picture contract for sequels to Scream .
Sony Pictures filed a lawsuit against Dimension Films and Miramax , claiming that the title " Scream " infringed on the copyright of Sony 's own Screamers ( 1995 ) , released the previous year . After the case was settled out of court — the details remain confidential — Scream 2 producer Marianne Maddalena considered that the case was a result of other issues between the two companies and did not truly pertain to the film 's moniker . Maddalena confirmed that the studio was free to use the Scream brand for future films .
= = = Casting = = =
Scream was a turning point in terms of casting for the horror genre , which normally involved relatively unknown actors . The genre was considered unsuitable for bigger names as the films had lower budgets and often attained negative critical response . Drew Barrymore read the script and was interested in being involved . She approached the production team herself to request a role . Barrymore , a member of the Barrymore family of actors and granddaughter of actor John Barrymore , had become a star in her own right following her appearance in E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial ( 1982 ) . The producers were quick to take advantage of her unexpected interest , and signed her to play the lead role of Sidney Prescott . Her involvement was believed to be instrumental in attracting other popular actors to the film in spite of its smaller budget , and in causing Craven to reconsider his decision to direct the film . Before filming began , Barrymore was faced with unexpected commitments that meant she would no longer be available to play the demanding lead role . She instead played the smaller role of Casey Becker , which allowed her to remain involved and still gave the production the advantage of her stature . Killing off one of their biggest stars early in the film was considered a calculated risk , but it was believed that it would be so shocking and unexpected that the audience would then believe that any character could die . Actresses including Alicia Witt and Brittany Murphy auditioned for the lead role of Sidney ; the producers also approached Reese Witherspoon , though she never auditioned . Craven had seen Neve Campbell in the TV show Party of Five and asked her to audition for the part . He believed she could portray a character who was " innocent " , but who could also realistically handle herself while dealing with the physical conflict and emotions required by the role . Campbell was initially reluctant to perform in another horror film so soon after her supporting role in The Craft . After a successful audition , Campbell accepted an offer to play the lead character . She accepted because Scream would be her first leading role , and because she adored the character , saying " She 's a fantastic character for any kind of movie . "
For the character of news reporter Gale Weathers , the studio wanted a recognizable actress . They auditioned Brooke Shields and Janeane Garofalo . Courteney Cox , who was starring in the sitcom Friends at the time , approached the production herself to pursue the role . She was interested in playing a " bitch " character to offset her " nice " Friends image . This image was the main reason why the producers initially refused to consider Cox for the part . Cox continued to lobby the studio as she felt she could believably play the character ; her efforts ultimately succeeded . Actresses Melinda Clarke and Rebecca Gayheart auditioned for the role of Tatum Riley , before Rose McGowan was cast . The casting director believed she best embodied the " spunky " , " cynical " but " innocent " nature of the character . The studio felt the strong female cast of Campbell , Barrymore , Cox , and McGowan would help draw a significant female audience to the film . Gayheart would later land a role in Scream 2 .
Kevin Patrick Walls and Justin Whalin were among the final candidates for the key role of Sidney 's boyfriend Billy Loomis . Whalin took part in auditions with Campbell . Skeet Ulrich ultimately secured the role . The producers viewed him as " perfect " for the part and noted his resemblance to a young Johnny Depp as he appeared in A Nightmare on Elm Street , one of the many films Scream references . Ulrich and Campbell had worked together on The Craft shortly before Scream . They believed the experience helped them be more comfortable with each other , which allowed a more natural portrayal of the relationship between their characters . Though he failed to win the Loomis role , Walls remained in the film in the minor role of Steve Orth , boyfriend of Barrymore 's Casey Becker . David Arquette was also approached for the role of Billy Loomis but he asked to read for the part of Dewey Riley after reading the script . The role , described as " hunky " , was considered ill @-@ fitting for Arquette 's lean , slender appearance and approach but Arquette was still allowed to audition for the part . Craven appreciated his softer , funnier approach to the character , and gave him the role . Matthew Lillard was cast as Billy 's equally sadistic friend Stu Macher by chance after accompanying his then @-@ girlfriend to an unrelated audition taking place elsewhere in the same building . Casting director Lisa Beach saw Lillard in the hallway and asked him to audition for the part . He got into the role with " incredible ferocity " . The role of Randy Meeks was contested between Jamie Kennedy and Breckin Meyer . The producers favored Kennedy , believing him to best embody the role . As he had no major roles prior to Scream , the studio wanted a more prominent actor than Kennedy to play the character . The producers were adamant that he was the best choice and successfully fought to keep him . Roger L. Jackson , voice of the character Ghostface , was picked at the end of several weeks of local casting in Santa Rosa , where parts of Scream were filmed . The producers had originally intended to use his voice only as a placeholder , dubbing over it during post @-@ production . They decided that Jackson 's contribution was perfect and kept it . Craven described it as an " intelligent " and " evil " voice that would become irreplaceable to the series . To aid their performance , Jackson was never allowed to meet the other actors , preventing them from associating a face with the menacing voice . Jackson was present on the set and spoke to actors by phone to help aid their performance .
The cast was rounded out by W. Earl Brown , who played Gale Weather 's cameraman Kenny ; Joseph Whipp , who portrayed Sheriff Burke ; Lawrence Hecht as Neil Prescott ( Sidney 's father ) ; and C.W. Morgan as Hank Loomis ( Billy 's father ) . Liev Schreiber appeared in a minor role as Cotton Weary , the framed killer of Sidney 's mother and Linda Blair made a brief cameo as a TV reporter outside the school . Henry Winkler appeared as Principal Himbry , an aggressive school principal . He remained uncredited so as to not draw attention away from the young main cast .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography for Scream took place over eight weeks between April 15 and June 8 , 1996 , on a budget of $ 15 million . The Weinsteins wanted to film in Vancouver as it was estimated that they could save $ 1 million in costs compared to shooting in the United States . Craven was adamant about filming in the United States , and making a film that looked " truly American " . The argument over where to film almost led to Craven being removed from the project , but the Weinsteins eventually agreed to keep the production in America . Location scouts looked at North Carolina as a possibility , but found that sites that seemed appropriate for the film 's requirements would have required extensive building , repairs , or modification , which would have inflated costs .
Attention was next turned towards California ; scouts discovered Sonoma County and the cities of Santa Rosa , Healdsburg , and the nearby Tomales Bay . The house of Barrymore 's character is situated southeast of Santa Rosa on Sonoma Mountain Road , directly facing the house used in the horror film Cujo ( 1983 ) . The home of Sidney Prescott is located near Calistoga , north of Santa Rosa . Tatum 's home is situated on McDonald Avenue in Santa Rosa , next to the houses used in Pollyanna ( 1960 ) and Shadow of a Doubt ( 1943 ) . The home of Lillard 's character , which is the location for the entire third act , is a house on Tomales Road east of Tomales Bay that had only recently become available after the death of its owners . The Woodsboro town square , including the fountain where many of the cast sit in an early scene , is represented by the Healdsburg town square . For the Woodsboro high school , Craven desired a building that looked " American " , and the producers approached Santa Rosa High School . The school board insisted on seeing the script and immediately objected to the violence against teenage children and the cynical , dark dialogue , including that of the fictional school principal . Local newspapers criticized the project , and irate parents objected to such a film taking place at their children 's school . Comparisons were made between film violence and the kidnap and murder of Polly Klaas three years prior , which had left the area sensitized toward violence . The producers received support from the school 's students and some local residents , who recognized that economic benefits would be generated by the film 's presence . Others argued for the film 's First Amendment rights . The dispute resulted in a three @-@ hour debate scheduled for April 16 , one day after filming was to begin . Unwilling to be delayed , Craven began filming as scheduled on the 15th . He started with the opening scene of the film , which features Barrymore ; the scene took five days to complete . The result of the Santa Rosa debate was that permission would be denied . The production was forced to find another location for the school , and ended up filming at the Sonoma Community Center , southeast of Santa Rosa .
The progress of filming was criticized early on . Bob Weinstein disliked the Ghostface mask , believing it was not " scary " . Upon reviewing the dailies footage of the opening scene , the studio was concerned that the film was progressing in an unwanted direction . They considered replacing Craven . To assuage their concerns , Craven and editor Patrick Lussier , developed a rough , workprint version of the opening 13 minutes of the film to demonstrate how the completed film might turn out . After viewing the new footage , the studio was content to let Craven continue as director . Weinstein , having seen the mask in action , was satisfied that it could be scary . The third and final act of the film , over forty minutes long , is set at a house party where Ghostface strikes . It was shot at a vacant property in Tomales over 21 nights . The scene , labelled " Scene 118 " , was considered the most difficult to shoot as it took place entirely in one location yet featured the individual stories and deaths of multiple characters . Actors spent weeks undertaking intense emotional and physical scenes while coated in fake blood and wounds . As the scene was set during the evening , production had no choice but to halt at dawn .
Director of photography Mark Irwin was fired during filming of Scream 's finale , a week before principal photography was to be completed . Upon review of the dailies , Craven found the footage was out of focus and unusable . Irwin was initially ordered to fire his camera crew . He retorted that if his crew were to be fired , they would also have to fire him . The producers fired him and replaced him with Peter Deming , who finished the film .
= = = Special effects and design = = =
To produce the many grisly effects for the film , the producers recruited KNB Effects team Howard Berger , Robert Kurtzman , and Gregory Nicotero . One of their first tasks was the production of a mask for the film 's killer . In his script , Williamson had only described the antagonist as a " masked killer " , which gave Craven no specific information on what type of mask to use or how to conceal the body . While location scouting , Maddalena discovered the Ghostface mask hanging from a post inside the house previously used for the film Shadow of a Doubt . Craven wanted to use it , but the mask design was owned by Fun World , a costume company . He was told to create one that the production could own . KNB developed multiple design sketches varying from deformed faces to monstrous visages riddled with fangs . Craven found nothing like the Ghostface design , so he had KNB develop a mask that was based on it , with enough differences to avoid any claim of copyright . The team developed several molds based on the Ghostface design , but Craven found none were as suitable as the mask he wanted to use . Desperate to use the design , Craven finally convinced the studio to approach Fun World and gained permission to use the mask . While negotiations were in progress , he had KNB make a mask that was very similar to the original mask , but was appropriate for use in filming . The mask they produced , made of a thin foam , was used in two scenes of the film : the opening scene with Barrymore 's character and the murder of Principal Himbry . Craven disliked the mask due to its slight differences from the original , and thus used the Fun World design for the rest of filming .
KNB Effects created over 50 gallons of fake blood , normally composed of corn syrup and food dye , to create the special effect of severe wounds . For the penetrating effect of knives , the production used collapsible blades to prevent injury . An umbrella with a retractable tip is used as a stabbing weapon in the finale . Ulrich wore a protective vest beneath his shirt to help prevent harm while a stuntwoman attacked him with it . The second thrust missed the vest and stabbed Ulrich on his chest , impacting a wound from an open heart surgery operation . Ulrich 's genuine pain was captured on film and used in the release version of Scream .
Two of the most complex special effects in the film were the corpses of Barrymore 's and Walls ' characters , Casey Becker and Steve Orth . Their deaths involved the character being gutted from ribcage to pelvis , essentially hollowing out the torso of internal organs , with the guts " rolling " from the wound . To allow Walls to continue to move and feign death while displaying the wound , KNB designed a chair with no back . The actor would kneel behind it while his upper body , head , and arms were positioned within the chair 's seating area . An anatomical model representing the character 's torso and legs was positioned in the chair and disguised so that the actor 's upper body and the model appeared to be one piece . The fake abdomen was filled with rubber , latex , and gelatin pieces smeared in fake blood — the " internal organs " — which could then fall free . The other effect involved Barrymore 's character being gutted and hung by the neck from a tree . The team utilized a similar approach , but replicated Barrymore 's entire body , as it would be impossible to conceal her real body and display the special effect of her character having been gutted .
= = = Post production = = =
After filming was completed in June 1996 , Craven spent two months editing the final product . He encountered repeated conflicts with the Motion Picture Association of America film rating system ( MPAA ) concerning the content of scenes . He was forced to tone down or obscure the more intense scenes and overall violence to avoid an NC @-@ 17 rating , which is considered " box office suicide " — cinemas and retail chains often refused to stock NC @-@ 17 titles . Though Dimension had previously released NC @-@ 17 @-@ rated films , the rating made those films difficult to market and attract an audience . Dimension was desperate for a less @-@ restrictive R rating , but the producers felt the demanded cuts would remove key elements from the film and reduce its quality . The opening scene featuring Barrymore was one of the most difficult parts to process through the MPAA , who required cuts based on its " intensity " . Craven lied to the MPAA , claiming he had only one take of the scene and could not replace it with something less intense ; the MPAA allowed the scene .
Craven sent eight different cuts of the film to deal with complaints . Problematic scenes included the gutting death of Steve Orth ( Walls ) , where he was required to remove any movement of the character 's internal organs ; the throat @-@ cutting of Kenny , where he had to trim the end of the scene , as the MPAA felt the actor 's pained expression was too " disturbing " ; and they had to shorten the length of time spent viewing the crushed head of Tatum Riley . The MPAA still held issue with a scene from the finale , where the killers ( Ulrich and Lillard ) stab each other , creating large amounts of visible blood . The MPAA required that the blood could not be seen in motion — falling to the floor from the body . It seemed unlikely that the film would be able to achieve an R rating without further significant cuts . With the film 's release date drawing closer , Bob Weinstein intervened and personally contacted the MPAA . He believed they misunderstood the film and to which genre Scream really belonged , and were focusing too much on the horror elements . Weinstein explained that although he agreed with their assessment that the film was " intense " , the film also had comedic elements and satire ; it was not just a horror film glorifying violence . The MPAA reviewed their decision ; shortly thereafter the film was granted an R rating .
= = = Music = = =
The Scream score was provided by fledgling composer Marco Beltrami , his first time scoring a feature film . Craven 's assistant Julie Plec had requested input on composers who were " new " , " fresh " , and " wonderful " , and was given Beltrami 's name by several people . Beltrami was contacted for samples of his work . Craven , impressed by what he heard , requested Beltrami come to the set to view the opening thirteen minutes of the film containing the introduction and the death of Barrymore 's character . Beltrami was tasked with scoring a piece of music for this scene , which would be reviewed by the producers and the Weinstein brothers . Beltrami was hired to score the entire film on the basis of this sample . Beltrami had no prior experience scoring a work of horror . Craven and editor Patrick Lussier advised him on how to deliver music that would raise the tension and how to use stings to punctuate the more intense moments . Craven wanted the music to intentionally raise tension during scenes where audience expectations were already raised by their experience of previous horror films . The volume would be raised to indicate that the killer is hiding behind a door , but nothing would be present upon its opening .
Beltrami decided to intentionally disregard conventional horror score styles . He approached the film as a western , taking influence from Ennio Morricone , a prolific composer for many westerns . When scoring a theme for the character of Dewey ( Arquette ) , Beltrami approached him as a " quirky " wild west sheriff , using a Morricone @-@ style guitar accompaniment . Sidney Prescott 's theme , titled " Sidney 's Lament " , features a female choral arrangement expressing " sorrow " concerning the character 's situation . Beltrami states that the voice " spoke " for the character , " lamenting " the loss of her mother . Christian Clemmensen of Filmtracks called the " haunting " vocals of the track the " voice of the franchise " . The song was used throughout the film 's sequels .
= = Release = =
Scream held its premiere on December 18 , 1996 at the AMC Avco theater in Westwood , Los Angeles , California . Bob Weinstein ordered that the film be released on December 20 , 1996 , a date others were critical of as it was the Christmas period where seasonal and family films were more prevalent . Weinstein argued this fact was in the film 's favor as it meant that horror fans and teenagers had nothing interesting to watch during the December period . When Scream 's first weekend takings amounted to only $ 6 million , it was considered that this release date gamble had failed , but the following week , takings did not drop but increased and continued to increase in the following weeks leading to a total U.S. gross of over $ 100 million and high critical praise .
= = = Box office = = =
The film opened in 1 @,@ 413 theaters , taking $ 6 @,@ 354 @,@ 586 in its opening weekend , opening in second against Beavis and Butt @-@ head Do America , and almost $ 87 million in its initial release . It was re @-@ released to theatres on April 11 , 1997 , and accrued a further $ 16 @.@ 2 million , for a total domestic gross of $ 103 @,@ 046 @,@ 663 , and a worldwide lifetime gross of $ 173 @,@ 046 @,@ 663 . Scream remains the most successful of the Scream film series , receiving a largely positive critical reception . Scream 2 generated a worldwide gross of $ 172 @,@ 363 @,@ 301 , less than $ 1 million below that of the first film and $ 11 million more than Scream 3 . As of 2013 , Scream is currently the 577th highest grossing movie worldwide . In the United States , without adjusting for inflation , the film is the twentieth highest @-@ grossing horror film , and remains the highest @-@ grossing slasher genre film , directly followed by Scream 2 and Scream 3 .
Despite competition from other box office fare such as Tom Cruise 's Jerry Maguire and Tim Burton 's Mars Attacks ! , its release during the Christmas season , and Variety labeling it " D.O.A. " before it was even released , Scream became the fifteenth highest @-@ grossing film of 1996 , well placed amongst big @-@ budget blockbusters released that year such as Independence Day and Mission : Impossible . It was shown in cinemas for nearly eight months after its release .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film holds a 79 % approval rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes based on 66 reviews . On review @-@ aggregate site Metacritic , the film holds a score of 65 out of 100 based on 25 reviews , indicating " generally favorable " reviews . Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle appreciated the shift from the teen slasher films of the 1980s and their " endless series of laborious , half @-@ baked sequels . " Kevin Thomas of The Los Angeles Times called Scream " a bravura , provocative sendup of horror pictures " and complimented the film for being " scary and gruesome " while avoiding a sense of " morbidity " . Empire 's Adam Smith called it " Clever , quick and bloody funny . " Williamson 's script was praised as containing a " fiendishly clever , complicated plot " which " deftly mixes irony , self @-@ reference and wry social commentary with chills and blood spills . " Time Out London lauded the film 's intelligence and scares , while praising the casting , saying " at last , a horror movie to shout about ! " Film4 cited Craven 's own Wes Craven 's New Nightmare ( 1994 ) and its cast of self @-@ aware characters as inspiration for Scream , but declared that while New Nightmare was a " noble failure – pretty smart , but crucially not very scary " that Scream was " not merely clever ... it is , from its breathtaking opening sequence ( with Barrymore as the woman in peril ) onwards , simply terrifying . "
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film a positive review of 3 out of 4 stars , appreciating " the in @-@ jokes and the self @-@ aware characters " , but was confused over whether the level of violence was " defused by the ironic way the film uses it and comments on it . " The New York Times ' Janet Maslin was not as appreciative , saying " not much of ' Scream ' is that gruesome " . She wrote that Craven " wants things both ways , capitalizing on lurid material while undermining it with mocking humor . Not even horror fans who can answer all this film 's knowing trivia questions may be fully comfortable with such an exploitative mix . " Despite being critical of the film itself , calling it " one experiment that needed more lab time " , Variety complimented the " strong " ensemble cast , singling out the performances of Campbell and Ulrich as " charismatic " . The BBC claimed that the film had promise , saying " It appeared to be clever , dangerous , witty , and fresh " but went on to label it as derivative of the films it satirized : " Scream runs out of humour , and in turn robs itself of the chance to get the audience to take the thrills and gut @-@ spills it offers seriously . "
= = = Awards = = =
Scream received several awards and award nominations following its release , including the Saturn Award for Best Actress for Campbell , Best Writing for Kevin Williamson , and Best Horror Film ; it received Saturn nominations for Best Director for Wes Craven and Best Supporting Actor for Ulrich and Barrymore . Craven was awarded the Grand Prize at the Gérardmer Film Festival . The film was awarded the 1997 Best Movie by the MTV Movie Awards , while Campbell received a nomination for Best Female Performance .
= = = Home media = = =
Scream was released in the United States on AC3 Laserdisc ( uncut ) on July 2 , 1997 , VHS on December 2 , 1997 , and on DVD on December 3 , 1997 . A DTS Laserdisc ( uncut ) was released on August 26 , 1998 followed by a Collector 's Edition DVD of the film on December 8 , 1998 , containing the film , the theatrical trailer , cast interviews , a director 's commentary , and behind the scenes information . These releases were all undertaken by Buena Vista Home Entertainment . Following the release of Scream 3 , Scream and its first two sequels were collected in " The Ultimate Scream Collection " by Dimension Films on September 26 , 2000 , a boxset containing the three films and a bonus disc containing " Behind the Scream " , a 30 minute documentary about the production of the three films , and additional material , including screentests and outtakes .
Scream was also released on Laserdisc in France , Hong Kong , Japan , and the United Kingdom in 1997 ; Germany and a Japanese Special Edition in 1998 .
Scream remained unreleased on DVD in some foreign territories , including Europe , until 2001 . The Japanese DVD released in 1998 contained both the R @-@ rated version of the film , plus the original " Director 's Cut " , which restored the gore / violence removed by the MPAA . Scream was released in Europe with Scream 2 and Scream 3 on February 26 by Buena Vista Home Entertainment . Each package contained additional content found in the Collector 's Edition version of the US release , including deleted scenes , outtakes , theatrical trailers , music videos , and crew commentary . The three films were also sold as a collection called the " Scream Trilogy " , released on February 26 , 2001 .
On March 29 , 2011 , two weeks prior to the release of Scream 4 , Scream was released in US territories on Blu @-@ ray by Lionsgate Home Entertainment . The Blu @-@ rays present the films in 1080p high definition . The releases contain all the additional materials found on the Collector 's Edition DVD , including outtakes and deleted scenes .
= = Albums = =
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The Scream original soundtrack was released on December 17 , 1996 , by TVT Records . The soundtrack features 11 songs — most of which appeared in various scenes in the film — plus a piece from the film 's score , " Trouble In Woodsboro " / " Sidney 's Lament " , by Beltrami . The Alice Cooper version of " School 's Out " appeared in the film following the closure of Woodsboro high school , but it was replaced with a cover version of the song by The Last Hard Men on the album . An acoustic cover of Blue Öyster Cult 's " Don 't Fear the Reaper " , performed by Gus Black , plays softly in the background while Sidney and Billy discuss their relationship . Analyst Jeff Smith describes the musical choice as :
An ironic comment on the brutality we have just seen in the opening sequence . More importantly , however , the allusion to the Blue Öyster Cult classic recasts the song 's title by literalizing its meaning . While the title itself invokes the Reaper as a popular symbol for death , the film presents us with an actual person , who not only dresses as the Grim Reaper but also unleashes homicidal vengeance on the other characters of the film . The irony here , of course , is that Billy himself proves to be one of the film 's dual slashers and is , in fact , the " Reaper " to be feared .
The song " Red Right Hand " by Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds , heard in the first film , is also used in Scream 2 and Scream 3 . Nick Cave performs a version of the track written specifically for Scream 3 in that film . An alternate version of the music video " Drop Dead Gorgeous " by Republica , featuring clips from the film , was shown on music networks such as MTV . Although the song can be heard in the film , it is not included on the soundtrack album . The song was also used in one of the film 's television commercials . The soundtrack album was not considered a success , failing to chart on the Billboard 200 . AllMusic awarded the album 3 stars out of 5 .
= = = Score = = =
The Scream score by Marco Beltrami was released by Varèse Sarabande on July 14 , 1998 , on a CD titled " Scream / Scream 2 " , which also contained tracks from the score of Scream 2 . The release consisted of only six tracks — " Sidney 's Lament " , " Altered Ego " , " A Cruel World " , " Trouble in Woodsboro " , " Chasing Sidney " , and " NC @-@ 17 " — with a runtime of only 12 minutes , compared to over an hour of music made for the film and the more common 30 – 45 minutes of music found in other original scores . Some reviewers felt the restricted runtime was a result of the high cost of releasing a composer 's music commercially , combined with Varèse Sarabande 's unwillingness to pay .
The score to Scream received generally positive reviews , with Mikael Carlsson labeling it as " some of the most intriguing horror scores composed in years " . Filmtracks.com claimed the scores had " cult status " , awarding it 3 stars out of 5 . AllMusic said that the score " perfectly captured the post @-@ modern , hip scare @-@ ride of the Scream movies " , also giving it 3 stars out of 5 .
= = Sequels = =
Williamson had attached five @-@ page proposals for potential sequels to Scream when he originally sold the script , hoping to entice prospective buyers into buying a film and a franchise . When Dimension Films bought the script , they secured Williamson for two future Scream films , should the original prove successful . After a highly positive test screening of Scream at which executives from Dimension Films and Miramax were present , Craven was signed to direct the two future sequels . After the film 's box office and critical success , the first sequel was greenlit and sent into production while Scream was still in theaters . The second picture was given an increased budget . The surviving cast — Campbell , Cox , Arquette , Kennedy , and Schreiber — all returned , as well as much of the original crew , including editor Patrick Lussier and composer Marco Beltrami . A third film followed shortly after , again with the crew and surviving cast returning to create what was , at the time , the concluding film in the Scream trilogy . The three original films , released in a five @-@ year period , followed the story of Sidney Prescott 's encounters with a succession of killers adopting the Ghostface disguise . The films also analyze her relationship with her deceased mother , who inadvertently initiates the events depicted in the films . Scream 2 fared as well financially and critically as its predecessor , while Scream 3 fared significantly worse on both counts , with critics deriding the film as having become what the original had so deftly satirized .
Fifteen years after the release of Scream and eleven years after the release of the last film in the series , The Weinstein Company released a new sequel , Scream 4 , on April 15 , 2011 . Campbell , Cox and Arquette all return to their roles , and Craven , Williamson , and Beltrami return to the production side . The Weinstein Company stated that the success of Scream 4 could lead to potential sequels and a new Scream trilogy , with Campbell , Arquette , Craven , and Williamson all having been contracted or expressed interest in appearing in future installments .
= = Controversies = =
In the years following the release of Scream , the film has been accused of inspiring copycat crimes and inducing violent acts .
In January 1998 , 16 @-@ year @-@ old Mario Padilla and his 14 @-@ year @-@ old cousin , Samuel Ramirez stabbed Mario 's mother , Gina Castillo , 45 times , killing her . The case became known as the " Scream murder " and fell under intense media scrutiny after the boys claimed they were inspired by Scream and Scream 2 . The pair confessed to needing the money acquired from Gina 's murder to fund a killing spree , purchase two Ghostface costumes , and a voice @-@ changer used by the character in the film . During their trial , psychologist Madeline Levine who studied the effect of violence on children , stated , " There were a whole bunch of reasons why they acted out that way . But did the movie provide a blueprint ? Absolutely . " The case was expected to highlight the effect of violent films on teenagers . However , presiding judge John Cheroske ordered that evidence pertaining to Scream be barred and that the case not be referred to as the " Scream murder " , refusing media access to the courtroom , intending that the case was tried as murder and nothing else .
On January 17 , 1999 , 13 @-@ year @-@ old Ashley Murray was stabbed multiple times in the head and back before being left for dead by his then @-@ friends Daniel Gill , 14 , and Robert Fuller , 15 . He was later found and saved by an elderly man walking his dog . The pair were dubbed the " Scream attackers " after it emerged that they had watched Scream shortly before the attack and drawings of the Ghostface mask were found among their possessions . Their actions were additionally blamed on physical abuse , drugs and exposure to black magic in their home life . Murray , who later testified against the pair , stated that he believed the film may have influenced the pair to attack him .
On May 4 , 1999 , following the Columbine High School massacre and increasing news media reports on the effects on violent films , games , and other media on society , the United States Senate Commerce committee held a hearing about Hollywood 's marketing of films to youths . The committee focused specifically on horror films . The opening scene of Scream featuring the murder of Barrymore 's character was shown to the committee as an example of negative media which may be viewed by children .
= = Legacy = =
Prior to Scream 's release the popularity of the horror genre had been considered to be in decline with many films released straight to video while those released in cinemas were sequels to popular and established franchises , such as Halloween , Friday the 13th , A Nightmare on Elm Street , and The Texas Chainsaw Massacre , capable of drawing audiences despite decreasing budgets and diminishing critical reception . The glut of sequels contributed to audience familiarity with the icons of the late 1970s and early 1980s such as Freddy Krueger and Jason Voorhees that they were considered to have lost their ability to instill scares or interest in their audience . Scream , utilizing a popular and attractive cast and an innovative script that mocked and embraced the conventions of horror which had become considered clichéd , was credited with changing the status of the genre , becoming both a financial and critical success , and launching the careers of many of its actors . Such was the film 's impact that some commentators considered its legacy as the creation of a distinct era of " post @-@ Scream " horror films . Following its release many studios , including Scream 's own Dimension Films , rushed to capitalize on its unexpected success with the release of films such as I Know What You Did Last Summer ( 1997 ) and Urban Legend ( 1998 ) as well as sequels to popular , but diminishing , franchises such as Halloween H20 and Bride of Chucky .
In June 2001 , as part of the American Film Institute ' ' s ( AFI ) AFI 100 Years ... series , Scream became one of the 400 nominees in the 100 Years ... 100 Thrills category . In 2003 , the character Ghostface was nominated in the category 100 Heroes and Villains . In 2005 , " Do you like scary movies " , as spoken by Roger Jackson , was nominated for AFI 's 100 Years … 100 Movie Quotes , a list of the greatest cinematic quotes .
Scream ranks # 32 on Entertainment Weekly 's list of the " 50 Best High School Movies " , and the opening scene featuring the death of Barrymore 's character ranked # 13 on Bravo 's 100 Scariest Movie Moments . In 2008 , Entertainment Weekly dubbed the film a " New Classic " by ranking it # 60 in their list of the " 100 Best Films of the Last 13 years " . In 2008 Empire ranked the film # 482 on their list of " The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time " .
= Hannah Montana : The Movie ( soundtrack ) =
Hannah Montana : The Movie is the soundtrack for the film of the same name . The film is an adaptation of the popular Disney Channel original series Hannah Montana , which first aired in 2006 . In the television series and film , American singer – songwriter and actress Miley Cyrus portrays Miley Stewart , a girl with a secret double life as the popstar Hannah Montana . Cyrus performs twelve of the songs on the album , seven of which are credited to Hannah Montana . American recording artists Billy Ray Cyrus , Taylor Swift , and Rascal Flatts and English recording artist Steve Rushton also have songs on the soundtrack .
This album was released on March 23 , 2009 by Walt Disney Records . All of the songs in the album were approved by the film 's director Peter Chelsom . He felt the film needed music that was tightly woven into the film 's plot and the character 's background . Several producers worked on the album , mainly John Shanks and Matthew Gerrard . Shanks was more involved with Cyrus than the other artists . Meanwhile , Gerrard produced Cyrus ' songs as Montana ; he previously wrote her hit song " The Best of Both Worlds " ( 2006 ) . A remix of " The Best of Both Worlds " is featured as the album 's closing track . Musically , the album merges heavy influences from pop and country . Songwriters include Cyrus , Gerrard and Swift , among others . The songs ' lyrics primarily discuss the film 's themes of fame , family , and love .
Contemporary critics were pleased with the album . Cyrus was praised for being natural and reflected while performing as herself . They also complimented Swift 's performance and debated if she or Cyrus were more dominant . The soundtrack received a nomination for a 2009 American Music Award for Favorite Soundtrack , but lost to the Twilight soundtrack . Hannah Montana : The Movie reached the top ten in many nations , and topped charts in countries such as Austria , Canada , and New Zealand . In the United States , it peaked at number one on the Billboard 200 and the Billboard Top Country Albums chart . By May 2009 , the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the album platinum .
The lead single released from the album was " The Climb " . It became Cyrus ' best @-@ charting single in the United States at the time and topped Billboard 's Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks . Cyrus ' " Hoedown Throwdown " was released in March 10 , 2009 and reached the top ten on the Irish Singles Chart . The album was promoted through exclusive releases to Radio Disney and live performances at numerous venues . Cyrus performed four songs from the album on her first worldwide concert tour , the Wonder World Tour .
= = Writing and development = =
Most of the songs on the soundtrack were offered to Peter Chelsom , the film 's director , for inclusion on the film . Producer Alfred Gough said , " Peter Chelsom describes the Stewart family [ Cyrus ' character 's family in the film ] as a bilingual family whose second language is music , and that 's very true in this movie . " Chelsom says the film 's numerous songs are tightly woven into the fabric of the story and the characters , which is why he believes the film will feel like a musical without being one . " We continuously dance very close to the convention of a musical but are more integrated . Songs are going to sit within the film , not apart from the film . At times , you won 't notice the music is happening ; it 'll just move the story along . "
In regards to Cyrus ' songs , Chelsom said , " We realized this was an opportunity to move forward with the music , to update it and make it more sophisticated , to move with Miley ’ s age . I ’ ve never had a better musical experience on any film . " Cyrus noted that most of the songs included on the soundtrack were inspired by the return of Cyrus ' character , Miley Stewart / Hannah Montana , to her Nashville roots . She explained , " The soundtrack is all about Nashville , and that 's where I 'm from , that 's my roots . I think that 's a lot of the | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
The doctor is heading up the drive and he can 't quite see him in the sunlight . Then it pauses to that amazing crane shot . ... Very spooky .
The reception of the two later instalments , Stigma and The Ice House , was decidedly critical . Most reviewers concluded that switching to original stories instead of adaptations was " misjudged " . David Kerekes writes that The Ice House is almost " totally forgotten " . Wheatley has commented that they heralded a divergence from the stage @-@ inspired horror of the 1940s and 1950s to a more modern Gothic horror based in the present day , losing in the process the " aesthetic of restraint " evident in the original adaptations .
The BBC Four revival beginning in 2005 with A View from a Hill was greeted warmly by Sarah Dempster , who stated that the programme was , " in every respect , a vintage Ghost Story for Christmas production . There are the powdery academics hamstrung by extreme social awkwardness . There is the bumbling protagonist bemused by a particular aspect of modern life . There are stunning , panoramic shots of a specific area of the British landscape ( here , a heavily autumnal Suffolk ) . There is the determined lack of celebrity pizzazz . There is tweed . And there is , crucially , a single moment of heart @-@ stopping , corner @-@ of @-@ the @-@ eye horror that suggests life , for one powdery academic at least , will never be the same again . "
= = Related works = =
Before Clark 's films came under the remit of the BBC Drama Department it commissioned a Christmas play from Nigel Kneale , an original ghost story called The Stone Tape , broadcast on Christmas Day 1972 . With its modern setting , this is not generally included under the heading of A Ghost Story for Christmas and was originally intended as an episode of the anthology Dead of Night .
Clark directed another story by M. R. James , Casting The Runes for the series Playhouse , produced by Yorkshire Television and first broadcast on ITV on 24 April 1979 . Adapted by Clive Exton , it reimagined the events of James 's story taking place in a contemporary television studio .
For Christmas 1979 the BBC produced a 70 @-@ minute @-@ long adaptation of Sheridan Le Fanu 's gothic tale Schalcken the Painter , directed and adapted by Leslie Megahey . Like the earlier Whistle and I 'll Come to You , the production was listed as part of the long @-@ running BBC arts series Omnibus .
Repeats of the original series on BBC Four at Christmas 2007 included The Haunted Airman , a new adaptation of Dennis Wheatley 's novel The Haunting of Toby Jugg by Chris Durlacher , although this film was originally screened on 31 October 2006 .
For Christmas 2008 an original three @-@ part ghost story by Mark Gatiss , Crooked House , was produced instead , though Gatiss has cited the original adaptations as a key influence .
The Turn of the Screw ( 1898 ) , a novella by Henry James ( no relation to M. R. James ) , was adapted as a feature @-@ length drama by Sandy Welch and broadcast on BBC One on 30 December 2009 .
= = Release = =
The BFI released the complete set of Ghost Story for Christmas films plus related works such as both versions of Whistle and I 'll Come to You on Region 2 DVD in 2012 , in five volumes as well as a box set , in celebration of the 150th anniversary of M. R. James 's birth . The following year , an expanded boxset featuring Robert Powell and Michael Bryant narrating M. R. James in the series Classic Ghost Stories ( 1986 ) and Spine Chillers ( 1980 ) respectively .
A Warning to the Curious , The Signalman and Miller 's Whistle and I 'll Come to You were released as individual VHS cassettes and Region 2 DVDs by the British Film Institute in 2002 and 2003 . A number of the adaptations were made available in Region 4 format in Australia in 2011 and The Signalman is included as an extra on the Region 1 American DVD release of the 1995 BBC production of Hard Times . For Christmas 2011 , the BFI featured the complete 1970s films in their Mediatheque centres .
= Hurricane Naomi ( 1968 ) =
Hurricane Naomi was a short @-@ lived Category 1 hurricane that made landfall in Mexico 's Pacific coast during the 1968 Pacific hurricane season . After rapidly intensifying before its landfall in Sinaloa , Naomi caused rainfall throughout northern Mexico and the U.S. state of Texas in association with a frontal system , with the highest measurement occurring in Corpus Christi . Four people perished in Mexico due to Naomi 's effects with ten more missing , all in Sinaloa . The only reported injury in Texas due to the remnants was a factory worker who was injured when the roof of the plant they were working in collapsed due to rainfall .
Naomi was the seventeenth tropical depression , fourteenth tropical storm and the fourth hurricane of the 1968 Pacific hurricane season . Its precipitation on the Mexican Altiplano briefly threatened the unfinished Lázaro Cárdenas dam on the Nazas River . If the dam failed , the twin cities of Gómez Palacio , Durango , and Torreón , Coahuila , would have been inundated . On the other hand , releasing water from the dam would have saved Torreón by submerging Gómez Palacio with the dam 's runoff . From help with satellite imagery , the authorities decided to keep the dam closed — risking its possible failure — saving both towns .
= = Meteorological history = =
The disturbance that developed into Hurricane Naomi was reported in the Intertropical Convergence Zone on September 8 at 12 ° N , 98 ° W. At that time , a ship called the Avisfaith reported winds to the south @-@ southwest of force 7 on the Beaufort Scale 30 mi ( 48 km ) south of this position , the equivalent of a strong tropical depression on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . On September 9 , six more ships reported winds of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) from the system , which was at 13 ° N , 101 ° W at the time , and the system was given depression status on the same day . Later that day , satellite pictures clearly showed the vortex and center of the developing cyclone , and on September 10 , the first report of tropical storm force winds were reported south of the low by the ship Builder , which showed winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) . The depression continued to develop at a rapid pace , with large feeder bands which helped to absorb moisture to strengthen the cyclone extending from the center , which was becoming better defined . One of the feeder bands developed near Manzanillo , Colima , which reported winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) from the band prior to daybreak . Towards the end of the day , the Allison Lykes reported 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) winds from the cyclone and , early on September 11 , sufficient evidence that the depression had reached tropical storm status resulted in the cyclone being upgraded and named " Naomi " .
For the next twelve hours , Naomi continued to rapidly intensify , with feeder bands flowing into a tightening spiral structure in the center of the storm . Ship reports around this time showed winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . Towards midnight , a computerized mosaic showed a clear eye and Naomi was upgraded to hurricane strength early on September 12 while at 19 @.@ 8 ° N , 106 @.@ 8 ° W based on the mosaic , an intensity that was verified by the Meisei Maru , which reported winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) at 6 : 00 Greenwich Mean Time ( GMT ) . After being upgraded , the hurricane moved to the north at a pace of 9 mph ( 14 km / h ) before making a slow northeastward turn . The turn had the hurricane passing 30 mi ( 48 km ) – 40 mi ( 64 km ) west of Mazatlán , Sinaloa . The hurricane then began to accelerate , landfalling on Sinaloa near Punta Piaxtla at 3 : 00 GMT on September 13 . Shortly after landfall , the Sierra Madre Occidental took a toll on the hurricane , causing it to dissipate later that day while midway between Chihuahua , Chih . , and Piedras Negras , Coah . , with the remnants moving over Texas . In total , the hurricane travelled 1 @,@ 100 mi ( 1 @,@ 800 km ) while active .
= = Impact = =
= = = Mexico = = =
A dispatch from the Associated Press to Mexico City reported that 20 @,@ 000 citizens from villages in Durango , Sinaloa , Nayarit , and Jalisco evacuated due to the threat of flooding and high winds from Naomi . The damage from Naomi in Mexico was moderate , although no monetary figures have ever been released . The Associated Press dispatch also reported that Naomi was responsible for knocking out communications over a large area in Mazatlán as well as downing power lines and damaging houses . At least 2000 people were reported homeless in Durango due to the hurricane . The hurricane also caused damage to Highway 15 between Mazatlán and Tepic . Although the highway reopened soon afterward , some areas that were struck by the hurricane were still rough . Naomi 's most notable impact in Mexico involved the Lázaro Cárdenas Dam on the Nazas River , which was not complete by the time the hurricane hit . The dam , upriver from Gómez Palacio and Torreón , was feared to break down from the water being built up behind it , influenced by the hurricane . The two options were to either open the dam , saving Torreón by inundating Gómez Palacio , or risk inundating both towns by keeping the dam closed . The decision was made harder by the fact that , if the dam was released and no rain fell to refill the basin behind the dam , the farms would have insufficient water for agricultural growth . Photography from the Environmental Science Services Administration 's Automatic Picture Transmission based on the ESSA @-@ 6 weather satellite showed that the clouds from Naomi responsible for the rain had almost moved over the area near the dam . Based on the images , the authorities decided to gamble on the dam to successfully hold up , and it managed to hold back the waters without breaking . The hurricane caused four drowning deaths and $ 16 million in damage in Sinaloa .
= = = Texas = = =
In Texas , the remnants of Naomi coupled with a frontal system resulted in prolonged rains over the state . The hardest hit city was Corpus Christi , which reported over 8 inches ( 200 mm ) of rain in relation to the disturbance as well as funnel clouds to the south and west of the city , resulting in many roads being stopped to traffic . Accumulated rainfall caused the roof of a tortilla plant to collapse , slightly injuring a worker . Although the range of heavy rains was large , only minor rains were reported in Andrews , Crane , Monahans , Kermit , Wink , Stanton , and Pecos . Despite the totals , the rain proved beneficial as well , helping saturate areas of grassland in need of water .
= = = Naming = = =
This was the second time an East Pacific storm was named Naomi and the only time that a storm named Naomi in the basin reached hurricane strength . Because the effects from the hurricane were minor , the name was not retired after this hurricane and was re @-@ used in the 1976 season . However , a name change in 1978 dropped the name Naomi , and the name has not been used since .
= The Beatles : Rock Band =
The Beatles : Rock Band is a 2009 music video game developed by Harmonix , published by MTV Games , and distributed by Electronic Arts . It is the third major console release in the Rock Band music video game series , in which players can simulate the playing of rock music by using controllers shaped like musical instruments . The Beatles : Rock Band is the first band @-@ centric game in the series , and it is centered on the popular English rock group the Beatles . The game features virtual portrayals of the four band members performing the songs throughout the band 's history , including depictions of some of their famous live performances , as well as a number of " dreamscape " sequences for songs from the Abbey Road Studios recording sessions during the group 's studio years . The game 's soundtrack consists of 45 Beatles songs ; additional songs and albums by the Beatles were made available for the game as downloadable content .
The game was released internationally on 9 September 2009 , coinciding with the release of new , remastered compact disc versions of the Beatles ' albums . It incorporates many of the gameplay features of the Rock Band series ; however , it is not an expansion pack for the Rock Band series and content for it and other Rock Band titles is not cross @-@ compatible . Harmonix co @-@ founder Alex Rigopulos described the game as " ... a new , full game title production built from the ground up . " Gameplay mechanics differ slightly from previous Rock Band games , including the addition of a three @-@ part vocal harmony system . Subsequent games in the Rock Band series would reuse these new elements , including vocal harmonies .
The game was developed with the blessing and critical input of Apple Corps , including former Beatles Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr , who both made public appearances supporting the game . George Harrison 's son Dhani helped to bridge discussion between Harmonix and Apple Corps , while Giles Martin , son of the Beatles ' music producer George Martin , ensured high @-@ fidelity versions of the Beatles ' songs would be available .
The Beatles : Rock Band was well received by the press , both as a genuine means of experiencing the music and history of the Beatles and as a standalone music video game . Although the game 's sales were considered respectable , with more than half a million units sold during its first month of release in the United States , analysts had projected larger sales volumes and attributed the lower sales to waning interest in the rhythm game genre and the video game industry recovery from the late @-@ 2000s recession .
= = Gameplay = =
The Beatles : Rock Band allows players to perform simulated rock music by providing up to six players with the ability to play three different controllers modeled after music instruments ( a guitar controller for lead guitar and bass guitar gameplay , a drum controller and up to three microphones for vocals ) . Players simulate the performance of rock music by using their controllers to play scrolling on @-@ screen notes . For lead and bass guitar , this is accomplished by holding down colored buttons mimicking guitar frets and pushing the controller 's strum bar ; for drums , this requires striking the matching colored drumhead , or stepping on the pedal to simulate playing bass drum notes . A " Lefty " mode allows left @-@ handed people to play , by switching which colour the beats are given . When singing vocals , the player must sing in relative pitch to the original vocals . A pitch indicator displays the singer 's accuracy relative to the original pitch . For songs with multi @-@ part vocals , players need only to stay in tone with the lead singer to score points and keep their performance meter up , but players earn additional scoring bonuses when they successfully complete phrases in harmony .
As in previous Rock Band games , successfully hitting the proper notes in sequence earns points for each player and boosts their " performance meter " . Each separate instrument is given a level , defined by their instrument icon , and the average level is also displayed . If a player fails to match the notes , their performance meter drops . If the meter empties , that player is forced to drop out of play , which in turn causes the band 's overall performance to drop . Any player to drop out can be " saved " if another player activates " Beatlemania " ( referred to as " Overdrive " in other Rock Band titles ) , which is collected by successfully completing specially marked phrases . These phrases appear in white , and if the phrase is completed , the energy bar , displayed at the bottom of every track , fills by one quarter . Beatlemania can also be used to temporarily increase the amount of points the band earns . Activating Beatlemania is specific to each " instrument " . For guitar , the controller must be temporarily shifted to an upright position ; for drums , a special " cymbal " ( Green , or red for " Lefty " mode ) is hit ; and for vocals , a noise must be registered by the microphone when prompted .
Some alterations to the Rock Band formula were made to preserve the sound of the Beatles ' music . Audio cues that provide feedback on how well the band is doing , typically through the crowd cheering , singing along with the lyrics , or booing if the band is failing , are not included . The virtual band members are not booed off the stage if a player fails a song . Rather , the game simply cuts to a " song failed " menu with the option to try again . The song is restarted from the beginning . Variations on Overdrive / Beatlemania activation include the removal of player @-@ controlled audio effects . While guitar players can use the controller 's whammy bar on sustained marked note to collect more Beatlemania , this does not alter the sound of the note . There are also no freestyle drum fills in the songs for activating Beatlemania ; instead the player continues to perform the correct note sequence before being presented with a note to activate Beatlemania .
Throughout the song , players receive points for every note hit , and this is totalled up and displayed at the end of the song , along with a percentage of how many notes they hit , and a rating : 1 to 5 stars . If the score is close to perfect , normally requiring at least 98 % of the notes , the rating is five ' gold ' stars , instead of the normal bronze . The score is saved and shown alongside the song in the select screen ; over time , as the song is replayed , it shows only the highest score .
= = = Instrument peripherals = = =
All currently available Rock Band peripherals are compatible with their respective console version of The Beatles : Rock Band . Similarly , peripherals designed for The Beatles : Rock Band are backward compatible with other Rock Band titles . Some controllers designed for Guitar Hero games will also work with The Beatles : Rock Band .
Four new instrument peripherals modeled after those used by the Beatles members were introduced alongside the game : a Rickenbacker 325 guitar , a Gretsch Duo Jet guitar , a Höfner bass and a Ludwig drum set . These instrument controllers function similarly to the controllers designed for Rock Band 2 , with most alterations being purely aesthetic . A " Limited Edition " bundle of the game includes one Höfner bass guitar controller , one Ludwig @-@ branded drum controller , a microphone , a microphone stand and Beatles @-@ themed postcards . A second , less expensive bundle configuration contains peripherals first introduced with the original Rock Band game ; this bundle does not contain a mic stand or postcards . The game was also released as a SingStar bundle with two microphones , and finally as a standalone release . The Rickenbacker and Gretsch guitar peripherals are sold separately .
= = = Modes = = =
The Beatles : Rock Band features gameplay modes similar to other Rock Band games , playable both locally and online . " Story " mode is similar to the " Career " mode of the first Rock Band game and follows a linear progression through the Beatles history . Optional challenges are available in each story " chapter " , tasking players to complete every song in a specific chapter as a single performance . By earning high score ratings for songs or challenges , players will unlock photographs and video clips of the Beatles taken from the Apple Corps ' archive to provide " splashes of history " . One such unlockable " prize " is an edited version of the 1963 Beatles Christmas Record .
Up to six players can play any song in the game cooperatively via " Solo / Band Quickplay " mode . Two players can also play against one another in Rock Band 's two competitive modes : " Tug of War " , where two players perform alternating sections of songs to outdo the other 's performance , and " Score Duel " , where each player simultaneously plays the entirety of a song while trying to accumulate the highest score . Tug of War allows players to choose individual difficulty levels , while Score Duel requires that both players play at the same difficulty level . Both competitive modes require that players use the same type of instrument .
Several " Training " modes are available for The Beatles : Rock Band , including tutorials for both guitar / bass and drums . Practice modes are instrument @-@ specific and allow players to practice entire songs or individual sections of songs . Guitar , bass , and drum practice modes allow players to slow the tempos of songs ; vocal practice mode helps to emphasize the selected harmony portion of the vocals by adding a generated waveform sound to the selected harmony line in tune with the lyrics . There are also two drum training modes called " Drum Lessons " and " Beatle Beats " .
Before playing , a difficulty has to be selected : easy , medium , hard or expert . Expert is a match of the original notes ; hard has some note @-@ heavy drum rolls and other difficult or fast notes removed ; medium takes away the orange notes ( for guitar and bass ) and anything else considered tricky . Easy is designed for new players , and gives an easy rhythm for those to settle into the game . However , there are too few notes for it to feel like they 're playing the actual tune from the song . A " No Fail " mode has been carried over from Rock Band 2 and is accessible from the band members selection screen rather than from the game 's main menu . This mode allows players to continue to play , even if their performance metre hits the bottom . In addition , No Fail mode is automatically enabled for any player who chooses the " Easy " difficulty .
= = Development = =
Prior to The Beatles : Rock Band , no song by The Beatles , nor a cover of a Beatles song , had been featured in any Guitar Hero or Rock Band title , whether as disc @-@ based or downloadable content . The idea of The Beatles : Rock Band came about during a chance encounter between MTV president Van Toffler and Dhani Harrison , son of George Harrison , at a luncheon sponsored by Robert Earl during the 2006 Christmas holiday , shortly after MTV 's acquisition of Harmonix . Dhani , having been familiar with the Guitar Hero franchise and learning of the recent acquisition and plans for Rock Band from Toffler , suggested a game based on the Beatles . Though both Dhani and Toffler considered the concept an unlikely possibility , their meeting nonetheless spurred Dhani into further discussions with Harmonix 's president , Alex Rigopulos . At the same time , Dhani helped to introduce the Rock Band concept to Apple Corps , the music production company created by the Beatles , and its key shareholders Paul McCartney , Ringo Starr and Yoko Ono . Initial meetings were arranged with the shareholders using an early prototype of the game to garner their interest in the title . One stipulation that the Apple Corps shareholders required of Harmonix was that the game feature songs spanning the band 's entire career . Harmonix subsequently created a more complete demonstration that used examples of music and artwork that they envisioned for the game . The five @-@ song demo , which included an early build for " Here Comes the Sun " , was finished in February 2008 . It was used to gain approval from McCartney , Starr , Ono and Olivia Harrison , effectively bringing them aboard the project as creative partners .
The Apple Corps shareholders considered The Beatles : Rock Band a new way to introduce the band 's music to the public . They approved of the songs and venues that would appear in the game , and provided feedback on the artwork , character representations , and storyboards for animation sequences . McCartney and Starr fact @-@ checked certain anecdotes relating to The Beatles while Ono and Harrison provided insight on their late husbands ' performances and lyrics . At the developer 's request , Ono visited the Harmonix offices late in development to provide critical feedback on several visual elements . In a Wired article , MTV 's senior vice president of the games division Paul DeGooyer was quoted saying " She gave the designers hell " , with Harmonix head Alex Rigopulos adding , " She really held our feet to the fire " . DeGooyer and Rigopulos clarified the statement soon after the article had been published , asserting that the visit was " a high point of the two @-@ year development process " and " has been mischaracterized by some in the press . "
Though The Beatles : Rock Band aims to present a visual and musical history of the Beatles , the game does not attempt to replicate periods of turmoil between the band members . Rather , it presents a " fantasy version " of The Beatles to better serve the entertainment purposes of the video game . For example , Ringo Starr was estranged from the rest of the band during periods of recording for The Beatles ( commonly referred to as the White Album ) . Thus , he did not perform on certain songs , such as " Back in the U.S.S.R. " . In the game , however , the Ringo Starr character plays drums during the animated performance of the song .
= = = Music production = = =
Preparing the Beatles ' songs for Rock Band was a significant technical challenge for Harmonix . The band 's earlier songs , recorded on two- and four @-@ track equipment , needed to be reworked into a multitrack format that is essential in providing feedback to players . Each of the game 's four instrument parts need to have their own " stems " — for example , when a player misplays a note from the guitar track , the guitar audio for the song will be temporarily quieted , leaving the other instruments ' audio unaffected . Such isolated tracks were not available through the new 2009 remasters , so the team started with the original master recordings .
The development team was able to bring Giles Martin aboard as the game 's music producer . Martin had recently completed co @-@ production on the 2006 Love project with his father George Martin and was already familiar with the Beatles catalogue . Through that project , Martin created digital back @-@ up copies of all the original tapes , which aided his work on The Beatles : Rock Band . Using audio forensics software , Martin and his team were able to extract the audio of individual instruments by isolating sounds at certain frequencies with digital filters , thus assuring multitrack capabilities for the Beatles ' master recordings . This process , conducted at Abbey Road Studio 52 with the help of Paul Hicks and other Abbey Road recording engineers , reportedly took months to complete .
During the game 's development , Harmonix only used low @-@ fidelity versions of the remasters , which were sufficient for programming and note charting ; Apple Corps feared that the leak of any high @-@ fidelity remastered track from Abbey Road studios would lead to the unauthorized use of samples of the Beatles ' music in remixes . High @-@ fidelity versions of the songs were not implemented until the final publishing of the game . Harmonix performed very little additional remixing upon receipt of these remasters ; in some cases , three different guitar parts — lead , solo , and rhythm — were brought into a single cohesive guitar part , slightly raising the volume of the specific guitar track that was used in note tracking to make it easier for the player to follow in the game . The ability for up to three players to sing vocal harmonies , a feature not present in previous Rock Band games , was designed and implemented as an optional feature so as not to be overwhelming to players .
While live recordings of songs , such as " Paperback Writer " at the Budokan , were available , Martin believed some of these renditions were sloppy and would not be enjoyable to play . Instead , he took the studio versions and added audio effects from the live performances to create a " live concert " ambiance . In several instances , the team also opted to slightly restructure the endings to certain songs , particularly those that fade out . Differences in editing between the album versions and in @-@ game versions of songs continued with the release of downloadable content , notably the inclusion of a once @-@ missing final chord at the end of the Abbey Road closer " Her Majesty " .
Dhani Harrison has stated the game will include " stuff that has never been heard , never been released . " Some of the new material includes band chatter and instrument tunes taken from recorded performances . This audio plays during the loading screens or bookends certain songs . Within the Abbey Road studio , Martin recreated some of the incidental sound , played through speakers but capturing the acoustics of the studio room . In one instance , for example , this process involved recording four people miming the act of drinking tea . The entirety of the game 's credits are also made up of this band chatter and studio takes .
In coordination with the art team , sound programmers attempted to realistically map the game 's note tracks relative to the real performances by the Beatles . For guitar parts , colored notes were selected not necessarily to match tonally with the music , but to replicate the movement and finger positioning used by the original performers . These were then matched against ten different strumming animations to be used for the virtual depictions of the guitarists . The " Expert " difficulty drum tracks attempt to match every single drum beat that is performed in a song , including some peculiar rhythms brought about by Starr 's ambidextrous drumming habits . Vocals were slowed down and broken into phonetic segments , allowing the art team to determine the appropriate facial movement for the virtual characters to go along with the lyrics .
= = = Art production = = =
Art assets were created with help of Apple Corps , with Harmonix developers gaining access to their unique archive as well as personal photos from the shareholders . Apple Corps had strict desires for how the Beatles were to appear ; art director Ryan Lesser noted that the art team 's earliest character designs were met with " brutal " responses from Apple , but that this feedback was essential in developing the visual styles of the band . In addition to Apple Corps ' material , Harmonix designers watched the eight @-@ part The Beatles Anthology on a weekly basis for further reference on the band . These materials were meticulously reviewed to replicate the outfits that the Beatles wore for each of their concerts , as well as the instruments they used for recordings and live performances .
Although McCartney had hoped technology would allow the virtual band members to appear in hyper @-@ realistic detail , Harmonix opted to start with more exaggerated , cartoon @-@ like designs , gradually scaling them back to appear more realistic . Animation for the Beatles characters was aided by motion capture provided by Beatles tribute bands . Dhani Harrison also assisted with modeling for character animation in the game .
The team designed venues that represented parts of the Beatles ' history in order to create an atmosphere of authenticity . For example , the set of The Ed Sullivan Show was recreated from photographs and videos , including a rare color photograph in Apple 's collection that showed the yellow tint used to enhance the video as shown on black @-@ and @-@ white television sets . The Cavern Club , Shea Stadium , Budokan , Abbey Road Studios and the rooftop of the Apple Corps Headquarters also appear as venues in the game . Fashions of the 1960s were researched to properly apply them to the various virtual crowds at these locations .
Twenty of the game 's on @-@ disc songs are associated with " dreamscape " sequences in conjunction with the Abbey Road venue , representing the exclusively studio @-@ based nature of the band in their later years . Animation sequences for songs linked with dreamscapes feature abstract or representative scenery . For example , the sequence for " Octopus 's Garden " takes place in an underwater reef , while the sequence for " I Am the Walrus " is reminiscent of the band 's psychedelic performance of the song in the 1967 film Magical Mystery Tour . The concept of dreamscapes evolved from brainstorming sessions between Harmonix and Apple Corps . ; as Rock Band was a game that celebrated the performance of music , simply portraying The Beatles performing in the Abbey Road studio was not enough , and the dreamscape sequences provided a way to surpass that . While the art team used existing materials as reference , the Apple Corps. shareholders encouraged the team to interpret the songs in new ways . For inspiration , Harmonix looked to Cirque du Soleil 's approach in interpreting The Beatles catalogue for the Love stage show . Storyboards for these animated sequences were created using both hand @-@ drawn and 2D computer @-@ generated art . In some cases , the computer @-@ generated elements used in storyboarding were kept as elements in the final venue , such as computer @-@ generated blades of grass in the " Here Comes the Sun " sequence .
The game includes heavily stylized opening and ending cinematics produced in part by Pete Candeland of Passion Pictures , with help from animator Robert Valley and background visuals from Alberto Mielgo . Candeland , who is known for his work animating Gorillaz videos , also produced the opening cinematics for both the original Rock Band and Rock Band 2 . Within two and a half minutes , the opening cinematic provides a brief representative history of the band interspersed with numerous references to songs by The Beatles , followed by more metaphorical scenes reflecting their studio albums . Prior to each of the chapters in the game 's Story mode , the game presents short introductory animations ; these animations were prepared by graphic design studio MK12 , who had previously worked on the opening cinematics for movies such as Stranger than Fiction and Quantum of Solace .
= = = Promotion = = =
The Beatles : Rock Band was first revealed on 30 October 2008 when Harmonix , MTV Games , and Viacom announced an exclusive agreement with Apple Corps , Ltd. to produce the standalone title . Prior to this announcement , industry rumours reported that both Harmonix / MTV Games and Activision were vying for The Beatles songs , the latter for the Guitar Hero franchise . The agreement was the result of 17 months of discussions . John Drake , PR spokesperson for Harmonix , stated that Apple Corps " respected and appreciated what Harmonix does creatively for rhythm games " as part of the success of the deal . Eversheds , the legal firm working for Apple Corps. for both The Beatles : Rock Band and the abandoned remake of Yellow Submarine by Disney , stated that it took six months to complete the complex agreements and paperwork over the copyrights , trademarks , and publishing issues . Viacom 's deal with The Beatles ' property owners includes royalties with a guaranteed minimum of $ 10 million and upwards of $ 40 million based on initial sales projections , an amount that chairman Martin Bendier of Sony / ATV Publishing has stated to be " not even comparable to anything that has been done before " . The licensing of the Beatles ' work for the game was considered a critical step in the later negotiations and availability of the band 's songs on iTunes about a year after the game 's release . A further complication arose about a year after the game 's release ; Chrysalis Group legally challenged EMI over a previous 1965 agreement whereby EMI would pay Chrysalis up to 1 @.@ 5 % of royalties on sales of the Beatles ' records , and claimed that they are owned ₤ 500 @,@ 000 for the two million units sold of The Beatles : Rock Band . EMI asserts that the video game format would not be covered under the concept of a " record " from the 1965 agreement .
The game was released internationally on 9 September 2009 . The game 's release was planned to coincide with the release of the new , remastered CD versions of The Beatles albums . Footage from The Beatles : Rock Band was revealed for the first time on 18 April 2009 , during Paul McCartney 's performance at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival . McCartney continued to utilize gameplay footage during his concert performances while touring during the months prior to the game 's release . The game was formally showcased on 1 June 2009 at E3 2009 . Presented by Harmonix at the beginning of the Microsoft press conference , Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr briefly took the stage to discuss the games . Yoko Ono and Olivia Harrison also made a brief appearance . The game 's E3 demo booth was modeled as a recreation of Abbey Road Studios .
The game 's official website was revealed early in 2009 , showing only images of the Abbey Road studios and the game 's release date . Over time , images of the Beatles ' favored instruments appeared in the studio as their game peripheral replicas were announced . On 5 May 2009 , the website was updated to include general information and promotional media . Customers who pre @-@ ordered the game from selected vendors received an access code to view exclusive images and media on the site before it was eventually made public .
In August 2009 , VH1 Classic aired music videos from the TV special Around The Beatles ( 1964 ) , Help ! ( 1965 ) , and a music video of the " Birthday " gameplay footage , promoting the launch of The Beatles Rock Band online store . This store was also launched by several segments held on the home shopping channel , QVC , for the game , the Beatles ' remastered albums , and other related products ; several Harmonix employees were present to demonstrate the game .
A video advertisement for the game featuring the song " Come Together " premiered on 28 August 2009 . The spot features a live action recreation of the iconic Abbey Road album cover ; as The Beatles cross the road , a crowd of people follow , some of whom are carrying the game 's controllers . The advertisement was directed by Marcel Langenegger , who worked with Apple Corps and Giles Martin to build an Abbey Road set at a Hollywood studio , and to blend archival footage of The Beatles into the video . Body doubles , vetted by the Apple Corps shareholders , appear in some shots . On 8 September 2009 , Dhani Harrison appeared as a guest on The Tonight Show with Conan O 'Brien to promote the game . Harrison and O 'Brien ( along with Tonight Show web manager Aaron Bleyaert and The Tonight Show Band member Mark Pender ) performed the song " Birthday " at the close of the show .
= = Soundtrack = =
The game includes 45 songs from 12 of The Beatles albums recorded during their 1963 – 1970 tenure with EMI Records . With the exception of Magical Mystery Tour , track information is based on the United Kingdom @-@ released versions of the albums . Six non @-@ album singles and the mashup track " Within You Without You / Tomorrow Never Knows " from the 2006 remix album Love have also been included . Selections of the soundtrack are under license from Sony / ATV Music Publishing Company . Although Michael Jackson , who owned 50 % of the publishing rights to the Beatles songs through Sony / ATV , died in June 2009 , the sale of his estate did not affect the songs or the release schedule of The Beatles : Rock Band , according to Harmonix .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
Additional songs are available for the game as downloadable content . The song " All You Need Is Love " was first to appear as downloadable content , proceeds from which ( $ 1 @.@ 40 of the $ 2 song cost ) are donated to Doctors Without Borders . The song was initially made available as an exclusive for Xbox 360 on the same day the game was released . Within two weeks of the game 's release , " All You Need Is Love " was announced by Microsoft and MTV to be the fastest @-@ selling downloadable song across any of the Rock Band platforms , with tens of thousands of downloads ; The song had been downloaded more than 100 @,@ 000 times by the end of September , and by February 2010 , had generated over $ 200 @,@ 000 for the charity . The song is now available for download on the Wii and PlayStation 3 .
Full albums were also made available as downloadable content ; the remaining songs from Abbey Road , Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , and Rubber Soul have since been released on the consoles ' respective store services . While there is potential for the entire Beatles catalogue to be made available , this will be unlikely , according to John Drake of Harmonix . Drake identified the costly development process as a potentially prohibitive factor : " Every time we do one song , it 's not like Rock Band where we wait for the masters to come in and just author them ... its like , send people to Abbey Road , use the original tape , separate them out ... it costs thousands of dollars . " Drake asserted that Harmonix would take sales of the currently announced albums into consideration before continuing development of downloadable content . Harmonix 's Foster stated that solo acts from the Beatles ' members will not be included as downloadable content for The Beatles : Rock Band ; however , he did not rule out the possibility of these acts appearing in other Rock Band games . A three pack of songs from Paul McCartney 's 2009 live album , Good Evening New York City , was made available for the main Rock Band series on 5 January 2010 . John Lennon 's " Imagine " is a part of the Rock Band 3 soundtrack , with the full Imagine album arriving later as downloadable content in celebration of Lennon 's 70th birthday . A pack featuring Paul McCartney 's band Wings was also released as DLC for Rock Band 3 on 28 December 2010 .
The respective downloadable content for The Beatles : Rock Band and other currently available Rock Band titles are not cross @-@ compatible . Furthermore , the songs contained on the Beatles disc are not exportable to other games in the Rock Band series . Harmonix 's Chris Foster cited the game 's new vocal harmony feature as well as the unique song @-@ specific dreamscape animations as reasons for the lack of exportability to other Rock Band games . John Drake stated that the developer had a responsibility to treat the Beatles ' songs as " iconic " , and keep its music separated from other songs .
On May 5 , 2016 , Harmonix ceased downloadable content distribution for The Beatles : Rock Band due to the license expiration , though those that had already purchased the tracks would be able to redownload them in the future .
= = Reception = =
The Beatles : Rock Band received high praise from several media outlets upon release . Regarding the game 's cross @-@ generational appeal , Chad Sapieha of The Globe and Mail suggested that the game would spark a new wave of Beatlemania , while Seth Schiesel of The New York Times called it " nothing less than a cultural watershed " . Some critics hailed the title as landmark of the music game genre ; Randy Lewis of the Los Angeles Times described the game as a " quantum leap forward for the music video game " , while Johnny Minkley of Eurogamer called it " the new standard by which all band @-@ specific game experiences will be judged " .
Described as an " interactive Beatles experience " , the game was considered to bring players closer to the band through both technical and emotional means . By playing each song 's respective note chart , players were said to have a better appreciation for the structure and complexity of the compositions and performances by the Beatles . Emotionally , critics commented on the sentimental values of the game 's career mode , recalling the history of the band . Critics were mostly positive concerning the visual and aural elements of the game ; G4 's Abbie Heppe considered it a preferable package to the newly remastered albums , citing song @-@ specific animations as a strong feature . The dreamscape sequences in particular were likened to live performances , praised as " dazzling " and " evocative " . However , Schiesel remarked that due to the players ' concentration on the note tracks , the animations " serve mostly to entertain onlookers rather than the players themselves " . Heppe observed that the color saturation of the background elements as well as the " Beatlemania " visual effects can sometimes contrast poorly with the scrolling notes , making it difficult to play . After the game 's release , Harmonix lead designer Chris Foster acknowledged that the visuals can be " too overwhelming for [ some players ] at moments " . The implementation of three @-@ part harmonies , expressed by some to be the most significant addition to the series , was well received .
Critics primarily found fault with the game 's length , as the bulk of the game 's content can be completed in only a few hours . Will Tuttle of GameSpy questioned whether Harmonix limited the number of songs on release knowing that there would be a market for the game 's downloadable content in the near future . The low number of songs , along with the new themed instrument controllers , were found to make the game an expensive proposition for those new to rhythm games . Due to the limited selection of songs on the disc , some critics questioned the specific inclusion of certain songs or the exclusion of more popular songs . Furthermore , critics claimed that the game 's complete dedication to the Beatles , without the option for cross @-@ compatibility with Rock Band or vice versa , can potentially lead to tedious play sessions with minimal variety , hampering the social nature of the game . Justin Haywald of 1UP.com considered that in attaching the Rock Band name to the game 's title , there was a certain expectation on an expandable library of songs and interoperability with previous Rock Band titles , which The Beatles : Rock Band failed to meet . Some players coming from previous versions of Rock Band would consider the songs in The Beatles : Rock Band to lack technical challenge . However , the less difficult note tracks were seen to be a welcoming benefit for newcomers to the series as well as those attempting to sing along with the harmony portions of the game . For purist fans , some critics noted that the game purposely avoids certain aspects of the Beatles ' history ; former band members such as Pete Best or collaborators such as Billy Preston or Eric Clapton are never seen during gameplay . Concerning supplemental content , Hilary Goldstein of IGN felt the extra features could have been more substantial , especially in comparison to the additional material that accompanies the remastered CDs .
PC World listed The Beatles : Rock Band as their ninth Best Product of 2009 . The game won for Best Music Game on the Spike Video Game Awards 2009 . The game won the Family Game of the Year and was nominated for the Outstanding Achievement in Soundtrack 13th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards from the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences . The game was also nominated for the Best Audio Game Developers Choice Award . The game 's official website , published by Harmonix , won the Games @-@ Related category for the 14th Annual Webby Awards . In 2010 , the game was included as one of the titles in the book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die .
The Beatles : Rock Band is currently being used as a finale for each performance of the 125th anniversary season of the Boston Pops Orchestra ; the orchestra leads the audience in a sing @-@ along to several songs by the Beatles played by the orchestra but synchronized to the visuals from the game .
= = = E3 reception = = =
The Beatles : Rock Band was well received at the 2009 E3 Convention , and was named the Best Music / Rhythm Game by GameSpot , GameSpy , 1UP.com , and X @-@ Play ; the game was also nominated for Best Music or Rhythm game by the Game Critics Awards and IGN . The opening animation video , released at the same time as E3 , was praised by the press . It has been described as " surreal " by both the Los Angeles Times and Boing Boing 's Offworld blog . Frames Per Second called it " simply stunning " , and the Entertainment Weekly blog PopWatch described it as " damned spiffy " . The second half of the video , where traditional animation gives way to a combination of computer @-@ aided 2D and 3D scenery has been described as " a mashup of Peter Max and the Unreal Engine ... chaperoned by the ghost of Salvador Dalí " by the ECA 's GameCulture blog . The opening video was awarded the 2009 British Animation Award for " Best Commissioned Animation " and won a Silver Clio Award in the field of " Television / Cinema / Digital Technique " .
= = = Sales = = =
According to Viacom CEO Philipe Dauman , one quarter of The Beatles : Rock Band inventory was sold during its first week of release , exceeding their expectations . Based on current sales projections , Dauman claimed that the Limited Edition Premium bundle of the game could be sold out by November . Dauman attributed some success of the game 's sales to the price reduction of the PlayStation 3 , which occurred a few weeks before the release of The Beatles : Rock Band .
The Beatles : Rock Band was the fourth high @-@ selling game across all platforms in its first week of release in the United Kingdom . According to the NPD Group , The Beatles : Rock Band sold 595 @,@ 000 units across all offerings for the Xbox 360 , Wii , and PlayStation 3 versions during September 2009 , respectively in the United States , making the game the 5th , 10th , and 20th top sellers for the month , respectively ; only Guitar Hero 5 for the Xbox 360 placed in the top 10 titles selling 210 @,@ 800 units . Total sales across all platforms in the United States was 595 @,@ 000 units with revenue between $ 59 and 60 million , and was the second highest revenue @-@ generating game behind Halo 3 : ODST driven by sales of the bundled units . Though MTV Games was pleased with the sales performance of the game , the sales numbers fell short of the projected values by industry analysts , attributing it to the slow recovery of the video game market from the late @-@ 2000s recession . As of December 2009 , Harmonix has stated that the game has sold more than 3 million copies worldwide . NPD Group data through the end of 2009 reported North American sales of the game at 1 @.@ 18 and 1 @.@ 7 million . In considering the comparison of The Beatles : Rock Band sales in North America to the nearly 1 million units sold by Guitar Hero 5 , the magazine Advertising Age identified the ability of MTV Games and Harmonix to leverage the music of the Beatles and their other partners in novel and experimental methods among more traditional means . In an October 2010 interview Alex Rigopulos claimed that The Beatles : Rock Band sales were " respectable " , having sold " well over three million units " , though had not exceeded sales of other Rock Band games .
= Heroes and Demons =
" Heroes and Demons " is the 12th episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Voyager . The episode first aired on the UPN network on April 24 , 1995 . It was directed by Les Landau and written by former Star Trek : The Next Generation story editor Naren Shankar . Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the Starfleet and Maquis crew of the starship USS Voyager after they were stranded in the Delta Quadrant far from the rest of the Federation . In this episode , after a sample of a protostar is brought on board , crewmen start to vanish from a holodeck simulation of Beowulf . The Doctor ( Robert Picardo ) , a hologram , investigates and finds that a lifeform was transported to the ship alongside the sample . It escaped to the holodeck where it was converting those who entered into energy . The Doctor has the samples brought to the holodeck and released , resulting in the lifeform returning the crewmen to their corporeal states .
With this episode , Shankar sought to move the Doctor out of sickbay , and while he was looking generally involving vikings on the holodeck , it wasn 't until later that he realised he had inadvertedly followed the story of the Beowulf poem , and so changed the script to include direct references . Composer Dennis McCarthy sought to increase the tempo of the music used in this episode , and included an unused piece written for The Next Generation episode " Qpid " ; he was nominated for Outstanding Music Composition at the Emmy Awards for his work on " Heroes and Demons " . A further nomination at those awards was received by Marvin V. Rush for Individual Achievement in Cinematography for a Series . Picardo 's performance was praised by the crew , and the episode was received positively by critics , who compared elements to The Lord of the Rings and computer based roleplaying games . It received Nielsen ratings of 6 @.@ 4 / 11 percent .
= = Plot = =
The crew encounters a protostar and Captain Kathryn Janeway ( Kate Mulgrew ) decides to have samples beamed aboard for use as a potential power source . A problem occurs when beaming the samples to Voyager . Janeway recommends to B 'Elanna Torres ( Roxann Dawson ) that she should have Ensign Harry Kim 's ( Garrett Wang ) assistance , but it turns out that he is missing . The crew finds his holodeck program , based on the epic poem Beowulf , still running . With each person sent into the holodeck also becoming lost , Captain Janeway sends in The Doctor ( Robert Picardo ) to investigate , under the assumption that he as an already immaterial hologram cannot be dematerialized the way the missing crew had been . The Doctor shows signs of nervousness when preparing for his first " away " mission , so Kes ( Jennifer Lien ) encourages him to take a name to embolden him with having an identity of his own . He states that he has narrowed his choices to three but does not reveal them .
Once in the holodeck , The Doctor meets Freya ( Marjorie Monaghan ) , a shieldmaiden , and introduces himself as " Schweitzer " . After taking him to the hall , where he is made to prove himself before the others , and after a celebratory meal , after which everyone has retired to separate rooms , she reappears and suggests that , in the cold of the night when the fire in his hearth has gone out , he ought to join her . Though he dismisses her advances , he relaxes his inhibition in later scenes . Later they are confronted by Unferth ( Christopher Neame ) who kills Freya . She dies in Schweitzer 's arms . With her last words she speaks his name .
As The Doctor investigates further , he realizes that alien energy lifeforms were beamed onto the ship within the containment field into which the protostar samples were transported . During the transport , one of the lifeforms managed to escape through a breach in the containment field . It escaped to the holodeck and began converting the matter of every person who entered into energy . The Doctor returns the energy samples holding the other lifeforms to the alien in the holodeck ; in kind , the missing crew are returned to their original forms . Afterwards , upon reflection , The Doctor decides not to keep the name Schweitzer , as his memories associated with it are too painful .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Rick Berman , Jeri Taylor and Michael Piller had worked together as executive producers for the pilot of Voyager , " Caretaker " , and the following ten episodes . " Heroes and Demons " was the first episode where Piller wasn 't involved in the writing of the scripts because he had begun work on the series Legend . Instead , the episode was written by Naren Shankar , the former story editor for Star Trek : The Next Generation during the final two seasons of the show where he worked with Berman , Taylor and Piller . Following the end of The Next Generation , Shankar had pitched a number of spec scripts for a variety of television series including The Simpsons , but " Heroes and Demons " was the first one he sold , which was accepted before Voyager had begun production .
The initial idea for the episode had come from a conversation between Shankar and Brannon Braga over dinner in which they sought to move the Doctor from sickbay into the holodeck , marking this episode as the first one in which the Doctor had left sickbay . Shankar had originally intended the story to be " Star Trek with Vikings " , and it wasn 't until he was sketching out the plot of the episode that he realised that he had inadvertently created something similar to the Beowulf poem . He deliberately worked direct references in the poem into the script for the episode , such as specific lines and the attack on the mead hall . His significant change from Beowulf was the addition of the character , Freya .
The script went through two drafting stages , with the main issue being the alien element rather than the Viking details . Shankar was pleased that the work he did on the Viking parts of the script went unchanged from the first draft to the screen , calling it his " best experience " as a writer . He also chose the first name that the Doctor would attempt to use , selecting Albert Schweitzer from a list of scientists and doctors because he thought the surname sounded funny . He expected that it would be cut or changed , based on his experience in writing humorous elements into scripts for The Next Generation . He wrote several lighthearted scenes into the script and was pleased when none of them were cut , saying that he was particularly proud of the exchange between the Doctor and Freya where she says " Your people must value you highly " , and the Doctor responds dryly , " You would think so . " He submitted his final version of the script on February 2 , 1995 . Taylor later talked about the use of the holodeck as a plot device in this episode , saying that it allowed the series to show things that otherwise couldn 't happen on the show . She added that the plot in this episode " transcended the idea of ' Oh , we 're in trouble on the holodeck . ' "
= = = Guest stars , set design and musical composition = = =
Guest star Christopher Neame had previously appeared on The Next Generation in the seventh season episode " Sub Rosa " . After his performance in " Heroes and Demons " , he would go on to appear in the Star Trek : Deep Space Nine sixth season episode " Statistical Probabilities " . Marjorie Monaghan later appeared in Babylon 5 in the recurring role of Number One / Theresa Halloran from the episode " Lines of Communication " onwards . During the filming of " Heroes and Demons " , Monaghan 's stunt double was Patricia Tallman . The duo went on to work together on Babylon 5 with Tallman playing the character of Lyta Alexander . They didn 't initially recognise each other on the later show because of the costumes they wore in the Voyager episode . Monaghan was also considered for the main cast part of T 'Pol in Star Trek : Enterprise .
The forest set was constructed on stage 12 at the Paramount Studios lot , and was designed by production designer Richard James . Backdrops were used to expand the depth of the stage . Marvin V. Rush later explained that they were not aiming for a real world forest look to the scenes , as the story allowed them to aim for something in the " in mythology and in historical record " instead . He attributed this for why the scenery design and creation was successful . Director Les Landau also found that it enabled him to use some different camera angles in " Heroes and Demons " , including shooting from a crane and the use of close @-@ focus lenses to enable some wide shooting to get a sense of depth .
Composer Dennis McCarthy had worked on the Star Trek franchise since the pilot episode of The Next Generation , and has included such work as the music for the film Star Trek Generations and the theme to Deep Space Nine . " Heroes and Demons " was significant for McCarthy , as he had sought to increase the tempo of the music he created over the course of several years with the addition of further percussion instruments . He had one piece which was written for The Next Generation episode " Qpid " which he wanted to use but had never managed to include it in an episode . This was finally used in " Heroes and Demons " , and he submitted that work for consideration at the Emmy Awards .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Heroes and Demons " was first broadcast on April 24 , 1995 , on the UPN network . According to the Nielsen ratings , it received a 6 @.@ 4 / 11 share , meaning it was watched by 6 @.@ 4 percent of all households and 11 percent of all households watching television at the time of broadcast . This placed it as the 74th highest rated broadcast of the week across all networks . At the time of broadcast , this was the lowest rated episode of the series so far but received the same ratings as the following episode " Cathexis " and higher than the final two episodes , " Jetrel " and " Learning Curve " .
= = = Cast and crew response = = =
Writer Naren Shankar was happy with the overall episode , saying " I think all the Viking scenes worked very well . The sets were magnificent @-@ the forest set was beautiful , and I don 't really have any complaints about it . Everybody really outdid themselves on it . " Supervising producer David Livingston praised the prop and wardrobe departments for creating the array of " cool @-@ looking " extras , while Michael Piller said that the whole episode was " well produced " . Taylor praised the premise , calling the idea " irresistible " and the overall episode " delightful " .
Members of the crew praised the work of Robert Picardo on this episode , with Taylor saying that he was " wonderful " in " Heroes and Demons " , while Piller saw the character as a " fish out of water " and added that " Picardo | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
aforementioned watches and warnings , an " orange " alert was issued in southern Michoacán , and " yellow " ( moderate ) alert was in place for the rest of Michoacán and Guerrero . Lower levels of alerts were issued in Nayarit , Colima , Jalisco , Oaxaca , and in the southern portion of Sinaloa . Twenty @-@ five families were evacuated in Lázaro Cárdenas , and Arteaga , Michoacán . On September 17 , all classes were suspended in Colima .
After regenerating into a tropical cyclone in the Gulf of California , a tropical storm watch was issued just north of Mazatlán as well as the southwestern portion of the Baja California Peninsula The next day , a hurricane watch was issued for the area south of Topolobampo . At 2100 UTC on September 18 , the hurricane watch was upgraded into a hurricane warning . Meanwhile , a tropical storm warning was designated south of the hurricane warning area to Mazatlan . On the evening of September 19 , all watches and warnings were discontinued , as Manuel had moved inland .
On September 18 , when the cyclone first threatened the state , 13 municipalities were placed on alert in Sonora . Along the Baja California Peninsula , seven ports were closed . The ports of Mazatlán , Cabo San Lucas , and San José del Cabo were closed for small craft and night interests . A " yellow " alert was issued for southern Baja California Sur while a " green " alert was issued for the northern portion of the state . In Sinaloa , classes were suspended . Prior to landfall , statewide 700 humans were evacuated including 365 residents from two municipalities were evacuated . Over 60 families were evacuated in Navolato . An " orange " alert was also activated for the state .
= = Impact = =
Around the same time as Manuel 's first landfall , Hurricane Ingrid made landfall along the eastern coast of the nation ; this marked the first time two tropical cyclones struck the nation within 24 hours since 1958 . Overall , economic impact exceeded MXN $ 55 billion ( US $ 4 @.@ 2 billion ) . Damage to roads alone totaled to $ 2 billion pesos ( $ 153 million 2013 USD ) . A total of 123 people were killed due to Hurricane Manuel , at least of 104 of which were direct . Roughly 59 @,@ 000 people were evacuated , including 39 @,@ 000 that sought shelter . Approximately 1 million people were directly affected by Manuel .
Hurricane Manuel brought extremely heavy rains for eight days over much of Mexico , especially over mountainous terrain , although this precipitation was aided by Ingrid as well as large @-@ scale southwesterly monsoonal flow . Numerous locations recorded more than 10 in ( 250 mm ) of rain . A peak storm total of 43 @.@ 6 in ( 1 @,@ 110 mm ) was measured in San Isidro , Guerrero . In nearby Acapulco , a secondary maximum of 17 @.@ 8 in ( 450 mm ) was recorded . Further north , in Michoacán , a statewide peak rainfall total of 22 @.@ 11 in ( 562 mm ) occurred . After making its second landfall , 18 @.@ 52 in ( 470 mm ) of precipitation fell in Culiacán and 15 @.@ 32 inches ( 389 mm ) was observed in nearby Sanalona .
= = = Oaxaca = = =
In Jicayan , Manuel damaged 10 homes and flooded a school . Offshore , one boat was reportedly missing . Along the Isthmus of Tehuantepec , 300 families were displaced from their homes . Roughly 5 @,@ 000 animals were killed by the storm . A total of 200 ha ( 490 acres ) of crop was destroyed in Oaxaca ; however , damage in the state was considerably less than in Guerrero . Within Oaxaca , 19 communities were isolated . Four people were killed in the state . Overall , 77 municipalities or 10 @,@ 000 people were directly affected by the floods .
= = = Guerrero = = =
At least 97 people were killed throughout Guerrero . Approximately 30 @,@ 000 dwellings were damaged , including 11 @,@ 591 houses sustained severe damage . Moreover , at least 11 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed 20 @,@ 000 people were evacuated to shelters . 12 @,@ 000 of which were evacuated to 47 shelters . Overall , 24 rivers flooded , at least 32 roads sustained damage , and four bridges collapsed .
In La Pintada , a remote fishing village of around 400 residents situated to the west of Acapulco , a mudslide occurred on September 14 , which within a few minutes , swept through the center of town . As such , many residents initially wandered throughout town in a state of panic and confusion ; it took two days for word of the mudslide to spread to the public . Throughout the village , 71 people were killed . Over half the town , including 20 homes , were demolished due to the mudslide . A total of 334 people were evacuated by police , though 30 elected to stay in the area until all the victims had been identified . Many surviving citizens of La Pintada were also hurt , including one seriously .
In the municipality of Atlamajalcingo , a woman died after a collapse of a dwelling . In Chilpancingo , the capital of Guerrero , four people perished . Numerous trees were downed and power outages were reported . Additionally , the nearby Cerrito Rico dam nearly overflowed its banks . In the Tecpan municipality , four rivers overflowed their banks and six people died because of landslides . Many mountainous communities were isolated , thus making in difficult to receive aid .
= = = = Acapulco = = = =
The city of Acapulco sustained the worst damage from the storm ; the damage in Acapulco was described by the National Broadcasting Company as the " worst storm damage to hit Mexico in years " . There , 18 fatalities occurred , including one person that died when a wall collapsed . Nearby , six tourists perished in a car crash , including two minors . The crash also damaged two fences , a boat , and injured two people . Several homes were flooded in nearby neighborhoods of Acapulco when a nearby river overflowed its banks . Isolated incidents of vandalism were reported . Two mudslides were reported , resulting in the destruction of a home and the closure of a few roads . A family of six perished in Acapulco when a landslide demolished their home . At least 40 @,@ 000 tourists who spent the Mexican Independence Day in Acapulco were stranded since the terminal of the airport was underwater . Furthermore , the main roads out of the city were blocked by landslides . Even though by September 19 , the military had evacuated 10 @,@ 000 people via 100 flights to Mexico City , this process was difficult because the radar was not functioning . City @-@ wide , 13 @,@ 516 dwellings were damaged .
= = = Colima = = =
Although flooding was minor in Colima , a peak rainfall total of 144 mm ( 5 @.@ 7 in ) was measured in Chanal . Many families were evacuated . Several dams statewide reached their maximum capacity while numerous roads that led to the Manzanillo airport were closed . In Ixtlahuacán , 50 families were evacuated when a river threatened to overflow its banks ; thirty others were taken to shelter in the rest of the state . A bridge collapsed in Villa de Alvarez . One man was killed in the state when he unsuccessfully attempted to cross a river . Four trees were brought down . Around 15 @,@ 000 ha ( 58 sq mi ) of banana crop was wiped out . In all , the municipalities of Ixtlahuacán , Tecomán , Manzanillo , and Comala Coquimatlán sustained the worst effects from Manuel in the state . Manuel was considered the worst storm to hit the Mexican state since the 1959 Mexico hurricane . Damage in the state exceeded $ 479 million pesos ( $ 36 @.@ 8 million 2013 USD ) . Hurricane Patricia in 2015 caused $ 483 @.@ 2 million USD , though
= = = Jalisco = = =
Further north , minor flooding was reported in Jalisco . Statewide , four people were killed . A 26 @-@ year @-@ old man died after being swept away by in the village of Juanacatlan while a 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy drowned after falling in a dam in the municipality of Teocuitatlan de Corona . Another man perished when he drove his car into a ravine in Cuautitlan de Garcia Barragan . A total of 1 @,@ 500 people were evacuated from their homes . Classes were briefly cancelled in 588 schools , leaving over 40 @,@ 000 pupils home . Bridges collapsed in the Jalisco towns of Zacoalco de Torres and Tamazula de Gordiano . The worst hit areas in the state were the southern and coastal areas of the state , as well as the Guadalajara area , where flooding and landslides occurred in some neighborhoods . Through Jalisco , 56 municipalities sustained damage .
= = = Sinaloa = = =
Just before its second landfall , one fisherman was killed in Tepechitlán . Another causality occurred when a person fell off a shrimp boat . A truck driver and a 5 year old also died , while the toddler 's mother was considered missing . The towns of Escuinapa , El Rosario , and Mazatlán sustained flooding . The municipalities of Angostura , Mocorito , Navolato , and Culiacán were flooded , resulting in modest damage . In Angostura , numerous people were trapped on the roofs of their houses . Coastal areas of Navolato were flooded while authorities reported 500 homeless ; hundreds of threes were toppled and power lines were disconnected . Parts of Mocorito were isolated due to overflow of the Humaya channel . About 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) of water and debris was reported in Mocorito . In Culiacán , minor flooding happened . Meanwhile , in Chinito , almost all roads were destroyed . Offshore , 24 boats were damaged . Throughout the state , 100 @,@ 000 people were rendered as homeless . A total of 3 @,@ 000 persons were evacuated to 62 shelters . In all , 70 communities were damaged by the tropical cyclone . Hurricane Manuel directly affected 146 @,@ 000 persons in 10 municipalities in the state . Damage in Sinaloa totaled $ 500 million pesos ( $ 37 @.@ 9 million 2013 USD ) .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Elsewhere , in Michoacán , flooding was reported ; many people had to be rescued via air and two casualties were reported . In Durango , 42 homes were damaged , stranding 50 residents . While brushing the Baja California Peninsula , 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) waves were measured in La Paz in addition to winds of 26 mph ( 42 km / h ) . In Sinaloa , a peak rainfall total of 415 mm ( 15 in ) was recorded at Culiacan . After dissipating , the remnants of Manuel brought copious amounts of rainfall to a wide swath of Texas . The precipitation was further enhanced by deepening moisture from the Gulf of Mexico and an approaching cold front . In the Austin area , the rains resulted in localized flooding , forcing the closure of several low water crossings . A weather station in Camp Mabry recorded 2 @.@ 92 in ( 74 mm ) of rain on September 20 , making it a daily record for the station . Elsewhere , radar estimates indicated that as much as 8 in ( 200 mm ) may have fallen in localized areas in West Texas . In Kimble County , one road was closed due to flooding . Across central Arkansas , 2 – 4 @.@ 5 in ( 51 – 114 mm ) of rainfall was recorded .
= = Aftermath = =
During the aftermath of the storm , a state of emergency was declared for Acapulco ; about 12 @,@ 000 items were airlifted to the region. overall . In all , 662 donation centers were opened across Guerrero . Damages repairs to Guerrero totaled to $ 3 billion MXN ( $ 123 million 2013 USD ) . The Minister of Economy granted an additional $ 100 million pesos to the devastated state . Furthermore , the Finance Ministry declared it had $ 12 billion pesos ( US $ 925 @.@ 60 million ) available in funds . In addition , the Mexican Red Cross collected and subsequently delivered cargo to the devastated area , especially Guerrero while also providing 400 @,@ 079 tons of aid . Local authorities also provided 29 @,@ 000 tons of personal and household items . The Médicos Sin Fronteras distributed 2 @,@ 800 L ( 620 imp gal ) of water , food , and medicines in five shelters . A total of 87 million Euros ( $ 118 million USD ) , from the National Fund for Natural Disasters , were allocated to provide essential items such as food , mattresses , drinking water , and medicine . The Water Missions International provided water to about 20 @,@ 000 persons . World Vision Mexico disturbed plastic tends to help cover roofs for 80 families . Furthermore , the organization donated mosquito nets for 76 families . Grocery items such as rice , oil , sardines , sugar , salt , cookies , and beans were also provided . ADRA Mexico was one of the first organizations to help victims , and by early October , had helped 8 @,@ 000 people .
In Oaxaca , 42 municipalities were declared disaster areas . Throughout the state of Guerrero , 56 municipalities were declared a disaster area while 9 municipalities in Michoacán were declared a disaster zone . In all , 428 municipalities were designated as disaster areas and 155 emergencies declarations were issued due to both Ingrid and Manuel . State of emergencies were declared in Michoacan and 21 municipalities in Jalisco , though by mid @-@ October , they were lifted .
Thirty @-@ two damage assessment committees were installed to help estimate and analyze the cost of damage to public infrastructure . Subcommittees were established to help assess damage to schools , houses , and water supplies . Ten shelters were opened in both Chilpancingo and Acapulco . All survivors form the La Pintada mudslide were transported to a basketball gym in Acapulco , who were all provided with a $ 150 USD pension . Due to the closure of the commercial terminal of the Acapulco airport , special flights provided by Aeromexico and Interjet were used to deliver aid .
By September 18 , power services had been restored to the state of Guerrero . That day , gas and water services were revived in Acapulco . Emergency declarations were requested in Angostura and Navolato . Within 12 hours after its second landfall , power was retrieved to 26 @,@ 000 dwellings in Sinaloa . In La Pintada , the search process for victims was halted briefly due to the threat of another mudslide , but on September 20 , 100 rescuers resumed searching , who frequently had to dig through mud to recover bodies .
The Mexican government received criticism by the press for being under @-@ prepared for both Manuel and Ingrid . One newspaper said that the authorities underestimated both storms , due to a combination of a " lack of coordination " and " the distraction of the weekend ’ s independence @-@ related festivities . " Guerrero governor Angel Aguirre was criticized by many for attending a night @-@ long party and drinking when the storm first threatened the state . However , Aguirre later acknowledged political corruption , as well as the construction of homes and hotels in unsafe areas in a televised speech . Consequently , the Mexican Senate requested an investigation in the amount of preparation that occurred .
To cope with relief efforts , Mexican Army troops and marines forces helped families whose homes were flooded . Additionally , the military provided 60 tonnes ( 132 @,@ 275 lb ) of food supplies and 8 @,@ 000 litres ( 1 @,@ 760 imp gal ) of water to the city . A military airbase was installed to transport aid via air . Authorities rushed to clean rocks and other debris from two highways in order to liberate Acapulco from isolation . The disaster also resulted in panic buying at supermarkets . Looters were spotted in Acapulco many angry victims robbed shops , homes , luxury hotels , and apartments . Marines were posted outside stores to prevent further theft . Mexico President Enrique Pena Nieto toured through most of the devastated areas , promising to rebuild La Pintada and Acapulco . On May 26 , 2014 , La Pintada was re @-@ opened , with 125 new homes .
Because of the severe damage caused by the storm in Mexico , the name Manuel was later retired by the World Meteorological Organization , and will never be used again for an Eastern Pacific hurricane . It will be replaced with Mario for the 2019 Pacific hurricane season .
= Goito @-@ class cruiser =
The Goito class was a group of four torpedo cruisers built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1880s . The members of the class were Goito , Montebello , Monzambano , and Confienza . They were among the first torpedo cruisers built for the Italian fleet , and were built to improve on the previous vessel , Tripoli . Experimental ships , the four Goito @-@ class vessels varied in their dimensions , machinery , and armament , though all were comparable in terms of capabilities , having a top speed of 17 to 18 knots ( 31 to 33 km / h ; 20 to 21 mph ) and carrying an armament of four or five 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) torpedo tubes .
All four ships spent the majority of their time in service with the main Italian fleet , alternating between active duty for training exercises and reserve status . In 1897 , Goito was converted into a minelayer and Montebello became a training ship for engine room personnel . Monzambano and Confienza were simply sold for scrap in 1901 . Goito laid defensive minefields after Italy entered World War I in 1915 , but otherwise did not see action during the war . The two surviving vessels remained in the Italian fleet until 1920 , when they too were broken up for scrap .
= = Design = =
The first three members of the Goito class was designed by Engineering General Inspector Benedetto Brin , while Confienza was designed by Engineering Director Giacinto Pullino . Brin had previously designed several classes of very large ironclad battleships , including the Caio Duilio and Italia classes , but by the 1880s , he had begun to embrace the ideas of the Jeune École , which emphasized small , fast , torpedo @-@ armed vessels that could damage or destroy the much larger battleships at a fraction of the cost . The four Goitos were similar to the preceding cruiser Tripoli , the first torpedo cruiser Brin designed . As these were among the initial designs prepared by the Italian navy , they were experimental ; Brin and Pullino used different hull shapes for all four vessels and fitted them with a variety of propulsion systems and armament .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
As a result of their experimental nature , the ships of the Goito class varied slightly in size . They all were 70 meters ( 229 ft 8 in ) long at the waterline and 73 @.@ 4 m ( 240 ft 10 in ) long overall , but their beam varied from 7 @.@ 88 to 8 @.@ 05 m ( 25 ft 10 in to 26 ft 5 in ) and their draft ranged from 3 @.@ 04 to 3 @.@ 6 m ( 10 ft 0 in to 11 ft 10 in ) . The ships were built with steel hulls . They displaced 756 to 856 metric tons ( 744 to 842 long tons ; 833 to 944 short tons ) normally and 955 to 974 metric tons ( 940 to 959 long tons ; 1 @,@ 053 to 1 @,@ 074 short tons ) at full load . They had a crew of between 105 and 121 .
The first three ships had similar propulsion systems that consisted of three steam engines , each driving a single screw propeller . Goito and Monzambano had double @-@ expansion engines , while Montebello had more advanced triple @-@ expansion engines . Confienza instead used a two @-@ shaft configuration for her double @-@ expansion engines . Steam for the engines was supplied by coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers ; Goito and Montebello had six boilers , while Monzambano and Confienza had four . The boilers for Goito and Monzambano were trunked into two funnels , Montebello had three , and Confienza only had one .
Exact figures for the first three ships ' performance have not survived , but they could steam at a speed of about 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) from 2 @,@ 500 to 3 @,@ 180 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 860 to 2 @,@ 370 kW ) . Confienza , with only two screws , had a top speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) from 1 @,@ 962 ihp ( 1 @,@ 463 kW ) . In 1894 , Goito had her center engine and screw removed and her original boilers replaced with oil @-@ fired models . With these changes , her engines were capable of producing 17 @.@ 2 knots ( 31 @.@ 9 km / h ; 19 @.@ 8 mph ) from 2 @,@ 521 ihp ( 1 @,@ 880 kW ) . The ships had a cruising radius of 1 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 000 km ; 1 @,@ 300 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . They were originally fitted with a fore @-@ and @-@ aft sailing rig to supplement the steam engines , though they were later removed .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The primary armament for the Goito class was five 14 in ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes , though Montebello only had four tubes . The ships also carried a variety of light guns . Goito was equipped with five 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 40 @-@ caliber ( cal . ) guns , two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 20 @-@ cal. guns , and three 37 mm revolving Hotchkiss guns , all mounted singly . Montebello had six 57 mm guns and two 37 mm guns , and Monzambano carried only six 57 mm guns . Confienza was the only vessel to carry a medium @-@ caliber gun , a single 4 @.@ 7 in ( 120 mm ) 32 @-@ cal. gun mounted on her bow . She also carried six 57 mm guns and two 37 mm guns . The ships were protected with an armored deck that was 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) thick .
= = Ships = =
= = Service history = =
All four Goito @-@ class cruisers served with the main Italian fleet for the majority of their careers . This time was spent either laid up in the reserve component of the fleet , or activated for yearly training maneuvers . These frequently gamed a French attack on Italy , as in the case of the 1888 maneuvers — for which only Goito had been completed in time to participate — that simulated a French attack on La Spezia , or the 1893 maneuvers , which tested a French attack on Naples . In 1898 , Monzambano and Montebello participated in a rare deployment for members of the class when they were assigned to the Levant Squadron that was tasked with patrolling the eastern Mediterranean Sea . Throughout this period , the ships of the class would either be distributed among the divisions of the fleet , as with the case of the annual training maneuvers , or stationed together while in reserve status ; in 1895 , for example , the four Goitos were assigned to the 2nd Maritime Department , along with Tripoli and the eight Partenope @-@ class torpedo cruisers .
In 1897 , Goito was withdrawn from front @-@ line service and converted in a minelayer , with a capacity for 60 naval mines in place of her torpedo tubes . Montebello remained on active duty until 1898 , when she was converted into a training ship for engine room personnel , and was re @-@ boilered with coal- and oil @-@ fired equipment from several manufacturers in 1903 . Confienza and Monzambano were the last members of the class to leave active service , being stricken from the naval register on the same day , 26 August 1901 and sold for scrapping . Goito continued to take part in fleet maneuvers as late as 1907 in her minelayer configuration , and both she and Manzambano remained in the Regia Marina 's inventory during the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 and World War I. Neither ship saw action in either conflict , though Goito laid defensive minefields in the Adriatic Sea after Italy entered World War I in 1915 . Montebello was eventually stricken on 26 January 1920 , and Goito followed her to the breakers ' yard on 15 March .
= USS Arkansas ( BB @-@ 33 ) =
USS Arkansas ( BB @-@ 33 ) was a dreadnought battleship , the second member of the Wyoming class , built by the United States Navy . She was the third ship of the US Navy named in honor of the 25th state , and was built by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation . She was laid down in January 1910 , launched in January 1911 , and commissioned into the Navy in September 1912 . Arkansas was armed with a main battery of twelve 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns and capable of a top speed of 20 @.@ 5 kn ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) .
Arkansas served in both World Wars . During the First World War , she was part of Battleship Division Nine , which was attached to the British Grand Fleet , but she saw no action during the war . During the interwar years , Arkansas performed a variety of duties , including training cruises for midshipmen and goodwill visits overseas .
Following the outbreak of World War II , Arkansas conducted Neutrality Patrols in the Atlantic prior to America 's entry into the war . Thereafter , she escorted convoys to Europe through 1944 ; in June , she supported the invasion of Normandy , and in August she provided gunfire support to the invasion of southern France . In 1945 , she transferred to the Pacific , and bombarded Japanese positions during the invasions of Iwo Jima and Okinawa . After the end of the war , she ferried troops back to the United States as part of Operation Magic Carpet . Arkansas was expended as a target in Operation Crossroads , a pair of nuclear weapon tests at Bikini Atoll in July 1946 .
= = Construction = =
Arkansas was laid down on 25 January 1910 at New York Shipbuilding in Camden , New Jersey . She was launched on 14 January 1911 , after which fitting @-@ out work was effected . The ship was completed by September 1912 , and was commissioned into the US Navy on 17 September at the Philadelphia Navy Yard , under the command of Captain Roy C. Smith . The ship was 562 ft ( 171 m ) long overall and had a beam of 93 ft 3 in ( 28 m ) and a draft of 28 ft 6 in ( 9 m ) . She displaced 26 @,@ 000 long tons ( 26 @,@ 000 t ) as designed and up to 27 @,@ 243 long tons ( 27 @,@ 680 t ) at full combat load . The ship was powered by four @-@ shaft Parsons steam turbines and twelve coal @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers rated at 28 @,@ 000 shp ( 21 @,@ 000 kW ) , generating a top speed of 20 @.@ 5 kn ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) . The ship had a cruising range of 8 @,@ 000 nmi ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship was armed with a main battery of twelve 12 @-@ inch / 50 caliber Mark 7 guns guns in six twin Mark 9 gun turrets on the centerline , two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward . The other four turrets were placed aft of the superstructure in two superfiring pairs . The secondary battery consisted of twenty @-@ one 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 51 caliber guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull . The main armored belt was 11 in ( 279 mm ) thick , while the gun turrets had 12 in ( 305 mm ) thick faces . The conning tower had 11 @.@ 5 in ( 292 mm ) thick sides .
= = = Modifications = = =
In 1925 , Arkansas was modernized in the Philadelphia Navy Yard . Her displacement increased significantly , to 26 @,@ 066 long tons ( 26 @,@ 484 t ) standard and 30 @,@ 610 long tons ( 31 @,@ 100 t ) full load . Her beam was widened to 106 ft ( 32 m ) , primarily from the installation of anti @-@ torpedo bulges , and draft increased to 29 ft 11 @.@ 75 in ( 9 m ) . Her twelve coal @-@ fired boilers were replaced with four White @-@ Forster oil @-@ fired boilers that had been intended for the ships cancelled under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty ; performance remained the same as the older boilers . The ship 's deck armor was strengthened by the addition of 3 @.@ 5 in ( 89 mm ) of armor to the second deck between the end barbettes , plus 1 @.@ 75 in ( 44 mm ) of armor on the third deck on the bow and stern . The deck armor over the engines and boilers was increased by 0 @.@ 75 in ( 19 mm ) and 1 @.@ 25 in ( 32 mm ) , respectively . Five of the 5 @-@ inch guns were removed and eight 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 50 caliber anti @-@ aircraft guns were installed . The mainmast was removed to provide space for an aircraft catapult mounted on the Number 3 turret amidships .
= = Service history = =
Following her commissioning , Arkansas participated in a fleet review on 14 October 1912 for President William Howard Taft . The ship took Taft aboard that day for a trip to Panama to inspect the Panama Canal , which was still under construction . Arkansas began her shakedown cruise after delivering Taft and his entourage to the Canal Zone . On 26 December , she returned to the Canal Zone to take Taft to Key West , Florida . After completing the voyage , Arkansas was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet and participated in fleet maneuvers off the east coast of the United States . Arkansas 's first overseas cruise , to the Mediterranean Sea , began in late October 1913 . While there , she stopped in several ports , including Naples , Italy on 11 November , where the ship celebrated the birthday of King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy .
In early 1914 , an international incident with Mexico culminated in the American occupation of Veracruz . Arkansas participated in the occupation , contributing four companies of naval infantry , which amounted to 17 officers and 313 enlisted men . The American forces fought their way through the city until they secured it . Two of Arkansas 's crewmen were killed in the fighting , and another two , John Grady and Jonas H. Ingram , received the Medal of Honor for actions during the occupation . The ship 's detachment returned on 30 April ; Arkansas remained in Mexican waters until she departed on 30 September to return to the United States . While stationed in Veracruz , the ship was visited by Captain Franz von Papen , the German military attaché to the United States and Mexico , and Rear Admiral Christopher Cradock , the commander of the British 4th Cruiser Squadron , on 10 May and 30 May 1914 , respectively .
Arkansas arrived in Hampton Roads , Virginia on 7 October , after which she took part in exercises for a week . She then sailed to the New York Navy Yard for periodic maintenance . After repairs were completed , the ship steamed down to the Virginia Capes area for training maneuvers . She returned to the New York Navy Yard on 12 December for additional maintenance . The repairs were completed within a month , and on 16 January 1915 , Arkansas departed for the Virginia Capes for exercises on 19 – 21 January . The ship then steamed down to Guantánamo Bay , Cuba for exercises with the fleet . Arkansas returned for training off Hampton Roads on 7 April , followed by another maintenance period at the New York Navy Yard , starting on 23 April .
On 25 June , the repairs were complete , and Arkansas departed for Newport , Rhode Island for torpedo practice and tactical maneuvers in Narragansett Bay , which lasted through late August . On 27 August , the ship was back in Hampton Roads . There , she participated in exercises off Norfolk through 4 October . She then returned to Newport , where she took part in strategic maneuvers on 5 – 14 October . She went to the New York Navy Yard on 15 October , where she was drydocked for extensive maintenance . The work was completed by 8 November , when Arkansas returned to Hampton Roads . The ship was in Brooklyn for repairs on 19 November , which lasted until 5 January 1916 , when she steamed south to the Caribbean Sea , via Hampton Roads , for winter exercises . She steamed to Mobile Bay on 12 March for torpedo practice , before returning to Guantánamo Bay . She returned to the New York Navy Yard on 15 April for an overhaul .
= = = World War I = = =
The United States declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917 , joining the Allied Powers in World War I. Arkansas was at the time assigned to Battleship Division 7 stationed in Virginia . The ship patrolled the east coast and trained gun crews for the next fourteen months . The ship was sent to Britain in July 1918 to relieve Delaware , which had been assigned to operate with the Grand Fleet in the 6th Battle Squadron since December 1917 . Arkansas departed the United States on 14 July ; while approaching the Royal Navy base in Rosyth , the battleship fired on what was thought to be a periscope from a German U @-@ boat . The destroyers escorting Arkansas dropped depth charges but did not hit the alleged submarine . Arkansas arrived in Rosyth on 28 July and joined the rest of Battleship Division 9 stationed there . For the remainder of the conflict , Battleship Division 9 operated as the 6th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet .
On 11 November , the Armistice with Germany that ended World War I went into effect . The terms of the Armistice required Germany to intern the bulk of the High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow , under the supervision of the Grand Fleet . Arkansas and the other American warships participated in the internment ; a combined fleet of 370 British , American , and French warships met the High Seas Fleet in the North Sea on 21 November and escorted it into Scapa Flow . On 1 December , Battleship Division 9 was detached from the Grand Fleet , after which Arkansas departed the Firth of Forth for the Isle of Portland . She then went to sea to meet the ocean liner George Washington , which was carrying President Wilson to Europe . Arkansas and the other American naval forces in Europe escorted the ship into Brest , France on 13 December . After completing the escort , Arkansas sailed for New York City , arriving on 26 December , where the fleet participated in a Naval Review for Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels .
= = = Inter @-@ war period = = =
The peacetime training regimen for Arkansas consisted of individual training , an annual fleet maneuver , and periodic maintenance in drydock . She also participated in gunnery and engineering competitions . After returning to the United States , Arkansas went into drydock at the Norfolk Navy Yard for an extensive overhaul . She then rejoined the fleet to conduct training exercises off Cuba , after which she crossed the Atlantic , bound for Europe . She reached Plymouth on 12 May 1919 , and then took weather observations on 19 May and later served as a reference vessel to guide the Navy Curtiss NC flying boats flying from Trepassey Bay , Newfoundland to Europe . After completing that task , she steamed to Brest on 10 June and picked up Admiral William S. Benson , the Chief of Naval Operations , and his wife . Arkansas carried them back to New York after Benson was finished at the Peace Conference in Paris , arriving on 20 June .
On 19 July , Arkansas departed Hampton Roads to join her new assignment , the US Pacific Fleet , bound for San Francisco . She arrived 6 September , via the Panama Canal , and embarked Secretary and Mrs. Josephus Daniels . She took Daniels and his wife to Blakely Harbor , Washington on 12 September , and the following day , participated in a naval review for President Wilson . On 19 September , Arkansas entered the Puget Sound Navy Yard for a general overhaul . She returned to the fleet in May 1920 for training operations off California . The Navy adopted a hull classification system , and on 17 July , assigned Arkansas the designation " BB @-@ 33 " . She steamed to Hawaii in September , the first time she went to the islands . In early 1921 , Arkansas visited Valparaíso , Chile , where she was received by President Arturo Alessandri Palma ; the ship 's crew manned the rail to honor the Chilean president .
In August 1921 , Arkansas returned to the Atlantic Fleet , where she became the flagship of the Commander , Battleship Force , Atlantic Fleet . Throughout the 1920s , Arkansas carried midshipmen from the United States Naval Academy on summer cruises . She went on a tour of Europe in 1923 ; there , on 2 July , she stopped in Copenhagen and was visited by King Christian X of Denmark . She also stopped in Lisbon and Gibraltar . Another midshipmen cruise to Europe followed in 1924 ; the cruise for the next year went to the west coast of the United States . On 30 June 1925 , she stopped in Santa Barbara , California to assist in the aftermath of the 1925 Santa Barbara earthquake . Arkansas , the destroyer McCawley , and the patrol craft PE @-@ 34 sent detachments ashore to help the police in Santa Barbara . They also established a temporary radio station in the city .
After returning from the 1925 cruise , the ship was modernized at the Philadelphia Navy Yard . She had her twelve old coal @-@ fired boilers replaced with four oil @-@ fired models , which were trunked into a single larger funnel . She also had more deck armor added to protect her from plunging fire , and a short tripod mast was installed in place of the aft cage mast . The modernization was completed in November 1926 , after which Arkansas conducted a shakedown cruise in the Atlantic . She returned to Philadelphia , where she ran acceptance trials before she could rejoin the fleet . On 5 September 1927 , Arkansas was present for ceremonies unveiling a memorial tablet honoring the French soldiers and sailors who died during the Yorktown campaign in 1781 .
She returned to training cruises in May 1928 , when she took a crew of midshipmen into the Atlantic along the east coast , along with a trip down to Cuba . In June , she participated in a join Army @-@ Navy coast defense exercise as part of the hostile " attacking " fleet . In early 1929 , Arkansas cruised in the Caribbean and near the Canal Zone . She returned to the United States in May 1929 for an overhaul in the New York Navy Yard . After emerging from drydock , she conducted another training cruise , this time to European waters ; she spent time in the Mediterranean and visited Britain . Arkansas returned to the United States in August and operated with the Scouting Fleet off the east coast . The training cruise for 1930 again went to Europe . She called in Cherbourg , France , Kiel , Germany , Oslo , Norway , and Edinburgh , Scotland . The cruise continued through the end of the year , and in 1931 , the battleship visited Copenhagen , Greenock , Scotland , and Cadiz and Gibraltar in Spain . By September , the ship had crossed the Atlantic , and she stopped in Halifax , Nova Scotia . In February , Arkansas participated in Fleet Problem XII . During the maneuvers , she served as Admiral Arthur L. Willard 's flagship , and she was " sunk " by a submarine . A month later , on 21 – 22 March , Arkansas conducted exercises with the carriers Lexington and Saratoga .
Arkansas participated in the Yorktown Sesquicentennial celebrations in October 1931 , marking the 150th anniversary of the Siege of Yorktown . She embarked President Herbert Hoover and his entourage on 17 October and took them to the exposition , and returned them to Annapolis on 19 – 20 October . She then went into drydock for an extensive refit in the Philadelphia Navy Yard , which lasted until January 1932 . During this time , she was under the command of George Landenberger . Arkansas was transferred to the Pacific Fleet after completing the refit ; while en route , she stopped in New Orleans to participate in the Mardi Gras celebration . She operated off the west coast through early 1934 , at which point she was transferred back to the Atlantic Fleet , where she served as the flagship of the Training Squadron .
She conducted another training cruise to Europe in the summer of 1934 . She stopped in Plymouth , England , Nice , France , Naples , Italy , and Gibraltar . She returned to Annapolis in August , after which she steamed to Newport . In Newport , President Franklin Delano Roosevelt reviewed the battleship from the yacht Nourmahal . While there , Arkansas entered one of her cutters in a competition with the British cruiser HMS Dragon for the Battenberg Cup , and the City of Newport Cup ; Arkansas 's cutter won both races . The ship carried the 1st Battalion , 5th Marines to Culebra for a Fleet Landing Exercise No. 1 ( FLEX 1 ) in January 1935 . She returned to training cruise duties in June , and she again took the midshipmen to Europe . Among the stops were Edinburgh , Oslo , Copenhagen , Gibraltar , and Funchal on the island of Madeira . She disembarked the Naval Academy crew in August and began another training cruise to Halifax , this time for Naval Reservists , the following month . A refit was conducted in October after completing the cruise .
Arkansas participated in the FLEX 2 at Culebra in January 1936 , and then visited New Orleans during Mardi Gras . She went to Norfolk for a major overhaul that lasted through the spring of 1936 . After completing the overhaul , the ship took another midshipmen crew to European waters ; she called in the ports of Portsmouth , England , Gothenburg , Sweden , and Cherbourg and returned to Annapolis in August . As in the previous year , she conducted another Reserve training cruise , and then went into drydock for an overhaul in Norfolk . The remainder of the 1930s followed a similar pattern ; in 1937 the midshipmen training cruise went to Europe , but the 1938 and 1939 cruises remained in the western Atlantic .
= = = World War II = = =
At the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , Arkansas was moored at Hampton Roads , preparing to depart on a training cruise for the Naval Reserve . She departed to transport seaplane mooring and aviation equipment from Norfolk to Narragansett Bay , where the Navy planned to set up a seaplane base . While in Newport , Arkansas picked up ordnance for destroyers and brought it back to Hampton Roads . After returning to Virginia , Arkansas was assigned to a reserve force for the Neutrality Patrols in the Atlantic , along with her sister Wyoming , the battleships New York and Texas and the carrier Ranger . On 11 January 1940 , Arkansas , New York , and Texas left for fleet maneuvers off Cuba . She underwent an overhaul at Norfolk between 18 March and 24 May . After emerging from her refit , Arkansas conducted another midshipman training cruise , along with Texas and New York , to Panama and Venezuela . In late 1940 , she conducted three Naval Reserve training cruises in the Atlantic .
Over the months that followed , the United States gradually edged toward war in the Atlantic . The ship was assigned to the escort force for the Marines deployed to occupy Iceland in July 1941 , along with New York , two cruisers , and eleven destroyers . The task force deployed from NS Argentia , Newfoundland on 1 July and were back in port by the 19th . Starting on 7 August 1941 , Arkansas went on a neutrality patrol in the mid @-@ Atlantic that lasted a week . After returning to port , Arkansas traveled to the Atlantic Charter conference with President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill , which took place onboard HMS Prince of Wales . While there , the US Under Secretary of State , Sumner Welles , stayed aboard Arkansas . She conducted another neutrality patrol between 2 and 11 September .
Arkansas was anchored in Casco Bay , Maine , on 7 December 1941 , when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor and brought the United States into the war . A week later , she steamed to Hvalfjordur , Iceland , and returned to Boston on 24 January 1942 . She conducted training maneuvers in Casco Bay to prepare her crew for convoy escort duties . On 6 March , she arrived at Norfolk to begin overhaul . The secondary battery was reduced to six 5 @-@ inch / 51 cal guns . Also , 36 40 mm Bofors anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns ( in quadruple mounts ) and 26 20 mm Oerlikon AA guns were added , the experience at Pearl Harbor having made the US Navy aware of the need for increased light AA armament . The 3 @-@ inch / 50 caliber gun armament was also increased from 8 guns to 10 . Work lasted until 2 July , after which time Arkansas conducted a shakedown cruise in Chesapeake Bay ; she then proceeded to New York , arriving on 27 July . There , she became the flagship of Task Force 38 ( TF 38 ) , the escort for a convoy of twelve transports bound for Scotland . The convoy arrived in Greenock on 17 August , and Arkansas returned to New York on 4 September .
Arkansas again escorted a convoy to Scotland , returning to New York by 20 October . Thereafter , convoys were sent to North Africa to support the invasion of North Africa . Arkansas covered her first such convoy , along with eight destroyers , on 3 November . She returned to New York on 11 December , where she went into dock for another overhaul . On 2 January 1943 , Arkansas departed New York to conduct gunnery training in Chesapeake Bay . Back in New York by 30 January , the ship 's crew prepared for a return to convoy escort duty . She escorted two convoys to Casablanca between February and April , before returning to New York for yet another period in dry @-@ dock , which lasted until 26 May . Arkansas returned to duty as a training ship for midshipmen based at Norfolk . She resumed her convoy escort duties after four months , and on 8 October , she steamed to Bangor , Northern Ireland . She remained in Ireland through November , and departed on 1 December , bound for New York . After arriving on the 12th , Arkansas went into dock for more repairs , and then returned to Norfolk on 27 December . The ship escorted another convoy bound for Ireland on 19 January 1944 before returning to New York on 13 February . Another round of gunnery drills followed on 28 March , after which Arkansas went to Boston for more dry @-@ dock period .
On 18 April , Arkansas departed for Ireland , where she trained for shore bombardment duties , as she had been assigned to the shore bombardment force in support of Operation Overlord , the invasion of northern France . She was assigned to Group II , along with Texas and five destroyers . Her float plane artillery observer pilots were temporarily assigned to VOS @-@ 7 flying Spitfires from RNAS Lee @-@ on @-@ Solent ( HMS Daedalus ) . On 3 June , she left her moorings , and on the morning of the 6th , took up a position about 4 @,@ 000 yd ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) from Omaha Beach . At 05 : 52 , the battleship 's guns fired in anger for the first time in her career . She bombarded German positions around Omaha Beach until 13 June , when she was moved to support ground forces in Grandcamp les Bains . On 25 June , Arkansas bombarded Cherbourg in support of the American attack on the port ; German coastal guns straddled her several times , but scored no hits . Cherbourg fell to the Allies the next day , after which Arkansas returned to port , first in Weymouth , England , and then to Bangor , Wales on 30 June .
On 4 July , Arkansas departed Ireland for the Mediterranean Sea ; she reached Oran , Algeria on 10 July , before proceeding on to Taranto , arriving on 21 July . There , she joined the support force for Operation Dragoon , the invasion of southern France . Again , the battleship provided gunfire support to the amphibious invasion along with six Allied cruisers , starting on 15 August . The bombardment lasted for two more days , after which she withdrew , first to Palermo and then to Oran . Arkansas then returned to the United States , arriving in Boston on 14 September , where she underwent another refit that lasted until early November . She then steamed to California via the Panama Canal , and spent the rest of the year conducting training maneuvers . On 20 January 1945 , Arkansas departed California for Pearl Harbor , and then proceeded to Ulithi to join the fleet in preparation for the amphibious assault on Iwo Jima . There , she was assigned to Task Force 54 , which included five other battleships , four cruisers , and sixteen destroyers .
On 16 February , Arkansas was in position off Iwo Jima , and at 06 : 00 , she opened fire on Japanese positions on the island 's west coast . The bombardment lasted until the 19th , though she remained off the island throughout the Battle of Iwo Jima , ready to provide fire support to the American marines ashore . She departed on 7 March , bound for Ulithi , and arrived on 10 March , where she rearmed and refueled in preparation for the next major operation in the Pacific War , the invasion of Okinawa . She departed Ulithi on 21 March and arrived off Okinawa four days later , when she began the bombardment along with the rest of Task Force 54 . The soldiers and marines went ashore on 1 April , and Arkansas continued to provide gunfire support over the course of 46 days throughout the Battle of Okinawa . Kamikazes repeatedly attacked the ship , though none struck her . She left the island in May , arriving in Guam on the 14th . She then proceeded to Leyte Gulf on 12 June , arriving four days later . There , she was assigned to Task Group 95 @.@ 7 , along with Texas and three cruisers . She remained in the Philippines until 20 August , when she departed for Okinawa , arriving in Buckner Bay on the 23rd , by which time Japan had surrendered , ending World War II . Over the course of the war , Arkansas earned four battle stars .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
After the end of the war , Arkansas participared in Operation Magic Carpet , the repatriation of American servicemen from the Pacific . She took around 800 men back to the United States , departing on 23 September , and reaching Seattle , Washington on 15 October . She made another three Magic Carpet trips between Pearl Harbor and the continental United States to ferry more soldiers home . During the first months of 1946 , Arkansas lay at San Francisco . In late April , the ship got underway for Hawaii . She reached Pearl Harbor on 8 May , and departed Pearl Harbor on 20 May , bound for Bikini Atoll , earmarked for use as target for atomic bomb testing in Operation Crossroads . On 1 July , Arkansas was exposed to an air burst in ABLE , but survived with extensive shock damage to her upperworks , while her hull and armored turrets were lightly damaged .
On 25 July , the battleship was sunk by the underwater nuclear test BAKER at Bikini Atoll . Unattentuated by air , the shock was " transmitted directly to underwater hulls " , and Arkansas , only 250 yards from the epicenter , appeared to have been " crushed as if by a tremendous hammer blow from below " . It appears that the wave of water from the blast capsized the ship , which was then hammered down into the shallow bottom by the descent of the water column thrown up by the blast . Decommissioned on 29 July , Arkansas was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 15 August . The ship lies inverted in about 180 feet of water at the bottom of Bikini Lagoon and there are many pictures of the wreck on the National Park Service website .
= = Awards = =
Mexican Service Medal
Victory Medal with " Atlantic Fleet " and " Grand Fleet " clasps
American Defense Service Medal with " FLEET " clasp and " A " device
American Campaign Medal
European @-@ African @-@ Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with two battle stars
Asiatic @-@ Pacific Campaign Medal with two battle stars
World War II Victory Medal
Navy Occupation Medal with " ASIA " clasp
= Tales of Magic and Mystery ( magazine ) =
Tales of Magic and Mystery was a pulp magazine which published five monthly issues from December 1927 to April 1928 . It was edited by Walter Gibson , and published a mixture of fiction and articles on magic . It is now mainly remembered for having published a story by H.P. Lovecraft .
= = Publication history = =
Tales of Magic and Mystery was published by Personal Arts , which was owned by International Correspondence Schools ( ICS ) . In 1927 ICS had had success with a mailing titled " Secrets of the Ages " . Bill Kofoed and Walter Gibson suggested a magazine to appeal to the same audience as the mailing , and Haddon Press , also owned by ICS , provided cost estimates that seemed very positive . Kofoed checked the numbers with Haddon Press and was convinced they were accurate , and the magazine was launched in December of that year with Gibson as editor .
The contributors included H. P. Lovecraft , with " Cool Air " , and Frank Owen , with three stories : " The Yellow Pool " , " The Black Well of Wadi " , and " The Lure of the Shrivelled Hand " . A story by Miriam Allen deFord , " Ghostly Hands " , also appeared , though it later became apparent that it had been printed without permission or payment . Gibson later recalled that the Kofoed obtained some of the submissions from stories submitted to Brief Stories , which Kofoed edited ; science fiction historian Mike Ashley suggests that Gibson may not have been fully aware of how the submissions were obtained , and believes it is possible that some of the other material printed was also not paid for .
The magazine is now extremely rare , and has become a collectors ' item because of the connection to H. P. Lovecraft . Most of Lovecraft 's short fiction appeared in Weird Tales , and it is possible that he submitted to Tales of Magic and Mystery because of his interest in Harry Houdini — he had ghost @-@ written a story for Houdini a couple of years earlier , and Gibson was a friend of Houdini 's . In addition to fiction the magazine published articles about magic , all of which were written by Gibson , some under pen @-@ names . The articles included one on bullet @-@ catching ( illustrated by Earle K. Bergey ) , one on mysterious people , and a series on Houdini . Overall , the magazine focused more on magic than on fiction , but the stories chosen were readable . The weird and occult fiction genre was dominated by Weird Tales in the years before World War II ; Tales of Magic and Mystery and Ghost Stories were the only two magazines to attempt to rival Weird Tales in the years before 1931 , when Strange Tales of Mystery and Terror appeared .
After the fifth issue , it became apparent that the reason the cost estimates had appeared so strong was that Haddon Press had forgotten to include the cost of the paper . This made it apparent that the magazine was losing money rapidly , and Tales of Magic and Mystery was immediately shut down . Some of the manuscripts in inventory at the time the magazine was closed down may have been printed in True Strange Stories , another short @-@ lived magazine which Gibson edited the following year .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Walter B. Gibson was the editor of all five issues of Tales of Magic and Mystery , which remained in saddle @-@ stapled pulp format throughout its run . It was priced at 25 cents , and each issue was 64 pages long .
In 2004 , Wildside Press released a facsimile edition of the February 1928 issue , and in 2013 , Adventure House released a facsimile of the March 1928 issue .
= Washington State Route 305 =
State Route 305 ( SR 305 ) is a 13 @.@ 50 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 21 @.@ 73 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Washington , primarily serving Bainbridge Island in Kitsap County and connecting it to Seattle in King County via the Seattle – Winslow Ferry . The highway travels north through Bainbridge Island and leaves the island on the Agate Pass Bridge into the Kitsap Peninsula . SR 305 continues northwest through Poulsbo , intersecting SR 307 and ending at the SR 3 freeway . The highway was created during the 1964 highway renumbering and was preceded by Secondary State Highway 21A ( SSH 21A ) , established in 1937 . The ferry , part of the highway since 1994 , is served by the Jumbo Mark II class MV Tacoma and MV Wenatchee and operates on a 35 @-@ minute crossing time .
= = Route description = =
SR 305 begins at Colman Dock in Seattle and travels on the Seattle – Winslow Ferry to Bainbridge Island . The ferry , operated by Washington State Ferries ( WSF ) , is on a 8 @.@ 6 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 13 @.@ 8 km ) route and is served by the Jumbo Mark II class MV Tacoma and MV Wenatchee , traveling at a speed of 18 knots ( 21 mph ) for a 35 @-@ minute crossing . The ferries depart from Colman Dock and travel northwest across Elliott Bay and Puget Sound to Winslow , part of the city of Bainbridge Island . As of Spring 2013 , WSF operates the ferry on 24 weekday crossings and 22 weekend crossings , as a $ 8 @.@ 00 toll for adult passengers is charged with prepaid Wave2Go cards being accepted .
SR 305 leaves the ferry in Winslow on Bainbridge Island and travels north through the island 's interior , passing Bainbridge High School before turning northwest near Murden Cove . The highway travels over Agate Pass on the truss cantilever Agate Pass Bridge , listed on the National Register of Historic Places . SR 305 continues northwest along the coast of Liberty Bay , passing through Lemolo and entering Poulsbo to intersect the southern terminus of SR 307 . The highway continues northwest to end at a partial cloverleaf interchange with the SR 3 freeway north of the city .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that between 5 @,@ 300 and 27 @,@ 000 vehicles per day used the highway , mostly in Poulsbo . The Seattle – Winslow ferry was the busiest ferry in the Puget Sound , carrying 6 @.@ 119 million passengers and 1 @.@ 194 million vehicles in 2012 .
= = History = =
SR 305 was established during the 1964 highway renumbering as a replacement for SSH 21A , which traveled 13 @.@ 45 miles ( 21 @.@ 65 km ) between the Winslow ferry dock and Primary State Highway 21 ( PSH 21 ) northwest of Poulsbo . SSH 21A originally began at the Port Blakely ferry dock when it was codified in 1937 , but was moved north to Winslow in 1949 . The highway connected Bainbridge Island to the Kitsap Peninsula via a car ferry that began in the 1920s and was replaced by the 1 @,@ 229 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 375 m ) Agate Pass Bridge after it opened on October 2 , 1950 with a 35 @-@ cent toll . The bridge , which cost $ 1 @.@ 4 million , had its tolls removed in October 1951 after it was paid for by a bond issue passed by the Washington State Legislature . The highway was later straightened in segments in the late 1950s by the Department of Highways before becoming SR 305 and being re @-@ codified in 1970 . SR 305 was extended north to the newly built SR 3 freeway and east on the Seattle – Winslow Ferry to Seattle in 1994 . No major revisions to the highway have occurred since 1994 ; however , WSDOT widened SR 305 in 2009 within Poulsbo and installed high @-@ occupancy vehicle lanes ( HOV lanes ) for use during peak hours .
Regular boat service between Bainbridge Island and Seattle began with passenger and freight @-@ carrying steamboats . The Eagle Harbor Transportation Co. operated various steamers on the route , including the Bainbridge and Chippewa , until WSF was created in 1951 to manage most ferries in the Puget Sound . WSF operated the MV Tillikum and steam ferry San Mateo on the route , with the MV Illahee used on extra runs . The 2 @,@ 500 @-@ passenger and 160 @-@ car Super class MV ' Kaleetan and MV Elwha replaced the older ferries in 1968 . The Jumbo Mark II class MV Tacoma and MV Wenatchee were built and placed on the route in 1997 and 1998 respectively to serve growing traffic on the older ferries .
= = Major intersections = =
= Lo Mejor de ... Selena =
Lo Mejor de ... Selena ( English : The Best of ... Selena ) is a double disc compilation album by American singer Selena . It was released posthumously in the United States on March 31 , 2015 by EMI Latin and Universal Music Latin Entertainment . The album was released after the commercial and chart success of Enamorada de Ti ( 2012 ) , which featured several Latin music acts lending their voices for the remix album . The recording features six number one United States Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart singles by the singer — " Buenos Amigos " , " Donde Quiera Que Estés " , " Amor Prohibido " , " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , " No Me Queda Más " , " Fotos y Recuerdos " , and the U.S. Billboard Latin Pop Airplay chart single " I Could Fall in Love " .
The album debuted and peaked at number two on the U.S Billboard Top Latin Albums . A year after its release , the recording peaked at number one on the Latin Pop Albums chart , giving Selena her first number one album in four years . Lo Mejor de ... Selena also debuted and peaked at number 102 on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart , her highest charting album since 1999 's All My Hits / Todos Mis Exitos . The album has since been charting on the Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums chart ( for 65 weeks ) since its release consecutively , earning the singer the award for Top Latin Albums Artist of the Year , Female along with another nomination at the 2016 Billboard Latin Music Awards .
= = Background = =
In March 1995 , American Tejano music singer Selena was shot and killed by Yolanda Saldívar , her friend and former manager of the singer 's boutiques . The impact of the singer 's death had a negative impact on Latin music , her genre — which she catapulted it into the mainstream market — suffered and its popularity waned following Selena 's death . She continued to be the last remaining Tejano recording artist to appear on the United States Billboard 200 chart since 2000 . In the fall of 2011 , Chilean record producer Humberto Gatica and Capitol Latin senior vice president Sergio Lopes had the idea of turning Selena 's songs into duets in popular music genres . Mexican singers Cristian Castro , Samo , American singers Don Omar , Carlos Santana , Selena Gomez ( who was named after Selena ) , | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
and Spanish singer Juan Magan lent their voices for the duet / remix style album . The project — named Enamorada de Ti — was released in April 2012 and debuted and peaked at number one on the U.S. Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums chart . Lo Mejor de ... Selena followed the commercial success of Enamorada de Ti , released on the twentieth anniversary of Selena 's death . It was also made available for digital download and released as a double disc .
= = Songs = =
Lo Mejor de ... Selena contains six Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart number one singles by the singer — " Buenos Amigos " , " Donde Quiera Que Estés " , " Amor Prohibido " , " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , " No Me Queda Más " , " Fotos y Recuerdos " , and " I Could Fall in Love " — the latter of which peaked at number one on the Billboard Latin Pop Airplay chart . " Como la Flor " , Selena 's signature song , and " La Carcacha " are both originally on 1992 's Entre a Mi Mundo . " Como la Flor " launched her on the Latin music scene , according to journalists . The song was acclaimed by music critics and was credited as Selena 's first solo number one single in popular culture despite Billboard 's official record of the single peaking at number six . " No Debes Jugar " , the lead single from 1993 's Live ! , and " La Llamada " made the album cut . Sally Jacobs of the Boston Globe called " No Debes Jugar " one of " her cumbia signature songs " and " most popular cumbia song [ s ] " . " Si Una Vez " peaked at number four on the Regional Mexican Songs chart , while " El Chico del Apartamento 512 " failed to gain any chart success . " Techno Cumbia " peaked at number four on Billboard 's Latin charts .
The second disc of Lo Mejor de ... Selena contains ten English @-@ language tracks beginning with " My Love " — written by Selena in 1989 . The duet with David Byrne on " God 's Child ( Baila Conmigo ) " , the English version of " Donde Quiera Que Estes " called " Wherever You Are " , and " Dreaming of You " were originally on Selena 's posthumous planned crossover album Dreaming of You ( 1995 ) . The latter song became the singer 's highest charting Billboard Hot 100 single , peaking at number 22 on the chart . It also remains the best @-@ selling single of Selena 's musical career , selling over 250 @,@ 000 digital units . The contemporary R & B ballad " Missing My Baby " , the remix version of " My Love " called " Don 't Throw Away My Love " , and the movie soundtrack songs " Is It the Beat ? " and " Disco Medley " , were also added to the second disc of the album .
= = Commercial reception = =
Mexican newspaper El Diario de Yucatán called Lo Mejor de ... Selena an album " that is a recollection of the singer " . Terra Chile also called the album a way to " remember and honor the legacy of [ Selena ] " and said that her " departure still lives in the hearts of her fans . " The newspaper called the addition of " Disco Medley " on Lo Mejor de ... Selena as having a " new voice on [ the ] classics " of " I Will Survive " , " Funkytown " , and " On the Radio " .
The album debuted and peaked at number two on the U.S. Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums chart on the week ending on April 18 , 2015 . The set also debuted and peaked at number 102 on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart , becoming her fifteenth album to appear on the chart and her highest charting album since 1999 's All My Hits / Todos Mis Exitos . On the Top Latin Albums chart , Lo Mejor de ... Selena also became Selena 's fifteenth top 10 album on the chart , selling just over 2 @,@ 000 units in its first week of availability . Due to the anniversary of Selena 's death , her total albums sold 9 @,@ 000 units a 267 % increase from the previous week and her digital songs grew 167 % to 26 @,@ 000 copies sold on the same week . Seven of her songs charted simultaneously on the Latin Digital Songs chart , the most Selena had ever placed since Billboard began monitoring digital sales for Latin singles in 2010 . As of March 2016 , Lo Mejor de ... Selena continued to chart on the Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums chart for a total of 50 consecutive weeks . Lo Mejor de ... Selena finished 2015 as the fourteenth best @-@ selling Latin album and the eighth best @-@ selling Latin pop album . In Mexico , the album peaked at numbers 44 and 18 on the Mexican Albums chart and Mexican Spanish Albums chart , respectively . In the week ending April 23 , 2016 and following the twenty @-@ first anniversary of Selena 's death , Lo Mejor de ... Selena peaked at number one on the Latin Pop Albums chart . The album dethroned Juan Gabriel 's Los Dúo , Vol . 2 ( 2015 ) album , and was the first number one album by the singer in four years .
Selena has been posthumously nominated for two Billboard Latin Music Awards for Top Latin Albums Female Artist of the Year and Latin Pop Albums Solo Artist of the Year as a result of Lo Mejor de ... Selena 's chart success . After the 2016 Billboard Latin Music Awards nominations were announced , Spanish @-@ language channel Telemundo called Selena a " role model for Latinos " and that her " voice continues to echo and touch the hearts of audiences , regardless of gender . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Books = = =
Untiedt , Kenneth L. ( 2013 ) . Cowboys , Cops , Killers , and Ghosts : Legends and Lore in Texas . University of North Texas Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 57441 @-@ 532 @-@ 8 .
Shaw , Lisa ( 2005 ) . Pop Culture Latin America ! : Media , Arts , and Lifestyle . ABC @-@ CLIO . ISBN 1 @-@ 85109 @-@ 504 @-@ 7 .
Miguel , Guadalupe San ( 2002 ) . Tejano Proud : Tex @-@ Mex Music in the Twentieth Century . Texas A & M University Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 58544 @-@ 188 @-@ 0 .
= Hurricane Beta =
Hurricane Beta was a compact , but intense tropical cyclone that impacted the southwestern Caribbean Sea in late October 2005 . Beta was the twenty @-@ fourth tropical or subtropical storm , fourteenth hurricane , and seventh and final major hurricane of the record @-@ breaking 2005 Atlantic hurricane season . On October 21 , a developing tropical wave entered the eastern Caribbean Sea and spawned Tropical Storm Alpha the following day . As the wave entered the southwestern Caribbean , convection redeveloped and on October 26 , the system spawned another low pressure area which developed into Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ six . The depression intensified into a tropical storm the next morning and was named Beta . By the morning of October 28 , the storm intensified into a hurricane , the fourteenth of the season . Beta underwent rapid intensification for several hours to attain its peak intensity with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) on October 30 . The storm began to deteriorate before landfall , weakening to Category 2 status as it crossed the Nicaraguan coastline . Rapid weakening followed landfall , and the storm dissipated early the next morning .
Due to the storm 's proximity to Central America , several countries were placed on alert and began allocating supplies for a potential disaster . Several hurricane watches and warnings were raised for the small Colombian island of Providencia as well as the Nicaragua and Honduras coastlines . An estimated 150 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from dangerous regions in Nicaragua and more than 125 @,@ 000 more were evacuated in Honduras .
As a tropical storm , Beta produced heavy rains over northern Panama , amounting up to 3 inches ( 76 mm ) , which caused several mudslides as well as three fatalities . On October 29 , the storm passed over Providencia Island , caused significant damage to structures , and injured 30 people . In Honduras and Nicaragua , over 1 @,@ 000 structures were damaged by the storm , hundreds of which were destroyed . Ten people were initially feared dead after their boat went adrift during the storm . However , a Panamanian vessel rescued the men after drifting in the water for several hours . Rains in Honduras totaled to 21 @.@ 82 in ( 554 mm ) and 6 @.@ 39 in ( 162 mm ) in Nicaragua . Six people were killed in Nicaragua as a result of the storm and the cost to repair damages exceeded 300 million córdoba ( $ 14 @.@ 5 million USD ) . Overall , Beta was responsible for nine fatalities and more than $ 15 @.@ 5 million in damage across four countries .
= = Meteorological history = =
On October 21 , a westward @-@ moving tropical wave entered the Caribbean Sea . The wave quickly developed organized convection , indicating that a possible low pressure area had developed along the wave . Continued development led to the formation of Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Five ( which would later be named Alpha ) . The wave continued to move towards the west , producing minimal shower and thunderstorm activity . Once in the southwestern Caribbean , the wave slowed , and convection gradually redeveloped on October 25 . The next day , with continued organization , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) stated that a tropical depression could develop in the following day or two . At around 18 : 00 UTC , the NHC determined that Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Six had developed about 105 miles ( 170 km ) north of the central cost of Panama .
Located within an area of weak vertical wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures , the depression intensified . By 06 : 00 UTC the next morning , the depression was upgraded to a tropical storm and given the name Beta by the NHC . Beta was slowly moving towards the north @-@ northwest in response to a mid @-@ tropospheric shortwave trough over the Gulf of Mexico and mid @-@ tropospheric ridge to the northeast of the storm . Deep convection developed near the center of circulation , signifying a developing system . With favorable conditions for development , Beta was forecast to intensify into a hurricane before making landfall in central Nicaragua . An eyewall rapidly developed around the center of circulation , fuelling further intensification . With the formation of an eyewall and the compact size of the storm , rapid intensification was anticipated . By the end of October 27 , maximum sustained winds around the center of Beta were estimated at 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . An increase in wind shear caused a minor disruption of the storm 's structure , briefly preventing strengthening .
After maintaining its intensity for 30 hours , the shear weakened , and Beta began to intensify again . Around 00 : 00 UTC on October 29 , the storm passed near Providencia Island with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , just below hurricane @-@ status . At this time , the cyclone began to turn towards the west . Beta intensified into a hurricane several hours later , with winds of 80 mph ( 140 km / h ) , as an eye became pronounced on infrared satellite images . Located south of a weakness within the subtropical ridge , the hurricane 's motion slowed to a westward drift . With the formation of an eye , the chances of rapid intensification reached 62 % , and the storm could possibly become a major hurricane — a hurricane with winds of 111 mph ( 178 km / h ) or higher — before landfall . Beta continued to intensify as convection deepened around the 11 @.@ 5 mi ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) wide eye , strengthening into a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) .
After undergoing a brief period of rapid intensification from 18 : 00 UTC on October 29 – 06 : 00 UTC on October 30 , the hurricane reached its peak intensity as a Category 3 hurricane with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 962 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 42 inHg ) . The storm also began to turn towards the south @-@ southwest as it reached its peak intensity and its maximum size , with tropical storm @-@ force winds extending out 60 mi ( 95 km ) from the center . However , as it neared the coast , cloud tops around the eye began to warm , signifying weakening . Around 12 : 00 UTC on October 30 , Beta made landfall in central Nicaragua near La Barra del Rio Grande with winds of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) . After making landfall , the hurricane weakened to a tropical storm , with winds decreasing to 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , as the structure of the storm began to deteriorate . Early on October 31 , Beta weakened to a tropical depression and dissipated a few hours later over the mountains of central Nicaragua .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Panama , Costa Rica and El Salvador = = =
Although Panama and Costa Rica were not in the direct path of Hurricane Beta , storm warnings were issued for the two countries on October 27 as heavy rains , up to 20 in ( 508 mm ) , from the outer bands of Beta were possible . The Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs in Panama alerted officials in Nicaragua , Honduras , Costa Rica , El Salvador and Guatemala about the possible impacts from Beta . Civil defence officials in El Salvador declared a pre @-@ emptive alert due to the possibility of rain @-@ triggered mudslides from the outer bands of Beta .
= = = Colombia = = =
Early on the morning of October 27 the Colombian Government issued a tropical storm warning for the islands of San Andrés and Providencia . Hours later , a hurricane watch was issued . By late morning , both advisories were replaced by a hurricane warning . The island did not have much time to prepare for Hurricane Beta , being struck only three days after its formation . Of its 5 @,@ 000 residents all stayed to weather the storm but , about 300 of them evacuated wooden homes on the beach for sturdier brick shelters inland on the island 's mountains . The neighbouring island of San Andrés initiated a moratorium on all outdoor activities as the storm 's outer bands reached the island on October 29 . Officials evacuated about 700 people , 500 tourists and 200 residents on San Andrés to temporary shelters . The Colombian Government provided 8 tons ( 7 @.@ 2 tonnes ) of food and emergency supplies , including 1 @,@ 100 sheets , 300 hammocks , and 350 cooking kits to the island .
= = = Nicaragua = = =
Immediately upon the storm 's formation on October 26 , the Government of Nicaragua issued a tropical storm warning for its entire eastern coast . The next day the tropical storm warning was supplemented by a hurricane watch . On October 29 , Nicaraguan President Enrique Bolaños declared a maximum " red alert " for the country 's eastern coast . Despite the governments efforts , only 10 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from the Caribbean @-@ side coast and the majority secured themselves in their homes . However , the national army reported that 150 @,@ 000 people were evacuated prior to the storm 's arrival . The government pre @-@ positioned food , medicines , clothing , emergency supplies , and army rescue specialists in the most vulnerable areas to provide relief immediately after the storm passed . Classes were canceled in all of the country 's schools and businesses experienced surging demand for hurricane supplies .
In the city of Puerto Cabezas , population 60 @,@ 000 , meteorologists expected a direct hit . Local authorities announced a curfew to prevent looting . The government also cut off electricity throughout the small coastal city to prevent injuries . Evacuations were limited , and the most vulnerable of the population weathered the storm in poorly constructed shelters . To be able to respond to an emergency following Beta , the government of Nicaragua requested relief supplies for 41 @,@ 866 families which would last 15 days . These supplies consisted of 98 @,@ 000 lb ( 44 @,@ 452 kg ) of cereals , 628 @,@ 600 lb ( 285 @,@ 128 kg ) of beans , 628 @,@ 600 lb ( 285 @,@ 128 kg ) of corn , 125 @,@ 7200 lb ( 57 @,@ 025 kg ) of rice , 44 @,@ 500 lb ( 20 @,@ 184 kg ) of sugar , 171 @,@ 600 lb ( 77 @,@ 836 kg ) of salt , 4 @,@ 929 gal ( 18 @,@ 658 L ) of cooking oil , 324 @,@ 900 lb ( 147 @,@ 372 kg ) of milk and 21 @,@ 264 blankets .
= = = Honduras = = =
On October 29 , Honduras President Ricardo Maduro declared a State of National Emergency as Beta was forecast to bring heavy rains up to 12 in ( 300 mm ) . Three departments , Gracias a Dios , Colon , Olancho and El Paraiso , were placed under Red Alert and mandatory evacuations were put in place . The departments of Atlántida , Yoro , Comayagua , Francisco Morazán and Choluteca were placed under Yellow Alert and a Green Alert was in place for the rest of the country . The Local Emergency Management Agency opened its regional and municipal offices to conduct preparative activities . An emergency radio network was set up to alert the public of any emergencies . The government designated several public schools as shelters for the affected population . In the Francisco Morazán Department , the Tegucigalpa Municipal Emergency Committee opened 73 shelters . Extensive cleaning and garbage disposal was conducted , especially around creeks , rivers , and sewers . The National Armed Forces were placed in strategic areas and were on stand @-@ by for search and rescue operations once the storm passed . About 3 @,@ 306 tons ( 3 @,@ 000 tonnes ) of food was reported to be available and local travels in the country were suspended . In Tegucigalpa , the emergency committee called for the evacuation of 125 @,@ 000 people from the most vulnerable areas of the capital . About 8 @,@ 000 others were evacuated from 50 communities along the Nicaragua border due to the threat of flooding . A hurricane alert was put in place for areas north of the Nicaragua border but was cancelled on October 30 after Beta turned towards the southeast .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Beta was responsible for nine fatalities and roughly $ 15 @.@ 5 million ( 2005 USD ) in damage across four countries .
= = = Panama = = =
Heavy rains for the outer bands of Hurricane Beta , amounting up to 3 in ( 76 mm ) , caused flooding and landslides in Panama . At least 256 people were affected by the storm and 52 homes were damaged ; however , the cost of the damages is unknown . At least 50 hectares ( 124 acres ) of rice fields were flooded across the country . One person , a young girl , was killed after the boat she was on sank amid rough seas . Both her parents escaped the sinking ship . Two other people drowned after being swept away by the swollen Chagres River and two others were reported missing .
= = = Providencia Island = = =
Hurricane Beta reached Providencia Island , on October 29 , 2005 . Rainfall from the storm were estimated over 12 in ( 304 mm ) . Roofs were damaged all over the island , and the island 's main communications tower was knocked over . A total of 1 @,@ 660 homes were damaged by the storm throughout the island , leaving 1 @.@ 4 million Colombian peso ( 2005 COP ; $ 681 USD ) in repair costs . This disrupted fixed @-@ line telephone service and as the island has no cellular telephone service , it caused a total cessation of communication with the mainland . Beta 's arrival on the island was accompanied by a seven @-@ foot storm surge , which damaged beaches , coastal houses and roads , and washed out a tourist footbridge . Coral reefs around the island were , for the most part , untouched , as only 1 percent of the coral sustained minor damage . Minor effects were also found around areas of sea grass . Beaches all around the island lost an average of 9 @.@ 8 ft ( 3 m ) of sand due to erosion . Thirty people were injured and 913 families , a total of 3 @,@ 074 people , were affected during Hurricane Beta 's passage over the island .
= = = Nicaragua = = =
Heavy rains from Hurricane Beta , amounting up to 6 @.@ 39 in ( 162 mm ) , and strong winds caused extensive property damage in Nicaragua . Six people were confirmed to have been killed by Beta in Nicaragua , one of which was caused by a heart attack . It was initially feared that ten others , who were listed as missing , were killed when their vessel disappeared during the storm . But they were later rescued by a Panamanian vessel after drifting in the waters for several hours . Throughout the country , a total of 376 latrines , 215 homes , two schools , two community children centres , two community water tanks and five solar panels were destroyed . An additional 852 homes , 21 schools , and three health centres were damaged . The cost to repair damages caused by the hurricane were estimated at $ 2 @.@ 1 million ( 2006 USD ) . A total of 2 @,@ 668 people were left homeless as a result of the storm .
Two communities of Miskitos , with a total population of 3 @,@ 200 , were isolated during the storm . Nearly 80 percent of the homes in four communities along the Caribbean coast near Bluefields were destroyed by the storm . The strong winds from Beta levelled 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 900 km2 ) of forested land . Agricultural damage from the storm in Nicaragua amounted to 67 million córdoba ( $ 4 million USD ) . Structural damage amounted to 35 million córdoba ( $ 1 @.@ 6 million USD ) . Damage to roadways throughout the country left over 20 million córdoba ( $ 979 @,@ 000 USD ) in damages . Offshore , the damage to algae , mangroves , and other aquatic life was severe . Hundreds of dead fish washed up along the coastline in the days following Beta .
= = = Honduras = = =
Torrential rains , peaking at 21 @.@ 82 in ( 554 mm ) , caused numerous mudslides which isolated several communities . Widespread damage occurred to structures , with numerous roofs being torn off . Signs , trees , power poles , and telephone poles were knocked down due to the wind . Four rivers overflowed and communications were disrupted across areas near the Nicaragua border . An estimated 60 @,@ 483 people were affected by the storm in the country . A total of 954 homes and 11 bridges were destroyed while another 237 homes , 30 roads , 30 bridges and 66 drinking water systems were damaged . A total of 7 @,@ 692 @.@ 1 acres ( 3 @,@ 112 @.@ 9 ha ) of farmland was destroyed . At least 11 @,@ 000 people were left stranded by the storm . Throughout the country , damage was estimated at 170 million lempira ( $ 9 million USD ) .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Colombia = = =
On Providencia Island , two teams of aid personnel , consisting of a total of 800 people , from National Intervention Teams were mobilized in response to Beta . The Colombian Red Cross Society and the National Disaster Response and Preparedness System ( SNPAD ) provided assistance to 600 families with non @-@ food relief , pre @-@ hospital care , first aid , temporary shelter and psychosocial support , and carried out a preventative health campaign on the island . On October 29 , Diego Palacio , the Minister of Social Protection , flew to Providencia to assess the damage caused by Beta . A frigate was also deployed to the island , carrying two tons of relief items along with 130 search and rescue workers . Reconstruction on the island took place shortly after the storm dissipated and 60 percent of the structures were repaired by January 20 , 2006 . The completion date for repairs was set at the third week of February .
= = = Nicaragua = = =
The SNPAD in Nicaragua distributed food to 1 @,@ 500 victims and reported that food was needed for an additional 35 @,@ 000 people . Roughly 300 million córdoba was required to repair roadways throughout the affected region . On November 1 , the government of Nicaragua announced that it would assist in the reconstruction and repair of 334 for the Miskito Indians . By November 7 , airlifts from Managua were able to bring roughly 60 tons ( 54 tonnes ) of supplies to natives living along the Coco River . Additionally , plans for a four @-@ month operation to supply the Miskito Indians with food were implemented . In attempts to lessen the effects of disease and famine , 5 @,@ 000 tons ( 4 @,@ 536 tonnes ) of food was planned to be distributed in the region during this time .
Ahead of Hurricane Beta , the U.S. ambassador to Nicaragua signed a disaster declaration on October 28 , prompting the United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) and Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance ( OFDA ) to send aid . Before the storm hit , $ 200 @,@ 000 was sent to the country for emergency relief supply distribution and helicopter fuel . On November 1 , USAID and OFDA airlifted 200 rolls of plastic sheeting , 5 @,@ 020 ten @-@ litre water containers , and 2 @,@ 736 hygiene kits , valued at $ 120 @,@ 877 . Another $ 22 @,@ 000 was used to supply an aircraft and Bell 204 / 205 helicopter to assist affected areas . On November 10 , another $ 100 @,@ 000 was sent for sanitation and health activities . The United Nations sent $ 10 @,@ 000 to the South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region to cover emergency needs . Forty @-@ five tents were sent to communities in need . The Spanish Government also sent $ 377 @,@ 188 in aid and to Nicaragua .
The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement sent 300 food packages , 300 kitchen kits , 200 mattresses , 300 hygiene kits , 150 hammocks , plastic sheeting , and 26 @.@ 4 tons ( 24 tonnes ) of construction materials and tools to Nicaragua . As a precaution , about 2 @.@ 2 tons ( 2 tonnes ) of food was also sent to the National Society ’ s warehouse in Bogotá . A total of $ 116 @,@ 367 was also allocated from disaster relief funds . The Justice , Global & Ecumenical Relations Unit in Canada also provided $ 6 @,@ 500 in relief funds to Nicaragua . Two shipments of relief supplies were sent to the hardest hit areas by Direct Relief International . The first shipment arrived on November 9 ; it contained 3 @,@ 000 lbs ( 1 @,@ 360 kg ) of antibiotics valued at $ 237 @,@ 241 . The second shipment arrived on November 22 ; it contained numerous supplies , valued at $ 139 @,@ 283 , which would be delivered to the hardest hit areas . The governments of Sweden and France sent $ 37 @,@ 191 and $ 36 @,@ 058 in funds respectively .
= = = Honduras = = =
On October 31 , a disaster declaration was signed for Honduras due to the effects from Beta . USAID sent $ 50 @,@ 000 in funds for the purchase of relief items such as blankets , foam mattresses , and hygiene kits . Two Fokker F27 aircraft were also supplied to help assist the transportation of relief supplies at a cost of $ 40 @,@ 000 . The United States Department of Defense sent military personnel to the affected areas from November 4 – 8 . During that time , more than 155 @,@ 000 lb ( 70 @,@ 306 kg ) of relief supplies were airlifted to the affected communities . The United States embassy in Honduras also provided a C @-@ 12 Huron aircraft to transport 3 @,@ 000 lb ( 1 @,@ 360 kg ) to Puerto Lempira . A total of $ 500 @,@ 000 was sent in the form of relief supplies and transport to Honduras from USAID . The Spanish Government offered a C @-@ 130 Hercules containing emergency supplies to Honduras . The World Food Programme pre @-@ positioned 509 tons ( 461 @.@ 7 tonnes ) of food to be used in temporary shelters and recovery activities . The government of Great Britain offered humanitarian assistance , consisting of 1 @,@ 500 plastic bags , 1 @,@ 800 jerrycans , one helicopter , five boats , 250 military personnel , and five medical assistants .
= = Naming and records = =
When Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ six was upgraded to Tropical Storm Beta , it was the first time that the second letter of the Greek alphabet was used for a tropical cyclone . Upon being named , it was the first time that an Atlantic hurricane season had produced 24 tropical or subtropical cyclones . Operationally , Beta was the record @-@ breaking 13th hurricane , surpassing the 12 hurricanes produced in 1969 . In the post @-@ season analysis by the National Hurricane Center , Tropical Storm Cindy was upgraded to a hurricane , thus making Beta the 14th hurricane of 2005 . Due to the relatively low impact caused by Beta , the name was not retired by the World Meteorological Organization in the spring of 2006 and remains on the auxiliary list of names in the event that another Atlantic hurricane season produces more than 21 storms .
= Germanus of Winchester =
Germanus ( sometimes Germanus of Winchester , died circa 1013 ) was a medieval English abbot and Benedictine monk . He travelled to Rome in about 957 and became a monk at Fleury Abbey in France . Back in England by 964 he served as a monastic official before being named abbot of Winchcombe Abbey in about 970 , a position he was removed from in 975 . Germanus may have become abbot of Cholsey Abbey in 992 .
= = Early career = =
Although Germanus 's name is not Anglo @-@ Saxon , Byrhtferth , a contemporary who wrote the Vita Oswaldi , which contains much information on Germanus , states that he was a native of Winchester . Germanus accompanied Oscytel , the Archbishop of York , and Oswald of Worcester , on their trip to Rome in about 957 , purportedly to collect Oscytel 's pallium , the symbol of an archbishop 's authority . This journey , however , has been challenged by the historian Donald Bullough , who argues that no previous archbishops of York had collected their palliums in person . He also points out that this story is only related in the Chronicon Abbatiae Rameseiensis , the chronicle of the abbey of Ramsey . According to the Ramsey story , Oscytel and Oswald returned to England , but Germanus remained on the continent and became a monk at Fleury Abbey in France . Another story has Oswald journeying to Fleury on his own , with Germanus arriving at Fleury after Oswald had been resident at Fleury for a number of years prior to 958 .
= = Return to England = =
In 963 or 964 Germanus was recalled to England by Oswald , who had recently founded a small monastic priory at Westbury @-@ on @-@ Trym . Germanus was named prior of that community and helped with teaching the novice monks . He was also prior of Ramsey Abbey , or perhaps dean , before becoming abbot of Winchcombe Abbey in about 970 . Ramsey was founded by moving the monks of Westbury to Ramsey , but Germanus was not named abbot of Ramsey when this move was completed , being named abbot of Winchcombe instead . The reasons for this transfer are unrecorded . He was the first abbot of Winchcombe , but was removed from office in 975 , as a result of political instability following the death of King Edgar of England in 975 , when the monks at Winchcombe were exiled to Ramsey . The Chronicon Abbatiae Rameseiensis states that he became abbot of Cholsey Abbey in 992 , and the Vita Oswaldi concurs with this statement . The Vita relates that when Oswald and the lay patron of Ramsey were near to death in 992 they urged the monks to elect Germanus as the next abbot of Ramsey when that office might become vacant . Instead , the monks elected another monk , and the Vita states that King Æthelred II of England appointed Germanus to Cholsey instead . Some historians have challenged Germanus ' appointment to Cholsey , owing to the extreme length of ecclesiastical career this would necessitate .
= = Later life and legacy = =
Germanus took part in the translation , or moving , of the relics of St Ivo to Ramsey in 1001 or the following year . He and Eadnoth , the abbot of Ramsey , carried the remains of the saint and his recently discovered companions from where they were found to Ramsey .
The " Ramsey Psalter " or " Psalter of Oswald " , sometimes known as the " Harley Psalter " , ( now British Library manuscript ( MS ) Harley 2904 ) and the " Cambridge Psalter " ( now Cambridge University Library MS Ff.1.23 ) as well as the " Sacramentary of Winchcombe " ( now in Orleans , MS BM 127 ( 105 ) ) have been connected with his abbacy .
Germanus died some time around 1013 . The Vita Oswaldi describes him as an expert in monastic affairs ; a forged charter later described him as abbot of Fleury , although he never held that office .
= Crawford expedition =
The Crawford expedition , also known as the Sandusky expedition and Crawford 's Defeat , was a 1782 campaign on the western front of the American Revolutionary War , and one of the final operations of the conflict . Led by Colonel William Crawford , the campaign 's goal was to destroy enemy American Indian towns along the Sandusky River in the Ohio Country , with the hope of ending Indian attacks on American settlers . The expedition was one in a long series of raids against enemy settlements which both sides had conducted throughout the war .
Crawford led about 500 volunteer militiamen , mostly from Pennsylvania , deep into American Indian territory , with the intention of surprising the Indians . The Indians and their British allies from Detroit had already learned of the expedition , however , and gathered a force to oppose the Americans . After a day of indecisive fighting near the Sandusky towns , the Americans found themselves surrounded and attempted to retreat . The retreat turned into a rout , but most of the Americans managed to find their way back to Pennsylvania . About 70 Americans were killed ; Indian and British losses were minimal .
During the retreat , Crawford and an unknown number of his men were captured . The Indians executed many of these captives in retaliation for the Gnadenhutten massacre that occurred earlier in the year , in which about 100 peaceful Indians were murdered by Pennsylvanian militiamen . Crawford 's execution was particularly brutal : he was tortured for at least two hours before being burned at the stake . His execution was widely publicized in the United States , worsening the already @-@ strained relationship between Native Americans and European Americans .
= = Background = =
When the American Revolutionary War began in 1775 , the Ohio River marked a tenuous border between the American colonies and the American Indians of the Ohio Country . Ohio Indians — Shawnees , Mingos , Delawares , and Wyandots — were divided over how to respond to the war . Some Indian leaders urged neutrality , while others entered the war because they saw it as an opportunity to halt the expansion of the American colonies and to regain lands previously lost to the colonists .
The border war escalated in 1777 after British officials in Detroit began recruiting and arming Indian war parties to raid the frontier American settlements . An unknown number of American settlers in present Kentucky , West Virginia , and Pennsylvania were killed during these raids . The intensity of the conflict increased in November 1777 , after enraged American militiamen murdered Cornstalk , the leading advocate of Shawnee neutrality . Despite the violence , many Ohio Indians still hoped to stay out of the war , which proved difficult because they were located directly between the British in Detroit and the Americans along the Ohio River .
In February 1778 , the Americans launched their first expedition into the Ohio Country in an attempt to neutralize British activity in the region . General Edward Hand led 500 Pennsylvania militiamen on a surprise winter march from Fort Pitt towards the Cuyahoga River , where the British stored military supplies which were distributed to Indian raiding parties . However , adverse weather conditions prevented the expedition from reaching its objective . On the return march , some of Hand 's men attacked peaceful Delaware Indians , killing one man and a few women and children , including relatives of the Delaware chief Captain Pipe . Because only non @-@ combatants had been killed , the expedition became derisively known as the " squaw campaign " .
Despite the attack on his family , Captain Pipe said that he would not seek vengeance . Instead , in September 1778 , he was one of the signers of the Treaty of Fort Pitt between the Delawares and the United States . Americans hoped this agreement with the Delawares would enable American soldiers to pass through Delaware territory and attack Detroit , but the alliance deteriorated after the death of White Eyes , the Delaware chief who had negotiated the treaty . Eventually , Captain Pipe turned against the Americans and moved his followers west to the Sandusky River , where he received support from the British in Detroit .
Over the next several years , Americans and Indians launched raids against each other , usually targeting settlements . In 1780 , hundreds of Kentucky settlers were killed or captured in a British @-@ Indian expedition into Kentucky . George Rogers Clark of Virginia responded in August 1780 by leading an expedition that destroyed two Shawnee towns along the Mad River , but did little damage to the Indian war effort . As most of the Delawares had by then become pro @-@ British , American Colonel Daniel Brodhead led an expedition into the Ohio Country in April 1781 , and destroyed the Delaware town of Coshocton . Clark then recruited men for an expedition against Detroit in the summer of 1781 , but Indians decisively defeated one hundred of his volunteers along the Ohio River , effectively ending his campaign . Survivors fled to the militant towns on the Sandusky River .
Several villages of Christian Delawares lay between the combatants on the Sandusky River and the Americans at Fort Pitt . The villages were administered by the Moravian missionaries David Zeisberger and John Heckewelder . Although pacifists , the missionaries favored the American cause and kept American officials at Fort Pitt informed about hostile British and Indian activity . In September 1781 , to prevent further communication between the missionaries and the American military , hostile Wyandots and Delawares from Sandusky forcibly removed the missionaries and their converts to a new village ( Captive Town ) on the Sandusky River .
In March 1782 , 160 Pennsylvania militiamen under Lieutenant Colonel David Williamson rode into the Ohio Country , hoping to find the warriors who were responsible for raids against Pennsylvania settlers . Enraged by the gruesome murder by Indians of a white woman and her baby , Williamson 's men detained about 100 Christian Delawares at the village of Gnadenhütten . The Christian Delawares ( mostly women and children ) had returned to Gnadenhütten from Captive Town in order to harvest the crops they had been forced to leave behind . Accusing the Christian Indians of having aided hostile raiding parties , the Pennsylvanians murdered them all by hammer blows to the head . The Gnadenhutten massacre , as it came to be called , would have serious repercussions for the next American expedition into the Ohio Country .
= = Planning the expedition = =
In September 1781 , General William Irvine was appointed commander of the Western Department of the Continental Army , which was headquartered at Fort Pitt . Although a major British army under Lord Cornwallis had surrendered | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
) , some on foot , before making camp . The next day , two American stragglers were captured and presumably killed before the Indians and rangers finally abandoned the chase . The main body of Americans reached Mingo Bottom on June 13 . Many stragglers arrived in small groups for several days more . In all , about 70 Americans never returned from the expedition .
= = Fates of the captives = =
While Williamson and Rose were retreating with the main body of men , Crawford , Knight , and four other stragglers were traveling south along the Sandusky River in present @-@ day Crawford County , Ohio . On June 7 , they came upon a party of Delawares about 28 miles ( 45 km ) east of the battlefield . Knight raised his gun , but Crawford told him not to fire . Crawford and Knight knew some of these Delawares , who were part of a band led by a war chief named Wingenund . Crawford and Knight were taken prisoner , but the other four Americans escaped . Two of them were later tracked down , killed , and scalped .
Captives taken by American Indians during the American Revolution might be ransomed by the British in Detroit , adopted into the tribe , enslaved , or simply killed . However , after the Gnadenhütten massacre , the Ohio Indians had resolved to kill all American prisoners who fell into their hands . The number of Americans executed after the Sandusky expedition is unknown , since their fate was usually recorded only if one of the prisoners survived to tell .
While some were executed quickly , others were tortured before being killed . The public torture of prisoners was a traditional ritual in many tribes of the Eastern Woodlands . Captives might have to endure excruciating torture for hours and even days . The British Indian Department used its influence to discourage the killing and torturing of prisoners , with some success , but in 1782 the Indians revived the practice of ritual torture in order to exact revenge for the slaughter at Gnadenhütten .
= = = Crawford 's execution = = =
Crawford and Knight were taken to Wingenund 's camp on June 7 , where they found nine other prisoners . On June 11 , Captain Pipe painted the faces of the prisoners black , the traditional sign they were to be executed . The prisoners were marched to the Delaware town on Tymochtee Creek , near the present @-@ day village of Crawford , Ohio . Four prisoners were killed with tomahawks and scalped along the way . When the war party stopped , the seven remaining prisoners were made to sit , with Crawford and Knight a short distance away from the others . Delaware women and boys killed the other five with tomahawks , beheading one of them . The boys scalped the victims and slapped the bloody scalps in the faces of Crawford and Knight .
About one hundred men , women , and children had gathered at the Delaware village to witness the execution of the American leader . Dunquat and a few Wyandots were present , as well as Simon Girty and Matthew Elliott . Captain Pipe , who knew Crawford from the 1778 Fort Pitt treaty , spoke to the crowd , pointing out that Crawford had been captured while leading many of the men who had committed the Gnadenhütten murders . Crawford had nothing to do with the massacre , but he had taken part in the " squaw campaign " in which several of Pipe 's family members had been killed . Pipe apparently mentioned this as well .
After Pipe 's speech , Crawford was stripped naked and beaten . His hands were tied behind his back , and a rope was tied from his hands to a post in the ground . A large fire was lit about six or seven yards ( 6 m ) from the pole . Indian men shot charges of gunpowder into Crawford 's body , then cut off his ears . Crawford was poked with burning pieces of wood from the fire , and hot coals were thrown at him , which he was compelled to walk on . Crawford begged Girty to shoot him , but Girty was unwilling or afraid to intervene . After about two hours of torture , Crawford fell down unconscious . He was scalped , and a woman poured hot coals over his head , which revived him . He began to walk about insensibly as the torture continued . After he finally died , his body was burned .
The next day , Knight was marched towards the Shawnee towns , where he was to be executed . Along the way , he struck his guard with a log and managed to escape . He successfully made his way back to Pennsylvania on foot . By the time hunters found him on July 4 , he was in poor health and barely coherent . They carried him to Fort McIntosh .
= = = Wapatomica executions = = =
On the same day that Crawford was executed , at least six American prisoners were taken in two different groups to the Shawnee town of Wapatomica on the Mad River , in present Logan County , Ohio . These prisoners included Major John B. McClelland , who had been fourth in command of the expedition , as well as William Harrison ( Crawford 's son @-@ in @-@ law ) and Private William Crawford ( Colonel Crawford 's nephew ) . Four of the six , including McClelland , Harrison , and Crawford , were painted black . The villagers , made aware of the coming of prisoners by a messenger , formed two lines . The prisoners were made to run the gauntlet towards the council house , about 300 yards ( 270 m ) distance . As the prisoners ran by , the villagers beat them with clubs , concentrating on those who had been painted black . The blackened prisoners were then hacked to death with tomahawks and cut into pieces . Their heads and limbs were stuck on poles outside the town . One of the prisoners , a scout named John Slover , was taken to Mac @-@ a @-@ chack ( near present West Liberty , Ohio ) , but escaped before he could be burnt . Still naked , he stole a horse and rode it until it gave out , then ran on foot , reaching Fort Pitt on July 10 , one of the last survivors to return .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Final year of the war = = =
The failure of the Crawford expedition caused alarm along the American frontier , as many Americans feared that the Indians would be emboldened enough and launch a new series of raids . More defeats for the Americans were yet to come , and so for Americans west of the Appalachian Mountains , 1782 became known as the " Bloody Year " . On 13 July 1782 , the Mingo leader Guyasuta led about 100 Indians and several British volunteers into Pennsylvania , destroying Hannastown , killing nine and capturing twelve settlers . It was the hardest blow dealt by Indians in Western Pennsylvania during the war .
In Kentucky , the Americans went on the defensive while Caldwell and his Indian allies prepared a major offensive . In July 1782 , more than 1 @,@ 000 Indians gathered at Wapatomica , but the expedition came to a halt after scouts reported that George Rogers Clark was preparing to invade the Ohio Country from Kentucky . Most of the Indians dispersed after learning that the reports of imminent invasion were false , but Caldwell led 300 Indians into Kentucky and delivered a devastating blow at the Battle of Blue Licks in August . After his victory at Blue Licks , Caldwell was ordered to cease operations because the United States and Great Britain were about to make peace . Although General Irvine had finally gotten permission to lead his own expedition into the Ohio Country , rumors of the peace treaty killed enthusiasm for the undertaking , which never took place . In November , George Rogers Clark delivered the final blow in the Ohio Country , destroying several Shawnee towns , but inflicting little damage on the inhabitants .
Details of the forthcoming peace treaty arrived late in 1782 . The Ohio Country , the land that the British and Indians had successfully defended , had been signed away by Great Britain to the United States . The British had not consulted the Indians in the peace process , and the Indians were nowhere mentioned in the treaty 's terms . For the Indians , the struggle with American settlers would resume in the Northwest Indian War , though this time without the assistance of their British allies .
= = = Impact of Crawford 's death = = =
Crawford 's death was widely publicized in the United States . A ballad about the expedition , titled " Crawford 's Defeat by the Indians " , became popular and was long remembered . In 1783 , John Knight 's eyewitness account of Crawford 's torture was published . The editor of Knight 's narrative , Hugh Henry Brackenridge , deleted all mention of Crawford 's trial and the fact that Crawford was executed in retaliation for the Gnadenhütten massacre . By suppressing the Indians ' motivation , Brackenridge was able , according to historian Parker Brown , to create " a piece of virulent anti @-@ Indian , anti @-@ British propaganda calculated to arouse public attention and patriotism . " In an introduction , Brackenridge 's publisher made clear why the narrative was being published :
But as they [ the Indians ] still continue their murders on our frontier , these Narratives may be serviceable to induce our government to take some effectual steps to chastise and suppress them ; as from hence , they will see that the nature of an Indian is fierce and cruel , and that an extirpation of them would be useful to the world , and honorable to those who can effect it .
As intended , Knight 's narrative increased racial antipathy towards Native Americans , and was often republished over the next 80 years , especially whenever violent encounters between white Americans and Indians was in the news . Although American frontiersmen had often killed Indian prisoners , most Americans regarded Indian culture as barbaric because of the use of torture , and Crawford 's death greatly reinforced this perception of Indians as " savages " . In the American national memory , the details of Crawford 's torture overshadowed American atrocities such as the Gnadenhütten massacre . The image of the savage Indian became a stereotype ; the peacekeeping efforts of men like Cornstalk and White Eyes were all but forgotten .
= Chris Holroyd =
Christopher " Chris " Holroyd ( born 24 October 1986 ) is an English professional footballer who plays as a striker for National League club Macclesfield Town . Holroyd started his football career at Crewe Alexandra , progressing through the club 's youth system . He subsequently joined Chester City for the third year of his scholarship , and signed professional terms in 2006 . In July 2008 , Holroyd left Chester by mutual agreement with a year remaining on his contract .
A month later , in August 2008 , Holroyd signed for Conference National side Cambridge United , scoring ten goals in his first season with the club . The following season , Holroyd 's goalscoring form which saw him score 18 goals during the first half of the 2009 – 10 campaign , culminated into a move to League One side Brighton & Hove Albion for an undisclosed fee in January 2010 . In September 2010 , Holroyd joined Stevenage on a three @-@ month loan deal . He was loaned out again in March 2011 to Bury , playing a handful of games . At the end of the 2010 – 11 season , Holroyd was released by Brighton , and was subsequently signed by Rotherham United in June 2011 . He joined League One side Preston North End for an undisclosed fee in January 2012 . In September 2012 , Holroyd joined Macclesfield Town on loan until January 2013 . On returning to his parent club , his contract was cancelled by mutual consent . He signed for Morecambe of League Two on a free transfer in January 2013 , and rejoined Macclesfield at the end of the season .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Holroyd began his career at Crewe Alexandra , spending five years at the club as a schoolboy , as well as a further two years as a scholar at the club 's " highly rated youth academy " . Holroyd left Crewe after he was not offered a professional contract entering his third year of scholarship and joined Chester City , signing professional terms in 2006 after scoring 21 goals in 28 stats for Chester 's youth team in the Football League Youth Alliance . He made his first @-@ team debut for Chester at the start of the 2006 – 07 season , coming on as a 75th @-@ minute substitute in Chester 's 2 – 1 home defeat to Wrexham . The following season , Holroyd scored his first goal for Chester in a competitive match in October 2007 , scoring a consolation goal in a 4 – 2 Football League Trophy defeat at Carlisle United . His first Football League goal followed later in the month in Chester 's 2 – 2 draw with Wycombe Wanderers , scoring from eight yards to restore parity in the match . Holroyd scored his second goal of the season in a 5 – 3 defeat at Morecambe , as well as twice in a 3 – 3 draw at Accrington Stanley . He also made a further two assists towards the latter stages of the 2007 – 08 campaign in victories against Mansfield Town and Darlington respectively . Holroyd played 26 games in all competitions for Chester during the season , scoring five times . In July 2008 , he was transfer @-@ listed by the club in an attempt to reduce the size of their squad . A day after being transfer @-@ listed , Holroyd left Chester by mutual agreement with a year remaining on his contract , while being linked with a transfer to other clubs . During his time without a club , Holroyd rejected the option of trialling with A.F.C. Bournemouth .
= = = Cambridge United = = =
A month later , Holroyd signed for Conference National side Cambridge United on a one @-@ year contract , with the option of a further year . Holroyd made his debut for Cambridge in the club 's 3 – 0 away win at Eastbourne Borough , coming on as a 79th @-@ minute substitute and scoring five minutes later to give Cambridge a three @-@ goal lead . After scoring on his debut , Holroyd went sixteen games without scoring , ending his goal drought in a 4 – 0 victory over Salisbury City in December 2008 . In February 2009 , Holroyd scored in successive away victories for Cambridge , scoring from the penalty spot against Rushden & Diamonds , before scoring twice away at Kidderminster Harriers . A month later , he scored three goals within the space of three days , scoring two second @-@ half goals in Cambridge 's 2 – 0 win at Barrow , as well as netting against Northwich Victoria . Holroyd scored his ninth goal of the season from the penalty spot as Cambridge came from a goal behind to beat Eastbourne Borough 2 – 1 . Two days later , he scored once more , again from the penalty spot , this time away at Kettering Town . Holroyd also featured in all three of Cambridge 's play @-@ off games , coming on as an 80th @-@ minute substitute in Cambridge 's 2 – 0 loss in the final to Torquay United . He played a total of 43 times for Cambridge during the campaign , scoring ten goals . In May 2009 , Cambridge United exercised the option to extend the contract of Holroyd for the following season .
Ahead of the 2009 – 10 season , Holroyd was assigned the number nine shirt following the departure of fellow striker Scott Rendell . He started the club 's first match of the season , playing the whole game in a 2 – 0 home defeat to Barrow . Three days later , he scored twice in Cambridge 's 3 – 1 win against Ebbsfleet United , scoring both goals . Holroyd scored his first professional hat @-@ trick four days later , scoring against his former employers , Chester City , as Cambridge came from two goals down to win the match 4 – 2 . One of his goals included an audacious over head kick , 15 yards from goal . Holroyd scored four goals in two games shortly after , netting against Gateshead and Forest Green Rovers respectively . He scored a further two goals in Cambridge 's 4 – 3 home loss to Luton Town in September 2009 , taking his goal tally to eleven for the season . His twelfth goal of the season came against Cambridge 's local rivals , Histon , Holroyd netting with just nine minutes remaining in a 1 – 1 draw . A week later , he scored from the penalty spot in Cambridge 's 4 – 0 win against Ebbsfleet United . His fine goalscoring form continued into November 2009 , scoring in victories against Kidderminster Harriers and Ilkeston Town respectively . After his goal against Ilkeston Town , Holroyd did not find the net until the end of December 2009 , scoring just before half @-@ time for Cambridge as they lost 2 – 1 at Mansfield Town . A week later , Cambridge United assistant manager , Paul Carden , said that he expected Holroyd to leave the club in the January transfer window . He subsequently played his last game for the club in Cambridge 's 1 – 0 home defeat to Eastbourne Borough . During the first half of the 2009 – 10 season , Holroyd scored 15 goals in 25 games for Cambridge .
= = = Brighton & Hove Albion = = =
Holroyd joined League One team Brighton & Hove Albion on 29 January 2010 . An undisclosed fee was agreed between Cambridge United and Brighton on 22 January , but the transfer was not finalised until a week later due to negotiations over personal terms between player and club . The intervening period led to much speculation that the deal had collapsed . Holroyd made his Brighton debut just a day after signing , which came as a surprise , coming on as a 64th @-@ minute substitute in a 1 – 0 defeat to Millwall . Holroyd featured a total of 13 times during the latter stages of the club 's 2009 – 10 campaign , failing to score . The following season , Holroyd found first @-@ team opportunities hard to come by , featuring just twice in games against Northampton Town and Walsall . He slipped further down the pecking order following Francisco Sandaza 's arrival at the club . Brighton manager Gus Poyet said that Holroyd " needs to play in a different environment to try and re @-@ establish himself " , as well as saying " he needs to play regularly " . In May 2011 the club announced that he would be released at the end of the season following the ending of his current contract , along with five other players .
= = = = Stevenage and Bury loans = = = =
Holroyd signed for League Two side Stevenage on a three @-@ month loan deal in September 2010 . He made his debut the next day , scoring the only goal of the game in the club 's 1 – 0 win over Lincoln City at Sincil Bank . Three days later , Holroyd scored a hat @-@ trick in Stevenage 's 4 – 1 victory against Hereford United , taking his tally up to four goals in two games . Stevenage manager Graham Westley said " He 's lethal , we knew that before he came to the club . He 's been very impressive in his two games so far , his work ethic is excellent and he is a constant menace for opposition defences " . Holroyd scored his fifth goal for Stevenage in the club 's 2 – 1 home win against Burton Albion , turning sharply in the box to restore Stevenage 's lead in the second @-@ half . Earlier on in the same game , he missed a penalty after originally being fouled in the area . Holroyd scored his sixth goal for Stevenage in a 1 – 1 draw against Shrewsbury Town . Due to a host of postponements , Holroyd 's final game for the club was a 1 – 0 home loss to Northampton Town on 11 December , and he returned to his parent club on Boxing Day . During his three @-@ month loan spell , Holroyd scored six goals in twelve games .
In March 2011 , after making three substitute appearances for Brighton , Holroyd was loaned out to another League Two side in the form of Bury . His loan spell ran until the end of the 2010 – 11 season . Holroyd made his debut a day after signing for the club , coming on as a 69th @-@ minute substitute in a 0 – 0 draw at Rotherham United . Three days later , Holroyd scored in a 2 – 1 home loss to Torquay United . Brighton opted to recall Holroyd on 11 April 2011 . He made four appearances for Bury during his loan spell , scoring one goal .
= = = Rotherham United = = =
After being released by Brighton , Holroyd signed for League Two side Rotherham United on 20 June 2011 . He joined the club on a free transfer , signing a two @-@ year contract . Holroyd made his Rotherham debut in the club 's 1 – 0 home win against Oxford United on 6 August 2011 , playing 72 minutes of the match . He scored his first goal for Rotherham in a 2 – 0 home victory against Aldershot Town in November 2011 , scoring a glancing header to double Rotherham 's advantage on their way to recording their first victory in ten games . It was to be Holroyd 's only goal for the club , making a total of 19 appearances in the first half of the 2011 – 12 campaign , of which only six were starting appearances even though Holroyd was the club 's top scorer in pre @-@ season games .
= = = Preston North End = = =
Holroyd joined League One club Preston North End for an undisclosed fee on 20 January 2012 . The move meant that Holroyd was again playing under the management of Graham Westley , who had signed him on loan during his time at Stevenage . He made his debut a day later playing in a new position on the right wing and winning the man of the match award in a 2 – 0 home defeat to Leyton Orient . Holroyd scored his first goal for Preston on 21 April 2012 , heading in a Danny Mayor cross at the back post in a 1 – 1 draw away at Oldham Athletic . In total , Holroyd made 20 appearances for Preston , where he was played mostly as a traditional right winger .
In August 2012 , Holroyd joined his hometown club , Conference National side Macclesfield Town , on loan until January 2013 . He made a scoring debut for the club , coming off the bench to score with his first touch in a 3 – 2 win against Lincoln City . In the fourth appearance of his loan spell , Holroyd scored a hat @-@ trick as Macclesfield defeated Stockport County 4 – 3 at Edgeley Park . Holroyd scored his fifth goal for Macclesfield in a 2 – 2 away draw with Gateshead , coming on as a substitute and equalising late @-@ on . He went on to score nine times in 23 appearances during the five @-@ month loan spell , including two goals in a 4 – 1 FA Cup victory over Barrow that ensured Macclesfield progressed to the third round of the competition .
Holroyd returned to Preston in January 2013 , and was told he did not feature in the club 's plans . With his contract expiring in June 2013 , Holroyd 's contract was cancelled by mutual consent .
= = = Morecambe = = =
Available on a free transfer , Holroyd attracted the interest of Macclesfield Town , having just spent five months on loan with the club . However , no permanent transfer materialised , and , on 17 January 2013 , he signed for League Two side Morecambe on a contract until the end of the 2012 – 13 season . Holroyd made his debut a day after signing for the club , coming on as a second @-@ half substitute in a 0 – 0 home draw against Cheltenham Town .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 27 February 2016
= Milo of Croton =
Milo of Croton ( / ˈmaɪloʊ / ; Greek : Μίλων , Mílōn ; gen . : Μίλωνος , Mílōnos ) was a 6th @-@ century BC wrestler from the Magna Graecian city of Croton , who enjoyed a brilliant wrestling career and won many victories in the most important athletic festivals of ancient Greece . In addition to his athletic victories , Milo is credited by the ancient commentator Diodorus Siculus with leading his fellow citizens to military triumph over neighboring Sybaris in 510 BC .
Milo was said to be an associate of Pythagoras . One story tells of the wrestler saving the philosopher 's life when a roof was about to collapse upon him and another that Milo may have married the philosopher 's daughter Myia . Like other successful athletes of ancient Greece , Milo was the subject of fantastic tales of strength and power , some , perhaps , based upon misinterpretations of his statues . Among other tales , he was said to have carried a bull on his shoulders and to have burst a band about his brow by simply inflating the veins of his temples .
The date of Milo 's death is unknown , but he reportedly was attempting to tear a tree apart when his hands became trapped in a crevice in its trunk , and a pack of wolves surprised and devoured him . Milo has been depicted in works of art by Pierre Puget , Étienne @-@ Maurice Falconet and others . In literature , he has been referenced by Rabelais in Gargantua and Pantagruel , by Shakespeare in Troilus and Cressida , and also by Alexandre Dumas in The Man in the Iron Mask .
= = Athletic career = =
Milo was a six @-@ time Olympic victor . He won the boys ' wrestling ( probably in 540 BC ) , and thereafter five men 's wrestling titles between 536 and 520 BCE . He also won seven crowns at the Pythian Games at Delphi ( one as a boy ) , ten at the Isthmian Games , and nine at the Nemean Games . Milo was a five @-@ time Periodonikēs , a " grand slam " sort of title bestowed on the winner of all four festivals in the same cycle . Milo 's career at the highest level of competition must have spanned 24 years .
Milo was defeated ( or tied ) in his attempt at a seventh Olympic title in 516 BCE by a young wrestler from Croton who practiced the technique of akrocheirismos — literally , ' highhandedness ' or wrestling at arm 's length — and by doing so , avoided Milo 's crushing embrace . Simple fatigue took its toll on Milo .
Milo 's hometown had a reputation for producing excellent athletes . In the Olympiad of 576 BC , for example , the first seven finishers in the stade — a 200 yards ( 180 m ) sprint — were all men of Croton . After Milo 's career , Croton apparently produced no other athletes of renown .
= = Military experience = =
About 510 BC , hostilities arose between Croton and nearby Sybaris when Telys , a Sybarite tyrant , banished the 500 wealthiest citizens of Sybaris after seizing their property . When the displaced Sybarites sought refuge at Croton and Telys demanded their return , an opportunity for the Crotoniates to destroy a powerful neighbor presented itself . In an account that appeared five hundred years after the event , Diodorus Siculus wrote that the philosopher Pythagoras , who spent much of his life at Croton , urged the Croton assembly to protect the banished citizens of Sybaris . When the decision to do so was made , the dispute between the two cities was aggravated , each took up arms , and Milo led the charge against Sybaris .
According to Diodorus ( XII , 9 ) :
" One hundred thousand men of Croton were stationed with three hundred thousand Sybarite troops ranged against them . Milo the athlete led them and through his tremendous physical strength first turned the troops lined up against him . "
Diodorus indicates Milo led the charge against the Sybarites wearing his Olympic crowns , draped in a lionskin and brandishing a club in a manner similar to the mythic hero Heracles ( see adjacent image ) .
= = Personal life = =
According to Pausanias he was the son of Diotimus . Ancient commentators mention an association between Milo and the philosopher Pythagoras , who lived at or near Croton for many years . Commentators may have confused the philosopher with an athletic trainer , Pythagoras of Samos , but it is also possible the trainer and the philosopher were the same person .
It was said Milo saved Pythagoras 's life when a pillar collapsed in a banquet hall and he supported the roof until Pythagoras could reach safety . He may have married Myia , a Pythagorean herself or possibly Pythagoras ' daughter . Diogenes Laertius ( VIII , 39 ) says Pythagoras died in a fire in Milo 's house , but Dicaearchus ( as cited by Diogenes Laertius , VIII , 40 ) says Pythagoras died in the temple of the Muses at Metapontum of self @-@ imposed starvation . Porphyry ( Vita Pythagorae , 55 ) says Milo 's house at Croton was burned and the Pythagoreans within stoned .
Herodotus ( III , 137 @-@ 38 ) , who lived one hundred years after Milo 's death , says the wrestler accepted a large sum of money from the distinguished physician Democedes for the privilege of marrying Milo 's daughter . If Herodotus is indeed correct , then Milo was probably not a member of Croton 's nobility for such an arrangement with a wage @-@ earning physician would have been beneath the dignity of a Greek noble . Democedes was a native of Croton and enjoyed a successful career as a physician at Croton , Aegina , Athens , and Samos . He was captured by Darius in the defeat of the Samian tyrant Polycrates and taken to the Persian capital of Susa as a slave . There , he carefully tended both the king and queen and was eventually permitted to revisit Croton , but under guard . He escaped his Persian guards and made his way to Croton , where he married Milo 's daughter . The physician sent a message regarding his marriage to Darius , who was an admirer of the wrestler and can only have learned of him through Democedes during his slavery at Susa .
= = Cultural representations = =
= = = Place of champions in Greek culture = = =
Like the tragic protagonists of Greek drama , the Greek athlete had a " larger than life " quality . At Olympia , for example , they were set apart from the general population for lengthy training periods and the observation of a complex series of prohibitions that included abstinence from intercourse . Once training was completed and the athletes were brought before their fellow citizens trim , fit , nude and shimmering with oil , they must have appeared semi @-@ divine .
The reverential awe in which athletes were held in Greece led to exaggeration in the tales surrounding their lives . In Milo 's case , Aristotle ( Ethica Nichomachea , II , 6 = 1106b ) began the myth @-@ making process with reports likening Milo unto Heracles in his enormous appetite , and Athenaeus ( X , 412e @-@ f ) continued the process with the story of Milo carrying a bull — a feat also associated with Heracles . It is Milo 's sudden death which makes him most akin to the heroes : there is a hint of hubris in his attempt to rend the tree asunder , and striking contrast between his glorious athletic achievements and his sudden ignoble death .
= = = Feats of strength = = =
Anecdotes about Milo 's almost superhuman strength and lifestyle abound . His daily diet allegedly consisted of 20 lb of meat , 20 lb of bread , and eighteen pints of wine . Pliny the Elder ( XXXVII , 54 = 144 ) and Solinus ( De mirabilibus mundi , 77 ) both attribute Milo 's invincibility in competition to the wrestler 's consumption of alectoriae , the gizzard stones of roosters . Legends say he carried his own bronze statue to its place at Olympia , and once carried a four @-@ year @-@ old bull on his shoulders before slaughtering , roasting , and devouring it in one day . He was said to have achieved the feat of lifting the bull by starting in childhood , lifting and carrying a newborn calf and repeating the feat daily as it grew to maturity .
One report says the wrestler was able to hold a pomegranate without damaging it while challengers tried to pry his fingers from it , and another report says he could burst a band fastened around his brow by inhaling air and causing the temple veins to swell . He was said to maintain his footing on an oiled discus while others tried to push him from it . These feats have been attributed to misinterpretations of statues depicting Milo with his head bound in victor 's ribbons , his hand holding the apple of victory , and his feet positioned on a round disc that would have been fitted into a pedestal or base .
When he participated in the Olympics for the seventh time and collided against a fellow , the eighteen year Timasiteo , who admired him as a child and where he also learned many moves , the final , his opponent bowed without even start fighting , in a sign of respect . This was the only case in the history of Greece when we remember the name of the man who finished second in a race / competition . For his exploits as a supporter of the Dameas erected a statue in the stadium of Olympia , where he was represented standing on a disc with their feet united .
While one report says Milo held his arm outstretched and challengers were unable to bend his fingers , another anecdote recorded by Claudius Aelianus ( Varia historia , XII , 12 ) disputes Milo 's reputation for enormous strength . Apparently , Milo challenged a peasant named Titormus to a trial of strength . Titormus proclaimed he had little strength , but lifted a boulder to his shoulders , carried it several meters and dropped it . Milo was unable to lift it .
= = = Death = = =
The Ancient Greeks typically attributed remarkable deaths to famous persons in keeping with their characters . The date of Milo 's death is unknown , but according to Strabo ( VI , 1 , 12 ) and Pausanias ( VI , 14 , 8 ) , Milo was walking in a forest when he came upon a tree @-@ trunk split with wedges . In what was probably intended as a display of strength , Milo inserted his hands into the cleft to rend the tree . The wedges fell from the cleft , and the tree closed upon his hands , trapping him . Unable to free himself , the wrestler was devoured by wolves . A modern historian has suggested it is more likely that Milo was traveling alone when attacked by wolves . Unable to escape , he was devoured and his remains found at the foot of a tree .
= = = Modern art and literature = = =
Milo 's legendary strength and death have become the subjects of modern art and literature . His death was a popular subject in 18th @-@ century art . In many images of this period his killer is portrayed as a lion rather than wolves . In Pierre Puget 's sculpture Milo of Croton ( 1682 ) , the work 's themes are the loss of strength with age , and the ephemerality of glory as symbolized by an Olympic trophy lying in the dust .
Étienne @-@ Maurice Falconet 's marble Milo of Croton ( 1754 ) secured his admission to the Académie des beaux @-@ arts , but was later criticized for lack of nobility . The work clashed with the classical ideal requiring a dying hero to express stoic restraint .
Milo was the subject of a bronze by Alessandro Vittoria circa 1590 , and another bronze now standing in Holland Park , London by an unknown nineteenth @-@ century artist . A sculpture was made by John Graham Lough and exhibited at the Royal Academy . It was depicted by Ralph Hedley in a painting of the artist in his studio , and a bronze cast of it stands in the grounds of Blagdon Hall , Northumberland .
His death is also depicted in paintings . It is the subject of an eighteenth @-@ century oil on canvas by Joseph @-@ Benoît Suvée and a work by the eighteenth @-@ century Irish painter James Barry .
In literature , François Rabelais compares Gargantua 's strength to that of Milo 's in Gargantua and Pantagruel , and Shakespeare refers anachronistically to " bull @-@ bearing Milo " in Act 2 of Troilus and Cressida . In Emily Brontë 's Wuthering Heights , character Catherine Earnshaw refers to the circumstances of Milo 's demise when she says , " Who is to separate us , pray ? They 'll meet the fate of Milo ! " In Johann Wyss ' novel Swiss Family Robinson , the youngest son Franz is entrusted with a bull buffalo to raise , and from which gains comparison to Milo . Alexandre Dumas has the strongest of the Three Musketeers , Porthos , mention " Milo of Crotona " saying that he had replicated a list of his feats of strength - all except breaking a cord tied around the head , whereupon d 'Artagnan tells Porthos that it is because his strength is not in his head ( a joke about Porthos being a bit dim @-@ witted ) .
= Hergé =
Georges Prosper Remi ( French : [ ʁəmi ] ; 22 May 1907 – 3 March 1983 ) , known by the pen name Hergé ( [ ɛʁʒe ] ) , was a Belgian cartoonist . He is best known for creating The Adventures of Tintin , the series of comic albums which are considered one of the most popular European comics of the 20th century . He was also responsible for two other well @-@ known series , Quick & Flupke ( 1930 – 40 ) and The Adventures of Jo , Zette and Jocko ( 1936 – 57 ) . His works were executed in his distinct ligne claire drawing style .
Born to a lower middle @-@ class family in Etterbeek , Brussels , Hergé began his career by contributing illustrations to Scouting magazines , developing his first comic series , The Adventures of Totor , for Le Boy @-@ Scout Belge in 1926 . Working for the conservative Catholic newspaper Le Vingtième Siècle , he created The Adventures of Tintin in 1929 on the advice of its editor Norbert Wallez . Revolving around the actions of boy reporter Tintin and his dog Snowy , the series ' early instalments – Tintin in the Land of the Soviets , Tintin in the Congo , and Tintin in America – were designed as conservative propaganda for children . Domestically successful , after serialisation the stories were published in book form , with Hergé continuing the series and also developing both the Quick & Flupke and Jo , Zette and Jocko series for Le Vingtième Siècle . Influenced by his friend Zhang Chongren , from 1934 Hergé placed far greater emphasis on conducting background research for his stories , resulting in increased realism from The Blue Lotus onward . Following the German occupation of Belgium in 1939 , Le Vingtième Siècle was closed but Hergé continued his series in Le Soir , a popular newspaper controlled by the Nazi administration .
After the Allied liberation of Belgium in 1944 , Le Soir was shut down and its staff – including Hergé – accused of having been collaborators . An official investigation was launched , and while no charges were brought against Hergé , in subsequent years he repeatedly faced accusations of having been a traitor and collaborator . With Raymond Leblanc he established Tintin magazine in 1946 , through which he serialised new Adventures of Tintin stories . As the magazine 's artistic director , he also oversaw the publication of other successful comics series , such as Edgar P. Jacobs ' Blake and Mortimer . In 1950 he established Studios Hergé as a team to aid him in his ongoing projects ; prominent staff members Jacques Martin and Bob de Moor greatly contributed to subsequent volumes of The Adventures of Tintin . Amid personal turmoil following the collapse of his first marriage , he produced Tintin in Tibet , his personal favourite of his works . In later years he became less prolific , and unsuccessfully attempted to establish himself as an abstract artist .
Hergé 's works have been widely acclaimed for their clarity of draughtsmanship and meticulous , well @-@ researched plots . They have been the source of a wide range of adaptations , in theatre , radio , television , cinema , and computer gaming . He remains a strong influence on the comic book medium , particularly in Europe . Widely celebrated in Belgium , a Hergé Museum was established in Louvain @-@ la @-@ Neuve in 2009 .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood : 1907 – 25 = = =
Georges Prosper Remi was born on 22 May 1907 in his parental home in Etterbeek , Brussels , a central suburb in the capital city of Belgium . His Walloon father , Alexis Remi , worked in a confectionery factory , whilst his Flemish mother , Elisabeth Dufour , was a housewife . Married on 18 January 1905 , they moved into a house at 25 rue Cranz ( now 33 rue Philippe Baucq ) , where Hergé was born , although a year later they moved to a house at 34 rue de Theux . His primary language was his father 's French , but growing up in the bilingual Brussels , he also learned Dutch , developing a Marollien accent from his maternal grandmother . Like most Belgians , his family belonged to the Roman Catholic Church , though they were not particularly devout . He later characterised his life in Etterbeek as dominated by a monochrome gray , considering it extremely boring . Biographer Benoît Peeters suggested that this childhood melancholy might have been exacerbated through being sexually abused by a maternal uncle .
Remi developed a love of cinema , favouring Winsor McCay 's Gertie the Dinosaur and the films of Charlie Chaplin , Harry Langdon and Buster Keaton ; his later work in the comic strip medium displayed an obvious influence from them in style and content . Although not a keen reader , he enjoyed the novels of British and American authors , such as Huckleberry Finn , Treasure Island , Robinson Crusoe and The Pickwick Papers , as well as the novels of Frenchman Alexandre Dumas . Drawing as a hobby , he sketched out scenes from daily life along the edges of his school books . Some of these illustrations were of German soldiers , because his four years of primary schooling at the Ixelles Municipal School No. 3 coincided with the First World War , during which Brussels was occupied by the German army . In 1919 , his secondary education began at the secular Place de Londres in Ixelles , but in 1920 he was moved to Saint @-@ Boniface School , an institution controlled by the archbishop where the teachers were Roman Catholic priests . Remi proved a successful student , being awarded prizes for excellence . He completed his secondary education in July 1925 as the top of his class .
Aged 12 , Remi joined the Boy Scout brigade attached to Saint @-@ Boniface School , becoming troop leader of the Squirrel Patrol and earning the name " Curious Fox " ( Renard curieux ) . With the Scouts , he travelled to summer camps in Italy , Switzerland , Austria and Spain , and in the summer of 1923 his troop hiked 200 miles across the Pyrenees . His experiences with Scouting would have a significant influence on the rest of his life , sparking his love of camping and the natural world , and providing him with a moral compass that stressed personal loyalty and keeping one 's promises . His Scoutmaster , Rene Weverbergh , encouraged his artistic ability , and published one of Remi 's drawings in the newsletter of the Saint @-@ Boniface Scouts , Jamais Assez ( Never Enough ) : his first published work . When Weverbergh became involved in the publication of Boy @-@ Scout , the newsletter of the Federation of Scouts , he published more of Remi 's illustrations , the first of which appeared in the fifth issue , from 1922 . Remi continued publishing cartoons , drawings and woodcuts in subsequent issues of the newsletter , which was soon renamed Le Boy @-@ Scout Belge ( The Belgian Boy Scout ) . During this time , he experimented with different pseudonyms , using " Jérémie " and " Jérémiades " before settling on " Hergé " , the French pronunciation of his reversed initials ( R.G. ) His work was first published under this name in December 1924 .
= = = Totor and early career : 1925 – 28 = = =
Alongside his stand @-@ alone illustrations , in July 1926 Hergé began production of a comic strip for Le Boy @-@ Scout Belge , Les Aventures de Totor ( The Adventures of Totor ) , which continued intermittent publication until 1929 . Revolving around the adventures of a Boy Scout patrol leader , the comic initially featured written captions underneath the scenes , but Hergé began to experiment with other forms of conveying information , including speech bubbles . Illustrations were also published in Le Blé qui lève ( The Wheat That Grows ) and other publications of the Catholic Association of Belgian Young People , and Hergé produced a book jacket for Weverbergh 's novel , The Soul of the Sea . Being young and inexperienced , still learning his craft , Hergé sought guidance from an older cartoonist , Pierre Ickx , and together they founded the short @-@ lived Atelier de la Fleur de Lys ( AFL ) , an organisation for Christian cartoonists .
After graduating from secondary school in 1925 , Hergé enrolled in the École Saint @-@ Luc art school , but finding the teaching boring , he left after one lesson . He hoped for a job as an ilustrator alongside Ickx at Le Vingtième Siècle ( The Twentieth Century ) — a conservative " Catholic Newspaper of Doctrine and Information " — but no positions were available . Instead he got a job in the paper 's subscriptions department , starting in September 1925 . Despising the boredom of this position , he enlisted for military service before he was called up , and in August 1926 was assigned to the Dailly barracks at Schaerbeek . Joining the first infantry regiment , he was also bored by his military training , but continued sketching and producing episodes of Totor .
Toward the end of his military service , in August 1927 , Hergé met the editor of Le Vingtième Siècle , the Abbé Norbert Wallez , a vocal fascist who kept a signed photograph of the Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini on his desk . Impressed by Hergé 's repertoire , Wallez agreed to give him a job as a photographic reporter and cartoonist for the paper , something for which Hergé always remained grateful , coming to view the Abbé as a father figure . Supplemented by commissions for other publications , Hergé illustrated a number of texts for " The Children 's Corner " and the literary pages ; the illustrations of this period show his interest in woodcuts and the early prototype of his ligne claire style .
= = = Founding Tintin and Quick & Flupke : 1929 – 32 = = =
Beginning a series of newspaper supplements in late 1928 , Wallez founded a supplement for children , Le Petit Vingtième ( The Little Twentieth ) , which subsequently appeared in Le Vingtième Siècle every Thursday . Carrying strong Catholic and fascist messages , many of its passages were explicitly anti @-@ semitic . For this new venture , Hergé illustrated L 'Extraordinaire Aventure de Flup , Nénesse , Poussette et Cochonnet ( The Extraordinary Adventure of Flup , Nénesse , Poussette and Cochonnet ) , a comic strip authored by one of the paper 's sport columnists , which told the story of two boys , one of their little sisters , and her inflatable rubber pig . Hergé was unsatisfied , and eager to write and draw a comic strip of his own . He was fascinated by new techniques in the medium — such as the systematic use of speech bubbles — found in such American comics as George McManus ' Bringing Up Father , George Herriman 's Krazy Kat and Rudolph Dirks 's The Katzenjammer Kids , copies of which had been sent to him from Mexico by the paper 's reporter Léon Degrelle , stationed there to report on the Cristero War .
Hergé developed a character named Tintin as a Belgian boy reporter who could travel the world with his fox terrier , Snowy — " Milou " in the original French — basing him in large part on his earlier character of Totor and also on his own brother , Paul . Degrelle later falsely claimed that Tintin had been based on him , while he and Hergé fell out when Degrelle used one of his designs without permission ; they settled out @-@ of @-@ court . Although Hergé wanted to send his character to the United States , Wallez instead ordered him to set his adventure in the Soviet Union , acting as a work of anti @-@ socialist propaganda for children . The result , Tintin in the Land of the Soviets , began serialisation in Le Petit Vingtième on 10 January 1929 , and ran until 8 May 1930 . Popular in Francophone Belgium , Wallez organized a publicity stunt at the Gare de Nord station , following which he organized the publication of the story in book form . The popularity of the story led to an increase in sales , and so Wallez granted Hergé two assistants , Eugène Van Nyverseel and Paul " Jam " Jamin .
In January 1930 , Hergé introduced Quick & Flupke ( Quick et Flupke ) , a new comic strip about two street kids from Brussels , in the pages of Le Petit Vingtième . At Wallez 's direction , in June he began serialisation of the second Tintin adventure , Tintin in the Congo , designed to encourage colonial sentiment towards the Belgian Congo . Authored in a paternalistic style that depicted the Congolese as childlike idiots , in later decades it would be accused of racism , however at the time was un @-@ controversial and popular , with further publicity stunts held to increase sales . For the third adventure , Tintin in America , serialised from September 1931 to October 1932 , Hergé finally got to deal with a scenario of his own choice , although he used the work to push an anti @-@ capitalist , anti @-@ consumerist agenda in keeping with the paper 's ultra @-@ conservative ideology . Although the Adventures of Tintin had been serialised in the French Catholic Cœurs Vaillants ( " Brave Hearts " ) since 1930 , he was soon receiving syndication requests from Swiss and Portuguese newspapers too . Though wealthier than most Belgians at his age , and despite increasing success , he remained an unfazed " conservative young man " dedicated to his work .
Hergé sought work elsewhere too , creating The Lovable Mr. Mops cartoon for the Bon Marché department store , and The Adventures of Tim the Squirrel Out West for the rival L 'Innovation department store . On 20 July 1932 , he married Germaine Kieckens , who was Wallez 's secretary ; although neither of them were entirely happy with the union , they had been encouraged to do so by Wallez , who demanded that all his staff married and who personally carried out the wedding ceremony at the Saint @-@ Roch Church in Laeken . Spending their honeymoon in Vianden , Luxembourg , the couple moved into an apartment in the rue Knapen , Schaerbeek . After Wallez was removed from the paper 's editorship in August 1933 following a scandal , Hergé became despondent , and in March 1934 tried to resign , but was encouraged to stay after his monthly salary was increased from 2000 and 3000 francs and his workload was reduced , with Jamin taking responsibility for the day @-@ to @-@ day running of Le Petit Vingtième .
= = Rising fame = =
= = = Tintin in the Orient and Jo , Zette & Jocko : 1932 – 39 = = =
In November 1932 Hergé announced that the following month he would send Tintin on an adventure to Asia . Although initially titled The Adventures of Tintin , Reporter , in the Orient , it would later be renamed Cigars of the Pharaoh . A mystery story , the plot began in Egypt before proceeding to Arabia and India , during which the recurring characters of Thomson and Thompson and Rastapopoulos were introduced . Through his friend Charles Lesne , Hergé was hired to produce illustrations for the company Casterman , and in late 1933 they proposed taking over the publication of both The Adventures of Tintin and Quick and Flupke in book form , to which Hergé agreed ; the first Casterman book was the collected volume of Cigars . Continuing to subsidise his comic work with commercial advertising , in January 1934 he also founded the " Atelier Hergé " advertising company with two partners , but it was liquidated after six months . From February to August 1934 Hergé serialised Popol Out West in Le Petit Vingtième , a story using animal characters that was a development of the earlier Tim the Squirrel comic .
From August 1934 to October 1935 , Le Petit Vingtième serialised Tintin 's next adventure , The Blue Lotus , which was set in China and dealt with the recent Japanese invasion of Manchuria . Hergé had been greatly influenced in the production of the work by his friend Zhang Chongren , a Catholic Chinese student studying at Brussels ' Académie Royale des Beaux @-@ Arts , whom he had been introduced to in May 1934 . Zhang gave him lessons in Taoist philosophy , Chinese art , and Chinese calligraphy , influencing not only his artistic style but also his general outlook on life . As a token of appreciation Hergé added a fictional " Chang Chong @-@ Chen " to The Blue Lotus , a young Chinese boy who meets and befriends Tintin . For The Blue Lotus , Hergé devoted far more attention to accuracy , resulting in a largely realistic portrayal of China . As a result , The Blue Lotus has been widely hailed as " Hergé 's first masterpiece " and a benchmark in the series ' development . Casterman published it in book form , also insisting that Hergé include colour plates in both the volume and in reprints of America and Cigars . In 1936 , they also began production of Tintin merchandise , something Hergé supported , having ideas of an entire shop devoted to The Adventures of Tintin , something that would come to fruition 50 years later . Nevertheless , while his serialised comics proved lucrative , the collected volumes sold less well , something Hergé blamed on Casterman , urging them to do more to market his books .
Hergé 's next Tintin story , The Broken Ear ( 1935 – 37 ) , was the first for which the plot synopsis had been outlined from the start , being a detective story that took Tintin to South America . It introduced the character of General Alcazar , and also saw Hergé introduce the first fictional countries into the series , San Theodoros and Nuevo Rico , two republics based largely on Bolivia and Paraguay . The violent elements within The Broken Ear upset the publishers of Cœurs Vaillants , who asked Hergé to create a more child @-@ appropriate story for them . The result was The Adventures of Jo , Zette , and Jocko , a series about a young brother and sister and their pet monkey . The series began with The Secret Ray , which was serialised in Cœurs Vaillants and then Le Petit Vingtième , and continued with The Stratoship H @-@ 22 . Hergé nevertheless disliked the series , commenting that the characters " bored me terribly . " Now writing three series simultaneously , Hergé was working every day of the year , and felt stressed .
The next Tintin adventure was The Black Island ( 1937 – 38 ) , which saw the character travel to Britain to battle counterfeiters and introduced a new antagonist , the German Dr. Müller . Hergé followed this with King Ottokar 's Sceptre ( 1938 – 39 ) , in which Tintin saves the fictional Eastern European country of Syldavia from being invaded by its expansionist neighbour , Borduria ; the event was an anti @-@ fascist satire of Nazi Germany 's expansion into Austria and Czechoslovakia . In May 1939 , Hergé moved to a new house in Watermael @-@ Boitsfort , although following the German invasion of Poland , he was conscripted into the Belgian army and temporarily stationed in Herenthout . Demobbed within the month , he returned to Brussels and adopted a more explicit anti @-@ German stance when beginning his next Tintin adventure , Land of Black Gold , which was set in the Middle East and featured Dr. Müller sabotaging oil lines .
During this period , Hergé also contributed to L 'Ouest ( The West ) , a newspaper run by his friend Raymond De Becker . L 'Ouest urged Belgium to remain neutral in World War II , a stance Hergé supported , creating the Mr Bellum strip to argue this position . Hergé was invited to visit China by Chinese Nationalist leader Chiang Kai @-@ shek , who had enjoyed The Blue Lotus , although due to the political situation in Europe , this was not possible . He was re @-@ mobilized in December , and stationed in Antwerp , from where he continued to send the Tintin strip to Le Petit Vingtième . However , he fell ill with sinusitis and boils and was declared unfit for military service in May 1940 . That same day , Germany invaded Belgium . Le Vingtième Siècle was shut down , part way through the serialisation of Land of Black Gold .
= = = German occupation and Le Soir : 1939 – 45 = = =
As the Belgian army clashed with the invading Germans , Hergé and his wife fled by car to France along with tens of thousands of other Belgians , first staying in Paris and then heading south to Puy @-@ de @-@ Dôme , where they remained for six weeks . On 28 May , Belgian King Leopold III surrendered the country to the German army to prevent further killing ; a move that Hergé supported . He followed the king 's request that all of those Belgians who had fled the country return , arriving back in Brussels on 30 June . There , he found that his house had been occupied as an office for the German army 's Propagandastaffel , and also faced financial trouble , as he owed back taxes yet was unable to access his financial reserves . All Belgian publications were now under the control of the German occupying force , who refused Le Petit Vingtième permission to continue publication . Instead , Hergé was offered employment as a cartoonist for Le Pays Réel by its editor , the Rexist Victor Matthys ; however , Hergé perceived Le Pays Réel as an explicitly political publication , and thus declined the position .
Instead , he took up a position with Le Soir , Belgium 's largest Francophone daily newspaper . Confiscated from its original owners , the German authorities had permitted Le Soir to be re @-@ opened under the directorship of De Doncker , although it remained firmly under Nazi control , supporting the German war effort and espousing anti @-@ Semitism . After joining the Le Soir team on 15 October , Hergé was involved in the creation of a children 's supplement , Soir @-@ Jeunesse , aided by Jamin and Jacques Van Melkebeke . He relaunched The Adventures of Tintin with a new story , The Crab with the Golden Claws , in which Tintin pursued drug smugglers in North Africa ; the story was a turning point in the series for its introduction of Captain Haddock , who would become a major character in the rest of the Adventures . This story , like the subsequent Adventures of Tintin published in Le Soir , would reject the political themes present in earlier stories , instead remaining firmly neutral . Hergé also included new Quick & Flupke gags in the supplement , as well as illustrations for serialised stories by Edgar Allan Poe and the Brothers Grimm .
In May 1941 , a paper shortage led to the Soir @-@ Jeunesse being reduced to four pages , with the length of the Tintin strip being cut by two thirds . Several weeks later the supplement disappeared altogether , with The Crab with the Golden Claws being moved into Le Soir itself , where it became a daily strip . While some Belgians were upset that Hergé was willing to work for a newspaper controlled by the occupying Nazi administration , he was heavily enticed by the size of Le Soir 's readership , which reached 600 @,@ 000 . With Van Melkebeke , Hergé put together two Tintin plays . The first , Tintin in the Indies , appeared at Brussels ' Theatre des | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Galeries in April 1941 , while the second , Mr Boullock 's Disappearance , was performed there in December . From October 1941 to May 1942 , Le Soir serialised Hergé 's next Tintin adventure , The Shooting Star , followed by publication as a single volume by Casterman . In keeping with Le Soir 's editorial standpoint , The Shooting Star espoused an anti @-@ Semitic and anti @-@ American attitude , with the antagonist being a wealthy Jewish American businessman ; it would thus prove particularly controversial in the post @-@ war period , although Hergé denied any malicious anti @-@ Semitic intention .
Casterman felt that the black @-@ and @-@ white volumes of The Adventures of Tintin were not selling as well as colour comic books , and thus that the series should be produced in colour . At the same time , Belgium was facing a paper @-@ shortage , with Casterman wishing to cut down the volumes from 120 @-@ pages in length to 62 . Hergé was initially sceptical , but ultimately agreed to their demands in February 1942 . For these new editions , Casterman introduced a four @-@ colour system , although Hergé insisted that colour should remain secondary to line , and that it would not be used for shading . To cope with this additional workload , Hergé approached a friend whom he had met through Van Melkebeke , Edgar P. Jacobs , to aid him as a cartoonist and colourist . Jacobs could only work on the project part time , and so on March 1942 Hergé also employed a woman named Alice Devos to aid him . In July 1942 , Hergé then procured an agent , Bernard Thièry , who took 40 % of his commissions ; their working relationship would be strained . With their assistance , from 1942 to 1947 , Hergé adapted most of his previous Adventures of Tintin into 62 @-@ page colour versions .
Hergé 's next Adventure of Tintin would be The Secret of the Unicorn , serialised in Le Soir from June 1942 . He had collaborated closely with Van Melkebeke on this project , who had introduced many elements from the work of Jules Verne into the detective story , in which Tintin and Haddock searched for parchments revealing the location of hidden pirate treasure . The Secret of the Unicorn marked the first half of a story arc that was completed in Red Rackham 's Treasure , serialised in Le Soir from February 1943 ; in this story , Tintin and Haddock search for the pirate 's treasure in the Caribbean , with the character of Professor Calculus being introduced to the series . Following Red Rackham 's Treasure , Hergé drew illustrations for a serialised story titled Dupont et Dupond , détectives ( " Thomson and Thompson , Detectives " ) , authored by the newspaper 's crime editor , Paul Kinnet .
In September 1943 , De Becker was removed as editor of Le Soir for stating that although the Nazis were motivated " by undoubted good will , [ they were also ] extremely out of touch with reality " ; although Hergé was close to De Becker , he decided to remain at the newspaper , which came under the editorship of Max Hodeige . In autumn 1943 , Hergé had decided that he wanted Jacobs to collaborate with him on The Adventures of Tintin . Although initially hesitant , Jacobs eventually agreed , adopting the paid position in January 1944 . Jacobs and Hergé became close collaborators and greatly influenced each other , while together they developed the plot for the next Adventure of Tintin , The Seven Crystal Balls , which began serialisation in Le Soir in December 1943 .
= = = Post @-@ war controversy : 1944 – 46 = = =
As the Allied troops liberated Brussels from German occupation , Le Soir ceased publication on 2 September 1944 , partway through its serialisation of The Seven Crystal Balls . Hergé was arrested on 3 September , having been named as a collaborator in a Resistance document known as the " Gallery of Traitors " . This would be the first of four incidents in which Hergé was arrested – by the State Security , the Judiciary Police , the Belgian National Movement , and the Front for Independence respectively – during the course of which he spent one night in jail . On 5 September the entire staff of Le Soir were fired and a new editorial team introduced , while on 8 September the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force ( SHAEF ) issued a proclamation announcing that " any journalist who had helped produce a newspaper during the occupation was for the time being barred from practising his profession . " Blacklisted , Hergé was now unemployed . Further , he was publicly lampooned as a collaborator by a newspaper closely associated with the Belgian Resistance , La Patrie , which issued a satirical strip titled The Adventures of Tintin in the Land of the Nazis .
The period witnessed widespread recriminations against accused collaborators , with military courts condemning 30 @,@ 000 on minor charges and 25 @,@ 000 on more serious charges ; of those , 5 @,@ 500 were sentenced to life imprisonment or capital punishment . A judiciary inquiry into Hergé 's case was launched by the deputy public prosecutor , Mr Vinçotte , although in his report he urged lenience , stating that " I am inclined to close the case . I believe it would bring ridicule on the judicial system to go after an inoffensive children 's book author and illustrator . On the other hand , Hergé worked for Le Soir during the war , and his illustrations are what made people buy the newspaper . " Although unable to work for the press , Hergé continued to re @-@ draw and colour the older Adventures of Tintin for publication in book form by Casterman , completing the second version of Tintin in the Congo and starting on King Ottokar 's Sceptre . Casterman supported Hergé throughout his ordeal , for which he always remained grateful . Attempting to circumvent his blacklisting , with Jacobs he began producing comics under the anonymous pseudonym of " Olav " , but upon sending them to publishers found none who would accept them . Although this period allowed him an escape from the pressure of daily production which had affected most of his working life , he also had family problems to deal with ; his brother Paul returned to Brussels from a German prisoner of war camp , although their mother had become highly delusional and was moved to a psychiatric hospital .
In October 1945 , Hergé was approached by Raymond Leblanc , a former member of a conservative Resistance group , the National Royalist Movement , and his associates André Sinave and Albert Debaty . The trio were planning on launching a weekly magazine for children , and Leblanc – who had fond childhood memories of Tintin in the Land of the Soviets – thought Hergé would be ideal for it . Hergé agreed , and Leblanc obtained clearance papers for him , allowing him to work . Concerned about the judicial investigation into Hergé 's wartime affiliations , Leblanc convinced William Ugeux , a leader of the Belgian Resistance who was now in charge of censorship and certificates of good citizenship , to look into the comic creator 's file . Ugeux concluded that Hergé had been " a blunderer rather than a traitor " for his work at Le Soir . The decision as to whether Hergé would stand trial belonged to the general auditor of the Military Tribunal , Walter Jean Ganshof van der Meersch . He closed the case on 22 December 1945 , declaring that " in regard to the particularly inoffensive character of the drawings published by Remi , bringing him before a war tribunal would be inappropriate and risky " .
Now free from threat of prosecution , Hergé continued to support his colleagues at Le Soir who were being charged as collaborators ; six of them were sentenced to death , and others to lengthy prison sentences . Among those sentenced to death was Hergé 's friend , Jamin , although his sentence was commuted to life imprisonment . In May 1946 , Hergé was issued a certificate of good citizenship , which became largely necessary to obtain employment in post @-@ war Belgium . Celebrations were marred by his mother 's death in April 1946 ; she was aged 60 . Harry Thompson has described this post @-@ war period as the " greatest upheaval " of Hergé 's life . Hergé later described it as " an experience of absolute intolerance . It was horrible , horrible ! " He considered the post @-@ war trials of alleged collaborators a great injustice inflicted upon many innocent people , and never forgave Belgian society for the way that he had been treated , although he hid this from his public persona .
= = Later life = =
= = = Establishing Tintin magazine : 1946 – 49 = = =
Sinave devised the idea of naming their new magazine Tintin , believing that this would attract a wide audience . The Dutch @-@ language edition produced for release in Belgium 's Flemish north was titled Kuifje after the character 's Dutch @-@ language name . Adopting the slogan of " The Newspaper for the Young Aged 7 to 77 " , the magazine also used a logo featuring the Tintin character himself . The capital for the project had been put up by those involved : as executive director , Leblanc provided 50 % , while its managing director Georges Lallemand provided 40 % and Hergé , its artistic director , provided 10 % . Hergé assembled a group of associates to aid him , including Van Melkebeke , Jacobs , Paul Cuvelier , and Jacques Laudy . Van Melkebeke was initially appointed editor @-@ in @-@ chief , although he was arrested for having worked for the collaborationist Le Nouveau journal shortly after , with his involvement in the project thus being kept secret so as to avoid further controversy . Van Melkebeke continued to provide work for the magazine under pseudonyms , although this ceased during his imprisonment from December 1947 to October 1949 .
The first issue of Tintin magazine was published on 26 September 1946 . Hergé was assigned to produce a two @-@ page spread each week , and began by concluding The Seven Crystal Balls before embarking on its successor story , Prisoners of the Sun . Alongside Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , the magazine also included Laudy 's The Legend of the Four Aymon Brothers and Jacobs ' The Secret of the Swordfish , the first in his new Blake and Mortimer series . While the magazine was in competition with a number of rivals , most notably Spirou , famous for serialising the Lucky Luke and Buck Danny comics , it proved an immediate success , with 60 @,@ 000 copies being sold in three days of its release . Its publication resulted in a massive boost to Hergé 's book sales too .
In 1947 a Belgian film adaptation of The Crab with the Golden Claws was produced , and believing that cinematic adaptations were a good way to proceed , Hergé contacted Disney Studios in the United States ; they declined his offer to adapt The Adventures of Tintin for the silver screen . In May 1947 the artistic collaboration between Hergé and Jacobs ended after an argument . Hergé had been jealous of the immediate success of Jacobs ' Blake and Mortimer series , and had turned down Jacobs ' request that he be credited as co @-@ creator of the new Adventures of Tintin . That same month , Hergé broke from his manager , Thiery , after discovering that the latter had been siphoning off money for himself .
Many Belgians were highly critical of the magazine due to its connections with Hergé , who was still deemed a collaborator and traitor by many ; La Soir and La Cité publicly criticised the decision without referring to him by name while Le Quotidien and Le Drapeau Rouge specifically singled him out for denunciation . Hergé believed that the children 's author Jeanne Cappe was behind many of these accusations , and threatened her with a lawsuit . Unhappy with life in Belgium , Hergé made plans to emigrate to Argentina , a nation that was welcoming many Europeans who had supported the defeated Axis powers and which had a thriving comic book scene . Ultimately , he changed his mind , for reasons that have remained unknown ; it is possible that he was unable to secure any promise of work in the South American country .
In May , Hergé and Germaine holidayed near to Gland on Lake Geneva , Switzerland , where they were accompanied by a friend of theirs , a young woman named Rosane . During the holiday , Hergé and Rosane embarked on an extra @-@ marital affair . He felt guilty , and returned to Brussels in June . Privately , he expressed the view that he had been led to commit such an act , which he viewed as immoral , through the influence of " amoral friends " that he was associating with . Hoping to reignite the passion and stability of his marriage , he arranged for he and Germaine to return to Switzerland soon after ; here they argued , and embarked on a temporary separation . Remaining in Switzerland , he visited King Leopold III , who was then holidaying in Prégny , before briefly returning to Brussels in July . Back in Switzerland , he embarked on an affair with a married woman , although again informed Germaine before setting off to spend time in Ardenne . In August , the couple sought to reunite by holidaying together in Brittany , but there they broke up again and Hergé returned to his lover in Switzerland . In September he finally returned to Brussels , but with his close friend Marcel Dehaye then spent time in a retreat at the Abbey of Notre @-@ Dame @-@ de @-@ Scourmont . That month , he revived Land of Black Gold – the Adventure of Tintin that had been interrupted by the German invasion of 1940 – and began serialising it in Tintin magazine . However , the story was again interrupted , this time for twelve weeks as Hergé took a further unannounced holiday to Gland , greatly annoying many of his colleagues .
Although they retained respect for each other , Hergé 's repeated absences had created a tense situation between himself and Leblanc . After a lengthy search , Leblanc had found a publisher willing to produce an edition of Tintin magazine in France : Georges Dargaud 's Le Lombard , which began production of a French edition in October 1948 . However , Hergé was unhappy that Leblanc had appointed André Frenez as Van Melkebeke 's replacement as editor @-@ in @-@ chief , describing Frenez as " a cold functionary " . Hergé was stubborn and uncompromising as the magazine 's artistic director , known for strongly criticising the work of old friends like Pierre Ickx if he felt that they did not meet his exacting standards . He was particularly critical of the work of two of the newly hired staff at Tintin and Kuifje , Jacques Martin and Willy Vandersteen , encouraging them to change their artistic style to better reflect his own preferences . To Leblanc , he expressed the concern that most of those working at Tintin were better illustrators than storytellers . He also opined that Tintin was not keeping up with the times and what he perceived as the increased maturity of children , encouraging the magazine to better reflect current events and scientific developments .
= = = Studios Hergé and Fanny Vlamynck : 1950 – 65 = = =
On 6 April 1950 Hergé established Studios Hergé as a public company . The Studios were based in his Avenue Delleur house in Brussels , with Hergé making a newly purchased country house in Céroux @-@ Mousty his and Germaine 's main abode . The Studios would provide both personal support to Hergé and technical support for his ongoing work . Initially with only three employees , this would rise to fifteen , with all working on Hergé 's projects . He hired Bob de Moor as his primary apprentice at the Studios in March 1951 . Impressed by Jacques Martin 's work on The Golden Sphinx , Hergé convinced Martin to join the Studios in January 1954 ; Martin insisted on bringing with him his own two assistants , Roger Leloup and Michel Demaurets . During the early 1950s , a number of those convicted for collaborating with the Nazi occupiers were freed from prison . Sympathetic to their plight , Hergé lent money to some and aided others in getting jobs at Tintin magazine , much to Leblanc 's annoyance . For instance , as well as lending him money , Hergé used his connections to secure Raymond de Becker a job in Switzerland as a book shop sales inspector . He also hired those associated with collaboration for his Studios ; his new colourist , Josette Baujot , was the wife of a recently assassinated member of the Walloon Legion , and his new secretary , Baudouin van der Branden de Reeth , had served a prison sentence for working at Le Nouveau Journal during the occupation .
Hergé had developed the idea of setting an Adventure of Tintin on the moon while producing Prisoners of the Sun . He began serialisation of Destination Moon , the first of a two part arc followed by Explorers on the Moon , in Tintin magazine in March 1950 . In September 1950 , Hergé broke off the story , feeling the need for a break from work , having fallen back into clinical depression . He and Germaine went on holiday to Gland before returning to Brussels in late September . Many readers sent letters to Tintin asking why Explorers on the Moon was no longer being serialised , with a rumour emerging that Hergé had died . Explorers of the Moon would resume after an eighteen month hiatus , returning in April 1951 . Alongside his work on the new stories , Hergé also made use of the Studios in revising more of his early works .
In February 1952 , Hergé was involved in a car crash in which Germaine 's leg was shattered ; she had to have a steel rod implanted in it , and was confined to a wheelchair for several months . Their relationship was further strained when they received news of Wallez 's death on September 1952 . His friendship with Van Melkebeke also broke apart in this period , in part due to advice gained from an alleged clairvoyant , Bertje Janueneau , whom both Hergé and Germaine were increasingly relying upon for guidance . In January 1955 a young woman named Fanny Vlamynck was hired as a colourist at the Studios . Hergé embarked on an extra @-@ marital affair with her in November 1956 , with the rest of the studio staff soon finding out . Germaine grew suspicious of her husband 's affections for Fanny , but was also experiencing strong romantic attraction to her ballroom dance partner . Hergé and Germaine went on a cruise for the former 's fiftieth birthday in May 1957 , in which they visited Casablanca , Rabat , Palermo , and Rome , and in October went on a second holiday , this time to Ostend . Following this , he revealed his affair with Fanny to Germaine . He began experiencing traumatic dreams dominated by the colour white , and seeking to explain them he visited Franz Ricklin , a psychoanalyst who was a student of Carl Jung in Zurich in May 1959 . In February 1960 he returned to Switzerland , and upon its arrival back in Brussels he began renting an apartment in Uccle , away from Germaine . His relationship with Germaine had ended , although due to restrictions under Belgian law he was unable to obtain a divorce until seventeen years later .
In September 1958 , Tintin magazine moved its headquarters to a newly constructed building near the Gare du Midi . Hergé continued to feud with Leblanc over the direction of the magazine ; his constant absences had led to him being replaced as artistic director , and he demanded that he be reinstated . Leblanc relented in early 1965 , although Hergé soon departed to Sardinia for six weeks . In October 1965 Leblanc appointed the cartoonist Greg to be editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the magazine , believing him capable of reforming the paper to remain relevant to the youth of the day . By this point , Tintin magazine was at its commercial peak , with sales of 600 @,@ 000 a week , although Hergé had lost much of his interest in it .
Hergé 's book sales were higher than ever , and translations were being produced for the British , Spanish , and Scandinavian markets . He was receiving international press attention , with articles on his work appearing in France @-@ Observateur , The Listener , and Times Literary Supplement . Paul Vandromme authored an un @-@ critical book on Hergé , Le Monde de Tintin ( " The World of Tintin " ) , published by Gallimard ; Hergé vetoed the inclusion of a proposed preface by Roger Nimier after finding its praise for his own work too embarrassing . Radio adaptations of The Adventures of Tintin were produced , as was an animated cartoon series produced by Belvision , Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin . Two live @-@ action films were also produced , Tintin and the Golden Fleece ( 1961 ) and Tintin and the Blue Oranges ( 1964 ) , the former of which Hergé had been closely involved with .
Developing an interest in modern art , in the early 1960s Hergé befriended the art dealer Marcel Stal , owner of the Carrefour gallery in Brussels . He was a particular fan of the work of Constant Permeke , Jakob Smits , Lucio Fontana , and Jean @-@ Pierre Raynaurd , as well as the pop art movement , in particular the work of Roy Lichtenstein . He built up his own personal collection , which consisted of both modern paintings as well as African art and Chinese ceramics . In 1962 , Hergé decided he wanted to paint . He chose Louis Van Lint , one of the most respected Belgian abstract painters at the time , whose work he liked a lot , to be his private teacher . Hergé took up painting as a hobby , producing abstract art works which were influenced by the styles of Joan Miró and Serge Poliakoff . He showed his work to the art historian Léo Van Puyvelde , who was the chief conservator of the Musées des Beaux @-@ Arts , who believed that they showed promise but that Hergé 's real talent lay with cartoon drawing . Hergé abandoned painting shortly after , having produced 37 paintings in all . Spending less time on new Adventures of Tintin , from June to December 1965 Tintin magazine serialised a redrawn and newly coloured version of The Black Island prepared by staff at Studios Hergé . Supported by his studio , Hergé produced The Calculus Affair between 1954 until 1956 which was followed by The Red Sea Sharks in 1956 to 1957 .
= = = Final years : 1966 – 83 = = =
In the 1960s , Hergé became increasingly annoyed at the success of René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo 's Asterix comic book series , which various commentators had described as eclipsing The Adventures of Tintin as the foremost comic in the Franco @-@ Belgian tradition . Hoping to imitate the success of the recent animated films Asterix the Gaul ( 1967 ) and Asterix and Cleopatra ( 1968 ) , Hergé agreed to the production of two animated Belvision films based on the Adventures of Tintin . The first , Tintin and the Temple of the Sun ( 1969 ) , was based on pre @-@ existing comics , whereas the second , Tintin and the Lake of Sharks ( 1972 ) was an original story written by Greg . In 1982 the American filmmaker Steven Spielberg requested the film rights for a live @-@ action adaptation of one of The Adventures of Tintin , a prospect that excited Hergé , but the project never came to fruition at the time .
In October 1971 , the journalist Numa Sadoul conducted a wide @-@ ranging interview with Hergé , in which the latter opened up about many of the problems he had experienced in his personal life . Sadoul planned to publish the interview as a book , but Hergé made many alterations to the transcript , both to improve its prose and to remove sections which cast him in a negative light . Editors at Casterman then removed even further sections , particularly those in which Hergé expressed a negative view of Catholicism . The interview was published as Tintin et moi ( " Tintin and I " ) in 1975 . Hergé followed this by agreeing to be the subject of a documentary film produced by Henri Roane , Moi , Tintin ( " I , Tintin " ) , which premiered in 1975 . In January 1977 he attended an early comic book convention at Angoulême , where he was widely heralded as one of the masters of the discipline . To mark the fiftieth anniversary of The Adventures of Tintin in 1979 , a celebratory event was held at Brussels ' Hilton hotel , while an exhibit on " Le Musée imaginaire de Tintin " ( " The Imaginary Museum of Tintin " ) was held at the Palais de Beaux @-@ Arts .
In April 1971 Hergé visited the United States for the first time , primarily to visit a liver specialist in Rochester , Minnesota , but on the trip he also visited a Sioux reservation in South Dakota , but was shocked at the conditions in which their inhabitants ' lived . On this visit he also spent time in Chicago , San Francisco , Los Angeles , Las Vegas , and Kansas City . In April 1972 he travelled to New York City for an international conference on the strip cartoon , and there presented Mayor John Lindsay with a cartoon of Tintin visiting the city and also met with the pop artist Andy Warhol . Several years later , in 1977 , Warhol visited Europe , where he produced a pop art portrait of Hergé . In April 1973 , Hergé took up an invite to visit Taiwan by the nation 's government , in recognition of his promotion of Chinese culture in The Blue Lotus . During the visit he also spent time in Thailand and Bali .
Hergé had long sought to regain contact with his old friend Zhang Chongren , with whom he had lost contact . He regularly asked any Chinese people that he met if they knew of Zhang , and in 1979 had some success when a staff member in a Brussels Chinese restaurant revealed that he was Zhang 's godson . Hergé was thus able to re @-@ establish contact with his old friend . The journalist Gérard Valet organised for Zhang to visit Brussels so that he and Hergé could be re @-@ united . The event took place in March 1981 , and was heavily publicised ; Hergé however found the situation difficult , disliking the press attention and finding that he and Zhang had grown distant during the intervening years .
In June 1970 , Hergé 's father died , and after the funeral he holidayed near Lake Geneva . In 1974 , his assistant Branden suffered a stroke and was left unable to write , with Hergé replacing him with a young man , Alain Baran , who Hergé biographer Pierre Assouline later termed Hergé 's " surrogate son " . In March 1977 , Hergé 's divorce with Germaine was finalised ; although Hergé continued to visit her and financially support her , Germaine took the divorce badly , viewing it as a further betrayal . Hergé was then able to marry Fanny several weeks later , in a low @-@ key ceremony on 20 May ; he was 70 years old and she 42 . In 1979 , Hergé was diagnosed with osteomyelofibrosis , necessitating a complete blood transfusion . His need for blood transfusions had increased , as he came to require them every two weeks , and then every week . On 25 February 1983 , Hergé entered cardiac arrest and was hospitalised in intensive care at Brussels ' Cliniques Universitaires Saint @-@ Luc .
He died there on 3 March . His death received front page coverage in numerous francophone newspapers , including Libération and Le Monde . In his will , he had left Fanny as his sole heir . In November 1986 , Fanny closed Studios Hergé , replacing it with the Hergé Foundation . In 1988 , Tintin magazine was discontinued .
= = Personal life = =
Hergé was a highly private person , being described by biographer Harry Thompson as " reserved [ and ] unostentatious " . He greatly enjoyed walking in the countryside , gardening , and art collecting , and he was a fan of jazz music . Although he disliked making public or press appearances , Hergé insisted on personally responding to all fan mail received , which took up a considerable part of his time . He stated that " not replying to children 's letters would be to betray their dreams . " Friends described him as a humorous man , known particularly for his self @-@ deprecating jokes . Colleagues described Hergé as egocentric , an assessment he agreed with . He was known to be authoritarian in dealing with his assistants and refused to share credit with them for their part in his work .
Throughout his first marriage he had a number of affairs with other women . He had no children , having been rendered sterile by radiation treatment , but in the 1950s offered to adopt his brother Paul 's two children , Denise and George , when their parents were experiencing trouble in their relationship . Paul declined the offer , with Denise and George later noting that they had no great affection for Hergé , deeming him awkward around children . For a large part of his life , Hergé was a devout Catholic and supported most of the traditional elements of Belgian society , a view expressed in some of the early Tintin comics . His adherence to Catholicism declined in later life as he developed a keen interest in Taoism , and became an agnostic . He was a fan of the Tao Te Ching and Arnaud Desjardins ' The Path to Wisdom , as well as Fritjof Capra 's The Tao of Physics and the work of Jean @-@ Émile Charon .
= = = Political views = = =
Politically , Hergé was a fervent royalist , and remained so throughout his life , also believing in the unity of Belgium . In his early life , Hergé was " close to the traditional right @-@ wing " of Belgian society . According to Harry Thompson , such political ideas were not unusual in middle @-@ class circles in Belgium of the 1920s and early 1930s , where " patriotism , Catholicism , strict morality , discipline and naivety were so inextricably bound together in everyone 's lives that right @-@ wing politics were an almost inevitable by @-@ product . It was a world view shared by everyone , distinguished principally by its complete ignorance of the world . " When Hergé took responsibility for Le Petit Vingtième , he followed Wallez 's instruction and allowed the newspaper to contain explicitly pro @-@ fascist and anti @-@ semitic sentiment . Literary critic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès noted that the character of Tintin was a personification of the " New Youth " concept which was promoted by the European far right . Under Wallez 's guidance , the early Adventures of Tintin contained explicit political messages for its young readership . Tintin in the Land of the Soviets was a work of anti @-@ socialist propaganda , while Tintin in the Congo was designed to encourage colonialist sentiment toward the Belgian Congo , and Tintin in America was designed as a work of anti @-@ Americanism heavily critical of capitalism , commercialism , and industrialisation .
Michael Farr asserted that Hergé had " an acute political conscience " during his earlier days , as exemplified by his condemnation of racism in the United States evident in Tintin in America . Literary critic Tom McCarthy went further , remarking that Tintin in America represented the emergence of a " left @-@ wing counter tendency " in Hergé 's work that rebelled against his right @-@ wing milieu and which was particularly critical of wealthy capitalists and industrialists . This was furthered in The Blue Lotus , in which Hergé rejected his " classically right @-@ wing " ideas to embrace an anti @-@ imperialist stance , and in a contemporary Quick & Flupke strip in which he lampooned the far right leaders of Germany and Italy , Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini . Although many of his friends and colleagues did so in the mid @-@ 1930s , Hergé did not join the far @-@ right Rexist Party , later asserting that he " had always had an aversion to it " and commenting that " to throw my heart and soul into an ideology is the opposite of who I am . "
= = = Accusations of racism = = =
Hergé has faced repeated accusations of racism due to his portrayal of various ethnic groups throughout The Adventures of Tintin . According to McCarthy , in Tintin in the Congo Hergé represented the Congolese as " good at heart but backwards and lazy , in need of European mastery . " Thompson commented that Hergé had not written the book to be " deliberately racist " , arguing that it reflected the average early 20th century Belgian view of the Congolese , one which was more " patronising " than malevolent . Indeed , it provoked no controversy at the time , only coming to be perceived as racist in the latter 20th century . In the following adventure , Tintin in America , Hergé depicted members of the Blackfoot tribe of Native Americans as " gullible , even naive " , though it was nevertheless " broadly sympathetic " to their culture and plight , depicting their oppression at the hands of the U.S. army . In The Blue Lotus , he depicted the Japanese as militaristic and buck @-@ toothed , which has also drawn accusations of racism .
Hergé has also been accused of utilising anti @-@ semitic stereotypes . The character of Rastapopoulos has been claimed to be based on anti @-@ semitic stereotypes , despite Hergé 's protestations that the character was Italian , and not Jewish .
In contrast to his racial stereotyping , from his early years , Hergé was openly critical of racism . He lambasted the pervasive racism of U.S. society in a prelude comment to Tintin in America published in Le Petit Vingtième on 20 August 1931 , and ridiculed racist attitudes toward the Chinese in The Blue Lotus . Peeters asserted that " Hergé was no more racist than the next man " , an assessment shared by Farr , who after meeting Hergé in the 1980s commented that " you couldn 't have met someone who was more open and less racist " . In contrast , President of the International Bande Dessinée Society Laurence Grove opined that Hergé adhered to prevailing societal trends in his work , and that " When it was fashionable to be a Nazi , he was a Nazi . When it was fashionable to be a colonial racist , that 's what he was . "
= = Legacy = =
Assouline described Hergé as " the personification of Belgium " .
= = = Awards and recognition = = =
1971 : Adamson Awards , Sweden
1972 : Yellow Kid " una vita per il cartooning " ( lifetime award ) at the Festival of Lucca
1973 : Grand Prix Saint Michel of the city of Brussels
1999 : Included in the Harvey Award Jack Kirby Hall of Fame
2003 : Included in the Eisner Award Hall of Fame as the Judge 's choice
2006 : The Dalai Lama bestowed the International Campaign for Tibet 's Light of Truth Award upon the character of Tintin .
2007 : Selected as the main motif for a Belgian commemorative coin with a face value of € 20 in honour of his 100th birthday .
According to the UNESCO 's Index Translationum , Hergé is the ninth @-@ most @-@ often @-@ translated French @-@ language author , the second @-@ most @-@ often @-@ translated Belgian author after Georges Simenon , and the second @-@ most @-@ often @-@ translated French @-@ language comics author behind René Goscinny . He also had an asteroid , 1652 Hergé , within the main belt , named after him in 1953 .
= = = In popular culture = = =
A cartoon version of Hergé makes a number of cameo appearances in Ellipse @-@ Nelvana 's The Adventures of Tintin TV cartoon series . An animated version of Hergé also makes a cameo appearance at the start of the 2011 performance capture film , The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn , directed by Steven Spielberg and produced by Peter Jackson , where he is depicted as a street cartoonist drawing a portrait of Tintin at the start of the film .
= = = Hergé Museum = = =
The Musée Hergé is located in the centre of Louvain @-@ la @-@ Neuve , a city to the south of Brussels . This location was originally chosen for the Museum in 2001 . The futuristic building was designed by Pritzker Prize @-@ winning French architect Christian de Portzamparc and cost € 15 million to build . On the centenary of the birth of Hergé , 22 May 2007 , the museum 's first stone was laid . The museum opened its doors in June 2009 .
The idea of a museum dedicated to the work of Hergé can be traced back to the end of the 1970s , when Hergé was still alive . After his death in 1983 , Hergé 's widow , Fanny , led the efforts , undertaken at first by the Hergé Foundation and then by the new Studios Hergé , to catalogue and choose the artwork and elements that would become part of the Museum 's exhibitions .
The Hergé Museum contains eight permanent galleries displaying original artwork by Hergé , and telling the story of his life and career which had not previously been visible to the public . The Museum also houses a temporary exhibition gallery . Although Tintin features prominently in the museum , Hergé 's other comic strip characters , such as Jo , Zette and Jocko , and Quick and Flupke , as well as his work as a graphic designer , are also present .
= Joker ( comics ) =
The Joker is a fictional supervillain created by Bill Finger , Bob Kane , and Jerry Robinson who first appeared in the debut issue of the comic book Batman ( April 25 , 1940 ) published by DC Comics . Credit for the Joker 's creation is disputed ; Kane and Robinson claimed responsibility for the Joker 's design , while acknowledging Finger 's writing contribution . Although the Joker was planned to be killed off during his initial appearance , he was spared by editorial intervention , allowing the character to endure as the archenemy of the superhero Batman .
In his comic book appearances , the Joker is portrayed as a criminal mastermind . Introduced as a psychopath with a warped , sadistic sense of humor , the character became a goofy prankster in the late 1950s in response to regulation by the Comics Code Authority , before returning to his darker roots during the early 1970s . As Batman 's nemesis , the Joker has been part of the superhero 's defining stories , including the murder of Jason Todd — the second Robin and Batman 's ward — and the paralysis of one of Batman 's allies , Barbara Gordon . The Joker has had various possible origin stories during his decades of appearances . The most common story involves him falling into a tank of chemical waste which bleaches his skin white , turns his hair green , and his lips bright red ; the resulting disfigurement drives him insane . The antithesis of Batman in personality and appearance , the Joker is considered by critics to be his perfect adversary .
The Joker possesses no superhuman abilities , instead using his expertise in chemical engineering to develop poisonous or lethal concoctions , and thematic weaponry , including razor @-@ tipped playing cards , deadly joy buzzers , and acid @-@ spraying lapel flowers . Although the Joker sometimes works with other supervillains such as the Penguin and Two @-@ Face , and groups like the Injustice Gang and Injustice League , these relationships often collapse due to the Joker 's desire for unbridled chaos . The 1990s introduced a romantic interest for the Joker in his former psychiatrist , Harley Quinn , who becomes his villainous sidekick . Although his primary obsession is Batman , the Joker has also fought other heroes including Superman and Wonder Woman .
One of the most iconic characters in popular culture , the Joker has been listed among the greatest comic book villains and fictional characters ever created . The character 's popularity has seen him appear on a variety of merchandise , such as clothing and collectable items , inspire real @-@ world structures ( such as theme park attractions ) , and be referenced in a number of media . The Joker has been adapted to serve as Batman 's adversary in live @-@ action , animated and video game incarnations , including the 1960s Batman television series ( played by Cesar Romero ) and in film by Jack Nicholson in Batman ( 1989 ) , Heath Ledger in The Dark Knight ( 2008 ) , and Jared Leto in Suicide Squad ( 2016 ) . Mark Hamill , Troy Baker , and others have provided the character 's voice .
= = Creation and development = =
= = = Concept = = =
Bill Finger , Bob Kane , and Jerry Robinson are credited with creating the Joker , but their accounts of the character 's conception differ , each providing his own version of events . Finger 's , Kane 's , and Robinson 's versions acknowledge that Finger produced an image of actor Conrad Veidt in character as Gwynplaine ( a man with a disfigured face , giving him a perpetual grin ) in the 1928 film The Man Who Laughs as an | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
-@ Wah " was widely assumed to be directed at McCartney only , just as Harrison 's walkout two years before was thought to have been due solely to McCartney .
= = Reception and legacy = =
In his book on the Beatles ' first decade as solo artists , Robert Rodriguez includes " Wah @-@ Wah " among the " essential components " of All Things Must Pass , and he recalls the " buzz " surrounding the release as having been " about a major talent unleashed , one who 'd [ previously ] been hidden in plain sight " behind Lennon and McCartney . In a contemporary review for Rolling Stone , Ben Gerson suggested that the album was the rock @-@ music equivalent of Tolstoy 's epic novel War and Peace , while describing " Wah @-@ Wah " as a " vintage Beatle song " and " a grand cacophony of sound in which horns sound like guitars and vice versa " . By contrast , Alan Smith of the NME found the dense sound oppressive and regarded the song as " inconsequential … one of the weaker tracks , although it 's not short on dressing " .
AllMusic 's Bill Janovitz sums up the track as " a glorious rocker ... [ that 's ] as edgy as anything Harrison ever sang while in the Beatles , if not more so " , and " a driving , majestic song on the edge of being out of control " . John Bergstrom of PopMatters opines that the best moments on All Things Must Pass " involve Harrison addressing his former band " ; of these , the " raucous , killer jam " of " Wah @-@ Wah " dismisses the Beatles ' strife @-@ filled final years as " so much white noise " . While the song is " cutting " , Bergstrom adds , " the sense of liberation is almost palpable . " Writing for Rough Guides , Chris Ingham considers that without Spector 's Wall of Sound excesses , All Things Must Pass " wouldn 't be the magnificently overblown item that it is " , and he writes of " the sheer size of the sound … threatening to trample both song and singer " in the case of " the thunderous Wah @-@ Wah " . Former Mojo editor Paul Du Noyer describes the album as " Harrison 's handful of earth upon the Beatle coffin " , but , less impressed with the composition , he cites " Wah @-@ Wah " as a rare example where " the material is probably too slight to carry the colossal weight of Spector 's production " .
Among Harrison biographers , Simon Leng writes that the song " trashes the roseate memory of the Beatles " . He concludes his discussion of this " unusually heavy chunk of rock " with the observation : " It 's a song of anger and alienation , redolent of betrayal and hostility . To that extent , it 's a good @-@ time number to rival Delaney & Bonnie , with a heart of pure stone . " Noting the production 's " layer upon layer of sonic bombast " , Elliot Huntley opines that " Spector fans must have been in seventh heaven " when they first heard " Wah @-@ Wah " . Huntley refers to it as " one of the outstanding tracks " of Harrison 's career , and a welcome though rare " flat @-@ out , kick @-@ ass rocker " in the singer 's canon .
Still dissatisfied with Spector 's " Cinemascope " -like production on " Wah @-@ Wah " , when All Things Must Pass was reissued in January 2001 , Harrison admitted that he had been tempted to remix many of the tracks rather than simply remaster the album 's original mixes . In an interview with Guitar World magazine to promote the reissue , he also revealed that McCartney had " long since " apologised for his behaviour towards him during the Beatles years . In the 2000 book The Beatles Anthology , Harrison comments : " It 's important to state that a lot of water has gone under the bridge ... But talking about what was happening at that time [ with McCartney , Lennon and Ono ] , you can see it was strange . "
= = Live version = =
On 1 August 1971 , Harrison performed " Wah @-@ Wah " as the opening song for the rock @-@ music portion of the two Concert for Bangladesh shows , held at Madison Square Garden in New York . It was therefore the first song he ever played live as a solo artist and , given the humanitarian cause behind the event , Alan Clayson writes , the New York audience " loved him ... before he 'd even plucked a string " . The running order of the Concert for Bangladesh live album follows the setlist for the second show that day , about which Joshua Greene remarks on the " logical chronology " in Harrison 's three @-@ song opening segment : " Wah @-@ Wah " " declared his independence from the Beatles , followed by ' My Sweet Lord , ' which declared his internal discovery of God and spirit , and then ' Awaiting on You All , ' which projected his message to the world . " Re @-@ creating the Wall of Sound from All Things Must Pass , Harrison was backed by a large band that again included Clapton , Starr , Preston , Voormann and Badfinger , together with musicians such as Leon Russell , saxophonist Jim Horn and drummer Jim Keltner , and a group of seven backing singers .
The recording of " Wah @-@ Wah " that appears on the live album was a composite of the audio from both the afternoon and evening shows – one of the few examples of studio manipulation on an otherwise faithful record of the concert . Due to technical problems with the film footage , the " Wah @-@ Wah " segment in Saul Swimmer 's concert documentary was created through a series of edits and cuts between visuals from the first and second shows .
Harrison 's staging of the two benefit concerts enhanced his standing as the most popular of the former Beatles ; Doggett describes him as having become " arguably music 's most influential figure " over this period . In a laudatory review of the Concert for Bangladesh album , for Rolling Stone , Jon Landau described " Wah @-@ Wah " as " a simple statement by a musician who knows who he is and what he wants to play " . Like Rodriguez , who considers that the song " truly [ came ] into its own " that day , Andrew Grant Jackson views this live reading as superior to the studio recording . He writes : " The live version is a notch slower , and the cleaner mix allows breathing room to hear the space between the instruments . And more importantly , there 's the euphoria of the performance itself . "
= = Cover versions = =
On 29 November 2002 , exactly a year after his death from cancer , " Wah @-@ Wah " was the last Harrison composition performed at the Concert for George , held at London 's Royal Albert Hall . Jeff Lynne , Eric Clapton and Andy Fairweather @-@ Low shared lead vocals on the song . The band also featured Harrison 's son Dhani and many other close musical friends – Starr , Voormann , Keltner , Horn , Ray Cooper , Gary Brooker and Tom Petty among them – as well as Paul McCartney . This performance was released on the album of the concert ; although left off the theatrical release of David Leland 's Concert for George documentary film , it was subsequently included on the DVD release .
Alternative band B.A.L.L. covered " Wah @-@ Wah " on their 1988 album Bird , as part of their parody of early 1970s rock stars such as the former Beatles . Buffalo Tom recorded " Wah @-@ Wah " live on WMBR in Cambridge , Massachusetts in January 1991 , a version that appeared on the band 's Fortune Teller EP later that year . Ocean Colour Scene covered the song on their 2005 album A Hyperactive Workout for the Flying Squad , and in 2011 former Jefferson Starship vocalist Mickey Thomas released a version on his album Marauder .
The Tedeschi Trucks Band have often included " Wah @-@ Wah " in their live performances . Beck performed the song on the US television show Conan in September 2014 , as part of a week @-@ long promotion for Harrison 's The Apple Years box set . Nick Valensi of the Strokes covered " Wah @-@ Wah " at the George Fest tribute concert that same month , with Matt Sorum , of Guns N ' Roses and Velvet Revolver .
= = Personnel = =
The following musicians are believed to have played on the studio version of " Wah @-@ Wah " :
George Harrison – vocals , electric guitar , slide guitar , backing vocals
Eric Clapton – electric guitar
Billy Preston – electric piano
Gary Wright – piano
Pete Ham – acoustic guitar
Tom Evans – acoustic guitar
Joey Molland – acoustic guitar
Klaus Voormann – bass
Ringo Starr – drums
Bobby Keys – saxophones
Jim Price – trumpet , horn arrangement
Mike Gibbins – tambourine
uncredited – maracas , congas
= Web ( web browser ) =
Web ( originally called Epiphany from 2003 to 2012 ) is a free software web browser for the GNOME desktop environment .
The browser was forked from Galeon , after developers ' disagreements about Galeon 's growing complexity . Since then Web has been developed as part of the GNOME project and uses most of GNOME 's technology and settings when applicable . It is part of the GNOME Core Applications . As required by the GNOME Human Interface Guidelines ( HIG ) , Web maintains the clean and simple graphical user interface with only a required minimum number of features exposed to users by default . The browser 's functionality and configurability can be extended with official and third @-@ party extensions .
Instead of developing a custom web browser engine Epiphany originally used the Gecko layout engine until version 2 @.@ 28 and WebKitGTK + starting with version 2 @.@ 20 . This approach allows the relatively small developer community to maintain a sufficient level of modern web standards support . The features of Web include reuse of GNOME configuration settings , smart bookmarks and web application integration into user desktop . Web extensions add support for ad filtering , Greasemonkey user scripts support and other smaller , yet useful , options .
Web 's source code is available under the GNU General Public License from the GNOME project . The binary builds of the browser are available in the package repositories of most Linux distributions and BSD releases .
= = Development = =
= = = Galeon fork = = =
Marco Pesenti Gritti , the initiator of Galeon , originally developed Epiphany in 2002 as a fork of Galeon . The fork occurred because of the divergent aims of Gritti and the rest of Galeon development team about new features . While Gritti regarded Galeon 's monolithic design and the number of user @-@ configurable features as factors limiting Galeon 's maintainability and user base expansion , the rest of the Galeon developers wanted to see more features added . At the same time the GNOME project created the GNOME human interface guidelines , which promoted simplification of user interfaces . As Galeon was oriented towards power users , most developers saw the implementation of those guidelines as unacceptable . As a result , Gritti created a new browser based on Galeon 's codebase , with most of the non @-@ mission @-@ critical features removed . He intended Epiphany to comply fully with the GNOME human interface guidelines , with a very simple user @-@ interface . As such , Epiphany does not have its own theme settings and uses GNOME 's settings , which are specified in the GNOME Control Center .
Gritti explained his motivations :
While Mozilla has an excellent rendering engine , its default XUL @-@ based interface is considered to be overcrowded and bloated . Furthermore , on slower processors even trivial tasks such as pulling down a menu is less than responsive . Epiphany aims to utilize the simplest interface possible for a browser . Keep in mind that simple does not necessarily mean less powerful . We believe the commonly used browsers of today are too big , buggy , and bloated . Epiphany addresses simplicity with a small browser designed for the web — not mail , newsgroups , file management , instant messaging or coffee making . The Unix philosophy is to design small tools that do one thing , and do it well .
Galeon continued after the fork , but lost its momentum due to the remaining developers ' failure to keep up with the new features and changes Mozilla introduced . Galeon development finally stalled and the developers decided to work on a set of extensions to bring Galeon 's advanced features to Epiphany instead .
Epiphany 's early philosophy included a commitment to creating a web browser specifically for GNOME :
Epiphany 's main goal is to be integrated with the gnome desktop . We don 't aim to make Epiphany usable outside Gnome . If someone will like to use it anyway , it 's just a plus . For example : Making people happy that don 't have control center installed is not a good reason to have mime configuration in Epiphany itself .
Gritti ended his work on the Epiphany project and a GNOME team led by Xan Lopez , Christian Persch and Jean @-@ François Rameau now direct the project . Gritti died of cancer on 23 May 2015 .
While some promote Epiphany as the default web browser in Linux distributions with GNOME as the default desktop environment , most distros offer Firefox instead . In most minimalist distributions , Epiphany is installed with the GNOME meta @-@ package or packages group .
= = = Gecko @-@ based = = =
The first version of Epiphany was released on December 24 , 2002 .
Epiphany initially used the Gecko layout engine from the Mozilla project to display web pages . It provided a GNOME integrated graphical user interface for Gecko , instead of the Mozilla XUL interface .
The development process of Epiphany was mainly focused on numerous small usability improvements . The most notable of them was the new text entry widget , which first appeared in 1 @.@ 8 stable version series . The new widget supported icons inside the text area reduced the amount of screen space needed to present the information and improved GNOME integration .
The second major milestone ( after version 1 @.@ 0 ) in Epiphany development was the 2 @.@ 14 release . This was the first Epiphany release which followed GNOME 's version numbering . It also featured network awareness using NetworkManager , smart bookmarks @-@ related improvements and the possibility of being compiled against XULRunner . The latter was critical , as previously Epiphany could only use Firefox or Mozilla / SeaMonkey as a layout engine provider , so it could only be installed alongside one of those browsers . The XULRunner support made it possible to install Epiphany as the sole web browser on the system .
= = = WebKit @-@ based = = =
The development process heavily suffered from multiple problems , related to the Gecko backend . To address these issues in July 2007 the Epiphany team added support for WebKit as an alternative rendering engine for Epiphany . As the backend development advanced , on 000000002008 @-@ 04 @-@ 01 @-@ 0000April 1 , 2008 the Epiphany team announced that it would stop using the Gecko rendering engine and proceed using just WebKit .
The size of the development team and the complexity of porting the whole browser to a new backend caused Epiphany to re @-@ release version 2 @.@ 22 with bugfixes instead of the actual development code , so browser development remained stagnant until 000000002009 @-@ 07 @-@ 01 @-@ 0000July 1 , 2009 , when the project team announced that Epiphany 2 @.@ 26 would be the final Gecko @-@ based version . Eventually , in September 2009 the Webkit @-@ powered Epiphany 2 @.@ 28 was released , as part of GNOME 2 @.@ 28 .
With GNOME 3 @.@ 4 release Epiphany was renamed Web . However , the name Epiphany is still used internally for development , such as for bug tracking and in the source code . The package remains epiphany @-@ browser .
= = = Release history = = =
= = Features = =
Web is based on the WebKit web browser engine , which provides support for HTML 4 and XHTML , CSS 1 and 2 , substantial degree of implementation of HTML5 and CSS 3 features , Web Inspector ( HTML and JavaScript debugging tool ) and NPAPI , including Adobe Flash and IcedTea plug @-@ ins support .
= = = GNOME integration = = =
Web reuses GNOME frameworks and settings . Therefore , its user interface theme is the GNOME default theme , the network settings with GNOME NetworkManager configuration , printing with the GNOME printing system , settings with GSettings and GNOME default applications settings are used for internet media types handling .
The built @-@ in preference manager for Web is designed to present user only basic browser @-@ specific settings . All the advanced configuration is done with the stand @-@ alone GSettings configurator tools such as GNOME 's default dconf ( command line ) and dconf @-@ editor ( graphical ) .
Web follows the GNOME Human Interface Guidelines and follows the platform @-@ wide design changes . For example , in Web 3 @.@ 4 release the menu for application @-@ wide actions was moved to the GNOME Shell 's top panel application menu and the menubar was replaced with " super menu " button , which triggers the display of window @-@ specific menu entries .
= = = Bookmarks = = =
While most browsers feature a hierarchical folder @-@ based bookmark system , Web uses categorized bookmarks , where a single bookmark ( such as " Web " ) can exist in multiple categories ( such as " Web Browsers " , " GNOME " , and " Computer Software " ) . A special category includes bookmarks that have not yet been categorized . Another innovative concept supported by Web ( though originally from Galeon ) is " smart bookmarks " . These take a single argument specified from the address bar , or from a textbox in a toolbar . Bookmarks , along with browsing history , are accessed from the address bar in find @-@ as @-@ you @-@ type manner .
= = = Modularity = = =
Up until version 3 @.@ 6 , Web was extensible with a plugin system called Web extensions . This package was distributed by the developers of Web and contained the official extensions . For version 3 @.@ 8 , this system was removed because of problems with stability and maintainability , with some popular extensions being moved to the core application instead . A new , out @-@ of @-@ process plugin system is planned for the future .
Previously extensions could be written in either C or Python , but the Python support was dropped with WebKit adoption .
A list of Web extensions before version 3 @.@ 8 include :
Several unofficial extensions exist , though most of them are not currently supported .
= = = Web Applications mode = = =
Since GNOME 3 @.@ 2 Web allows creating application launchers for web applications . The subsequent invocation of a launcher brings up a plain single instance of Web limited to one domain , with off @-@ site links opening in a normal browser . The launcher created this way is accessible from the desktop and is not limited to GNOME Shell . For instance it may be used with Unity , used on Ubuntu . This feature facilitates the integration of the desktop and World Wide Web , which is a goal of Web 's developers . Similar features can be found in the Windows version of Google Chrome . For the same purpose Mozilla Foundation previously developed a standalone application Mozilla Prism , which was superseded by the project Chromeless .
Web applications are managed within Epiphany 's main instance . The applications can be deleted from the page , accessible with a special URI about : applications . This approach was supposed to be a temporary solution and a common GNOME @-@ wide application management was intended to be implemented in GNOME 3 @.@ 4 , but was not rolled out .
= = System requirements = =
Being a component of GNOME desktop environment , Web has neither software , nor hardware dependencies beyond the GNOME platform . Though the GNOME Project does not list the minimum system requirements , it states that GNOME 3 should run on any modern computer .
Web is only released as source code or with Linux distributions and BSDs making binary packages . Thus the availability of Web depends on the distributor . Web can be run on many hardware platforms , including i386 , amd64 and several other processor architectures .
= = Reception = =
In reviewing the Webkit @-@ powered Epiphany 2 @.@ 28 in September 2009 , Ryan Paul of Ars Technica said " Epiphany is quite snappy in GNOME 2 @.@ 28 and scores 100 / 100 on the Acid3 test . Using WebKit will help differentiate Epiphany from Firefox , which is shipped as the default browser by most of the major Linux distributors . "
In reviewing Epiphany 2 @.@ 30 in July 2010 Jack Wallen described it as " efficient , but different " and noted its problem with crashes . " When I first started working with Epiphany it crashed on most sites I visited . After doing a little research ( and then a little debugging ) I realized the issue was with javascript . Epiphany ( in its current release ) , for some strange reason , doesn 't like javascript . The only way around this was to disable javascript . Yes this means a lot of features won 't work on a lot of sites – but this also means those same sites will load faster and won 't be so prone to having issues ( like crashing my browser ) . " Wallen concluded positively about the browser , " Although Epiphany hasn 't fully replaced Chrome and Firefox as my one @-@ stop @-@ shop browser , I now use it much more than I would have previously . [ It has a ] small footprint , fast startup , and clean interface . "
In March 2011 Veronica Henry reviewed Epiphany 2 @.@ 32 , saying " To be fair , this would be a hard sell as a primary desktop browser for most users . In fact , there isn 't even a setting to let you designate it as your default browser . But for those instance where you need to fire up a lighting @-@ fast browser for quick surfing , Epiphany will do the trick . " She further noted , " Though I still use Firefox as my primary browser , lately it seems to run at a snail 's pace . So , one of the first things I noticed about Epiphany is how quickly it launches . And subsequent page loads on my system are equally as fast . " Henry criticized Epiphany for its short list of extensions , singling out the lack of Firebug as a deficiency . Web instead supports Web Inspector offered by the Webkit engine , which has similar functionality .
In April 2012 Ryan Paul of Ars Technica used Web as an example to his criticism of GNOME 3 @.@ 4 design decisions : " Aside from the poor initial discoverability of the panel menu , this model works reasonably well for simple applications . [ ... ] Unfortunately , it doesn 't scale well in complex applications . The best example of where this approach can pose difficulties is in GNOME 's default Web browser . [ ... ] Having the application 's functionality split across two completely separate menus does not constitute a usability improvement . " This was addressed in later versions , with a single unified menu .
= 4 in the Morning =
" 4 in the Morning " is a song by American singer and songwriter Gwen Stefani from her second studio album The Sweet Escape ( 2006 ) . It was written by Stefani and co @-@ written and produced by Tony Kanal , with additional production by Mark " Spike " Stent . Interscope Records serviced the song to US mainstream radio on May 8 , 2007 , as the album 's third single ; elsewhere it was released in June 2007 . Described as one of her favorite songs on the album , Stefani began writing the song while pregnant and finished with Kanal , having Roberta Flack and Billy Idol hits as influences to build the track .
" 4 in the Morning " was defined as a 1980s @-@ inspired midtempo synthpop ballad , with its instrumentation of a light keyboard during its intro through its break , a guitar , synthetic strings and a slick sheen . Lyrically , the song talks about a relationship on the edge , with the protagonist trying to save her love . The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , who noted it as an improvement over her last singles , while praising its tempo and highlighting her vocals .
Commercially , it failed to replicate the commercial success of previous singles in the United States , peaking at number 54 ; it proved to be successful elsewhere , reaching the top @-@ ten in New Zealand and Australia , while reaching the top 20 in several European countries . Its accompanying music video was directed by Stefani 's longtime collaborator Sophie Muller and features the singer lying in bed and walking around her apartment while performing the song in a melancholic mood . The song was performed during The Sweet Escape Tour and in some concerts Stefani made during 2015 .
= = Background and writing = =
Stefani began working with No Doubt bassist Tony Kanal for her second solo album just after finishing the Harajuku Lovers Tour in late @-@ 2005 , referring to him as her " comfort zone " . They two wrote " 4 in the Morning " based on a tape of melodies left from working on Stefani 's debut album Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ( 2004 ) . In a webisode for the recording process of the album , Stefani admitted that she was inspired on ballads such as Roberta Flack 's " Killing Me Softly with His Song " and Billy Idol 's " Eyes Without a Face " , because she wanted a " nice ballad " on the record . It was one of the last songs recorded for the album , and during a Q & A she as one of her favorite songs on the new album , because it " brings pleasure to [ her ] ears . " The song was serviced to US mainstream radio on May 8 , 2007 as the album 's third single . Its CD single , containing the album version , two remixes and its music video , was released elsewhere from June 22 , 2007 .
" 4 in the Morning " was written by Stefani and Kanal , who was also responsible for its production , while Mark " Spike " Stent provided additional production . Described as a " 1980s @-@ inspired " midtempo synthpop ballad , the track 's instrumentation includes a " light " keyboard , which " runs tie the song together from intro through break " , a guitar , synthetic strings and a slick sheen . " 4 in the Morning " has a midtempo beat , which according to some critics is " perfect for a slow dance " . Stefani 's vocals throughout the song 's chorus presents a " fast @-@ talking " approach . Lyrically , " 4 in the Morning " talks about transparency in a romantic relationship , with the protagonist pleading for a lover to make up his mind . Bill Lamb of About.com added that the song also deals with a relationship on the edge , which can be seen in the lines : " I 'm lying here in the dark , I 'm watching you sleep , it hurts a lot . " In the chorus , she sings : " I give you everything that I am / I 'm handing over everything that I 've got / ' cause I wanna have a really true love . "
= = Critical reception = =
" 4 in the Morning " was generally well received by contemporary pop music critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic called it " coolly sensual " , noting that " those celebrations of cool synths and stylish pop hooks that work the best for Stefani . " Billboard editor Chuck Taylor called it " a melodic retro ballad that could have come from 1983 's Flashdance soundtrack " , praising the track for " pay [ ing ] homage to a time when hooks were more meaningful than aligning with hostage @-@ taking producers . " Gary Graff of the same publication wrote that " Stefani 's Madonna reverence remains intact " on the song , with Washington Post ' s J. Freedom du Lac agreeing , noting a " Madonnaism " on the track . Amanda Murray of Sputnikmusic also thought that the song " recalls a ' Crazy for You ' -era Madonna , " also noting that it is " pure Stefani - and understandably , [ it 's ] far superior to any of her attempts at mimicking other artists . " Norman Mayers of Prefix Magazine wrote that the song " soar [ s ] thanks to Stefani 's girlish vocals and brilliant hook that reference iconic moments from Madonna and Tears for Fears . " Bianca Gracie of Idolator called it " a breezy yet emotive ’ 80s @-@ ballad that highlights her tender vocals . " Alex Miller from NME described the song as " an expertly conceived tear @-@ jerker " , stating that " [ i ] t feels like the kind of song a teenage Stefani , miming along to Talk Talk , would have dreamt of singing one day . "
Bill Lamb from About.com cited " 4 in the Morning " as the best song from The Sweet Escape , calling it " beautifully performed and produced " and noting that Stefani " allows her signature vocals to sensually float and glide through the lyrical content . " In a similar mode , a write for CBBC enjoyed that the song is " a melancholy and reflective ballad about relationships , which is a breath of fresh air for Gwen , " praising its " catchy melody and woeful lyrics . " Nick Levine of Digital Spy compared it to Robert Palmer 's " Addicted To Love " , writing that " it confirms what is rapidly becoming a universal truth : Gwen Stefani is far more likeable when she channels her new wave roots than when she tries to mould herself into a ghetto fabulous urban hipshaker . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine praised Kanal 's production for making the song " less forced and much less self @-@ conscious . " Quentin B. Huff of PopMatters referred to it as one of the " few real compositions " from the album . John Murphy of musicOMH agreed , writing that " she sounds great " on " the lovelorn ballad . " Pitchfork Media 's Mark Pytlik , however , disapproved of the song , commenting that it destroyed " the mallpop cred that Stefani accrued with L.A.M.B. ' s impeccable ' Cool ' . " Spence D. of IGN was also critical with the song , calling it " the most generic , mainstream , and blas ¿ -blah pop song on the entire album . "
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , " 4 in the Morning " debuted at number 76 on the US Billboard Hot 100 for the week of June 9 , 2007 , before peaking at number 54 on the issue dated August 4 , becoming Stefani 's lowest @-@ peaking solo single on the chart at the time and her first to miss the top 50 . It was somewhat more successful in the mainstream market , reaching number 30 on the Pop 100 chart and the top 20 of the Mainstream Top 40 and Pop 100 Airplay charts . The song was successful at the clubs and reached number two on the Hot Dance Club Play . The single fared better on the Canadian Hot 100 , where it peaked at number 17 , but was more successful outside of North America . In Australia , the song debuted and peaked at number nine on the ARIA Singles Chart , meanwhile it debuted at number 36 and three weeks later it peaked at number five on the New Zealand Singles Chart . It became the album 's third top @-@ ten single in both countries .
In the United Kingdom , the song peaked at number 22 on the UK Singles Chart and remained on the chart for 10 weeks . It fared better in the rest of Europe , reaching the top five in Romania , the top @-@ ten in Finland , and the top 20 in Austria , Germany , Ireland , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Slovakia , and Switzerland . In France , the song managed to reach number 21 , which was her first solo single to miss the top 20 since " Cool " , which peaked 11 places lower .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Sophie Muller and features a tearful and distraught Stefani , lying in bed as she begins to sing to the camera . In a white inside @-@ out L.A.M.B. T @-@ shirt , she wanders around her apartment lost and questioning her lover , who is in fact absent from the video . The lyrics describe an argument , which she has with an off @-@ screen lover throughout the video . After lying around her apartment and crying during a bath , she leaves her house at night and travels in a car , as she sits tearfully in the back . The video ends with Stefani rolling on the bed .
" 4 in the Morning " was given a " First Look " on MTV 's Total Request Live on April 27 , 2007 and peaked at number seven on May 9 . On MuchMusic 's Countdown , it became Stefani 's second least successful charting video ( next to " Early Winter " , which peaked at number 23 ) since 2005 's " Luxurious " , peaking at number seven for two consecutive weeks after a slow ascent .
= = Track listings = =
UK and German CD single
" 4 in the Morning " ( Album Version ) – 4 : 51
" 4 in the Morning " ( Thin White Duke Edit ) – 4 : 55
Australian and German CD maxi single
" 4 in the Morning " ( Album Version ) – 4 : 51
" 4 in the Morning " ( Thin White Duke Edit ) – 4 : 55
" 4 in the Morning " ( Oscar the Punk Remix ) – 5 : 41
" 4 in the Morning " ( video ) – 4 : 24
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Sweet Escape
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Battle of Flint River =
The Battle of Flint River was a failed attack by Spanish and Apalachee Indian forces against Creek Indians in October 1702 in what is now the state of Georgia . The battle was a major element in ongoing frontier hostilities between English traders from the Province of Carolina and Spanish Florida , and it was a prelude to more organized military actions of Queen Anne 's War .
The Creeks , assisted by a small number of Englishmen led by trader Anthony Dodsworth , ambushed the invaders on the banks of the Flint River . More than half of the Spanish @-@ Indian force was killed or captured . Both English and Spanish authorities reacted to the battle by accelerating preparations that culminated in the Siege of St. Augustine in November 1702 .
= = Background = =
English and Spanish colonization efforts in southeastern North America began coming into conflict as early as the middle of the 17th century . The English founding of the Province of Carolina in 1663 and Charles Town ( present @-@ day Charleston , South Carolina ) in 1670 significantly raised tensions with the Spanish who had long been established in Florida . Traders and slavers from the new province penetrated into Spanish Florida , leading to raiding and reprisal expeditions on both sides . In 1700 , Carolina 's governor , Joseph Blake , threatened the Spanish that English claims to Pensacola , established by the Spanish in 1698 , would be enforced . Carolina traders such as Anthony Dodsworth and Thomas Nairne had established alliances with Creek Indians in the upper watersheds of rivers draining into the Gulf of Mexico , who they supplied with arms and from whom they purchased slaves and animal pelts .
The Spanish population of Florida at the time was fairly small . Since its founding in the 16th century , the Spanish had set up a network of missions whose primary purpose was to pacify the local Indian population and convert them to Roman Catholicism . In the Apalachee region ( roughly present @-@ day western Florida and southwestern Georgia ) there were 14 mission communities with a total population in 1680 of about 8 @,@ 000 . Many , but not all , of these communities were populated by the Apalachee ; others were from different tribes that had migrated southward to the area . The Spanish had a policy of not arming these Indians with muskets , and the Apalachee missions suffered from English and Creek raids in 1701 .
In January 1702 Pierre Le Moyne d 'Iberville , the French founder of Mobile , warned the Spanish commander at Pensacola that he should properly arm the Apalachees and engage in a vigorous defense against English incursions into Spanish territory . D 'Iberville even offered equipment and supplies for the purpose . Following the destruction by raiders of the Timucuan mission of Santa Fé de Toloca in May 1702 , Spanish Florida 's Governor Joseph de Zúñiga y Zérda authorized an expedition into the Creek territories .
= = Battle = =
Zúñiga ordered Don Francisco Romo de Uriza , a Spanish captain , to San Luis de Apalachee , where he raised a force of about 800 Apalachee and Spanish from the surrounding mission communities . Uriza 's report has not been found , so a breakdown of his force is not presently known . Word of this reached the Apalachicola community of Achita , where Carolina trader Anthony Dodsworth ( referred to in Spanish documents as " Don Antonio " ) was meeting with the local tribes . According to a report an Indian woman made to Manuel Solano , the deputy governor at San Luis , about 400 warriors , principally Apalachicolas and Chiscas , went with Dodsworth , two other white men , and two blacks , to meet the Uriza 's force . They left Achita on roughly October 7 , the same day Uriza left Apalachee . The exact date of the battle is unknown ; the woman reporting to Solana saw the battlefield on October 18 , the day Uriza and the remnants of his force returned to the Apalachee town of Bacacua .
Dodsworth assembled his force , which numbered about 500 , with the blessing of the Apalachicola chief Emperor Brim . The two forces met near the Flint River when the Apalachee made a predawn attack on the Apalachicola camp . Anticipating the possibility of this sort of attack , Dodsworth and the Apalachicolas had arranged their blankets to appear occupied and concealed themselves near the camp . When the Apalachee attacked the false camp , the Apalachicolas fell upon them . With the superiority of their weapons , the British @-@ supported Indians routed the Spanish force . Uriza was reported to have only 300 men when he returned to Apalachee .
= = Aftermath = =
The defeat immediately put Zúñiga on the defensive . He ordered the fort at San Luis to be completed and adequate supplies for a siege laid in . The battle further stirred up passions in Charles Town , where Governor James Moore had already secured approval for an expedition against St. Augustine after learning that war had formally been declared in Europe between England and Spain . His expedition departed Charles Town in November and failed in its objective , although Spanish @-@ Indian mission communities in Guale Province were destroyed in the process . Moore , in 1704 , led an expedition against the Apalachee missions that virtually wiped them out . By the end of Queen Anne 's War in 1713 , the English had practically depopulated present @-@ day Georgia of Spaniards and their allied Indian tribes , leaving the Spanish in control of little more than St. Augustine and Pensacola .
Two widely separated highway markers have been erected in Georgia to commemorate the battle . The Georgia Historical Commission erected a highway marker in central Georgia at 31 @.@ 960667 ° N 83 @.@ 910967 ° W / 31 @.@ 960667 ; -83.910967 in Crisp County near Georgia Veterans State Park in 1965 , and the Historic Chattahoochee Commission , in 1985 , placed a marker at 30 @.@ 913148 ° N 84 @.@ 5672 ° W / 30 @.@ 913148 ; -84.5672 in the southern Georgia town of Bainbridge .
= Episode 210 =
The untitled tenth episode of the second season of the television series 30 Rock was first broadcast in the United States on January 10 , 2008 , on the NBC network . The episode was written by show runner Robert Carlock and Donald Glover , and was directed by Richard Shepard . Guest stars include James Arden , Julia Barnett , Kevin Brown , James Cavanagh Burke , Grizz Chapman , Edie Falco , Toby Huss and Gladys Knight , who appeared as herself . The episode focuses on Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) and her decision to invest in real @-@ estate , Jack Donaghy 's ( Alec Baldwin ) choice between his job and his girlfriend , and Kenneth Parcell 's ( Jack McBrayer ) addiction to coffee .
The production and broadcasting of this episode was heavily affected by the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . Despite never being officially named by NBC , Episode 210 has been unofficially titled " Liz the Business Woman " and " Coffee & TV " . Although not unanimously praised by critics , the episode attracted generally positive reviews and was particularly appreciated for its cast rendition of the 1973 Gladys Knight & the Pips hit " Midnight Train to Georgia " . Liz also sings a snippet of Alanis Morissette 's " You Oughta Know " when leaving a message for the co @-@ op board .
= = Plot = =
Liz takes Jack 's advice to invest in real estate , and Jenna Maroney tells Liz that her business manager is selling his apartment . The sale is subject to the approval of the building 's cooperative board , but Liz makes a bad impression and her purchase offer is rejected . Liz gets herself drunk and makes numerous phone calls to the board .
Jack is involved in negotiations to acquire a German cable television network , but is struggling to juggle his job and his relationship with C.C. , whose work has taken her to Washington DC . Unable to see each other when they want to , the couple decide to " meet in the middle " ( in a betting parlor in Pennsylvania ) , but this arrangement proves unsuitable and they later decide to break up . Jack , in conversation with Liz , compares his relationship to Liz 's previous relationship with Floyd , and Liz declares in song that she has to go .
Tracy Jordan buys a coffee machine and puts it on Kenneth Parcell 's desk , causing him to develop a caffeine addiction . Comparing New York to Sodom , Kenneth claims that he has been " sodomized , " and feels guilty that he has let New York change him , contrary to a promise he made to his mother . He therefore decides to return to Georgia on the midnight train ; however , he quickly returns , explaining that the train was actually departing at 11 : 45 and he missed it .
= = Production = =
Parts of this episode were filmed during the week of November 5 , 2007 , which coincided with the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . The strike , which began at 00 : 01 EST on November 5 , 2007 , did not affect the episode as it had been written earlier and filming was finished on November 9 . Members of Writers Guild of America , East and Writers Guild of America , West voted to end the writers ' strike on February 12 , 2008 , and although writers were allowed to return to work on the same day , Robert Carlock returned to work on February 11 . The remaining writers resumed work on February 13 , which began the production of the next episode , " MILF Island " . During the filming , actor and executive producer Tina Fey had to balance her duties in order not to breach WGA strike rules . Fey also took to the picket lines along with co @-@ star Jack McBrayer . Alec Baldwin wrote blogs on The Huffington Post website in order to demonstrate his support for the WGA writers .
Episode 210 was broadcast on January 10 , 2008 and was the final episode , including repeats , of 30 Rock to be broadcast until the episode " MILF Island " in April . This episode is also notable for being officially unnamed ; NBC billed this episode on its press releases as " Episode 210 " . This led some critics to give it the unofficial title of " Liz the Business Woman " , while others named it " Coffee & TV " .
= = Reception = =
On its original broadcast in the United States , Episode 210 was viewed by 6 @.@ 0 million viewers and earned a 2 @.@ 8 / 7 in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 8 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast .
Entertainment Weekly 's Jeff Labrecque wrote " the episode really finished strong with a fabulous Gladys Knight musical number " . Matt Webb Mitovich of TV Guide also praised the musical number , saying " that ' Midnight Train to Georgia ' number at the end of tonight 's episode ... Wow . So out of nowhere and so fun . " Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad said that the episode " was a good episode to go into the hiatus with , if that makes things better " . He criticized the fact that the fictional TGS writing staff was not present in this episode , even though they could have been effectively used . Michael Neal of Television Without Pity awarded the episode a grading of A + . The Boston Globe 's Joanna Weiss reviewed the episode positively , saying " [ the episode ] concluded with a musical interlude that was both hilarious and wistful " .
Despite the good reviews , there was no universal acclaim from critics as a whole . Robert Canning of IGN said that " [ this episode ] wasn 't the most spectacular half @-@ hour from this truncated season " and " unfortunately , there wasn 't all that much that was funny about it . Sure , there were a couple of decent one @-@ liners , but overall [ Kenneth 's storyline ] offered up nothing new . " Despite these criticisms , Canning added further praise to the " Midnight Train to Georgia " performance . Canning gave this episode a rating of 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 .
Edie Falco was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for this episode .
= Ross Island Penal Colony =
Ross Island Penal Colony was a convict settlement that was established in 1858 in the remote Andaman Islands by the British colonial government in India , primarily to jail a large number of prisoners from the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , also known as the Indian Mutiny . With the establishment of the penal colony at Ross Island , the British administration made it the administrative headquarters for the entire group of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and built bungalows and other facilities on the site . This colony was meant as " manageable models of colonial governance and rehabilitation " . The Chief Commissioner 's residence was located at the highest point on the island .
The penal colony became infamous as " Kalapani " or " black water " for the brutalities inflicted by the British authorities on the political prisoners from India , and most of whom had died by 1860 due to illness and torture suffered during the initial stages of the clearance of the forest to establish the colony . In later years the colony experimented for a short time with civilizing the indigenous people of Andamans . The penal colony was used as an experimental station for various methods of torture and medical tests . During the Second World War the island was invaded by the Japanese army , forcing the British to evacuate . The administrative buildings were destroyed but the penal colony remained . After the Allied forces reoccupied the island the penal colony was disbanded on 7 October 1945 .
= = Geography = =
Ross Island , one of the islands chosen for establishing the penal colony , is located near the entrance to the harbour at Port Blair in South Andamans . It is a small island which has a circumference of one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) only . Once called " Paris of the East " for its exciting social life and tropical forests , the island was devastated by the invading army of the Japanese and also by an earthquake which had struck the island in 1941 , and it now appears more like a " jungle @-@ clad Lost City . "
= = History = =
The earliest known effort to establish a penal colony was by Archibald Blair who found the remoteness of the island as ideal for such a colony . But his initiative failed to go beyond 1796 as malaria prevented it . The First Indian War of Indian Independence in 1857 rekindled the interest of the British Administration in India to establish a penal colony in the Andaman | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Act . English and French have equal status in federal courts , parliament , and in all federal institutions . Citizens have the right , where there is sufficient demand , to receive federal government services in either English or French and official @-@ language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories .
The 1977 Charter of the French Language established French as the official language of Quebec . Although more than 85 percent of French @-@ speaking Canadians live in Quebec , there are substantial Francophone populations in New Brunswick , Alberta , and Manitoba ; Ontario has the largest French @-@ speaking population outside Quebec . New Brunswick , the only officially bilingual province , has a French @-@ speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the population . There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia , on Cape Breton Island , and through central and western Prince Edward Island .
Other provinces have no official languages as such , but French is used as a language of instruction , in courts , and for other government services , in addition to English . Manitoba , Ontario , and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures , and laws are enacted in both languages . In Ontario , French has some legal status , but is not fully co @-@ official . There are 11 Aboriginal language groups , composed of more than 65 distinct dialects . Of these , only the Cree , Inuktitut and Ojibway languages have a large enough population of fluent speakers to be considered viable to survive in the long term . Several aboriginal languages have official status in the Northwest Territories . Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut , and is one of three official languages in the territory .
= = Culture = =
Canada 's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities , and policies that promote a " just society " are constitutionally protected . Canada has placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all its people . Multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada 's significant accomplishments , and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity . In Quebec , cultural identity is strong , and many commentators speak of a culture of Quebec that is distinct from English Canadian culture . However , as a whole , Canada is in theory a cultural mosaic — a collection of several regional , aboriginal , and ethnic subcultures .
Canada 's approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism , which is based on selective immigration , social integration , and suppression of far right politics , has wide public support . Government policies such as publicly funded health care , higher taxation to redistribute wealth , the outlawing of capital punishment , strong efforts to eliminate poverty , strict gun control , and the legalization of same @-@ sex marriage are further social indicators of Canada 's political and cultural values . Canadians also identify with the countries institutions of health care , peacekeeping , the National park system and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms .
Historically , Canada has been influenced by British , French , and aboriginal cultures and traditions . Through their language , art and music , aboriginal peoples continue to influence the Canadian identity . During the 20th @-@ century Canadians with African , Caribbean and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture . Canadian humour is an integral part of the Canadian Identity and is reflected in its folklore , literature , music , art and media . The primary characteristics of Canadian humour are irony , parody , and satire . Many Canadian comedians have archived international success in the American TV and film industries and are amongst the most recognized in the world .
Canada has a well @-@ developed media sector , but its cultural output ; particularly in English films , television shows , and magazines , is often overshadowed by imports from the United States . As a result , the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs , laws , and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation ( CBC ) , the National Film Board of Canada ( NFB ) , and the Canadian Radio @-@ television and Telecommunications Commission ( CRTC ) .
= = = Symbols = = =
Canada 's national symbols are influenced by natural , historical , and Aboriginal sources . The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century . The maple leaf is depicted on Canada 's current and previous flags , and on the Arms of Canada . The Arms of Canada is closely modelled after the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version . The Great Seal of Canada is a governmental seal used for purposes of state , being set on letters patent , proclamations and commissions , for representatives of the Queen and for the appointment of cabinet ministers , lieutenant governors , senators , and judges . Other prominent symbols include the beaver , Canada goose , common loon , the Crown , the Royal Canadian Mounted Police , and more recently , the totem pole and Inuksuk . Canadian coins feature many of these symbols : the loon on the $ 1 coin , the Arms of Canada on the 50 ¢ piece , the beaver on the nickel . The penny , removed from circulation in 2013 , featured the maple leaf . The Queen ' s image appears on $ 20 bank notes , and on the obverse of all current Canadian coins .
= = = Literature = = =
Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English @-@ language literatures , which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain , respectively . There are four major themes that can be found within historical Canadian literature ; nature , frontier life , Canada 's position within the world , all three of which tie into the garrison mentality . By the 1990s , Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world 's best . Canada 's ethnic and cultural diversity are reflected in its literature , with many of its most prominent modern writers focusing on ethnic life . Arguably , the best @-@ known living Canadian writer internationally ( especially since the deaths of Robertson Davies and Mordecai Richler ) is Margaret Atwood , a prolific novelist , poet , and literary critic . Numerous other Canadian authors have accumulated international literary awards ; including Nobel Laureate Alice Munro , who has been called the best living writer of short stories in English ; and Booker Prize recipient Michael Ondaatje , who is perhaps best known for the novel The English Patient , which was adapted as a film of the same name that won the Academy Award for Best Picture .
= = = Visual arts = = =
Canadian visual art has been dominated by figures such as Tom Thomson – the country 's most famous painter – and by the Group of Seven . Thomson 's career painting Canadian landscapes spanned a decade up to his death in 1917 at age 39 . The Group were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus , who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920 . Though referred to as having seven members , five artists — Lawren Harris , A. Y. Jackson , Arthur Lismer , J. E. H. MacDonald , and Frederick Varley — were responsible for articulating the Group 's ideas . They were joined briefly by Frank Johnston , and by commercial artist Franklin Carmichael . A. J. Casson became part of the Group in 1926 . Associated with the Group was another prominent Canadian artist , Emily Carr , known for her landscapes and portrayals of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast . Since the 1950s , works of Inuit art have been given as gifts to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government .
= = = Music = = =
The Canadian music industry is the sixth largest in the world producing internationally renowned composers , musicians and ensembles . Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC . The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada 's music industry awards , the Juno Awards , which were first awarded in 1970 . The Canadian Music Hall of Fame established in 1976 honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements . Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism , preceding the first legal steps to independence by over 50 years . The earliest , The Bold Canadian , was written in 1812 . The national anthem of Canada , " O Canada " , was originally commissioned by the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec , the Honourable Théodore Robitaille , for the 1880 St. Jean @-@ Baptiste Day ceremony , and was officially adopted in 1980 . Calixa Lavallée wrote the music , which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe @-@ Basile Routhier . The text was originally only in French , before it was translated to English in 1906 .
= = = Sport = = =
The roots of organized sports in Canada date back to the 1770s . Canada 's official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse . Seven of Canada 's eight largest metropolitan areas – Toronto , Montreal , Vancouver , Ottawa , Calgary , Edmonton and Winnipeg – have franchises in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) while Quebec City had the Quebec Nordiques until they relocated to Colorado in 1995 . Canada does have one Major League Baseball team , the Toronto Blue Jays , one professional basketball team , the Toronto Raptors , three Major League Soccer teams and four National Lacrosse League teams . Canada has participated in almost every Olympic Games since its Olympic debut in 1900 , and has hosted several high @-@ profile international sporting events , including the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal , the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary , the 1994 Basketball World Championship , the 2007 FIFA U @-@ 20 World Cup , the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver and Whistler , British Columbia and the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup . Other popular spectator sports in Canada include curling and Canadian football ; the latter is played professionally in the Canadian Football League ( CFL ) . Golf , tennis , baseball , skiing , cricket , volleyball , rugby union , Australian Rules Football , soccer and basketball are widely played at youth and amateur levels , but professional leagues and franchises are not widespread .
= Utah State Route 103 =
State Route 103 ( SR @-@ 103 ) is a 0 @.@ 225 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 362 m ) urban minor arterial state highway in the U.S. state of Utah . It branches off from SR @-@ 126 ( Main Street ) in downtown Clearfield and extends east to Interstate 15 ( I @-@ 15 ) , terminating at the entrance to the Falcon Hill National Aerospace Research Park , just outside Hill Air Force Base . The entire route is located in Davis County and was formed in 1965 coinciding with the construction of I @-@ 15 . The route has been mostly unchanged since its formation , except for the moniker of the highway and the route number of its western terminus .
The western terminus , in a stretch of fourteen years from its inception , has gone from SR @-@ 1 in 1965 , to SR @-@ 106 in 1967 , to SR @-@ 84 in 1969 , and SR @-@ 126 in 1979 . In 1979 , the moniker of the roadway for SR @-@ 103 was changed from 600 North to 650 North . SR @-@ 103 is one of four Utah state highways that connect to Hill Air Force Base , the others being SR @-@ 97 , SR @-@ 168 , and SR @-@ 232 . Only SR @-@ 168 has a lower average daily traffic count , with roughly 1 @,@ 000 vehicles @-@ per @-@ day traveling along the highway compared to SR @-@ 103 's approximately 16 @,@ 000 vehicles @-@ per @-@ day . The only major change to the highway since its formation was the addition of traffic lights at the on and off ramps for I @-@ 15 .
= = Route description = =
State Route 103 ( SR @-@ 103 ) begins at an intersection with SR @-@ 126 , locally known as Main Street in Clearfield . At this intersection , 650 North , which continues the right @-@ of @-@ way , lengthens from a two lane local street into a four lane arterial boulevard at SR @-@ 126 . SR @-@ 103 begins its progression eastward , passing between two commercial complexes . After a crossing of the Davis Weber Canal , the sidewalk on the southern side of the roadway turns to the south to follow the canal forming the Clearfield Canal Trail . SR @-@ 103 highway turns to the northeast , intersecting with the southbound on @-@ ramp and off @-@ ramp to Interstate 15 ( I @-@ 15 ) . After this intersection , SR @-@ 103 expands to five lanes , and crosses under the southbound and northbound lanes of I @-@ 15 . After the overpasses , SR @-@ 103 intersects with the northbound on @-@ ramp and off @-@ ramp from I @-@ 15 . The highway progresses straight for about 300 ft ( 91 m ) , passing a gated fence on the north side of the highway leading to a rail stub , and the dead @-@ end of Aspen Avenue , before reaching the entrance to the Falcon Hill National Aerospace Research Park , just outside Hill Air Force Base , the designated eastern terminus of SR @-@ 103 . From there , the right @-@ of @-@ way continues on the arterial in the base itself .
SR @-@ 103 serves the function of connecting the town of Clearfield , and residents along I @-@ 15 to Hill Air Force Base . The base , as of 2012 , was the sixth largest employer in the state of Utah and is the third largest employer which is neither the state government nor a state @-@ funded higher education institution . SR @-@ 103 is one of four Utah state highways that connect to Hill Air Force Base , the others being SR @-@ 97 , SR @-@ 168 and SR @-@ 232 , Only SR @-@ 168 has a lower average daily traffic count , with roughly 1 @,@ 000 vehicles @-@ per @-@ day traveling along the highway compared to SR @-@ 103 's approximately 16 @,@ 000 vehicles @-@ per @-@ day . This is a decline from previous years ( in 2007 the average on SR @-@ 103 was 22 @,@ 525 ; in 2006 , the average was 22 @,@ 215 ; in 2005 , 21 @,@ 275 ) . Four percent of this traffic was composed of trucks . The measurement point for the traffic counts is at the eastern terminus of SR @-@ 103 , the entrance to the Falcon Hill National Aerospace Research Park . The highway is codified as Utah Code § 72 @-@ 4 @-@ 116 , and is designated as a minor arterial , which the Federal Highway Administration defines as linking major arterials at a lower volume than a primary arterial .
= = History = =
SR @-@ 103 was originally on an alignment of Harrison Street in the city of Ogden . Between 1964 and 1965 , the state of Utah and the Utah Department of Transportation ( UDOT ) decommissioned the alignment of SR @-@ 103 on Harrison Street , renumbering the portion of Harrison Street as SR @-@ 203 . The SR @-@ 103 designation was soon rewritten in the Utah Code as an access road to Hill Air Force Base on April 19 , 1965 .
The new alignment , which the state felt was a major connector to a federal military institution , Hill Air Force Base , from U.S. Route 91 ( US @-@ 91 ) and I @-@ 15 was chosen as a state highway US @-@ 91 , before the formation of I @-@ 15 , was the major thoroughfare through Utah , connecting it to California and Montana . SR @-@ 103 was then designated onto its alignment , adding 0 @.@ 225 @-@ mile ( 362 m ) to the Utah state route system . Prior to designation , the alignment of 600 North went from U.S. Route 91 and uninterrupted until the Hill Air Force Base . In 1964 , a year prior to designation , a 27 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) concrete culvert bridge was constructed over the Davis Weber Canal . The two bridges for I @-@ 15 's southbound and northbound roadways were built in 1966 and are two 159 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 48 @.@ 5 m ) concrete continuous tee beam overpasses .
The route has been mostly unchanged since its formation , except for the moniker of the highway and the western terminus , of which SR @-@ 103 progresses . The western terminus , in a stretch of fourteen years from its inception , went from SR @-@ 1 in 1965 , to SR @-@ 106 in 1967 to SR @-@ 84 in 1969 and SR @-@ 126 in 1979 . In 1979 , the moniker of the roadway for SR @-@ 103 was changed from 600 North to 650 North . In 1998 , the legal definition of SR @-@ 103 was changed in the state codes .
The alignment of SR @-@ 103 , outside of the roadway renumbering , have received some technical changes as well . In November 1992 , UDOT confirmed that the interchange of I @-@ 15 and SR @-@ 103 ( exit 335 ) was to be given traffic lights to help monitor traffic . The mayor at the time , Neldon Hamblin , approved of the project , and put the project up for bids for construction . The interchange was holding up motorists needing to turn left up to 20 minutes .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Clearfield , Davis County .
= HMS Collingwood ( 1908 ) =
HMS Collingwood was a St Vincent @-@ class dreadnought battleship built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . She spent her whole career assigned to the Home and Grand Fleets and often served as a flagship . Prince Albert ( later King George VI ) spent several years aboard the ship before and during World War I. At the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 , Collingwood was in the middle of the battleline and lightly damaged a German battlecruiser . Other than that battle , and the inconclusive Action of 19 August , her service during the war generally consisted of routine patrols and training in the North Sea . The ship was deemed obsolete after the war ; she was reduced to reserve and used as a training ship before being sold for scrap in 1922 .
= = Design and description = =
The design of the St Vincent class was derived from that of the previous Bellerophon class , with a slight increase in size , armour and more powerful guns , among other more minor changes . Collingwood had an overall length of 536 feet ( 163 @.@ 4 m ) , a beam of 84 feet 2 inches ( 25 @.@ 7 m ) , and a normal draught of 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) . She displaced 19 @,@ 700 long tons ( 20 @,@ 000 t ) at normal load and 22 @,@ 800 long tons ( 23 @,@ 200 t ) at deep load . In 1911 her crew numbered 758 officers and enlisted men .
Collingwood was powered by two sets of Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines , each driving two shafts , using steam from eighteen Yarrow boilers . The turbines were rated at 24 @,@ 500 shp ( 18 @,@ 300 kW ) and intended to reach a maximum speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . During her full @-@ power , eight @-@ hour sea trials on 17 January 1910 , the ship only reached a top speed of 20 @.@ 62 knots ( 38 @.@ 19 km / h ; 23 @.@ 73 mph ) from 26 @,@ 789 shp ( 19 @,@ 977 kW ) . She had a range of 6 @,@ 900 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 800 km ; 7 @,@ 900 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The St Vincent class was equipped with ten breech @-@ loading ( BL ) 12 @-@ inch Mk XI guns in five twin @-@ gun turrets , three along the centreline and the remaining two as wing turrets . The secondary , or anti @-@ torpedo boat , armament comprised twenty BL 4 @-@ inch Mk VII guns . Two of these guns were each installed on the roofs of the fore and aft centreline turrets and the wing turrets in unshielded mounts , and the other ten were positioned in the superstructure . All guns were in single mounts . The ships were also fitted with three 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes , one on each broadside and the third in the stern .
The St Vincent @-@ class ships had a waterline belt of Krupp cemented armour ( KC ) that was 10 inches ( 254 mm ) thick between the fore and aftmost barbettes , reducing to a thickness of 2 inches ( 51 mm ) before it reached the ships ' ends . Above this was a strake of armour 8 inches ( 203 mm ) thick . Transverse bulkheads 5 to 8 inches ( 127 to 203 mm ) inches thick terminated the thickest parts of the waterline and upper armour belts once they reached the outer portions of the endmost barbettes .
The three centreline barbettes were protected by armour 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick above the main deck that thinned to 5 inches ( 127 mm ) below it . The wing barbettes were similar except that they had 10 inches of armour on their outer faces . The gun turrets had 11 @-@ inch ( 279 mm ) faces and sides with 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) roofs . The three armoured decks ranged in thicknesses from .75 to 3 inches ( 19 to 76 mm ) . The front and sides of the forward conning tower were protected by 11 @-@ inch plates , although the rear and roof were 8 inches and 3 inches thick respectively .
= = = Alterations = = =
The guns on the forward turret roof were removed in 1911 – 12 and the upper forward pair of guns in the superstructure were removed in 1913 – 14 . In addition , gun shields were fitted to all guns in the superstructure and the bridge structure was enlarged around the base of the forward tripod mast . During the first year of the war , a fire @-@ control director was installed high on the forward tripod mast . Around the same time , the base of the forward superstructure was rebuilt to house four 4 @-@ inch guns and the turret @-@ top guns were removed , which reduced her secondary armament to a total of fourteen guns . In addition , a pair of 3 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns were added .
By April 1917 , Collingwood mounted thirteen 4 @-@ inch anti @-@ torpedo boat guns as well as single 4 @-@ inch and 3 @-@ inch AA guns . Approximately 50 long tons ( 51 t ) of additional deck armour had been added after the Battle of Jutland . Before the end of the war the AA guns were moved from the deckhouse between the aft turrets to the stern and the stern torpedo tube was removed . In 1918 a high @-@ angle rangefinder was fitted and flying @-@ off platforms were installed on the roofs of the fore and aft turrets .
= = Construction and career = =
Collingwood , named after Vice @-@ Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood , was ordered on 26 October 1907 . She was laid down at Devonport Royal Dockyard on 3 February 1908 , launched on 7 November 1908 and completed in April 1910 . Including her armament , the ship 's cost is quoted at £ 1 @,@ 680 @,@ 888 or £ 1 @,@ 731 @,@ 640 .
On 19 April 1910 , Collingwood was commissioned and assigned to the 1st Division of the Home Fleet under the command of Captain William Pakenham . She joined other members of the fleet in regular peacetime exercises , and on 11 February 1911 damaged her bottom plating on an uncharted rock off Ferrol . On 24 June the ship was present at the Coronation Fleet Review for King George V at Spithead . Pakenham was relieved by Captain Charles Vaughan @-@ Lee on 1 December . On 1 May 1912 , the 1st Division was renamed the 1st Battle Squadron . On 22 June , Vaughan @-@ Lee was transferred to the battleship Bellerophon and Captain James Ley assumed command ; Vice @-@ Admiral Stanley Colville hoisted his flag in Collingwood as commander of the 1st Battle Squadron . The ship participated in the Parliamentary Naval Review on 9 July at Spithead before beginning a refit late in the year . In March 1913 , Collingwood and the 1st Battle Squadron undertook a port visit to Cherbourg , France . Midshipman Prince Albert ( later King George VI ) was assigned to the ship on 15 September 1913 . Collingwood hosted Albert 's older brother , Edward , Prince of Wales , during a short cruise on 18 April 1914 . She became a private ship when Colville hauled down his flag on 22 June .
= = = World War I = = =
Between 17 and 20 July , Collingwood took part in a test mobilisation and fleet review . Arriving in Portland on 27 July , she was ordered to proceed with the rest of the Home Fleet to Scapa Flow two days later to safeguard the fleet from a possible German surprise attack . In August 1914 , following the outbreak of World War I , the Home Fleet was reorganised as the Grand Fleet , and placed under the command of Admiral John Jellicoe . Most of it was briefly based ( 22 October to 3 November ) at Lough Swilly , Ireland , while the defences at Scapa were strengthened . On the evening of 22 November 1914 , the Grand Fleet conducted a fruitless sweep in the southern half of the North Sea ; Iron Duke stood with the main body in support of Vice @-@ Admiral David Beatty 's 1st Battlecruiser Squadron . The fleet was back in port in Scapa Flow by 27 November . The 1st Battle Squadron cruised north @-@ west of the Shetland Islands and conducted gunnery practice on 8 – 12 December . Four days later , the Grand Fleet sortied during the German raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby , but failed to make contact with the High Seas Fleet . Collingwood and the rest of the Grand Fleet conducted another sweep of the North Sea on 25 – 27 December .
The Grand Fleet , including Collingwood , conducted gunnery drills on 10 – 13 January 1915 west of the Orkneys and Shetlands . On the evening of 23 January , the bulk of the Grand Fleet sailed in support of Beatty 's battlecruisers , but Collingwood and the rest of the fleet did not participate in the ensuing Battle of Dogger Bank the following day . The ship sailed for Portsmouth Royal Dockyard on 2 February to begin a brief refit and returned on 18 February . On 7 – 10 March , the Grand Fleet conducted a sweep in the northern North Sea , during which it conducted training manoeuvres . Another such cruise took place on 16 – 19 March . From 25 March to 14 April 1915 , Rear @-@ Admiral Hugh Evan @-@ Thomas temporarily hoisted his flag aboard Collingwood . On 11 April , the Grand Fleet conducted a patrol in the central North Sea and returned to port on 14 April ; another patrol in the area took place on 17 – 19 April , followed by gunnery drills off the Shetlands on 20 – 21 April .
The Grand Fleet conducted sweeps into the central North Sea on 17 – 19 May and 29 – 31 May without encountering any German vessels . During 11 – 14 June the fleet conducted gunnery practice and battle exercises west of the Shetlands . Collingwood was briefly docked at Invergordon from 23 to 25 June . King George V inspected the ship on 8 July , and the Grand Fleet conducted training off the Shetlands beginning three days later . Rear @-@ Admiral Ernest Gaunt temporarily used Collingwood as his flagship from 24 August to 24 September and from 10 December to 16 January 1916 . On 2 – 5 September 1915 , the fleet went on another cruise in the northern end of the North Sea and conducted gunnery drills . Throughout the rest of the month , the Grand Fleet conducted numerous training exercises . The ship , together with the majority of the Grand Fleet , conducted another sweep into the North Sea from 13 to 15 October . Almost three weeks later , Collingwood participated in another fleet training operation west of Orkney during 2 – 5 November . On 21 November , she sailed for Devonport Royal Dockyard for a minor overhaul and arrived back at Scapa on 9 December .
The Grand Fleet departed for a cruise in the North Sea on 26 February 1916 ; Jellicoe had intended to use the Harwich Force to sweep the Heligoland Bight , but bad weather prevented operations in the southern North Sea . As a result , the operation was confined to the northern end of the sea . Another sweep began on 6 March , but had to be abandoned the following day as the weather grew too severe for the escorting destroyers . On the night of 25 March , Collingwood and the rest of the fleet sailed from Scapa Flow to support Beatty 's battlecruisers and other light forces raiding the German Zeppelin base at Tondern . By the time the Grand Fleet approached the area on 26 March , the British and German forces had already disengaged and a strong gale threatened the light craft , so the fleet was ordered to return to base . On 21 April , the Grand Fleet conducted a demonstration off Horns Reef to distract the Germans while the Russian Navy relaid its defensive minefields in the Baltic Sea . The fleet returned to Scapa Flow on 24 April and refuelled before proceeding south in response to intelligence reports that the Germans were about to launch a raid on Lowestoft . The Grand Fleet arrived in the area after the Germans had withdrawn . On 2 – 4 May , the fleet conducted another demonstration off Horns Reef to keep German attention focused on the North Sea .
= = = = Battle of Jutland = = = =
In an attempt to lure out and destroy a portion of the Grand Fleet , the German High Seas Fleet , composed of 16 dreadnoughts , 6 pre @-@ dreadnoughts , 6 light cruisers , and 31 torpedo boats , departed the Jade early on the morning of 31 May . The fleet sailed in concert with Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's five battlecruisers and supporting cruisers and torpedo boats . The Royal Navy 's Room 40 had intercepted and decrypted German radio traffic containing plans of the operation . The Admiralty ordered the Grand Fleet , totalling some 28 dreadnoughts and 9 battlecruisers , to sortie the night before to cut off and destroy the High Seas Fleet . Collingwood was the eighteenth ship from the head of the battle line after the Grand Fleet deployed for battle .
The initial action was fought primarily by the British and German battlecruiser formations in the afternoon , but by 18 : 00 , the Grand Fleet approached the scene . Fifteen minutes later , Jellicoe gave the order to turn and deploy the fleet for action . The transition from cruising formation caused congestion with the rear divisions , forcing many ships to reduce speed to 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) to avoid colliding with each other . During the first stage of the general engagement , Collingwood fired eight salvos from her main guns at the crippled light cruiser SMS Wiesbaden from 18 : 32 , although the number of hits made , if any , is unknown . Her secondary armament then engaged the destroyer SMS G42 , which was attempting to come to Wiesbaden 's assistance , but failed to hit her . At 19 : 15 Collingwood fired two salvoes of high explosive ( HE ) shells at the battlecruiser SMS Derfflinger , hitting her target once before she disappeared into the mist . The shell detonated in the German ship 's sickbay and damaged the surrounding superstructure . Shortly afterwards , during the attack of the German destroyers around 19 : 20 , the ship fired her main armament at a damaged destroyer without success and dodged two torpedoes that missed by 10 yards ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) behind and 30 yards ( 27 m ) in front . This was the last time she fired her guns during the battle .
Following the German destroyer attack , the High Seas Fleet disengaged , and Collingwood and the rest of the Grand Fleet saw no further action in the battle . This was , in part , due to confusion aboard the fleet flagship over the exact location and course of the German fleet ; without this information , Jellicoe could not bring his fleet to action . At 21 : 30 , the Grand Fleet began to reorganise into its night @-@ time cruising formation . Early on the morning of 1 June , the Grand Fleet combed the area , looking for damaged German ships , but after spending several hours searching , they found none . Collingwood fired a total of 52 armour @-@ piercing , capped and 32 HE shells from her main armament and 35 four @-@ inch shells during the battle . Prince Albert was a sub @-@ lieutenant commanding the forward turret during the battle and sat in the open on the turret roof during a lull in the action .
= = = = Subsequent activity = = = =
After the battle the ship was transferred to the 4th Battle Squadron under the command of Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Doveton Sturdee , who inspected Collingwood on 8 August 1916 . On the evening of 18 August , the Grand Fleet put to sea in response to a message deciphered by Room 40 that indicated that the High Seas Fleet , minus II Squadron , would be leaving harbour that night . The German objective was to bombard Sunderland on 19 August , based on extensive reconnaissance conducted by Zeppelins and submarines . The Grand Fleet sailed with 29 dreadnoughts and 6 battlecruisers while the Germans mustered 18 dreadnoughts and 2 battlecruisers . Throughout the next day , Jellicoe and Vice @-@ Admiral Reinhard Scheer , commander of the High Seas Fleet , received conflicting intelligence ; after reaching the location in the North Sea where they expected to encounter the High Seas Fleet , the British turned north in the erroneous belief that they had entered a minefield . Scheer turned south again , then steered south @-@ eastward to pursue a lone British battle squadron sighted by an airship , which was in fact the Harwich Force of cruisers and destroyers under Commodore Reginald Tyrwhitt . Realising their mistake , the Germans changed course for home . The only contact came in the evening when Tyrwhitt sighted the High Seas Fleet but was unable to achieve an advantageous attack position before dark , and broke off contact . The British and the German fleets returned home ; the British lost two cruisers to submarine attacks , and one German dreadnought had been torpedoed . After returning to port , Jellicoe issued an order that prohibited risking the fleet in the southern half of the North Sea due to the overwhelming risk from mines and U @-@ boats unless the odds of defeating the High Seas Fleet in a decisive engagement were favourable .
Collingwood received a brief refit at Rosyth in early September before rejoining the Grand Fleet . On 29 October Sturdee came aboard to present the ship with her battle honour , " Jutland 1916 " . Captain Wilmot Nicholson briefly assumed command on 1 December before transferring to the new battlecruiser Glorious upon his relief by Captain Cole Fowler on 26 March 1917 . Together with the rest of the 4th Battle Squadron , Collingwood put to sea for tactical exercises for a few days in February 1917 . The ship was present at Scapa Flow when her sister ship Vanguard 's magazines exploded on 9 July and her crew recovered the bodies of three men killed in the explosion . In January 1918 , Collingwood and other of the older dreadnoughts cruised off the coast of Norway for several days , possibly to provide distant cover for a convoy to Norway . Along with the rest of the Grand Fleet , she sortied on the afternoon of 23 April after radio transmissions revealed that the High Seas Fleet was at sea after a failed attempt to intercept the regular British convoy to Norway . The Germans were too far ahead of the British , and no shots were fired . By early November , Collingwood was at Invergordon to receive a brief refit in the floating dock based there , and missed the surrender of the High Seas Fleet on the 21st . She was slightly damaged on 23 November while attempting to come alongside the oiler RFA Ebonol .
In January 1919 , Collingwood was transferred to Devonport and assigned to the Reserve Fleet . Upon the dissolution of the Grand Fleet on 18 March , the Reserve Fleet was redesignated the Third Fleet and Collingwood became its flagship . She became a tender to HMS Vivid on 1 October and served as a gunnery and wireless telegraphy ( W / T ) training ship . The W / T school was transferred to Glorious on 1 June 1920 and the gunnery duties followed in early August ; Collingwood returned to the reserve . She became a boys ' training ship on 22 September 1921 until she was paid off on 31 March 1922 . Collingwood was sold to John Cashmore Ltd for scrap on 12 December and arrived at Newport , Wales , on 3 March 1923 to be broken up .
= = Relics = =
Battle ensigns flown by the ship during Jutland survive at the shore establishment of the same name and at the Roedean School in East Sussex .
= Ohio State Route 500 =
State Route 500 ( SR 500 ) is a 13 @.@ 32 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 21 @.@ 44 km ) Ohio State Route that runs between the Indiana state line and Paulding in the US state of Ohio . None of the highway is listed on the National Highway System . Most of the route is a rural two @-@ lane highway and passes through both farmland and residential properties . For much of its path , SR 500 runs generally parallel to the north of Flatrock Creek .
The highway was first signed in 1937 on much of the same alignment as today . SR 500 replaced the SR 194 designation of the highway which dated back to 1923 ; SR 194 ran between Payne and Paulding . Some of the highway was paved in 1937 , with the rest of the route being paved in 1951 .
= = Route description = =
SR 500 begins at an intersection with county @-@ maintained State Line Road and Paulding Road on the Indiana state line in western Benton Township . The highway heads northeast as a two @-@ lane highway passing through farmland , with a few houses . The route turns east , then bends back to the northeast . At this point , Flatrock Creek appears close to the south side of the roadway , resulting in that side of the highway becoming primarily wooded , while the north side of the highway remains bounded by farmland . The route arrives at a T @-@ intersection with SR 49 on the southern boundary of Payne . At this point , it joins SR 49 heading north into the village along Main Street through a primarily residential area .
The road arrives at a traffic signal where it meets SR 613 ( Townline Street ) . This highway comes into the intersection from the west , and joins SR 49 and SR 500 going north for two blocks along Main Street into downtown Payne . At that point , the concurrency hits a signalized intersection with Merrin Street and SR 500 and SR 613 turn to the east , while SR 49 continues heading north . East of SR 49 , the SR 500 and SR 613 concurrency goes through the central business district and then into a residential neighborhood . The highway briefly jogs north via Maple Street before turning east @-@ southeasterly onto Orchard Street , which it follows through the eastern portion of Payne . While the north side of the street is bounded by homes , the south side becomes wooded as Flatrock Creek reappears nearby .
The route curves to the northeast at the County Road 47 ( CR 47 ) intersection and , upon crossing a set of railroad tracks , departs Payne . Now traveling through Harrison Township , the routes travel past rows of houses on each side of the highway before emerging into a landscape of farmland . Woods then appear along both sides of the roadway a short distance before SR 613 turns off to the east from SR 500 , which continues in an east @-@ northeasterly fashion . The route proceeds into Paulding Township passing a mix of farmland and houses , with forested land appearing along the south side at intervals where Flatrock Creek passes close to the highway . At CR 132 , the highway turns north for a short distance , passing along the west side of the campus of Paulding County Hospital just prior to its endpoint at SR 111 in the westernmost part of Paulding . Continuing north after SR 500 ends is CR 103 .
There is no section of SR 500 that is included as a part of the National Highway System . The highway is maintained by the Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) like all other state routes in the state . The department tracks the traffic volumes along all state highways as a part of its maintenance responsibilities using a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . This measurement is a calculation of the traffic level along a segment of roadway for any average day of the year . In 2012 , ODOT figured that the lowest traffic levels were present on the section that is west of SR 49 , where only 410 vehicles used the highway daily . The peak traffic volume was 2 @,@ 830 vehicles AADT along a section of SR 500 at is concurrent with SR 49 and SR 613 .
= = History = =
In 1923 , SR 500 was signed as SR 194 northeast from Payne to Paulding and west of Payne was a county road . SR 194 was decommissioned in 1927 leaving the route that later became SR 500 as a county road . The commissioning of SR 500 took place in 1937 , and replaced a county road west of Payne , while east of Payne it replaced the former route of SR 194 . The highway had a gravel surface between the Indiana state line and SR 49 , while between SR 49 and its eastern terminus at SR 111 it was paved . In 1951 , the westernmost portion of SR 500 between the Indiana state line and SR 49 was paved . By 1955 , SR 113 , now SR 613 , was rerouted to be concurrent with SR 500 northeast of Payne to the current eastern split of the two routes . No significant changes have taken place to this state route since 1955 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Paulding County .
= Tobacco ( Last Week Tonight ) =
" Tobacco " is a segment about the tobacco industry , which aired on February 15 , 2015 as part of the second episode of the second season of the HBO series Last Week Tonight with John Oliver . During the eighteen @-@ minute segment , comedian John Oliver discusses tobacco industry trends and practices . He also introduces Jeff the Diseased Lung , a mascot he created for the American global cigarette and tobacco company Philip Morris International , the makers of Marlboro cigarettes . The anthropomorphic diseased lung , who smokes and coughs , has been compared to Joe Camel and the Marlboro Man . Oliver and his team promoted the cartoon character by sending shirts with Jeff 's image to Togo and displaying billboards in Uruguay , and by encouraging use of the hashtag ' # JeffWeCan ' , which trended on Twitter following the broadcast .
Philip Morris issued a response to the segment , which received some criticism . The " Tobacco " segment received widespread media coverage , with several outlets praising Oliver 's ability to launch successful marketing campaigns and change perceptions about smoking through the creation of the mascot . Jeff later appeared at a protest organized by the Campaign for Tobacco @-@ Free Kids in New York City in May 2015 .
= = Description = =
" Tobacco " is an eighteen @-@ minute segment about the tobacco industry , delivered by John Oliver during the February 15 , 2015 episode of Last Week Tonight with John Oliver . In the segment , Oliver describes industry trends and practices , such as the decline of smoking in the United States and marketing tactics by tobacco companies to introduce cigarettes to young people in emerging markets . He incorporates clips featuring the Marlboro Man , a figure used in advertising campaigns for Marlboro cigarettes , and notes that four of the actors who portrayed the character died from lung cancer or smoking @-@ related illnesses .
Furthermore , Oliver outlines the legal actions taken by tobacco companies against the governments of Australia , Namibia , the Solomon Islands , Togo , and Uruguay , some of which have displayed " grotesque " images of blackened teeth and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease on cigarette packaging to illustrate the harmful effects of smoking . He asserts that companies are able to avoid stricter regulations by threatening to sue entire countries , many of which do not have resources to combat these lawsuits in court . By the morning of February 16 , the segment had been viewed more than two million times .
= = = Jeff the Diseased Lung = = =
During the segment , Oliver offers the mascot Jeff the Diseased Lung ( fully named Jeff the Diseased Lung in a Cowboy Hat ) to Philip Morris International to use free of charge . Jeff , a fictional anthropomorphic cartoon character who smokes and coughs , has been called Oliver 's version of Joe Camel and compared to the Marlboro Man .
Jeff has been described as a " cartoon @-@ like , diseased lung cowboy created by crossing the diseased lung pictured on cigarette packs in Australia with the Marlboro Man " . Similarly , Rolling Stone 's Daniel Kreps said Jeff helps to " bridge the gap between the Marlboro Man ... and a ' lung that looks like you 're breathing through baked ziti ' " . Alicia Lu of Bustle wrote :
Sure , he may be an anthropomorphic lung that 's decaying from being exposed to years of cigarette smoke , which might not be Big Tobacco 's first choice for branding , but he 's a cowboy . Look at his regal cowboy hat , his spiffy red cowboy boots , and the way that cigarette nonchalantly dangles from his lips – doesn 't Jeff remind you of a figure from days of yore ? If you squint , I swear you 'll see the Marlboro Man .
Oliver and his team promoted the character by sending shirts with his image to Togo and displaying billboards in Uruguay . During the segment , Oliver encouraged viewers to use the hashtag ' # JeffWeCan ' , which trended on Twitter . He also called on viewers to upload images of the mascot to Google + accounts so Jeff would be displayed following Google Images searches for " Marlboro " . A live version of Jeff appears at the end of the " Tobacco " segment . Sarene Leeds of The Wall Street Journal called Jeff 's appearance " a full @-@ on Disneyland @-@ ish nightmare " and wrote : " there is nothing more disturbing – or awesome – that you will see today than the sight of John Oliver dancing around a guy dressed up as a smoking , infected lung surrounded by more than a dozen children " . The HBO Shop sells T @-@ shirts depicting the mascot .
Jeff appeared at Kick Butts Day , a protest organized by the Campaign for Tobacco @-@ Free Kids and youth advocates , which was held outside Philip Morris ' annual shareholders ' meeting in New York City on May 6 , 2015 . The protests featured a flash mob with fifty dancers performing a choreographed dance to a song with the lyrics , " We don 't want your cigarettes . Jeff we can ! " The performance ended with the mascot : " rolling around on the floor in a coughing fit and loss of breath " . Shana Narula , the campaign 's coordinator , said :
The whole concept is to use Jeff and the hashtag # JeffWeCan and # StopMarlboro to show that these marketing tactics are not allowed and tobacco is still the leading cause of preventable disease and death in the world . And the fact is it 's the only consumer product that when used as intended , it kills its user . This is very , very unique — no other consumer product does this . Most people think that tobacco is not really an issue in this country anymore and that 's completely not true . That 's what we want to shed light on today , in a fashion where people will take notice .
= = Reception = =
The " Tobacco " segment received widespread media coverage , with several outlets praising Oliver 's ability to launch successful marketing campaigns and " alter perceptions about smoking " through the creation of the mascot Jeff . Her Campus ' Kelly Tierney noted the enthusiasm displayed by Oliver 's fans during the segment and wrote :
While John Oliver simply considers himself a comedian , it is apparent that he is doing much more than comedy . He informs us of real issues we otherwise wouldn 't hear or think deeply about , which in and of itself is brilliant , but what really sets him apart is his way of calling his audience to action about these issues . He shows us that there really is something we can do and helps us to see how we can enact change .
MediaPost Communications ' Marketing Daily published an article called " What Marketers Can Learn from John Oliver " , in which James G. Brooks , Jr. complimented Oliver 's ability to encourage audience participation . He wrote , " Jeff trended worldwide . This kind of reaction is ideal for any marketing campaign . " Alex Frail of The Massachusetts Daily Collegian said , " One of his funnier bits , Jeff the Diseased Lung , took aim at the tobacco industry ; landed on cigarette packs throughout Australia and on billboards throughout Uruguay ; and delivered t @-@ shirts to Togo . The power to spark a movement like Jeff the Diseased Lung isn 't shared by Oliver 's contemporaries . " Jeffrey Wasserman , vice president and director of RAND Health , opined : " John Oliver 's ' Jeff ' character is of course a mockery of an iconic figure , the Marlboro Man , whose legacy turned out to be cruelly ironic . As Oliver noted in his show , four former Marlboro men died of smoking @-@ related causes . Let 's hope that ' Jeff ' going viral causes current and prospective smokers — mainly teens and preteens — to recognize cigarette smoking for what it is : the most deadly habit . "
In July 2015 , Slant Magazine 's Julia Pressman describes the " Tobacco " segment in her article " The British Dude Who Is Winning America 's War on Bullshit " , in which she features five ways Oliver " has owned 2015 thus far " . The website Inverse included the February 15 segment , the second most effective from the show 's second season , saying it " may be the most lasting of the entire year " . Furthermore , the website 's Matthew Strauss wrote , " Jeff shows up when you Google Image @-@ search ' Marlboro ' ; he 's on bus stops in Uruguay ; and he 's on t @-@ shirts in Togo . Jeff is an icon . Oliver hasn 't taken down Big Tobacco , but he sure didn 't make them look too good . " In August , the Los Angeles Times named Oliver , and costume designer Mikaela Wohl , winners in the " Costume designer 's quietest cry for help " category for the paper 's 2015 Envy Awards , a parody of the annual Emmy Awards . Randee Dawn complimented both for their hard work and humor , but said Wohl 's work on " amazing " costumes like Jeff and Russian Space Sex Gecko distracted her from using her " creative energies " for dressing Oliver .
= = = Response by Philip Morris International = = =
Philip Morris issued a statement which read in part :
On February 15 , 2015 , the ' Last Week Tonight with John Oliver ' show dedicated a significant portion of its program to our company ... ' Last Week Tonight with John Oliver ' is a parody show , known for getting a laugh through exaggeration and presenting partial views in the name of humor . The segment includes many mischaracterizations of our company , including our approach to marketing and regulation , which have been embellished in the spirit of comedic license ... While we recognize the tobacco industry is an easy target for comedians , we take seriously the responsibility that comes with selling a product that is an adult choice and is harmful to health ... We support | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
character , was played by actress Elizabeth Banks , who first guest starred as the character in the show 's fourth season . This was Banks ' tenth time as the Avery character . Banks told Michael Ausiello of Entertainment Weekly that she approached the 30 Rock staff about making an appearance as she is a fan of the show . " I definitely put feelers out , like , ' I would love to be on your show . ' And they did it . They made it happen ! I 'm a huge fan , so this is a dream come true . " Banks also revealed that she has no intention on becoming a series regular , explaining that she has been having " too much fun " making films to commit to a television show full @-@ time . Comedian actor Will Forte made his fourth appearance in the show , having guest starred as a different character in the February 1 , 2007 , episode " Black Tie " from the show 's first season . In the previous season , Forte played Jenna Maroney 's boyfriend and Jenna impersonator . Forte has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Tina Fey , the series creator and lead actress on 30 Rock , was the head writer on SNL from 1999 until 2006 . In June 2010 , Jane Krakowski , who plays Jenna , confirmed that Forte would reprise his role as her boyfriend in the upcoming season . Carlock also noted in the Entertainment Weekly interview that the Jenna and Paul characters " have some ups and downs . He wants to try to be a normal couple , and she is afraid of that level of commitment . " In the previous episode , " Chain Reaction of Mental Anguish " , Jenna and Paul break @-@ up . In " Christmas Attack Zone " , the two get back together .
= = Cultural references = =
Liz says that she watches the CBS police procedural television series The Mentalist and that she has become a body language expert , in which she figures out that Jack has not told Colleen about Avery 's pregnancy , similar to the show 's series protagonist played by actor Simon Baker . Some reviewers have noted that Tracy 's movie The Chunks 2 : A Very Chunky Christmas is a parody to the movies Nutty Professor II : The Klumps ( 2000 ) , Norbit ( 2007 ) , and the comedic fictional character Madea . Later , Tracy says " As an actor , it is my job to tell the truth , hold the mirror to humanity , and sell Proactiv " , this is a reference to Proactiv Solution , an over @-@ the @-@ counter topical treatment for mild to moderate forms of acne and the fact that the product has many celebrity spokespeople . At the New Queer 's Eve , in which guests dress up as a pop culture phenomenon from the previous year , Paul dresses as actress Natalie Portman 's character in the 2010 psychological thriller Black Swan , and Jenna dresses up as former Pittsburgh Steelers wide receiver Lynn Swann .
= = Reception = =
According to Nielsen Media Research , this episode of 30 Rock was watched by 4 @.@ 759 million viewers during its original United States broadcast . The show claimed a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 5 share among viewers aged 18 to 49 , meaning that 2 @.@ 9 percent of all people in that group , and 5 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " Chain Reaction of Mental Anguish " , which was watched by 5 @.@ 034 million American viewers .
Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club wrote that " Christmas Attack Zone " was a " nice holiday outing with a lot of great gag @-@ writing " , however " ... I wouldn 't put this up there with the show 's best Christmas episodes . But I 'd say it fits in nicely with the general run of competency to excellence we 've been seeing so far this season . It was modestly funny , a little sweet , and not at all horrible . " Alan Sepinwall from HitFix who is not a fan of Elaine Stritch 's role on the show enjoyed her in this episode , writing that along with the appearances of Elizabeth Banks and Alan Alda " I decided to hope their presence would counteract my feelings about hers – which is pretty much what happened . " Sepinwall enjoyed the subplots commenting that Tracy 's " played well " and Jenna and Paul 's " was both sweet and ridiculous " . Brad Sanders of the Indiana Daily Student said it was " a ton of fun to watch " all the subplots play out and considered " Christmas Attack Zone " as " probably one of the two or three best episodes of the season thus far . In fact ... it may have been the best Christmas episode of 30 Rock yet . " Johnny Firecloud of CraveOnline enjoyed Stritch and Alda 's " wonderfully funny roles " .
Entertainment Weekly 's Annie Barrett opined that Stritch and Alda " really made this episode great . " Meredith Blake , a contributor for the Los Angeles Times , opined that television Christmas episodes " are a sitcom staple , but ... they 're also a risky proposition for a show like 30 Rock . Just how do you maintain the right balance between holiday cheer and year @-@ round irreverence ? It 's a delicate formula , and on Thursday night 30 Rock got it just right . That is , they leaned toward the former , delivering a Christmas episode full of cynicism – but topped with just a sprinkle of sweetness . " In addition , Blake was complimentary toward Stritch 's role on the show . Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad wrote that this episode of 30 Rock " wasn 't the best Christmas episode that [ the show ] has had . Past episodes like ' Ludachristmas , ' ' Christmas Special ' and ' Secret Santa ' were put together better and had more heart " . Sassone noted that the problem with " Christmas Attack Zone " was Tracy 's subplot " as it wasn 't very funny " and the one that dragged the episode down .
= Crocodilia =
The Crocodilia ( or Crocodylia ) are an order of mostly large , predatory , semiaquatic reptiles . They appeared 83 @.@ 5 million years ago in the Late Cretaceous period ( Campanian stage ) and are the closest living relatives of birds , as the two groups are the only known survivors of the Archosauria . Members of the order 's total group , the clade Pseudosuchia , appeared about 250 million years ago in the Early Triassic period , and diversified during the Mesozoic era . The order Crocodilia includes the true crocodiles ( family Crocodylidae ) , the alligators and caimans ( family Alligatoridae ) , and the gharial and false gharial ( family Gavialidae ) . Although the term ' crocodiles ' is sometimes used to refer to all of these , a less ambiguous vernacular term for this group is crocodilians .
Large , solidly built , lizard @-@ like reptiles , crocodilians have long flattened snouts , laterally compressed tails , and eyes , ears , and nostrils at the top of the head . They swim well and can move on land in a " high walk " and a " low walk " , while smaller species are even capable of galloping . Their skin is thick and covered in non @-@ overlapping scales . They have conical , peg @-@ like teeth and a powerful bite . They have a four @-@ chambered heart and , somewhat like birds , a unidirectional looping system of airflow within the lungs , but like other non @-@ avian reptiles they are ectotherms .
Crocodilians are found mainly in lowlands in the tropics , but alligators also live in the southeastern United States and the Yangtze River in China . They are largely carnivorous , the various species feeding on animals such as fish , crustaceans , molluscs , birds , and mammals ; some species like the Indian gharial are specialised feeders , while others like the saltwater crocodile have generalised diets . Crocodilians are typically solitary and territorial , though cooperative feeding does occur . During breeding , dominant males try to monopolise available females . Females lay eggs in holes or in mounds and , unlike most other reptiles , care for their hatched young .
Eight species of crocodilians are known to have attacked humans . The largest number of attacks comes from the Nile crocodile . Humans are the greatest threat to crocodilian populations through activities that include hunting and habitat destruction , but farming of crocodilians has greatly reduced unlawful trading in wild skins . Artistic and literary representations of crocodilians have appeared in human cultures around the world since at least Ancient Egypt . The earliest known mention of the story that crocodiles weep for their victims was in the 9th century ; it was later spread by Sir John Mandeville in 1400 and then by William Shakespeare in the late 16th century and early 17th century .
= = Spelling and etymology = =
Crocodilia and Crocodylia have been used interchangeably for decades starting with Schmidt 's redescription of the group from the formerly defunct term Loricata . Schmidt used the older term Crocodilia , based on Owen 's original name for the group . Shortly after , Wermuth opted for Crocodylia as the proper name for this redescribed group , basing it on the type genus Crocodylus ( Laurenti , 1768 ) . Dundee — in a revision of many reptilian and amphibian names — argued strongly for Crocodylia to be the spelling for the group . However , it was not until the advent of cladistics and phylogenetic nomenclature that a more solid justification for assuming one spelling over the other was proposed .
Prior to 2003 , Crocodilia / Crocodylia was a group that encompassed the modern @-@ day animals ( the crown group ) as well as their more distant relatives now in the larger groups called Crocodylomorpha and Pseudosuchia . Under its current definition Crocodylia is restricted to only the most recent ancestor of today 's modern @-@ day crocodilians ( alligators , crocodiles , and gharials ) . This distinction is more important for paleontologists studying crocodilian evolution . As such , the alternate spellings Crocodilia and Crocodylia are still used interchangeably in the neontological literature .
Crocodilia appears to be a Latinizing of the Greek κροκόδειλος ( crocodeilos ) , which means both lizard and Nile crocodile . Crocodylia , as coined by Wermuth , in regards to the genus Crocodylus appears to be derived from the ancient Greek κρόκη ( kroke ) — meaning shingle or pebble — and δρîλος or δρεîλος ( dr ( e ) ilos ) for " worm " . The name may refer to the animal 's habit of basking on the pebbled shores of the Nile .
= = Morphology and physiology = =
Crocodilians range in size from the Paleosuchus and Osteolaemus species , which reach 1 – 1 @.@ 5 m ( 3 ft 3 in – 4 ft 11 in ) , to the saltwater crocodile , which reaches 7 m ( 23 ft ) and weighs up to 2 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 400 lb ) , though some prehistoric species such as the late Cretaceous Deinosuchus were even larger at up to about 11 m ( 36 ft ) and 3 @,@ 450 kg ( 7 @,@ 610 lb ) . They tend to be sexually dimorphic , with males much larger than females . Though there is diversity in snout and tooth shape , crocodilian species have essentially the same body morphology . They have solidly built , lizard @-@ like bodies with elongated , flattened snouts and laterally compressed tails . Their limbs are reduced in size ; the front feet have five digits with little or no webbing , and the hind feet have four webbed digits and a rudimentary fifth . The skeleton is somewhat typical of tetrapods , although the skull , pelvis and ribs are specialised ; in particular , the cartilaginous processes of the ribs allow the thorax to collapse during diving and the structure of the pelvis can accommodate large masses of food , or more air in the lungs . Both sexes have a cloaca , a single chamber and outlet at the base of the tail into which the intestinal , urinary and genital tracts open . It houses the penis in males and the clitoris in females . The testes or ovaries are located near the kidneys .
The eyes , ears and nostrils of crocodilians are at the top of the head . This allows them to stalk their prey with most of their bodies underwater . When in bright light , the pupils of a crocodilian contract into narrow slits , whereas in darkness they become fully circular . This is typical for animals that hunt at night . Crocodilians also possess a tapetum lucidum which enhances vision in low light . While eyesight is fairly good in air , it is significantly weakened underwater . The eardrums are protected by flaps that can be opened or closed by muscles .
The ears are adapted for hearing both in air and underwater . Crocodilians have a wide hearing range , with sensitivity comparable to most birds and many mammals . They appear to have a well @-@ developed olfactory system , while the well @-@ developed trigeminal nerve allows them to detect vibrations in the water ( such as those made by potential prey ) . When the animal completely submerges , the nictitating membranes cover its eyes . In addition , glands on the nictitating membrane secrete a salty lubricant that keeps the eye clean . When a crocodilian leaves the water and dries off , this substance is visible as " tears " . The tongue cannot move freely but is held in place by a folded membrane . While the brain of a crocodilian is fairly small , it is capable of greater learning than most reptiles . Though they lack the vocal folds of mammals and the syrinx of birds , crocodilians can produce vocalisations by vibrating three flaps in the larynx .
= = = Locomotion = = =
Crocodilians are excellent swimmers . During aquatic locomotion , the muscular tail undulates from side to side to drive the animal through the water while the limbs are held close to the body to reduce drag . When the animal needs to stop , steer , or manoeuvre in a different direction , the limbs are splayed out . Crocodilians generally cruise slowly on the surface or underwater with gentle sinuous movements of the tail , but when pursued or when chasing prey they can move rapidly . Crocodilians are less well @-@ adapted for moving on land , and are unusual among vertebrates in having two different means of terrestrial locomotion : the " high walk " and the " low walk " . Their ankle joints flex in a different way from those of other reptiles , a feature they share with some early archosaurs . One of the upper row of ankle bones , the astragalus , moves with the tibia and fibula . The other , the calcaneum , is functionally part of the foot , and has a socket into which a peg from the astragalus fits . The result is that the legs can be held almost vertically beneath the body when on land , and the foot can swivel during locomotion with a twisting movement at the ankle .
The high walk of crocodilians , with the belly and most of the tail being held off the ground , is unique among living reptiles . It somewhat resembles the walk of a mammal , with the same sequence of limb movements : left fore , right hind , right fore , left hind . The low walk is similar to the high walk , but without the body being raised , and is quite different from the sprawling walk of salamanders and lizards . The animal can change from one walk to the other instantaneously , but the high walk is the usual means of locomotion on land . The animal may push its body up and use this form immediately , or may take one or two strides of low walk before raising the body higher . Unlike most other land vertebrates , when crocodilians increase their pace of travel they increase the speed at which the lower half of each limb ( rather than the whole leg ) swings forward ; by this means , stride length increases while stride duration decreases .
Though typically slow on land , crocodilians can produce brief bursts of speed , and some can run at 12 to 14 km / h ( 7 @.@ 5 to 8 @.@ 7 mph ) for short distances . A fast entry into water from a muddy bank can be effected by plunging to the ground , twisting the body from side to side and splaying out the limbs . In some small species such as the freshwater crocodile , a running gait can progress to a bounding gallop . This involves the hind limbs launching the body forward and the fore limbs subsequently taking the weight . Next , the hind limbs swing forward as the spine flexes dorso @-@ ventrally , and this sequence of movements is repeated . During terrestrial locomotion , a crocodilian can keep its back and tail straight , since the scales are attached to the vertebrae by muscles . Whether on land or in water , crocodilians can jump or leap by pressing their tails and hind limbs against the substrate and then launching themselves into the air .
= = = Jaws and teeth = = =
The snout shape of crocodilians varies between species . Crocodiles may have either broad or slender snouts , while alligators and caimans have mostly broad ones . Gharials have snouts that are extremely elongated . The muscles that close the jaws are much more massive and powerful than the ones that open them , and a crocodilian 's jaws can be held shut by a person fairly easily . Conversely , the jaws are extremely difficult to pry open . The powerful closing muscles attach at the bottom of the skull , allowing the top of the head to retain a flat profile . The jaw hinge attaches to the atlanto @-@ occipital joint , allowing the animal to open its mouth fairly wide .
Crocodilians have some of the strongest bite forces in the animal kingdom . In a study published in 2003 , an American alligator 's bite force was measured at up to 2 @,@ 125 lbf ( 9 @,@ 450 N ) . In a 2012 study , a saltwater crocodile 's bite force was measured even higher , at 3 @,@ 700 lbf ( 16 @,@ 000 N ) . This study also found no correlation between bite force and snout shape . Nevertheless , the gharial 's extremely slender jaws are relatively weak and built more for quick jaw closure . The bite force of Deinosuchus may have measured 23 @,@ 000 lbf ( 100 @,@ 000 N ) , even greater than that of theropod dinosaurs like Tyrannosaurus .
Crocodilian teeth vary from blunt and dull to sharp and needle @-@ like . Broad @-@ snouted species have teeth that vary in size , while those of slender @-@ snouted species are more uniform . The teeth of crocodiles and gharials tend to be more visible than those of alligators and caimans when the jaws are closed . The easiest way to distinguish crocodiles from alligators is by looking at their jaw line . The teeth on the lower jaw of an alligator fit into sockets in the upper jaw , so only the upper teeth are visible when the mouth is closed . The teeth on the lower jaw of a crocodile fit into grooves on the outside of the top jaw making both the upper and lower teeth visible when the mouth is closed .
Crocodilians are polyphyodonts and able to replace each of their approximately 80 teeth up to 50 times in their 35 to 75 @-@ year lifespan . They are the only non @-@ mammalian vertebrates with tooth sockets . Next to each full @-@ grown tooth there is a small replacement tooth and an odontogenic stem cell in the dental lamina in standby , which can be activated when required . Tooth replacement slows significantly and eventually stops as the animal grows old .
= = = Skin and scales = = =
The skin of crocodilians is thick and cornified , and is clad in non @-@ overlapping scales known as scutes , arranged in regular rows and patterns . These scales are continually being produced by cell division in the underlying layer of the epidermis , the stratum germinativum , and the surface of individual scutes sloughs off periodically . The outer surface of the scutes consists of the relatively rigid beta @-@ keratin while the hinge region between the scutes contains only the more pliable alpha @-@ keratin .
Many of the scutes are strengthened by bony plates known as osteoderms , which are the same size and shape as the superficial scales but grow beneath them . They are most numerous on the back and neck of the animal and may form a protective armour . They often have prominent , lumpy ridges and are covered in hard @-@ wearing beta @-@ keratin . Most of the skin on the head is fused to the skull . The skin on the neck and flanks is loose , while that on the abdomen and underside of the tail is sheathed in large , flat square scutes arranged in neat rows . The scutes contain blood vessels and may act to absorb or radiate heat during thermoregulation . Research also suggests that alkaline ions released into the blood from the calcium and magnesium in these dermal bones act as a buffer during prolonged submersion when increasing levels of carbon dioxide would otherwise cause acidosis .
Some scutes contain a single pore known as an integumentary sense organ . Crocodiles and gharials have these on large parts of their bodies , while alligators and caimans only have them on the head . Their exact function is not fully understood , but it has been suggested that they may be mechanosensory organs . Another possibility is that they may produce an oily secretion that prevents mud from adhering to the skin . There are prominent paired integumentary glands in skin folds on the throat , and others in the side walls of the cloaca . Various functions for these have been suggested . They may play a part in communication , as indirect evidence suggest that they secrete pheromones used in courtship or nesting . The skin of crocodilians is tough and can withstand damage from conspecifics , and the immune system is effective enough to heal wounds within a few days .
= = = Circulation = = =
The crocodilian has perhaps the most complex vertebrate circulatory system . It has a four @-@ chambered heart and two ventricles , an unusual trait among extant reptiles , and both a left and right aorta which are connected by a hole called the Foramen of Panizza . Like birds and mammals , crocodilians have heart valves that direct blood flow in a single direction through the heart chambers . They also have unique cog @-@ teeth @-@ like valves that , when interlocked , direct blood to the left aorta and away from the lungs , and then back around the body . This system may allow the animals to remain submerged for a longer period , but this explanation has been questioned . Other possible reasons for the peculiar circulatory system include assistance with thermoregulatory needs , prevention of pulmonary oedema , or faster recovery from metabolic acidosis . Retaining carbon dioxide within the body permits an increase in the rate of gastric acid secretion and thus the efficiency of digestion , and other gastrointestinal organs such as the pancreas , spleen , small intestine , and liver also function more efficiently .
When submerged , a crocodilian 's heart rate slows down to one or two beats a minute , and blood flow to the muscles is reduced . When it rises and takes a breath , its heart rate speeds up in seconds , and the muscles receive newly oxygenated blood . Unlike many marine mammals , crocodilians have little myoglobin to store oxygen in their muscles . During diving , muscles are supplied with oxygen when an increasing concentration of bicarbonate ions causes haemoglobin in the blood to release oxygen .
= = = Respiration = = =
Crocodilians were traditionally thought to breathe like mammals , with airflow moving in and out tidally , but studies published in 2010 and 2013 conclude that crocodilians breathe more like birds , with airflow moving in a unidirectional loop within the lungs . When a crocodilian inhales , air flows through the trachea and into two primary bronchi , or airways , which branch off into narrower secondary passageways . The air continues to move through these , then into even narrower tertiary airways , and then into other secondary airways which were bypassed the first time . The air then flows back into the primary airways and is exhaled back out . These aerodynamic valves within the bronchial tree have been hypothesised to explain how crocodilians can have unidirectional airflow without the aid of avian @-@ like air sacs .
The lungs of crocodilians are attached to the liver and the pelvis by the diaphragmaticus muscle ( analogous of the diaphragm in mammals ) . During inhalation , the external intercostal muscles expand the ribs , allowing the animal to take in more air , while the ischiopubis muscle causes the hips to swing downwards and push the belly outward , and the diaphragmaticus pulls the liver back . When exhaling , the internal intercostal muscles push the ribs inward , while the rectus abdominis pulls the hips and liver forwards and the belly inward . Because the lungs expand into the space formerly occupied by the liver and are compressed when it moves back into position , this motion is sometimes referred to as a " hepatic piston " . Crocodilians can also use these muscles to adjust the position of their lungs ; thereby controlling their buoyancy in the water . An animal sinks when the lungs are pulled towards the tail and floats when they move back towards the head . This allows them to move through the water without creating disturbances that could alert potential prey . In addition , they can also spin and twist by moving their lungs laterally .
Swimming and diving crocodilians appear to rely on lung volume more for buoyancy than oxygen storage . Just before diving , the animal exhales to reduce its lung volume and achieve negative buoyancy . When submerging , the nostrils of a crocodilian shut tight . All species have a palatal valve , a membranous flap of skin at the back of the oral cavity that prevents water from flowing into the throat , oesophagus , and trachea . This enables them to open their mouths underwater without drowning . Crocodilians typically remain underwater for fifteen minutes or less at a time , but some can hold their breath for up to two hours under ideal conditions . The maximum diving depth is unknown , but crocodiles can dive to at least 20 m ( 66 ft ) .
= = = Digestion = = =
Crocodilian teeth are adapted for seizing and holding prey , and food is swallowed unchewed . The digestive tract is relatively short , as meat is a fairly simple substance to digest . The stomach is divided into two parts : a muscular gizzard that grinds food , and a digestive chamber where enzymes work on it . The stomach is more acidic than that of any other vertebrate and contains ridges for gastroliths , which play a role in the mechanical breakdown of food . Digestion takes place more quickly at higher temperatures . Crocodilians have a very low metabolic rate and consequently , low energy requirements . This allows them to survive for many months on a single large meal , digesting the food slowly . They can withstand extended fasting , living on stored fat between meals . Even recently hatched crocodiles are able to survive 58 days without food , losing 23 % of their bodyweight during this time . An adult crocodile needs between a tenth and a fifth of the amount of food necessary for a lion of the same weight , and can live for half a year without eating .
= = = Thermoregulation = = =
Crocodilians are ectotherms , producing relatively little heat internally and relying on external sources to raise their body temperatures . The sun 's heat is the main means of warming for any crocodilian , while immersion in water may either raise its temperature by conduction , or cool the animal in hot weather . The main method for regulating its temperature is behavioural . For example , an alligator in temperate regions may start the day by basking in the sun on land . A bulky animal , it warms up slowly , but at some time later in the day it moves into the water , still exposing its dorsal surface to the sun . At night it remains submerged , and its temperature slowly falls . The basking period is extended in winter and reduced in summer . For crocodiles in the tropics , avoiding overheating is generally the main problem . They may bask briefly in the morning but then move into the shade , remaining there for the rest of the day , or submerge themselves in water to keep cool . Gaping with the mouth can provide cooling by evaporation from the mouth lining . By these means , the temperature range of crocodilians is usually maintained between 25 and 35 ° C ( 77 and 95 ° F ) , and mainly stays in the range 30 to 33 ° C ( 86 to 91 ° F ) .
The ranges of the American and Chinese alligator extend into regions that sometimes experience periods of frost in winter . Being ectothermic , the internal body temperature of crocodilians falls as the temperature drops , and they become sluggish . They may become more active on warm days , but do not usually feed at all during the winter . In cold weather , they remain submerged with their tails in deeper , less cold water and their nostrils just projecting through the surface . If ice forms on the water , they maintain ice @-@ free breathing holes , and there have been occasions when their snouts have become frozen into the ice . Temperature sensing probes implanted in wild American alligators have found that their core body temperatures can descend to around 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) , but as long as they remain able to breathe they show no ill effects when the weather warms up .
= = = Osmoregulation = = =
No living species of crocodilian can be considered truly marine ; although the saltwater crocodile and the American crocodile are able to swim out to sea , their normal habitats are river mouths , estuaries , mangrove swamps , and hypersaline lakes , though several extinct species have had marine habits , including the recently gone " Gavialis " papuensis , which occurred in a fully marine habitat in the Solomon Islands coastlines . All crocodilians need to maintain the concentration of salt in body fluids at suitable levels . Osmoregulation is related to the quantity of salts and water exchanged with the environment . Intake of water and salts takes place across the lining of the mouth , when water is drunk , incidentally while feeding , and when present in foods . Water is lost from the body during breathing , and both salts and water are lost in the urine and faeces , through the skin , and via salt @-@ excreting glands on the tongue , though these are only present in crocodiles and gharials . The skin is a largely effective barrier to both water and ions . Gaping causes water loss by evaporation from the lining of the mouth , and on land , water is also lost through the skin . Large animals are better able to maintain homeostasis at times of osmotic stress than smaller ones . Newly hatched crocodilians are much less tolerant of exposure to salt water than are older juveniles , presumably because they have a higher surface @-@ area @-@ to @-@ volume ratio .
The kidneys and excretory system are much the same as in other reptiles , but crocodilians do not have a bladder . In fresh water , the osmolality ( the concentration of solutes that contribute to a solution 's osmotic pressure ) in the plasma is much higher than it is in the surrounding water . The animals are well @-@ hydrated , and the urine in the cloaca is abundant and dilute , nitrogen being excreted as ammonium bicarbonate . Sodium loss is low and mainly takes place through the skin in freshwater conditions . In seawater , the opposite is true . The osmolality in the plasma is lower than the surrounding water , which is dehydrating for the animal . The cloacal urine is much more concentrated , white , and opaque , with the nitrogenous waste being mostly excreted as insoluble uric acid .
= = Ecology and life history = =
= = = Distribution and habitat = = =
Crocodilians are amphibious reptiles , spending part of their time in water and part on land . The last surviving fully terrestrial genus , Mekosuchus , became extinct about 3000 years ago after humans had arrived on its Pacific islands , making the extinction possibly anthropogenic . Typically they are creatures of the tropics ; the main exceptions are the American and Chinese alligators , whose ranges extend as far north as the south @-@ eastern United States and the Yangtze River , respectively . Florida , in the United States , is the only place that crocodiles and alligators live side by side . Most crocodilians live in the lowlands , and few are found above 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) , where the temperatures are typically about 5 ° C ( 9 ° F ) lower than at the coast . None of them permanently reside in the sea , though some can venture into it , and several species can tolerate the brackish water of estuaries , mangrove swamps , and the extreme salinity of hypersaline lakes . The saltwater crocodile has the widest distribution of any crocodilian , with a range extending from eastern India to New Guinea and northern Australia . Much of its success is due to its ability to swim out to sea and colonise new locations , but it is not restricted to the marine environment and spends much time in estuaries , rivers , and large lakes .
Various types of aquatic habitats are used by different crocodilians . Some species are relatively more terrestrial and prefer swamps , ponds , and the edges of lakes , where they can bask in the sun and there is plenty of plant life supporting a diverse fauna . Others spend more time in the water and inhabit the lower stretches of rivers , mangrove swamps , and estuaries . These habitats also have a rich flora and provide plenty of food . The Asian gharials find the fish on which they feed in the pools and backwaters of swift rivers . South American dwarf caimans inhabit cool , fast @-@ flowing streams , often near waterfalls , and other caimans live in warmer , turbid lakes and slow @-@ moving rivers . The crocodiles are mainly river dwellers , and the Chinese alligator is found in slow @-@ moving , turbid rivers flowing across China 's floodplains . The American alligator is an adaptable species and inhabits swamps , rivers , or lakes with clear or turbid water . Climatic factors also affect crocodilians ' distribution locally . During the dry season , caimans can be restricted to deep pools in rivers for several months ; in the rainy season , much of the savannah in the Venezuelan llanos is flooded , and they disperse widely across the plain . Desert crocodiles in Mauritania have adapted to their arid environment by staying in caves or burrows in a state of aestivation during the driest periods . When it rains , the reptiles gather at gueltas .
Dry land is also important as it provides opportunities for basking , nesting , and escaping from temperature extremes . Gaping allows evaporation of moisture from the mouth lining and has a cooling effect , and several species make use of shallow burrows on land to keep cool . Wallowing in mud can also help prevent them from overheating . Four species of crocodilians climb trees to bask in areas lacking a shoreline . The type of vegetation bordering the rivers and lakes inhabited by crocodilians is mostly humid tropical forest , with mangrove swamps in estuarine areas . These forests are of great importance to the crocodilians , creating suitable microhabitats where they can flourish . The roots of the trees absorb water when it rains , releasing it back slowly into the environment . When the forests are cleared to make way for agriculture , rivers tend to silt up , the water runs off rapidly , the water courses can dry up in the dry season and flooding can occur in the wet season . Destruction of forest habitat is probably a greater threat to crocodilians than is hunting .
= = = Spacing = = =
Adult crocodilians are typically territorial and solitary . Individuals may defend basking spots , nesting sites , feeding areas , nurseries , and overwintering sites . Male saltwater crocodiles establish year @-@ round territories that encompass several female nesting sites . Some species are occasionally gregarious , particularly during droughts , when several individuals gather at remaining water sites . Individuals of some species may share basking sites at certain times of the day .
= = = Feeding = = =
Crocodilians are largely carnivorous , and the diets of different species can vary with snout shape and tooth sharpness . Species with sharp teeth and long slender snouts , like the Indian gharial and Australian freshwater crocodile , are specialised for feeding on fish , insects , and crustaceans , while extremely broad @-@ snouted species with blunt teeth , like the Chinese alligator and broad @-@ snouted caiman , specialise in eating hard @-@ shelled molluscs . Species whose snouts and teeth are intermediate between these two forms , such as the saltwater crocodile and American alligator , have generalised diets and opportunistically feed on invertebrates , fish , amphibians , other reptiles , birds , and mammals . Though mostly carnivorous , several species of crocodilian have been observed to consume fruit , and this may play a role in seed dispersal .
In general , crocodilians are stalk @-@ and @-@ ambush predators , though hunting strategies vary depending on the individual species and the prey being hunted . Terrestrial prey is stalked from the water 's edge and then grabbed and drowned . Gharials and other fish @-@ eating species sweep their jaws sideways to snap up prey , and these animals can leap out of the water to catch birds , bats , and leaping fish . Small animals can be killed by whiplash as the predator shakes its head . Caimans use their tails and bodies to herd fish into shallow water . They may also dig for bottom @-@ dwelling invertebrates , and the smooth @-@ fronted caiman will even hunt on land . Some crocodilian species have been observed to use sticks and branches to lure nest @-@ building birds . Nile crocodiles are known to hunt cooperatively , and several individuals may feed on the same carcass . Most species will eat anything suitable that comes within reach and are also opportunistic scavengers .
Crocodilians are unable to chew and need to swallow food whole , so prey that is too large to swallow is torn into pieces . They may be unable to deal with a large animal with a thick hide , and may wait until it becomes putrid and comes apart more easily . To tear a chunk of tissue from a large carcass , a crocodilian spins its body continuously while holding on with its jaws , a manoeuvre known as the " death roll " . During cooperative feeding , some individuals may hold on to the prey , while others perform the roll . The animals do not fight , and each retires with a piece of flesh and awaits its next feeding turn . Food is typically consumed by crocodilians with their heads above water . The food is held with the tips of the jaws , tossed towards the back of the mouth by an upward jerk of the head and then gulped down . Nile crocodiles may store carcasses underwater for later consumption .
= = = Reproduction and parenting = = =
Crocodilians are generally polygynous , and individual males try to mate with as many females as they can . Monogamous pairings have been recorded in American alligators . Dominant male crocodilians patrol and defend territories which contain several females . Males of some species , like the American alligator , try to attract females with elaborate courtship displays . During courtship , crocodilian males and females may rub against each other , circle around , and perform swimming displays . Copulation typically occurs in the water . When a female is ready to mate , she arches her back while her head and tail submerge . The male rubs across the female 's neck and then grasps her with his hindlimbs , placing his tail underneath hers so their cloacas align and his penis can be inserted . Mating can last up to 15 minutes , during which time the pair continuously submerge and surface . While dominant males usually monopolise reproductive females , multiple paternity is known to exist in American alligators , where as many as three different males may sire offspring in a single clutch . Within a month of mating , the female crocodilian begins to make a nest .
Depending on the species , female crocodilians may construct either holes or mounds as nests , the latter made from vegetation , litter , sand , or soil . Nests are typically found near dens or caves . Those made by different females are sometimes close to each other , particularly in hole @-@ nesting species . The number of eggs laid in a single clutch ranges from ten to fifty . As in all egg @-@ laying amniotes , crocodilian eggs are protected by hard shells made of calcium carbonate . The incubation period is two to three months . The temperature at which the eggs incubate determines the sex of the hatchlings . Constant nest temperatures above 32 ° C ( 90 ° F ) produce more males , while those below 31 ° C ( 88 ° F ) produce more females . However , sex in crocodilians may be determined in a short interval , and nests are subject to changes in temperature . Most natural nests produce hatchlings of both sexes , though single @-@ sex clutches do occur .
The young may all hatch in a single night . Crocodilians are unusual among reptiles in the amount of parental care provided after the young hatch . The mother helps excavate hatchlings from the nest and carries them to water in her mouth . Newly hatched crocodilians gather together and stay close to their mother . For spectacled caimans in the Venezuelan llanos , individual mothers are known to leave their young in the same nurseries , or crèches , and one of the mothers guards them . Hatchlings of many species tend to bask in a group during the day and disperse at nightfall to feed . The time it takes young crocodilians to reach independence can vary . For American alligators , groups of young associate with adults for one to two years , while juvenile saltwater and Nile crocodiles become independent in a few months .
= = = Communication = = =
The social life of a crocodilian begins while it is still in the egg , because the young start communicating with each other before they are hatched . It has been shown that a light tapping noise near the nest will be repeated by the young , one after another . Such early communication may help them to hatch simultaneously . Once it has broken out of the egg , a juvenile produces yelps and grunts , either spontaneously or as a result of external stimuli and even unrelated adults respond quickly to juvenile distress calls .
Vocalisations are frequent as the juveniles disperse , and again as they congregate in the morning . Nearby adults , presumably the parents , also give signals warning of predators or alerting the youngsters to the presence of food . The range and quantity of vocalisations vary between species . Alligators are the noisiest , while some crocodile species are almost completely silent . Adult female New Guinea crocodiles and Siamese crocodiles roar when approached by another adult , while Nile crocodiles grunt or bellow in a similar situation . The American alligator is exceptionally noisy ; it emits a series of about seven throaty bellows , each a couple of seconds long , at ten second intervals . It also makes various grunts and hisses . Males create vibrations in the water to send out infrasonic signals that serve to attract females and intimidate rivals . The enlarged boss of the male gharial may serve as a sound resonator .
Another form of acoustic communication is the headslap . This typically starts with an animal in the water elevating its snout and remaining stationary . After some time , the jaws are opened sharply then clamped shut with a biting motion that makes a loud slapping sound , and this is immediately followed by a loud splash , after which the head may be submerged and copious bubbles produced . Some species then roar , while others slap the water with their tails . Episodes of headslapping spread through the group . The purpose varies , but it seems to be associated with maintaining social relationships , and is also used in courtship . Dominant individuals may also display their body size while swimming at the water surface , and a subordinate will submit by holding its head at an acute angle with the jaws open before retreating underwater .
= = = Growth and mortality = = =
Mortality is high for eggs and hatchlings , and nests face threats from floods , overheating , and predators . Flooding is a major cause of failure of crocodilians to breed successfully , as nests are submerged , developing embryos are deprived of oxygen , and juveniles get washed away . One of the chief predators of alligators ' eggs in Florida is the raccoon , which is attracted by olfactory cues after the nest has been disturbed by turtles . The Florida black bear also raids alligator eggs . In Africa , mongooses , honey badgers , baboons , otters , warthogs , bushpigs , and spotted hyenas are all fond of crocodile eggs , but the monitor lizard is thought to be the most important nest raider . This lizard is also a major hazard in Asia , where other egg predators include civets , mongooses , rats , sloth bears , jackals , and dogs .
Despite the maternal care they receive , hatchlings commonly fall to predation . While the female is transporting some to the nursery area , others are picked off by predators that lurk near the nest . The hatchlings are a source of food for most of the creatures that feed on eggs , and are also subject to aquatic attacks by turtles , fish , and snakes . Birds of prey take their toll , and in any clutch there may be malformed individuals that are unlikely to survive . In northern Australia , the survival rate for saltwater crocodile hatchlings is only twenty @-@ five percent , but with each succeeding year of life this improves , reaching sixty percent by year five . Mortality rates are fairly low among subadult and adults of small species , though they are occasionally preyed on by large cats and snakes . The jaguar and the giant otter may prey on caimans in South America . In other parts of the world , elephants and hippopotamuses may kill crocodiles defensively . Authorities differ as to whether much cannibalism takes place among crocodilians . Adults do not normally eat their own offspring , but there is some evidence of subadults feeding on juveniles and of adults attacking subadults . In Nile crocodiles , rival males sometimes kill each other during the breeding season .
Growth in hatchlings and young crocodilians depends on the food supply , and sexual maturity is linked with length rather than age . Female saltwater crocodiles reach maturity at 2 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 5 m ( 7 ft 3 in – 8 ft 2 in ) , while males mature at 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . Australian freshwater crocodiles take ten years to reach maturity at 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 ft 7 in ) . The spectacled caiman matures earlier , reaching its mature length of 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 ft 11 in ) in four to seven years . Crocodilians continue to grow throughout their lives . Males in particular continue to gain in weight as they get older , but this is mostly in the form of extra girth rather than length . Crocodilians can live 35 – 75 years , and their age can be determined by growth rings in their bones .
= = = Ecological roles = = =
Being highly efficient predators , crocodilians tend to be top of the food chain in their watery environments . The nest mounds built by some species of crocodilian are used by other animals for their own purposes . American alligator mounds are used by turtles and snakes , both for basking and for laying their own eggs . The Florida red @-@ bellied turtle specialises in this , and alligator mounds may have several clutches of turtle eggs developing alongside the owner 's eggs . Alligators modify some wetland habitats in flat areas such as the Everglades by constructing small ponds known as " alligator holes " . These create wetter or drier habitats for other organisms , such as plants , fish , invertebrates , amphibians , reptiles , and mammals . In the limestone depressions of cypress swamps , alligator holes tend to be large and deep . Those in marl prairies and rocky glades are usually small and shallow , while those in peat depressions of ridge and slough wetlands are more variable . Man @-@ made holes do not appear to have as large an effect .
In the Amazon basin , when caimans became scarce as a result of overhunting in the mid @-@ 20th century , the number of local fish , such as the important arapaima ( Arapaima gigas ) , also decreased . These are nutrient @-@ poor waters , and the urine and faeces of the caimans may have increased primary production by contributing plant nutrients . Thus the presence of the reptiles could have benefited the fish stock ; the number of crocodilians in a stretch of water appears to be correlated with the fish population .
= = Evolution and classification = =
= = = Evolution = = =
The main distinguishing characteristic of diapsid tetrapods is the presence of two openings ( temporal fenestrae ) on either side of the skull behind the eye . Living diapsids include all crocodilians , lizards , snakes , tuataras , and birds . The feature that distinguishes archosaurs from other diapsids is an extra pair of openings in the skull ( antorbital fenestrae ) in front of the eye sockets . Archosauria is the crown group containing the most recent common ancestor of crocodilians and birds and all its descendants . It comprises the Pseudosuchia , the " false crocodiles " , and the Ornithosuchia , which in turn comprises the dinosaurs and their relatives , the pterosaurs , and the birds . Pseudosuchia is defined as living crocodilians and all archosaurs more closely related to crocodilians than to birds . The Pseudosuchia – bird split is assumed to have occurred close to the Permian – Triassic mass extinction event . Modern crocodilians have lost the antorbital fenestrae , but they were present in most of their fossil ancestors as small openings .
The crocodylomorphs are the only pseudosuchians to have survived the Triassic – Jurassic extinction event , 201 @.@ 3 million years ago . During the early Jurassic period , the dinosaurs became dominant on land , and the crocodylomorphs underwent major adaptive diversications to fill ecological niches vacated by recently extinguished groups . Unfolding fossil evidence shows that Mesozoic crocodylomorphs had a much greater diversity of forms than modern crocodilians . Some became small fast @-@ moving insectivores , others specialist fish @-@ eaters , still others marine and terrestrial carnivores , and a few became herbivores . The earliest stage of crocodilian evolution was the protosuchians , which evolved in the late Triassic and early Jurassic . They were followed by the mesosuchians , which diversified widely during the Jurassic and the Tertiary . Another group , the eusuchians , appeared in the late Cretaceous 80 million years ago and includes all the crocodilians living today .
Protosuchians were small , mostly terrestrial animals with short snouts and long limbs . They had bony armor in the form of two rows of plates extending from head to tail , and this armor is retained by most modern crocodilians . Their vertebrae were convex on the two main articulating surfaces , and their bony palates were little developed . The mesosuchians saw a fusion of the palatine bones to form a secondary bony palate and a great extension of the nasal passages to near the pterygoid bones . This allowed the animal to breathe through its nostrils while its mouth was open under the water . The eusuchians continued this process with the interior nostrils now opening through an aperture in the pterygoid bones . The vertebrae of eusuchians had one convex and one concave articulating surface , allowing for a ball and socket type joint between the vertebrae , bringing greater flexibility and strength . The oldest known eusuchian is Hylaeochampsa vectiana from the lower Cretaceous of the Isle of Wight in the United Kingdom . It was followed by crocodilians such as the Pristichampsidae , the so @-@ called ' hoofed crocodiles ' , in the Palaeogene . Spanning the Cretaceous and Palaeogene periods is the genus Borealosuchus of North America , with six species , though its phylogenetic position is not settled .
The three primary branches of Crocodilia had diverged by the end of the Mesozoic . The earliest @-@ known members of the group are alligatoroids and gavialoids that lived in North America and Europe during the Campanian ( around 83 @.@ 6 – 72 @.@ 1 million years ago ) . Although the first known crocodyloids appeared in the Maastrichtian ( around 72 @.@ 1 – 66 @.@ 0 million years ago ) , that lineage must have been present during the Campanian , and the earliest alligatoroids and gavialoids include highly derived forms , which indicates that the time of the actual divergence between the three lineages must have been a pre @-@ Campanian event .
= = = Relationships = = =
The phylogenetic relationships of crocodilians has been the subject of debate and conflicting results . Many studies and their resulting cladograms , or " family trees " of crocodilians , have found the " short @-@ snouted " families of Crocodylidae and Alligatoridae to be close relatives , with the long @-@ snouted Gavialidae as a divergent branch of the tree . The resulting group of short @-@ snouted species , name Brevirostres , was supported mainly by studies which analyzed skeletal features alone .
In 2012 , Erickson et al. produced a phylogeny formed from DNA sequencing to give a maximum likelihood cladogram of the relationships among living crocodilians ( excluding the yacare caiman for which no DNA evidence was available ) . In this , the existence of a distinct group Brevirostres was rejected , with the long @-@ snouted gavialids more closely related to crocodiles than to alligators .
= = = Taxonomy = = =
Extant
Family Gavialidae
Genus Gavialis
Gharial ( Gavialis gangeticus )
Genus Tomistoma
False gharial ( Tomistoma schlegelii )
There are two extant species of Gavialidae : the gharial and the false gharial . Gharials can be recognised by the long narrow snout , with an enlarged boss at the tip . They are rare and found only in South Asia .
Family Alligatoridae
Genus Alligator
American alligator ( Alligator mississippiensis )
Chinese alligator ( Alligator sinensis )
Genus Paleosuchus
Cuvier 's dwarf caiman ( Paleosuchus palpebrosus )
Smooth @-@ fronted caiman ( Paleosuchus trigonatus )
Genus Caiman
Yacare caiman ( Caiman yacare )
Spectacled caiman ( Caiman crocodilus )
Broad @-@ snouted caiman ( Caiman latirostris )
Genus Melanosuchus
Black caiman ( Melanosuchus niger )
The extant Alligatoridae are two species in the genus Alligator , and six species of caimans grouped into three genera . They can be recognised by the broad snout , in which the fourth tooth of the lower jaw cannot be seen when the mouth is closed .
Family Crocodylidae
Genus Crocodylus
American crocodile ( Crocodylus acutus )
Orinoco crocodile ( Crocodylus intermedius )
Freshwater crocodile ( Crocodylus johnsoni )
Philippine crocodile ( Crocodylus mindorensis )
Morelet 's crocodile ( Crocodylus moreletii )
Nile crocodile ( Crocodylus niloticus )
Desert crocodile ( Crocodylus suchus )
New Guinea crocodile ( Crocodylus novaeguineae )
Mugger crocodile ( Crocodylus palustris )
Saltwater crocodile ( Crocodylus porosus )
Cuban crocodile ( Crocody | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
lus rhombifer )
Siamese crocodile ( Crocodylus siamensis )
Genus Mecistops
Slender @-@ snouted crocodile ( Mecistops [ Crocodylus ] cataphractus )
Genus Osteolaemus
Dwarf crocodile ( Osteolaemus tetraspis )
The extant Crocodylidae are twelve species in the genus Crocodylus , and two species in other genera . They have a variety of snout shapes , but can be recognised because the fourth tooth of the lower jaw is visible when the mouth is closed .
Living and extinct groups
= = Interactions with humans = =
= = = Farming and ranching = = =
Alligators and crocodiles were first farmed in the early 20th century , but the facilities involved were zoo @-@ like and their main source of income was from tourism . By the early 1960s , the feasibility of farming these reptiles on a commercial scale was investigated in response to the decline of many crocodilian species around the world . Farming involves breeding and rearing captive stock on a self @-@ contained basis , whereas ranching means the use of eggs , juveniles , or adults taken each year from the wild . Commercial organisations must satisfy the criteria of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ( CITES ) by demonstrating that , in the area concerned , they do not adversely impact the wild population .
Alligator and crocodile farming began because of demand for their hides , but now nearly all parts of the animal are put to use . The side and belly skin make the best leather , the meat is eaten , the gall bladders are valued in East Asia , and the heads are sometimes made into ornaments . In traditional Chinese medicine , alligator meat is said to cure the common cold and prevent cancer , while various internal organs are believed to have medicinal properties .
= = = Attacks = = =
Crocodilians are opportunistic predators that are at their most dangerous in water and at the edge of water . Eight species are known to attack humans and may do so to defend their territories , nests , or young ; by mistake , while attacking domestic animals such as dogs ; or for food , as larger crocodilians can take prey as big as or bigger than humans . The species on which there is most data are the saltwater crocodile , the Nile crocodile , and the American alligator . Other species which have sometimes attacked humans are the black caiman , the Morelet 's crocodile , the mugger crocodile , the American crocodile , the gharial , and the freshwater crocodile .
The Nile crocodile has a reputation as the biggest killer of large animals , including humans , on the African continent . It is widely distributed , found in many habitats and cryptically coloured . From a waiting position with only its eyes and nostrils above the water , it can lunge at drinking animals , fishermen , bathers , or people collecting water or washing clothes . Once seized and dragged into the water , there is little chance for the victim to escape . Analysis of attacks show that most take place during the breeding season or when crocodiles are guarding nests or newly hatched young . Although many attacks go unreported , there are estimated to be over 300 per year , 63 % of which are fatal . Wild saltwater crocodiles in Australia carried out 62 confirmed and unprovoked attacks causing injury or death between 1971 and 2004 . These animals have also caused fatalities in Malaysia , New Guinea , and elsewhere . They are highly territorial and resent intrusion into their territories by other crocodiles , humans , or boats such as canoes . Attacks may come from animals of various sizes , but the larger males are generally responsible for fatalities . As their size increases , so does their need for larger mammalian prey ; pigs , cattle , horses , and humans are all within the size range they seek . Most of the people attacked were either swimming or wading , but in two instances they were asleep in tents .
American alligators are recorded as making 242 unprovoked attacks between 1948 and mid @-@ 2004 , causing sixteen human fatalities . Ten of these were in the water and two were on land ; the circumstances of the other four are not known . Most attacks were in the warmer months of the year , though in Florida , with its warmer climate , attacks can happen at any time of year . Alligators are considered to be less aggressive than either the Nile or saltwater crocodile , but the increase in density of the human population in the Everglades has brought people and alligators into closer proximity and increased the risk of alligator attacks . Conversely in Mauritania , crocodiles appear to be habituated to the local people , who swim with them without being attacked .
= = = As pets = = =
Several species of crocodilian are traded as exotic pets . They are appealing when young , and pet @-@ store owners can easily sell them , but crocodilians do not make good pets ; they grow large and are both dangerous and expensive to keep . As they grow older , pet crocodilians are often abandoned by their owners , and feral populations of spectacled caimans exist in the United States and Cuba . Most countries have strict regulations for keeping these reptiles .
= = = In medicine = = =
The blood of alligators and crocodiles contains peptides with antibiotic properties . These may contribute to future antibacterial drugs .
= = Conservation = =
The main threat to crocodilians around the world is human activity , including hunting and habitat destruction . Early in the 1970s , more than 2 million wild crocodilian skins of a variety of species had been traded , driving down the majority of crocodilian populations , in some cases almost to extinction . Starting in 1973 , CITES attempted to prevent trade in body parts of endangered animals , such as the skins of crocodiles . This proved to be problematic in the 1980s , as crocodiles were abundant and dangerous to humans in some parts of Africa , and it was legal to hunt them . At the Conference of the Parties in Botswana in 1983 , it was argued on behalf of aggrieved local people that it was reasonable to sell the lawfully hunted skins . In the late 1970s , crocodiles began to be farmed in different countries , started from eggs taken from the wild . By the 1980s , farmed crocodile skins were produced in sufficient numbers to destroy the unlawful trade in wild crocodilians . By 2000 , skins from twelve crocodilian species , whether harvested lawfully in the wild or farmed , were traded by thirty countries , and the unlawful trade in the products had almost vanished .
The gharial has undergone a chronic long @-@ term decline , combined with a rapid short @-@ term decline , leading the IUCN to list the species as critically endangered . In 1946 , the gharial population had been widespread , numbering around 5 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 ; by 2006 , however , it had declined 96 – 98 % , reduced to a small number of widely spaced subpopulations of fewer than 235 individuals . This long @-@ term decline had a number of causes , including egg collection and hunting , such as for indigenous medicine . The rapid decline of about 58 % between 1997 and 2006 was caused by increasing use of gill nets and the loss of riverine habitat . The gharial population continues to be threatened by environmental hazards such as heavy metals and protozoan parasites , but as of 2013 numbers are rising , due to the protection of nests against egg predators . The Chinese alligator was historically widespread throughout the eastern Yangtze River system but is currently restricted to some areas in southeastern Anhui province thanks to habitat fragmentation and degradation . The wild population is believed to exist only in small fragmented ponds . In 1972 , the species was declared a Class I endangered species by the Chinese government and received the maximum amount of legal protection . Since 1979 , captive breeding programs were established in China and North America , creating a healthy captive population . In 2008 , alligators bred in the Bronx Zoo were successfully reintroduced to Chongming Island . The Philippine crocodile is perhaps the most threatened crocodilian and is considered by the IUCN to be critically endangered . Hunting and destructive fishing habits have reduced its population to around 100 individuals by 2009 . In the same year , 50 captive bred crocodiles were released into the wild to help boost the population . Support from local people is crucial for the species survival .
The American alligator has also suffered serious declines from hunting and habitat loss throughout its range , threatening it with extinction . In 1967 it was listed as an endangered species , but the United States Fish and Wildlife Service and state wildlife agencies in the Southern United States stepped in and worked towards its recovery . Protection allowed the species to recuperate , and in 1987 it was removed from the endangered species list . Much research into alligator ranching has been undertaken at the Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge , a large area of marshland in the state of Louisiana . The resulting data has increased understanding of penning , stocking rates , egg incubation , hatching , rearing , and diet , and this information has been used at other establishments around the world . Income from the alligators kept at Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge contributes to conservation of the marshland . A study examining alligator farms in the United States showed that they have generated significant conservation gains , and poaching of wild alligators has greatly diminished .
= = Cultural depictions = =
= = = In mythology and folklore = = =
Crocodilians have had prominent roles in the myths and legends of various cultures around the world and may even have inspired stories of dragons . In Ancient Egyptian religion , Ammit , the demoniac devourer of unworthy souls , and Sobek , the god of power , protection , and fertility , are both represented as having crocodile heads . This reflects the Egyptians ' view of the crocodile both as a terrifying predator and an important part of the Nile ecosystem . The crocodile was one of several animals that the Egyptians mummified . Crocodiles were also associated with various water deities by tribes of West Africa . During the Benin Empire , crocodiles were considered the " policemen of the waters " and symbolised the power of the king or oba to punish wrongdoers . The Leviathan described in the Book of Job may have been based on a crocodile . In Mesoamerica , the Aztecs had a crocodilian god of fertility named Cipactli who protected crops . In Aztec mythology , the sea monster Tlaltecuhtli is sometimes described as merging with a " great caiman " . The Mayans also associated crocodilians with fertility and death .
The gharial is featured in the folk tales of India . In one story , a gharial and a monkey become friends when the monkey gives the gharial fruit . The gharial 's wife demands that her husband bring home the monkey to eat , believing that the fruit made the monkey 's heart sweet . The gharial complies at first and attempts to lure the monkey to his home , but soon comes clean about the plan . Their friendship ends after that . Similar stories exist in Native American legends , and in the African American folktale of an alligator and Br 'er Rabbit .
In a Malay folk tale , the mouse deer Sang Kancil wants to cross a river to reach the fruit trees on the far side , but Sang Buaya , a crocodile , is waiting in the river to eat him . Sang Kancil asks all the crocodiles to line up across the river so he can count them for the king , and makes them promise not to eat him as he counts . He then steps on their heads one by one , calling out " One ! Two ! Three ! " as he goes . When he reaches the far side , he thanks them for helping him cross the river , and feasts on fruit . Sang Buaya does not fare as well , since the other crocodiles are angry with him for letting Sang Kancil trick them . A legend from East Timor tells how a boy rescues a gigantic crocodile that becomes stranded . In return , the crocodile protects him for the rest of its life , and when it dies , its scaly ridged back becomes the hills of Timor . One Australian Dreamtime story tells of a crocodile ancestor who had fire all to himself . One day , a " rainbow bird " stole fire @-@ sticks from the crocodile and gave it to man . Hence the crocodile lives in water .
= = = In literature = = =
Ancient historians have described crocodilians from the earliest historical records , though often their descriptions contain as much legend as fact . The Ancient Greek historian Herodotus ( c . 440 BC ) described the crocodile in detail , though much of his description is fanciful ; he claimed that it would lie with its mouth open to permit a " trochilus " bird ( possibly an Egyptian plover ) to enter and remove any leeches it found . The crocodile was one of the beasts described in the late @-@ 13th century Rochester Bestiary , based on classical sources , including Pliny 's Historia naturalis ( c . 79 AD ) and Isidore of Seville 's Etymologies . Isidore asserts that the crocodile is named for its saffron colour ( Latin croceus , ' saffron ' ) , and that it is often twenty cubits ( 10 m ( 33 ft ) ) long . He further claimed that the crocodile may be killed by fish with serrated crests sawing into its soft underbelly , and that the male and female take turns guarding the eggs .
Crocodiles have been reputed to weep for their victims since the 9th century Bibliotheca by Photios I of Constantinople . The story was repeated in later accounts such as that of Bartholomeus Anglicus in the 13th century . It became widely known in 1400 when the English traveller Sir John Mandeville wrote his description of " cockodrills " :
" In that country [ of Prester John ] and by all Ind [ India ] be great plenty of cockodrills , that is a manner of a long serpent , as I have said before . And in the night they dwell in the water , and on the day upon the land , in rocks and in caves . And they eat no meat in all the winter , but they lie as in a dream , as do the serpents . These serpents slay men , and they eat them weeping ; and when they eat they move the over jaw , and not the nether jaw , and they have no tongue . "
William Shakespeare refers to crocodile tears in Othello ( Act IV , Scene i ) , Henry VI , Part 2 ( Act III , Scene i ) , and Antony and Cleopatra ( Act II , Scene vii ) .
Crocodilians , especially the crocodile , have been recurring characters in stories for children throughout the modern era . Lewis Carroll 's Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland ( 1865 ) contains the poem How Doth the Little Crocodile , a parody of a moralising poem by Isaac Watts , Against Idleness and Mischief . In J. M. Barrie 's novel Peter and Wendy ( 1911 ) , the character Captain Hook has lost his arm to the crocodile . Hook fears the crocodile , but is warned of its approach by the ticking of a clock which it has swallowed . In Rudyard Kipling 's Just So Stories ( 1902 ) , the Elephant 's Child acquires his trunk by having his ( short ) nose pulled very hard by the Crocodile " on the banks of the great grey @-@ green , greasy Limpopo river " . The newly elongated nose allows him to pick fruit instead of waiting for it to fall , and to do many other useful things . Roald Dahl 's The Enormous Crocodile ( 1978 ) , illustrated by Quentin Blake , tells how a crocodile wanders the jungle looking for children to eat , trying one trick after another .
= = = In sports and media = = =
Crocodilians are sometimes used as mascots for sports teams . The Canton Crocodiles were a baseball team in the Frontier League , while the University of Florida sport teams are known as the Florida Gators , in reference to the American alligator , and their mascots are Albert and Alberta Gator . In film and television , crocodilians are represented as dangerous obstacles in lakes and rivers , as in the 1986 Australian comedy film " Crocodile " Dundee , or as monstrous man @-@ eaters in horror films like Eaten Alive ( 1977 ) , Alligator ( 1980 ) , Lake Placid ( 1999 ) , Primeval ( 2007 ) , and Black Water ( 2007 ) . Some media have attempted to portray these reptiles in more positive or educational light , such as Steve Irwin 's wildlife documentary series The Crocodile Hunter . Crocodilians in animation include the Hanna @-@ Barbera character Wally Gator , and Ben Ali Gator from the Dance of the Hours segment of Disney 's 1940 film Fantasia .
= One World Trade Center =
One World Trade Center ( also known as the Freedom Tower , 1 World Trade Center , One WTC and 1 WTC ) is the main building of the rebuilt World Trade Center complex in Lower Manhattan , New York City . It is the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere , and the sixth @-@ tallest in the world . The supertall structure has the same name as the North Tower of the original World Trade Center , which was completely destroyed in the terrorist attacks of September 11 , 2001 . The new skyscraper stands on the northwest corner of the 16 @-@ acre ( 6 @.@ 5 ha ) World Trade Center site , on the site of the original 6 World Trade Center . The building is bounded by West Street to the west , Vesey Street to the north , Fulton Street to the south , and Washington Street to the east .
The building 's architect was David Childs , whose firm Skidmore , Owings & Merrill ( SOM ) also designed the Burj Khalifa and the Willis Tower . The construction of below @-@ ground utility relocations , footings , and foundations for the new building began on April 27 , 2006 . One World Trade Center became the tallest structure in New York City on April 30 , 2012 , when it surpassed the height of the Empire State Building . The tower 's steel structure was topped out on August 30 , 2012 . On May 10 , 2013 , the final component of the skyscraper 's spire was installed , making the building , including its spire , reach a total height of 1 @,@ 776 feet ( 541 m ) . Its height in feet is a deliberate reference to the year when the United States Declaration of Independence was signed . The building opened on November 3 , 2014 .
On March 30 , 2009 , the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey ( PANYNJ ) confirmed that the building would be officially known by its legal name of " One World Trade Center " , rather than its colloquial name of " Freedom Tower " . The building is 104 standard floors high , but the tower has only 94 actual stories .
The new World Trade Center complex will eventually include five high @-@ rise office buildings built along Greenwich Street , as well as the National September 11 Memorial & Museum , located just south of One World Trade Center where the original Twin Towers stood . The construction of the new building is part of an effort to memorialize and rebuild following the destruction of the original World Trade Center complex .
= = Original building ( 1970 – 2001 ) = =
= = = Construction = = =
The construction of the World Trade Center , of which the Twin Towers ( One and Two World Trade Center ) were the centerpieces , was conceived as an urban renewal project and spearheaded by David Rockefeller . The project was intended to help revitalize Lower Manhattan . The project was planned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey , which hired architect Minoru Yamasaki . Yamasaki came up with the idea of building twin towers . After extensive negotiations , the New Jersey and New York State governments , which supervise the Port Authority , consented to the construction of the World Trade Center at the Radio Row site , located in the lower @-@ west area of Manhattan . To satisfy the New Jersey government , the Port Authority agreed to buy the bankrupt Hudson & Manhattan Railroad ( renamed to Port Authority Trans @-@ Hudson ) , which transported commuters from New Jersey to Lower Manhattan .
The towers were designed as framed tube structures , giving tenants open floor plans , unobstructed by columns or walls . This design was accomplished by using many closely spaced perimeter columns , providing much of structure 's strength , with the gravity load shared with the core columns . The elevator system , which made use of sky lobbies and a system of express and local elevators , allowed substantial floor space to be used for office purposes by making the structural core smaller . The design and construction of the towers involved many other innovative techniques , such as wind tunnel experiments and the slurry wall for digging the foundation .
Construction of the North Tower ( One World Trade Center ) began in August 1966 ; extensive use of prefabricated components sped up the construction process . The first tenants moved into the North Tower in December 1970 . In the 1970s , four other low @-@ level buildings were built as part of the World Trade Center complex . A seventh building was built in the mid @-@ 1980s .
= = = Specifications and operations = = =
After Seven World Trade Center was built in the 1980s , the World Trade Center complex had a total of seven buildings ; however , the most notable ones were the main Twin Towers built in the 1970s — One World Trade Center was the North Tower , and Two World Trade Center was the South Tower . Each tower was over 1 @,@ 350 feet ( 410 m ) high , and occupied about 1 acre ( 0 @.@ 40 ha ) of the total 16 acres ( 6 @.@ 5 ha ) of the site 's land . During a press conference in 1973 , Yamasaki was asked , " Why two 110 @-@ story buildings ? Why not one 220 @-@ story building ? " His response was , " I didn 't want to lose the human scale . "
When completed in 1972 , One World Trade Center became the tallest building in the world for two years , surpassing the Empire State Building , which had held the record for 40 years . The North Tower was 1 @,@ 368 feet ( 417 m ) tall , and in 1978 , a telecommunications antenna was added to the top of the roof ; by itself , the antenna was 360 feet ( 110 m ) tall . With the 360 @-@ foot ( 110 m ) -tall antenna , the highest point of the North Tower reached 1 @,@ 728 ft ( 527 m ) . The tower held its record for a brief period of time ; Chicago 's Sears Tower , finished in May 1973 , was 1 @,@ 450 feet ( 440 m ) at the rooftop . At 110 floors , the World Trade Center towers had more floors than any other building at that time . This number was not surpassed until the construction of the Burj Khalifa ( 163 floors ) , which opened in 2010 .
Of the 110 stories , eight were set aside as mechanical floors ( floors 7 / 8 , 41 / 42 , 75 / 76 , and 108 / 109 ) , which were four two @-@ floor areas that were spaced up the building in even intervals . All the remaining floors were open for tenants . Each floor of the tower had 40 @,@ 000 square feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m2 ) of available space . The North and South tower had 3 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 square feet ( 350 @,@ 000 m2 ) of total office space . The entire complex of seven buildings had a combined total of 13 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 240 @,@ 000 m2 ) of office space .
The complex initially failed to attract the expected clientele . During the early years , various governmental organizations became key tenants of the World Trade Center , such as the State of New York . In the 1980s , the city 's perilous financial condition eased , after which an increasing number of private companies — mostly financial firms related to Wall Street — became tenants . During the 1990s , approximately 500 companies had offices in the complex , including financial companies such as Morgan Stanley , Aon Corporation , and Salomon Brothers . The basement concourse of the World Trade Center included The Mall at the World Trade Center , and a PATH station . The North Tower became the main corporate headquarters of Cantor Fitzgerald , and it also became the headquarters of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey .
The tower 's electrical service was supplied by Consolidated Edison ( ConEd ) at 13 @,@ 800 volts . The electricity passed through the World Trade Center Primary Distribution Center ( PDC ) , and was then sent up the building 's core to electrical substations located on the mechanical floors . The substations lowered the 13 @,@ 800 primary voltage to 480 / 277 volts , and the voltage was then further lowered to 208 / 120 volts for general power and lighting services . The complex was also served by emergency generators located in the sub @-@ levels of the towers and on the roof of Five World Trade Center .
The 110th floor of One World Trade Center ( the North Tower ) housed radio and television transmission equipment . The roof of the North Tower contained a vast array of transmission antennas , including the 360 feet ( 110 m ) center antenna mast , rebuilt by Dielectric Inc. to support DTV in 1999 . The center mast contained the television signals for almost all NYC television broadcasters : WCBS @-@ TV 2 , WNBC @-@ TV 4 , WNYW 5 , WABC @-@ TV 7 , WWOR @-@ TV 9 Secaucus , WPIX 11 , WNET 13 Newark , WPXN @-@ TV 31 and WNJU 47 Linden . It also had four NYC FM broadcasters : WPAT @-@ FM 93 @.@ 1 , WNYC 93 @.@ 9 , WKCR 89 @.@ 9 , and WKTU 103 @.@ 5 . Access to the roof was controlled by the WTC Operations Control Center ( OCC ) , located in the B1 level of the South Tower . After the September 11 attacks of 2001 , the broadcasting equipment for the radio and television stations was moved to the Empire State Building .
On a typical weekday , a combined total of 50 @,@ 000 people worked in the North and South Towers , with another 200 @,@ 000 passing through as visitors . The complex was so large that it had its own zip code : 10048 . The Windows on the World restaurant , located on top of the North Tower , reported revenues of $ 37 million in 2000 , making it the highest @-@ grossing restaurant in the United States . The Twin Towers became known worldwide , appearing in movies , television shows , postcards , and other merchandise . The towers came to be seen as a New York City icon , much like the Empire State Building , the Chrysler Building , and the Statue of Liberty .
= = = Incidents = = =
On February 13 , 1975 , a three @-@ alarm fire broke out on the 11th floor of the North Tower . Fire spread through the core of the building to the 9th and 14th floors , as the insulation for telephone cables , located in a utility shaft that ran vertically between floors , had been ignited . Areas most affected by the fire were extinguished almost immediately , and the original fire was put out in a few hours . Most of the damage was on the 11th floor , where the fire was fueled by cabinets filled with paper , alcohol @-@ based fluid for office machines , and other office equipment . Fireproofing protected the steel , and there was no structural damage to the tower . In addition to the fire damage on the 9th and 14th floors , water used to extinguish the fire damaged a few floors below . At the time , the World Trade Center complex had no fire sprinkler systems .
The first terrorist attack on the World Trade Center occurred on February 26 , 1993 , at 12 : 17 p.m. , when a Ryder truck filled with 1 @,@ 500 pounds ( 680 kg ) of explosives , planted by Ramzi Yousef , detonated in the underground garage of the North Tower . The blast resulted in a 100 feet ( 30 m ) hole through five sublevels . The greatest damage was on levels B1 and B2 , with significant structural damage on level B3 . Six people were killed , and more than a thousand were injured , as 50 @,@ 000 workers and visitors were inside the tower at the time . Many people inside the North Tower were forced to walk down darkened stairwells that had no emergency lighting , and some took two hours or more to reach safety .
= = = September 11 attacks = = =
At 8 : 46 a.m. ( EDT ) on September 11 , 2001 , five hijackers affiliated with al @-@ Qaeda crashed American Airlines Flight 11 into the northern facade of the North Tower . Seventeen minutes later , at 9 : 03 a.m. ( EDT ) , a second group of terrorists crashed the hijacked United Airlines Flight 175 into the southern facade of the South Tower , striking between the 77th and 85th floors .
By 9 : 59 a.m. ( EDT ) , the South Tower collapsed after burning for approximately 56 minutes . After burning for 102 minutes , the North Tower collapsed due to structural failure at 10 : 28 a.m. ( EDT ) When the North Tower collapsed , debris fell on the nearby 7 World Trade Center , damaging it and starting fires . The fires burned for hours , compromising the building 's structural integrity . Seven World Trade Center collapsed at 5 : 21 p.m. ( EDT )
Together with a simultaneous attack on the Pentagon in Arlington , Virginia , and a failed plane hijacking that resulted in a plane crash in Shanksville , Pennsylvania , the attacks resulted in the deaths of 2 @,@ 996 people ( 2 @,@ 507 civilians , 343 firefighters , 72 law enforcement officers , 55 military personnel , and the 19 hijackers ) . More than 90 % of the workers and visitors who died in the towers had been at or above the points of impact . In the North Tower , 1 @,@ 355 people at or above the point of impact were trapped , and died of smoke inhalation , fell , jumped from the tower to escape the smoke and flames , or were killed when the building eventually collapsed . One stairwell in the South Tower , Stairwell A , somehow avoided complete destruction , unlike the rest of the building . When Flight 11 hit , all three staircases in the North Tower above the impact zone were destroyed , thus making it impossible for anyone above the impact zone to escape . 107 people below the point of impact also died .
= = Current building = =
= = = Planning and early development = = =
Following the destruction of the original World Trade Center , there was debate regarding the future of the World Trade Center site . There were proposals for its reconstruction almost immediately , and by 2002 , the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation had organized a competition to determine how to use the site . The proposals were part of a larger plan to memorialize the September 11 attacks and rebuild the complex . When the public rejected the first round of designs , a second , more open competition took place in December 2002 , in which a design by Daniel Libeskind was selected as the winner . This design went through many revisions , mainly because of disagreements with developer Larry Silverstein , who held the lease to the World Trade Center site at that time .
There was criticism concerning the limited number of floors that were designated for office space and other amenities in an early plan . Only 82 floors would have been habitable , and the total office space of the rebuilt World Trade Center complex would have been reduced by more than 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square feet ( 280 @,@ 000 m2 ) in comparison with the original complex . The floor limit was imposed by Silverstein , who expressed concern that higher floors would be a liability in the event of a future terrorist attack or other incident . Much of the building 's height would have consisted of a large , open @-@ air steel lattice structure on the roof of the tower , containing wind turbines and " sky gardens " . In a subsequent design , the highest occupiable floor became comparable to the original World Trade Center , and the open @-@ air lattice was removed from the plans . In 2002 , former New York Governor George Pataki faced accusations of cronyism for supposedly using his influence to get the winning architect 's design picked as a personal favor for his friend and campaign contributor , Ron Lauder .
A final design for the " Freedom Tower " was formally unveiled on June 28 , 2005 . To address security issues raised by the New York City Police Department , a 187 @-@ foot ( 57 m ) concrete base was added to the design in April of that year . The design originally included plans to clad the base in glass prisms in order to address criticism that the building might have looked uninviting and resembled a " concrete bunker " . However , the prisms were later found to be unworkable , as preliminary testing revealed that the prismatic glass easily shattered into large and dangerous shards . As a result , it was replaced by a simpler facade consisting of stainless steel panels and blast @-@ resistant glass .
Contrasting with Libeskind 's original plan , the tower 's final design tapers octagonally as it rises . Its designers stated that the tower would be a " monolithic glass structure reflecting the sky and topped by a sculpted antenna . " In 2006 , Larry Silverstein commented on a planned completion date : " By 2012 we should have a completely rebuilt World Trade Center , more magnificent , more spectacular than it ever was . " On April 26 , 2006 , the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey approved a conceptual framework that allowed foundation construction to begin . A formal agreement was drafted the following day , the 75th anniversary of the 1931 opening of the Empire State Building . Construction began in May ; a formal groundbreaking ceremony took place when the first construction team arrived .
= = = Construction and later development = = =
The symbolic cornerstone of One World Trade Center was laid in a ceremony on July 4 , 2004 . The stone had an inscription supposedly written by Arthur J. Finkelstein . However , construction was delayed until 2006 due to disputes over money , security , and design . The last major issues were resolved on April 26 , 2006 , when a deal was made between developer Larry Silverstein and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey , so the cornerstone was temporarily removed from the site on June 23 , 2006 . Soon after , explosives were detonated at the construction site for two months to clear bedrock for the building 's foundation , onto which 400 cubic yards ( 310 cubic meters ) of concrete was poured by November 2007 .
In a December 18 , 2006 , ceremony held in nearby Battery Park City , members of the public were invited to sign the first 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) steel beam installed onto the building 's base . It was welded onto the building 's base on December 19 , 2006 . Foundation and steel installation began shortly afterward , so the tower 's footings and foundation were nearly complete within a year .
In January 2008 , two cranes were moved onto the site . Construction of the tower 's concrete core , which began after the cranes arrived , reached street level by May 17 . However , construction of the base was not finished until two years later , after which construction of the office floors began , and the first glass windows were subsequently installed ; during 2010 , floors were constructed at a rate of about one per week . An advanced " cocoon " scaffolding system was installed to protect workers from falling , and was the first such safety system installed on a steel structure in the city . The tower reached 52 floors and was over 600 feet ( 180 m ) tall by December 2010 . The tower 's steel frame was halfway complete by then , but grew to 82 floors by the tenth anniversary of the September 11 attacks , at which time its concrete flooring had reached 72 floors and the glass cladding had reached 56 floors .
In 2009 , the Port Authority changed the official name of the building from " Freedom Tower " to " One World Trade Center " , stating that this name was the " easiest for people to identify with . " The change came after board members of the Port Authority voted to sign a 21 @-@ year lease deal with Vantone Industrial Co . , a Chinese real estate company , which will become the building 's first commercial tenant . Vantone plans to create the China Center , a trade and cultural facility , covering 191 @,@ 000 square feet on floors 64 through 69 .
Detailed floor plans of the tower were posted on the New York City 's Department of Finance website in May 2011 , resulting in an uproar from the media and citizens of the surrounding area , who warned that the plans could potentially be used for a future terrorist attack .
While under construction , the tower was specially illuminated on several occasions . On the weekend of July 4 , 2011 , it was lit up with the colors of the American flag to commemorate Independence Day , and it was lit up with the same colors on September 11 to mark the 10th anniversary of the September 11 terrorist attacks . On October 27 of that same year , it was illuminated with pink in honor of Breast Cancer Awareness Month . On December 11 , the Port Authority illuminated the tower with multicolored lights to celebrate the holiday season . On February 24 , 2012 , the building was lit up with red in honor of Archbishop of New York Timothy Dolan , who became a cardinal on February 18 . On June 14 , 2012 , it was illuminated with red , white , and blue to honor Flag Day . In August , it was illuminated with red in honor of the Armed Forces . On September 8 , 2012 , it was once again illuminated with red , white , and blue to honor the 11th anniversary of the September 11 attacks . On June 24 , 2013 , the building was again illuminated with red , white , and blue to celebrate the Fourth of July . On November 12 , 2013 , three hundred red , white , and blue lights were lit up .
The tower 's loading dock , however , was not due to be finished in time to move equipment into the completed building , so five temporary loading bays were added at a cost of millions of dollars . The temporary PATH station was not to be removed until its official replacement , the World Trade Center Transportation Hub , was completed , blocking access to the planned loading area . By March 2012 , One World Trade Center 's steel structure had reached 93 floors , growing to 94 floors and 1 @,@ 240 feet ( 380 m ) by the end of the month . However , because the floor numberings were based on standard measurements , the 94th floor was numbered " floor 100 " , because the extra space was occupied by the high @-@ ceilinged 91st floor , which was used for mechanical purposes .
The still @-@ incomplete tower became New York City 's tallest building by roof height in April 2012 , passing the 1 @,@ 250 @-@ foot ( 380 m ) roof height of the Empire State Building . President Barack Obama visited the construction site two months later and wrote , on a steel beam that would be hoisted to the top of the tower , the sentence " We remember , we rebuild , we come back stronger ! " That same month , with the tower 's structure nearing completion , the owners of the building began a public marketing campaign for the building , seeking to attract visitors and tenants .
One World Trade Center 's steel structure topped out at the nominal 104th floor , with a total height of 1 @,@ 368 feet ( 417 m ) , in August 2012 . The tower 's antenna was shipped to New York in November 2012 ; the first section of the antenna was hoisted to the top of the tower on December 12 , 2012 , and was installed on January 15 , 2013 . By March 2013 , two sections of the antenna had been installed . The spire 's completion was scheduled for April 29 , 2013 , but bad weather delayed the delivery of the final pieces . On May 10 , 2013 , the final piece of the spire was lifted to the top of One World Trade Center , bringing the tower to its full height of 1 @,@ 776 feet ( 541 m ) , and making it the fourth @-@ tallest building in the world , as well as the tallest in the city , surpassing the 1 @,@ 454 @-@ foot ( 443 m ) Empire State Building . In subsequent months , the exterior elevator shaft was removed ; the podium glass , interior decorations , and other finishings were being installed ; and installation of concrete flooring and steel fittings was completed .
A report in September 2013 revealed that , at the time of the report , the World Trade Center Association ( WTCA ) was negotiating with regard to the " World Trade Center " name , as the WTCA had purchased the rights to the name in 1986 . The WTCA sought $ 500 @,@ 000 worth of free office space in the tower in exchange for the use of " World Trade Center " in the tower 's name and associated souvenirs .
On November 12 , 2013 , the Height Committee of the Chicago @-@ based Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat ( CTBUH ) made the controversial announcement that One World Trade Center was the tallest building in the United States at 1 @,@ 776 feet , declaring that the mast on top of the building is a spire since it is a permanent part of the building 's architecture . By the same reasoning , the building was also the tallest in the Western Hemisphere .
= = = Opening and post @-@ opening = = =
On November 1 , 2014 , moving trucks started moving items for the tower 's first tenant , magazine publisher Condé Nast , from its old headquarters in Times Square to One World Trade Center . The New York Times noted that the area around the World Trade Center had transitioned from a financial area to one with technology firms , residences , and luxury shops , coincident with the building of the new tower .
The building opened on November 3 , 2014 , and Condé Nast employees moved into spaces spread among 24 floors . Condé Nast occupies floors 20 to 44 , having completed its move in early 2015 . It is expected that the company will attract new tenants to occupy the remaining 40 % of unleased space in the tower , as Condé Nast had revitalized Times Square after moving there in 1999 . Only about 170 of 3 @,@ 400 total employees moved into the new tower on the first day . Future tenants will include Kids Creative , Legends Hospitality , the BMB Group , Servcorp , and GQ .
On November 12 , 2014 , the supporting wire rope cables of a suspended working platform slacked . The cables were manufactured by Tractel , and they were used to hold workers who performed maintenance on the building 's exterior . At the time , the platform was holding a two @-@ man , SEIU @-@ affiliated window washing team . The slack caused the platform to hang almost vertically near the 68th floor of the tower . The workers were rescued by over 100 FDNY firefighters , who used a diamond saw to cut through the glass . After the incident , the workers suffered from a slight case of hypothermia , and were taken to the hospital .
= = = Estimated cost and funding = = =
An estimate in February 2007 placed the initial construction cost of One World Trade Center at about $ 3 billion , or $ 1 @,@ 150 per square foot ( $ 12 @,@ 380 per square meter ) . However , the tower 's total estimated construction cost had risen to $ 3 @.@ 9 billion by April 2012 , making it the most expensive building in the world at the time . The tower 's construction was partly funded by approximately $ 1 billion of insurance money that Silverstein received for his losses in the September 11 attacks . The State of New York provided an additional $ 250 million , and the Port Authority agreed to give $ 1 billion , which would be obtained through the sale of bonds . The Port Authority raised prices for bridge and tunnel tolls to raise funds , with a 56 percent toll increase scheduled between 2011 and 2015 ; however , the proceeds of these increases were not used to pay for the tower 's construction .
= = = Architecture and design = = =
Many of Daniel Libeskind 's original concepts from the 2002 competition were discarded from the tower 's final design . One World Trade Center 's final design consisted of simple symmetries and a more traditional profile , intended to compare with selected elements of the contemporary New York skyline . The tower 's central spire draws from previous buildings , such as the Empire State Building and the Chrysler Building . It also visually resembles the original Twin Towers , rather than being an off @-@ center spire similar to the Statue of Liberty .
The building occupies a 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) square , with an area of 40 @,@ 000 square feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m2 ) , nearly identical to the footprints of the original Twin Towers . The tower is built upon a 185 @-@ foot ( 56 m ) tall windowless concrete base , designed to protect it from truck bombs and other ground @-@ level attacks . Originally , the base was to be covered in decorative prismatic glass , but a simpler glass @-@ and @-@ steel façade was adopted when the prisms proved unworkable . The current base cladding consists of angled glass fins protruding from stainless steel panels , similar to those on 7 World Trade Center . LED lights behind the panels illuminate the base at night . Cable @-@ net glass façades on all four sides of the building for the higher floors , designed by Schlaich Bergermann , will be consistent with the other buildings in the complex . The façades are 60 feet ( 18 m ) high , and range in width from 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) on the east and west sides , 50 feet ( 15 m ) on the north side , and 70 feet ( 21 m ) on the south side . The curtain wall was manufactured and assembled by Benson Industries in Portland , Oregon , using glass made in Minnesota by Viracon .
From the 20th floor upwards , the square edges of the tower 's cubic base are chamfered back , shaping the building into eight tall isosceles triangles , or an elongated square antiprism . Near its middle , the tower forms a perfect octagon , and then culminates in a glass parapet , whose shape is a square oriented 45 degrees from the base . A 408 @-@ foot ( 124 m ) sculpted mast containing the broadcasting antenna – designed in a collaboration between Skidmore , Owings and Merrill ( SOM ) , artist Kenneth Snelson ( who invented the tensegrity structure ) , lighting designers , and engineers – is secured by a system of cables , and rises from a circular support ring , which contains additional broadcasting and maintenance equipment . At night , an intense beam of light is projected horizontally from the spire and shines over 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) above the tower .
David Childs of SOM , the architect of One World Trade Center , said the following regarding the tower 's design :
We really wanted our design to be grounded in something that was very real , not just in sculptural sketches . We explored the infrastructural challenges because the proper solution would have to be compelling , not just beautiful . The design does have great sculptural implications , and we fully understand the iconic importance of the tower , but it also has to be a highly efficient building . The discourse about Freedom Tower has often been limited to the symbolic , formal and aesthetic aspects but we recognize that if this building doesn 't function well , if people don 't want to work and visit there , then we will have failed as architects .
= = = = Layout = = = =
Just south of the new One World Trade Center is the National September 11 Memorial & Museum , which is located where the original Twin Towers stood . Immediately to the east is World Trade Center Transportation Hub and the new Two World Trade Center site . To the north is Seven World Trade Center , and to the west is Brookfield Place .
One World Trade Center 's top floor is officially designated as floor 104 , despite the fact that the tower only contains 94 actual stories . The building has 86 usable above @-@ ground floors , of which 78 are intended for office purposes ( approximately 2 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 square feet ( 240 @,@ 000 m2 ) ) . The base consists of floors 1 – 19 , including a 65 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 20 m ) public lobby . The office floors begin at floor 20 , and go up to floor 63 . There is a sky lobby on floor 64 ; office floors resume on floor 65 , and stop at floor 90 . Floors 91 – 99 and 103 – 104 are mechanical floors .
The tower has a three @-@ story observation deck , located on floors 100 – 102 , in addition to existing broadcast and antenna facilities . Similar to in the Empire State Building , visitors will be separated from the tenants , having their own separate entrance next to the museum , descending down to a below @-@ ground security screening area . On the observation deck , the actual viewing space is on the 100th floor , but there will be a food court on the 101st floor and a space for events for the 102nd floor . To show visitors the city , and give them information and stories about New York , an interactive tool called City Pulse is used by Tour Ambassadors . The admission fee will be $ 32 per person , but admission discounts are available for children and seniors , and the deck will be free for 9 / 11 responders and families of 9 / 11 victims . When it opens , the deck is expected to have about 3 @.@ 5 million visitors per year . Tickets went on sale starting on April 8 . However , the Manhattan District Attorney probed the Port Authority about the firm to which | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
it awarded a contract to operate the deck . It officially opened on May 28 , 2015 , one day ahead of schedule .
There are three eating venues at the top of the building : a café ( called One Café ) , a bar and " small plates " grill ( One Mix ) , and a fine dining restaurant ( One Dining ) . Some have criticized the food prices ; the need of a full observatory ticket purchase to enter ; and their reputations compared to Windows on the World , the top @-@ floor restaurant in the original One World Trade Center . The tenants have access to below @-@ ground parking , storage , and shopping ; access to PATH , New York City Subway trains , and the World Financial Center is also provided at the World Trade Center Transportation Hub , Fulton Street / Fulton Center , Chambers Street , and Cortlandt Street stations . The building allows direct access to West Street , Vesey Street , and Fulton Street at ground level . The building has an approximate underground footprint of 42 @,@ 000 square feet ( 3 @,@ 900 m2 ) , of which 55 @,@ 000 square feet ( 5 @,@ 100 m2 ) is retail space . A plan to build a restaurant near the top of the tower , similar to the original One World Trade Center 's Windows on the World , was abandoned as logistically impractical . The tower 's window @-@ washing tracks are located on a 16 @-@ square @-@ foot area , which will be designated as floor 110 as a symbolic reference to the 110 floors of the original tower .
= = = = = Design evolution = = = = =
The original design went through significant changes after the Durst Organization joined the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey as the co @-@ developer of the project in 2010 .
The 185 @-@ foot ( 56 m ) tall base corners were originally designed to gently slope upward , and have prismatic glass . The corners were later squared . In addition , the base 's walls are now covered in " hundreds of pairs of 13 @-@ foot vertical glass fins set against horizontal bands of eight @-@ inch @-@ wide stainless @-@ steel slats . "
The spire was originally to be enclosed with a protective radome , described as a " sculptural sheath of interlocking fiberglass panels " . However , the radome @-@ enclosed spire was changed to a plain antenna . Douglas Durst , the chairman of the Durst Organization , stated that the design change would save $ 20 million . However , the tower 's architect , Skidmore Owings & Merrill , strongly criticized the change . David Childs , the lead designer , said , " Eliminating this integral part of the building 's design and leaving an exposed antenna and equipment is unfortunate ... We stand ready to work with the Port on an alternate design . " After joining the project in 2010 , the Durst Organization had suggested eliminating the radome to reduce costs , but the proposal was rejected by the Port Authority 's then @-@ executive director , Christopher O. Ward . Ward was replaced by Patrick Foye in September 2011 . Foye changed the Port Authority 's position , and the radome was removed from the plans . In 2012 , Douglas Durst gave a statement regarding the final decision : " ( the antenna ) is going to be mounted on the building over the summer . There 's no way to do anything at this point . "
The large triangular plaza on the west side of One World Trade Center , facing the Hudson River , was originally planned to have stainless steel steps descending to the street . However , the steps were changed to a terrace in the final design . The terrace can be accessed through a staircase on Vesey Street . The terrace is paved in granite , and has 12 sweetgum trees , in addition to a block @-@ long planter / bench .
Durst also removed a skylight from the plaza 's plans ; the skylight was designed to allow natural light to enter the below @-@ ground observation deck lobby . The plaza is 5 ft 8 in ( 1 @.@ 73 m ) higher than the adjacent sidewalk .
The Port Authority formally approved all these revisions , and the revisions were first reported by the New York Post . Patrick Foye , the executive director of the Port Authority , said that he thought that the changes were " few and minor " in a telephone interview .
A contract negotiated between the Port Authority and the Durst Organization states that the Durst Organization will receive a $ 15 million fee and a percentage of " base building changes that result in net economic benefit to the project . " The specifics of the signed contract give Durst 75 percent of the savings , up to $ 24 million , with further returns going down to 50 percent , 25 percent and 15 percent as the savings increase .
= = = = = Height = = = = =
The top floor of One World Trade Center is 1 @,@ 368 feet ( 417 m ) above ground level , along with a 33 ft 4 in ( 10 @.@ 16 m ) parapet ; this is identical to the roof height of the original One World Trade Center . The tower 's antenna / spire brings it to a pinnacle height of 1 @,@ 776 feet ( 541 m ) , a figure intended to symbolize the year 1776 , when the United States Declaration of Independence was signed . If the antenna is included in the building 's height , as stated by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat ( CTBUH ) , One World Trade Center surpasses the height of Taipei 101 ( 1 @,@ 671 @-@ foot ( 509 m ) ) , is the world 's tallest all @-@ office building , and the fourth @-@ tallest skyscraper in the world , behind the Burj Khalifa , Abraj Al Bait , and Shanghai Tower .
One World Trade Center is the second @-@ tallest freestanding structure in the Western Hemisphere , as the CN Tower in Toronto exceeds One World Trade Center 's pinnacle height by approximately 12 m ( 39 @.@ 4 ft ) . The Chicago Spire , with a planned height of 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) , was expected to exceed the height of One World Trade Center , but its construction was canceled due to financial difficulties in 2009 .
After design changes for One World Trade Center 's spire were revealed in May 2012 , there were questions as to whether the 408 @-@ foot ( 124 m ) -tall structure would still qualify as a spire , and thus be included in the building 's height . Since the tower 's spire is not enclosed in a radome as originally planned , it could be classified as a simple antenna , which is not included in a building 's height , according to the CTBUH . Without the antenna , One World Trade Center would be 1 @,@ 368 feet ( 417 m ) tall , making it the fourth @-@ tallest building in the United States , behind the Willis Tower and Trump International Hotel & Tower , both located in Chicago , and 432 Park Avenue in New York . The building is currently the tallest in New York City with the antenna ; however , without the antenna , it was surpassed in 2015 by 432 Park Avenue , which topped out at 1 @,@ 396 feet ( 426 m ) high . One World Trade Center 's developers have disputed the claim that the spire should be reclassified as an antenna following the redesign , with Port Authority spokesman Steve Coleman reiterating that " One World Trade Center will be the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere . " In 2012 , the CTBUH announced that it would wait to make its final decision as to whether or not the redesigned spire would count towards the building 's height . On November 12 , 2013 , the CTBUH announced that One World Trade Center 's spire would count as part of the building 's recognized height , giving it a final height of 1 @,@ 776 feet , and making it the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere .
= = = = Sustainability = = = =
Like other buildings in the new World Trade Center complex , One World Trade Center includes sustainable architecture features . Much of the building 's structure and interior is built from recycled materials , including gypsum boards and ceiling tiles ; around 80 percent of the tower 's waste products are recycled . Although the roof area of any tower is limited , the building implements a rainwater collection and recycling scheme for its cooling systems . The building 's PureCell phosphoric acid fuel cells generate 4 @.@ 8 megawatts ( MW ) of power , and its waste steam generates electricity . The New York Power Authority selected UTC Power to provide the tower 's fuel cell system , which was one of the largest fuel cell installations in the world once completed . The tower also makes use of off @-@ site hydroelectric and wind power . The windows are made of an ultra @-@ clear glass , which allows maximum sunlight to pass through ; the interior lighting is equipped with dimmers that automatically dim the lights on sunny days , reducing energy costs . Like all of the new facilities at the World Trade Center site , One World Trade Center is heated by steam , with limited oil or natural gas utilities on @-@ site . One World Trade Center is expected to receive a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) Gold Certification , making it one of the most environmentally sustainable skyscrapers in the world .
= = = = Safety and security = = = =
= = = = = Security features = = = = =
Along with the protection provided by the reinforced concrete base , a number of other safety features were included in the building 's design , so that it would be prepared for a major accident or terrorist attack . Like 7 World Trade Center , the building has 3 @-@ foot ( 91 cm ) thick reinforced concrete walls in all stairwells , elevator shafts , risers , and sprinkler systems . There are also extra @-@ wide , pressurized stairwells , along with a dedicated set of stairwells exclusively for the use of firefighters , and biological and chemical filters throughout the ventilation system . In comparison , the original Twin Towers used a purely steel central core to house utility functions , protected only by lightweight drywall panels .
The building is no longer 25 feet ( 8 m ) away from West Street , as the Twin Towers were ; at its closest point , West Street is 65 feet ( 20 m ) away . The windows facing West Street are equipped with specially tempered blast @-@ resistant plastic , which looks almost like the glass used in the other sides of the building . The Port Authority has stated : " Its structure is designed around a strong , redundant steel moment frame consisting of beams and columns connected by a combination of welding and bolting . Paired with a concrete @-@ core shear wall , the moment frame lends substantial rigidity and redundancy to the overall building structure while providing column @-@ free interior spans for maximum flexibility . "
In addition to optimal safety design , new security measures will be implemented . All vehicles will be screened for radioactive materials and other potentially dangerous objects before they enter the site through the underground road . Four hundred closed @-@ circuit surveillance cameras will be placed in and around the site , with live camera feeds being continuously monitored by the NYPD . A computer system will use video @-@ analytic computer software , designed to detect potential threats , such as unattended bags , and retrieve images based on descriptions of terrorists or other criminal suspects . New York City and Port Authority police will patrol the site .
Once the World Trade Center site is fully completed , the plaza will be completely opened to the public , as the original World Trade Center plaza was . The initial stage of the opening process began on Thursday , May 15 , 2014 , when the " Interim Operating Period " of the National September 11 Memorial ended . During this period , all visitors were required to undergo airport style security screening , as part of the " Interim Operating Period " , which was expected to end on December 31 , 2013 . However , screening did not fully end until the official dedication and opening of the museum on May 21 , 2014 , after which visitors were allowed to use the plaza without needing passes .
= = = = = Incidents = = = = =
In March 2014 , the tower was scaled by 16 @-@ year @-@ old New Jersey resident Justin Casquejo , who entered the site through a hole in a fence . He was subsequently arrested on trespassing charges . He allegedly dressed like a construction worker , sneaked in , and convinced an elevator operator to lift him to the tower ’ s 88th floor , according to news sources . He then used stairways to get to the 104th floor , walked past a sleeping security guard , and climbed up a ladder to get to the antenna , where he took pictures for two hours . The elevator operator was reassigned , and the guard was fired . It was then revealed that officials had failed to install security cameras in the tower , which facilitated Casquejo 's entry to the site .
Less than a week after the trespassing incident , four people — three male parachutists ( one of whom was a construction worker at the site ) and their lookout — were arrested for a BASE jump they conducted on September 30 , 2013 . They had posted a video of the jump online . As a result of these incidents , the Durst Organization 's head of security at One World Trade Center , David Velazquez , resigned on March 28 , 2014 .
= = = = Controversies = = = =
The social center of the previous One World Trade Center included a restaurant on the 107th floor , called Windows on the World , and The Greatest Bar on Earth ; these were tourist attractions in their own right , and a gathering spot for people who worked in the towers . This restaurant also housed one of the most prestigious wine schools in the United States , called " Windows on the World Wine School " , run by wine personality Kevin Zraly . Despite numerous assurances that these attractions would be rebuilt , the Port Authority scrapped plans to rebuild them , which has outraged some observers .
The fortified base of the tower has also been a source of controversy . Some critics , including Deroy Murdock of the National Review , have said that it is alienating and dull , and reflects a sense of fear rather than freedom , leading them to dub the building " the Fear Tower " . Nicolai Ouroussoff , the architecture critic for The New York Times , calls the tower base a " grotesque attempt to disguise its underlying paranoia " .
= = = = Statue in front of the building = = = =
The America 's Response Monument , a life @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half scale bronze statue commemorating the actions of U.S. Special Operations Forces in the first few weeks of the War in Afghanistan , was unveiled to the public during the Veteran 's Day Parade in New York City on November 11 , 2011 . The statue was displayed on a float , which traveled along Fifth Avenue north from 23rd Street to 56th Street . It was dedicated that same day , in a ceremony led by Vice President Joe Biden and Lieutenant @-@ General John Mulholland , commander of U.S. Army Special Operations Command and formerly commander of Task Force Dagger during the initial days of the War in Afghanistan . It was temporarily located in the West Street Lobby inside One World Financial Center in New York City opposite Ground Zero .
It is the first public monument to honor United States special forces ; there is also a monument commemorating the Green Berets on Meadows Memorial Field in Fort Bragg , North Carolina .
On October 19 , 2012 , the monument was rededicated in front of the tower . The inscription at base of the sculpture bears its name , " America 's Response Monument " , and the Latin subtitle De Oppresso Liber . The subtitle , traditionally translated as " to free the oppressed " , is the motto of the Green Berets , who inspired the monument . A piece of steel from the original World Trade Center is embedded in the base .
The statue was dedicated by Lieutenant General John Mulholland , Deputy Commanding General of U.S. Army Special Forces Command . Soldiers representing the United States Army Special Operations Command attended the dedication ceremony . The land on which the monument stands was donated by a private Wall Street firm . The statue cost over $ 750 @,@ 000 to make , but all the needed money was donated by hundreds of private citizens , including some survivors of the September 11 attacks .
= = = Owners and tenants = = =
One World Trade Center is principally owned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey . Around 5 percent equity of the building was sold to the Durst Organization , a private real estate company , in exchange for an investment of at least $ 100 million . The Durst Organization assisted in supervising the building 's construction , and manages the building for the Port Authority , having responsibility for leasing , property management , and tenant installations . By September 2012 , around 55 percent of the building 's floor space had been leased , but no new leases were signed for three years until May 2014 ; the amount of space leased had gone up to 62 @.@ 8 percent by November 2014 .
In 2006 , the State of New York agreed to a 15 @-@ year 415 @,@ 000 square feet ( 38 @,@ 600 m2 ) lease , with an option to extend the lease 's term and occupy up to 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square feet ( 90 @,@ 000 m2 ) . The General Services Administration ( GSA ) initially agreed to a lease of around 645 @,@ 000 square feet ( 59 @,@ 900 m2 ) , and New York State 's Office of General Services ( OGS ) planned to occupy around 412 @,@ 000 square feet ( 38 @,@ 300 m2 ) . However , the GSA ceded most of its floor space to the Port Authority in July 2011 , and the OGS withdrew from the lease contract . In April 2008 , the Port Authority announced that it was seeking a bidder to operate the 18 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 1 @,@ 700 m2 ) observation deck on the tower 's 102nd floor ; in 2013 , Legends Hospitality Management agreed to operate the observatory in a 15 @-@ year , $ 875 million contract .
The building 's first lease , a joint project between the Port Authority and Beijing @-@ based Vantone Industrial , was announced on March 28 , 2009 . A 190 @,@ 810 sq ft ( 17 @,@ 727 m2 ) " China Center " , combining business and cultural facilities , is planned between floors 64 and 69 ; it is intended to represent Chinese business and cultural links to the United States , and to serve American companies that wish to conduct business in China . Vantone Industrial 's lease is for 20 years and 9 months . In April 2011 , a new interior design for the China Center was unveiled , featuring a vertical " Folding Garden " , based on a proposal by the Chinese artist Zhou Wei .
On August 3 , 2010 , Condé Nast Publications signed a tentative agreement to move the headquarters and offices for its magazines into One World Trade Center , occupying up to 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square feet ( 90 @,@ 000 m2 ) of floor space . On May 17 , 2011 , Condé Nast reached a final agreement with the Port Authority , securing a 25 @-@ year lease with an estimated value of $ 2 billion . On May 25 , 2011 , Condé Nast finalized the lease contract , obtaining 1 @,@ 008 @,@ 012 square feet ( 93 @,@ 647 @.@ 4 m2 ) of office space between floors 20 – 41 . The lease also includes 30 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 800 m2 ) of usable space in the podium and below grade floors , for mail , messenger services , and storage use . On January 17 , 2012 , it was reported that Condé Nast would be leasing an additional 133 @,@ 000 square feet ( 10 @,@ 000 m2 ) of space , occupying floors 42 through 44 . Conde Nast moved in on November 3 , 2014 .
However , some leases had failed . In January 2012 , Chadbourne & Parke , a Midtown Manhattan @-@ based law firm , was to sign a 300 @,@ 000 square feet ( 30 @,@ 000 m2 ) lease contract , but after negotiations broke down , the deal was abruptly canceled in March .
= = = Key figures = = =
= = = = Developer = = = =
Larry Silverstein of Silverstein Properties , the leaseholder and developer of the complex , retains control of the surrounding buildings , while the Port Authority has full control of the tower itself . Silverstein signed a 99 @-@ year lease for the World Trade Center site in July 2001 , and remains actively involved in most aspects of the site 's redevelopment process .
Before construction of the new tower began , Silverstein was involved in an insurance dispute regarding the tower . The terms of the lease agreement signed in 2001 , for which Silverstein paid $ 14 million , gave Silverstein , as leaseholder , the right and obligation to rebuild the structures if they were destroyed . After the September 11 attacks , there were a series of disputes between Silverstein and insurance companies concerning the insurance policies that covered the original towers ; this resulted in the construction of One World Trade Center being delayed . After a trial resulted , a verdict was given on April 29 , 2004 . The verdict was that ten of the insurers involved in the dispute were subject to the " one occurrence " interpretation , so their liability was limited to the face value of those policies . Three insurers were added to the second trial group . At that time , the jury was unable to reach a verdict on one insurer , Swiss Reinsurance , but it did so several days later on May 3 , 2004 , finding that this company was also subject to the " one occurrence " interpretation . Silverstein appealed the Swiss Reinsurance decision , but the appeal failed on October 19 , 2006 . The second trial resulted in a verdict on December 6 , 2004 . The jury determined that nine insurers were subject to the " two occurrences " interpretation , referring to the fact that two different planes had destroyed the towers during the September 11 attacks . They were therefore liable for a maximum of double the face value of those particular policies ( $ 2 @.@ 2 billion ) . The highest potential payout was $ 4 @.@ 577 billion , for buildings 1 , 2 , 4 , and 5 .
In March 2007 , Silverstein appeared at a rally of construction workers and public officials outside an insurance industry conference . He highlighted what he describes as the failures of insurers Allianz and Royal & Sun Alliance to pay $ 800 million in claims related to the attacks . Insurers state that an agreement to split payments between Silverstein and the Port Authority is a cause for concern .
= = = = Key project coordinators = = = =
David Childs , one of Silverstein 's favorite architects , joined the project after Silverstein urged him to do so . He developed a design proposal for One World Trade Center , initially collaborating with Daniel Libeskind . In May 2005 , Childs revised the design to address security concerns . He is the architect of the tower , and is responsible for overseeing its day @-@ to @-@ day design and development .
Architect Daniel Libeskind won the invitational competition to develop a plan for the new tower in 2002 . He gave an initial proposal , which he called " Memory Foundations " , for the design of One World Trade Center . His design included aerial gardens , windmills , and off @-@ center spire . Libeskind later denied a request to place the tower in a more rentable location next to the PATH station . He instead placed it another block west , as it would then line up with , and resemble , the Statue of Liberty . Most of Libeskind 's original designs were later scrapped , and other architects were chosen to design the other WTC buildings . However , one element of Libeskind 's initial plan was included in the final design – the tower 's symbolic height of 1 @,@ 776 feet ( 541 m ) .
Daniel R. Tishman – along with his father John Tishman , builder of the original World Trade Center – led the construction team from Tishman Realty & Construction , the selected builder for One World Trade Center .
Douglas and Jody Durst , the co @-@ presidents of the Durst Organization , a real estate development company , won the right to invest at least $ 100 million in the project on July 7 , 2010 .
In August 2010 , Condé Nast , a long @-@ time Durst tenant , confirmed a tentative deal to move into 1 World Trade Center , and finalized the deal on May 26 , 2011 . The contract negotiated between the Port Authority and the Durst Organization specifies that the Durst Organization will receive a $ 15 million fee , and a percentage of " base building changes that result in net economic benefit to the project " . The specifics of the signed contract give Durst 75 percent of savings up to $ 24 million , stepping down to 50 , 25 , and 15 percent as savings increase . Since Durst joined the project , significant changes have been made to the building , including the 185 foot base of the tower , the spire , and the plaza to the west of the building , facing the Hudson River . The Port Authority has approved all the revisions .
= = = = Port Authority construction workers = = = =
A WoodSearch Films short @-@ subject documentary entitled How does it feel to work on One World Trade Center ? was uploaded to YouTube on August 31 , 2010 . It depicted construction workers who were satisfied with the working conditions at the construction site . However , further analysis of the work site showed that dozens of construction @-@ related injuries had occurred at the site during the construction of One World Trade Center , including 34 not reported to the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration . Workers also left post @-@ 9 / 11 @-@ related graffiti at the site , which are supposed to symbolize rebirth and resilience .
= = Cited sources = =
Reeve , Simon ( 1999 ) . The New Jackals : Ramzi Yousef , Osama bin Laden and the Future of Terrorism . Northeastern University Press .
Darton , Eric ( 1999 ) . Divided We Stand : A Biography of New York 's World Trade Center . Basic Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 465 @-@ 01727 @-@ 4 .
= The Reputation =
The Reputation was an indie rock band from Chicago , Illinois . The band was fronted by former Sarge singer @-@ songwriter Elizabeth Elmore , with other positions filled by various members .
The band , which formed while Elmore was attending law school , released two albums between the years of 2001 and 2006 , both of which were met with generally positive reviews . The band has toured the United States and the United Kingdom .
= = History = =
Following the disbanding of her old band , Sarge , Elmore enrolled in law school at Northwestern University . She embarked on a series of solo tours between classes , but after growing tired of performing solo Elmore recruited ex @-@ Sarge drummer Russ Horvath and ex @-@ Chisel bassist and law school classmate Chris Norborg to tour with . The group toured together and recorded a five song demo , but after a while Horvath and Norborg were no longer able to tour due to schooling . Elmore recruited friend and ex @-@ Moreno guitarist Sean Hulet , ex @-@ Moreno drummer Scott Rosenquist , and ex @-@ Andiamo bassist Joel Root . The new group completed a tour of the East Coast .
Elmore requested a leave of absence from Northwestern Law School in 2001 to focus on the band . After ex @-@ Nymb drummer Ben Kane replaced the unavailable Rosenquist , the group signed to Initial Records . Kane left the band , and former Sarge drummer Chad Romanski joined the group after several weeks of Elmore begging . The band completed a fall West Coast tour and began recording their debut album with Romanski . The band took on the name The Reputation at this time .
= = = Self @-@ titled debut = = =
The Reputation , the band 's self @-@ titled debut album , was released in 2002 after the band spent much of the fall and winter of 2001 in the recording studio . The majority of the album was recorded in Chicago at Atlas , with the exception of a cover of Elvis Costello 's song " Almost Blue , " which was recorded with then @-@ Wilco guitarist Jay Bennett on piano and production duties , as well as extra arrangements and recording on other tracks . Elmore , as she did with her work in Sarge , wrote all of the original songs and lyrics , and assisted with the production along with Matt Allison .
The album was well received critically . The Los Angeles Times gave the album 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , with reviewer Kevin Bronson saying that " [ Elmore 's ] streaming anecdotes give the listener the feeling of walking right into the middle of life @-@ altering events . " The College Music Journal 's Amy Wan called the album a " showcase for Elmore 's powerfully biting lyrics and her passionate voice , dancing deftly between little @-@ girl sweet and outright roar , " and The Village Voice gave the album an A- , with famed music journalist Robert Christgau praising the debut , saying that " Elmore left a great band to go to law school . Now she leaves a great law school to start a better band . "
Along with the positive feedback for the album , the band was able to secure its first permanent drummer in Matt Espy . The band would tour the United States and parts of Canada a number of times following the release of the album . Along with the performance agenda in 2003 , Elmore balanced touring , songwriting for their next album , and a return to law school while the band suffered the loss of yet another drummer , as Espy was forced to leave after a tenure of nearly a year and a half for personal reasons .
= = = To Force a Fate = = =
The band settled on their second permanent drummer , Steve Van Horn , shortly after Espy left following their round of touring . At the same time , the band began negotiations with Lookout ! Records to release their follow @-@ up . After a marathon run of shows and songwriting toward the end of 2003 , the band recorded their second album . The sessions were difficult , with 14 @-@ hour recording days being balanced with Elmore attempting to finish remaining law school papers , combined with weekend tour jaunts to the East Coast . The album was unique compared to other Elmore projects in that other members of the band assisted in the songwriting process .
To Force a Fate was ultimately released in April 2004 on Lookout ! Records . The album received generally positive press , including favorable reviews in Spin Magazine , calling the album " a bang of power pop epiphany . " Blender Magazine gave the album four stars , stating that " Elizabeth Elmore , a law @-@ school graduate with boy trouble to match her student loans , writes songs that are as much legal briefs as diary entries . " Entertainment Weekly called the album " muscular yet lush , " and gave the album a B + . The album would eventually reach No. 58 on the CMJ charts .
= = = Post @-@ album touring = = =
The band spent 2004 and 2005 touring the United States for over nine months , including opening slots for Ted Leo and the Pharmacists and Grammy nominees The Killers , Modest Mouse , Death Cab for Cutie , and the Donnas . The band 's performance at South by Southwest in particular was covered positively in Entertainment Weekly .
2005 took the band overseas to tour the United Kingdom for the first time , as well as two separate two @-@ month United States tours . In June 2005 , bassist Joel Root left the band for personal reasons . They completed their summer tour with Stereo South bassist Greg Mytych , and planned to record a new album in 2006 , but came to a halt due to mitigating factors , including the issues with Lookout ! Records . In September 2005 , the band performed at North East Sticks Together . Elmore , in November 2006 , posted a message to the band 's official mailing list noting that the band had dissolved and no further plans had been announced . Drummer Steve Van Horn has joined former Chicagoan and current Austin , TX based singer / songwriter Che Arthur 's touring band .
= = Musical and lyrical style = =
The Reputation 's music is influenced by that of Elmore 's previous band , Sarge . The band also drew comparisons to the Fastbacks , Liz Phair , Neil Young , and Elvis Costello , the last of which the band covered with their version of the song " Almost Blue " . Elmore drew influence from a wide variety of music , including post @-@ hardcore , alternative country , 1970s singer @-@ songwriters , indie rock , classical music , country music , bluegrass , and 1980s pop music . While the band 's first album used conventional punk rock instruments , To Force a Fate included more diverse instruments such as piano , strings , and horns . According to a review in Allmusic , To Force a Fate 's contains " thoughtful songwriting and dashes of indie rock anthemics " .
The subjects of the band 's songs are frequently related to Elmore 's relationships . She stated " as far as I can tell , I am too brutally honest and opinionated for most people . "
= = Members = =
The Reputation 's lineup changed numerous times during the band 's existence .
Final members
Elizabeth Elmore – vocals and guitar
Sean Hulet – guitar and vocals
Greg Mytych – bass guitar
Steve Van Horn – drums
Former members
Matt Espy – drummer
Ben Kane – touring drummer
Chad Romanski – recording drummer on The Reputation
Joel Root – bass guitar
Scott Rosenquist – touring drummer
= = Releases = =
Albums
The Reputation ( 2002 )
To Force a Fate ( 2004 )
Compilations
= Devil Survivor 2 : The Animation =
Devil Survivor 2 : The Animation ( Japanese : デビルサバイバーツー ジ ・ アニメーション , Hepburn : Debiru Sabaibā Tsū Ji Animēshon ) is a 2013 Japanese anime series based on the Nintendo DS video game , Shin Megami Tensei : Devil Survivor 2 by Atlus . The series was directed by Seiji Kishi , with series composition by Makoto Uezu , based on the original story by Atlus and animated by Bridge . The series stars voice actors Hiroshi Kamiya as Hibiki Kuze along with Nobuhiko Okamoto , Aya Uchida , Junichi Suwabe and Takahiro Sakurai . When a mysterious calamity plunges the world into a state of chaos , Hibiki Kuze and his friends Daichi Shijima and Io Nitta are suddenly thrown from their normal lives into a battle of survival against creatures called Septentriones seeking to bring the world to ruin . Gaining the ability to summon demons from a cell phone app , Hibiki and his friends team up with an organization known as the JP 's to help protect Japan and above all else — survive .
The thirteen episode series premiered in Japan on MBS on April 4 , 2013 and was subsequently licensed by Sentai Filmworks in North America , Hanabee Entertainment in Australia and New Zealand and by MVM Entertainment in the United Kingdom for English home video releases . A manga adaptation was serialized in Monthly GFantasy between December 2012 and October 2014 . A light novel prequel was also published by Kodansha Box . In addition , two supplementary books and three Drama CDs along with a host of other merchandise were released . Critics praised the series for its dark animation styles and backgrounds . However the majority of reviewers had mixed feelings towards the cast of characters since they felt that while the characters were either not appealing or developed enough , their deaths were impactful to the viewer .
= = Plot = =
One Sunday afternoon , Hibiki Kuze and Daichi Shijima receive macabre videos from the Nicaea website which predict their deaths mere seconds before they are involved in a gruesome train accident . They are spared however , when a Demon Summoning App installs itself on their phones and allows the duo and schoolmate Io Nitta to escape from carnivorous monsters feasting on the dead in the wrecked subway station . The trio are shocked to discover a massive catastrophe on the surface and take refuge in Roppongi with other panicked citizens . Suddenly , when a creature known as Dubhe ( ドゥベ , Duube ) appears and attacks the crowd , Hibiki puts a stop to the carnage by summoning a demon from the app and destroying the creature . This prompts the Japan Meteorological Agency , Geomagnetism Research Department - JP 's to detain Hibiki and his friends and they are brought before its head — Yamato Hotsuin , who enlists their aid in defeating the remaining Septentriones to prevent the end of the world in one week .
Yamato then dispatches them on a mission to retrieve the JP 's scientist Fumi Kanno with fellow demon summoners Hinako Kujou and Keita Wakui , which ends up as a success at the cost of Keita 's life . Following a devastating battle with Merak ( メラク , Meraku ) , Hibiki joins the Resistance leader — Ronaldo Kuriki and learns of Yamato 's true intentions as opposed to his own . As events progress , Airi Ban and Jungo Torii attempt to recapture the JP 's base from the Resistance but chaos ensues when Phecda ( フェクダ , Fekuda ) appears and targets a defenseless Hibiki . However Yamato arrives and slays the Septentrione , saving Hibiki 's life . In the aftermath , Yamato and Ronaldo engage in a heated debate over their ideals and the situation only escalates when Alcor appears and proclaims himself to be the creator of both Nicaea and the Demon Summoning App , which he had hoped would aid humanity in their darkest hour .
An unlikely alliance between the JP 's , Resistance and the unaffiliated demon summoners result in the destruction of Megrez ( メグレズ , Megurezu ) the following day . While a somber Hibiki struggles to cope with the steep cost of victory , Alcor reveals the true nature of events thus far . He explains it all to be the will of an entity known as Polaris ( ポラリス , Porarisu ) as it seeks to erase humanity 's " artificial " reality using its Void phenomenon and hence restore the " natural " order . Therefore , it sent the Septentriones to destroy the spiritual barriers protecting Japan from the Void . When Hinako and Airi defeat Alioth ( アリオト , Arioto ) the next day , its massive shell plummets from orbit and crushes the city — killing thousands more people and sparking outrage from Hibiki over the lengths Yamato will go to achieve his goal . Unperturbed , Yamato uses Io to summon a demon called Lugh and defeats the next Septentrione — Mizar ( ミザール , Mizaaru ) . However , when the demon possesses Io and attempts to kill Yamato for its imprisonment , Hibiki wields the Dragon Stream and saves Io .
As the week draws to a close , Benetnasch ( ベネトナシュ , Benetonashu ) appears on Saturday and completely destroys the barriers . Upon engaging the creature , Yamato allows the other summoners to die by ignoring them in the battle and ultimately defeats it with Hibiki and Daichi 's help . In the aftermath , Alcor decides to support Hibiki and Yamato ends up killing him . Finally , Yamato activates the Transport Terminal to seek an audience with Polaris and Io and Daichi forfeit their lives to give Hibiki a chance at going after Yamato and saving the world . Facing each other in another dimension , Hibiki desperately tries to reach out to Yamato and ultimately overpowers him with aid from his fallen comrades . Polaris then appears and Hibiki asks it to restore the world to the way it was . He then finds himself one week in the past , with his revived friends and his memory intact and reifies the will of humanity to keep on living .
= = = Main characters = = =
Hibiki Kuze ( 久世 響希 , Kuze Hibiki )
Voiced by : Hiroshi Kamiya ( Japanese ) ; Patrick Poole ( English )
Hibiki is the 18 @-@ year @-@ old protagonist of the series . He is granted the ability to summon demons from Nicaea after experiencing a train accident on his way home from taking mock exams . With this newfound power he finds himself intertwined in a battle of survival against the Septentriones who seek to destroy the world . Kamiya did not express any opinions on Hibiki 's character . However he was very clear to point out that despite the series being called Devil Survivor 2 , it is not a sequel to a previous series but rather an independent story all its own .
Daichi Shijima ( 志島 大地 , Shijima Daichi )
Voiced by : Nobuhiko Okamoto ( Japanese ) ; Greg Ayres ( English )
Daichi is Hibiki 's best friend and was with him during the train accident where he was also granted the power of summoning demons from Nicaea . Okamoto praised the visual effects of the nighttime battle scenes , describing them as being " very beautiful " .
Io Nitta ( 新田 維緒 , Nitta Io )
Voiced by : Aya Uchida ( Japanese ) ; Jessica Boone ( English )
Io is a beautiful and intelligent senior at the same high school attended by Hibiki and Daichi . She was also granted the power of demon summoning by Nicaea after being involved in the train accident . Uchida remarked that players of the original Devil Survivor 2 video game would enjoy the various viewpoints presented in the series . She also felt that the audience would be able to empathize with the characters since they are portrayed in a way that begs the question , " What would you do in that situation ? "
Yamato Hotsuin ( 峰津院 大和 , Hotsuin Yamato )
Voiced by : Junichi Suwabe ( Japanese ) ; John Gremillion ( English )
Yamato is the director of the Japan Meteorological Agency , Geomagnetism Research Department which was established by his own Hotsuin family . He is a level @-@ headed thinker and able to maintain composure in most situations . Suwabe praised the cohesiveness of the music , video and dialogue of the series . He also noted that Yamato 's most appealing trait is his strength .
Anguished One ( 憂う者 , Ureumono ) / " Alcor "
Voiced by : Takahiro Sakurai ( Japanese ) ; Illich Guardiola ( English )
A mysterious white @-@ haired individual who appears to Hibiki and Yamato at various times during the week . He is the creator of the Nicaea website and the Demon Summoning App . Also known as " Alcor " , he is the 8th Septentrione . Sakurai described Alcor 's enigmatic appeal as laying in the aspect of being part of something larger than himself . He went on to praise the animation style , describing it as " powerful and immersive " .
= = Production = =
Devil Survivor 2 : The Animation was produced by the Bridge animation studio of Japan using a team henceforth known as the Devil Survivor 2 : The Animation Committee . The series was directed by veteran anime director Seiji Kishi best known for directing the anime adaptation of Atlus 's 2008 video game Persona 4 . During production Kishi remarked that the calamity of which the story describes was reminiscent of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami . He also praised the animated depictions of Suzuhito Yasuda 's character designs . Makoto Uezu was selected as both the script writer and series composer for the anime . In an interview Uezu commented that he had been a huge fan of the Megami Tensei series since his childhood and that his interests in the occult and electronic technology aided in the composition . Uezu further remarked that the story followed a " hard path " whereby the heroes were forced into making difficult choices at key points in the plot whilst the characters simultaneously explored sensitive issues related to human ethics and morality .
The series ' character designs were drawn by Etsushi Sajima and were based on the original designs by Suzuhito Yasuda which received praise from Director Kishi . The original designs of the Septentriones were created by Mohiro Kitoh who remarked that since he was not directly engaged in the production process , he had to wait until the finished product was released before he could see the animated versions of his designs . The other half of the series ' creatures i.e. the various devils ( demons ) used were designed by Hiroyuki Kanbe , while prop designs were done by Hatsue Nakayama and color designs were done by Keiichi Funada . Finally leaving Kazuto Shimoyama to oversee this area of production as the art director . The musical score was composed by Kōtarō Nakagawa . Nakagawa was initially surprised to have been offered to be the musical composer but took up the role as a challenge . In addition to Nagakawa , Sound Direction was done by Satoki Iida along with Sound Effects by Iki Okuda . Other staff members included Assistant Director Yoshimichi Hirai , Animation Designer Eriko Ito , Composite Director Katsufumi Sato , CG Director Yuji Koshida and Ayumu Takahashi as the series Editor and Producer Yasuo Suda .
= = = Music and audio = = =
Devil Survivor 2 : The Animation uses three pieces of theme music : one opening theme , one closing theme and one insert song . The theme sequences are not used consistently throughout the series since the episode producers decided to prioritize story @-@ telling to their use which helped keep the plot within thirteen episodes . The anime debuted with " Take Your Way " by Livetune feat . Fukase as the opening theme for the first eight episodes and then from the eleventh . The theme is not played but credited in both the ninth and tenth episodes . The closing theme is " Be " by Song Riders and is used from the first through ninth episodes and then from the eleventh . The insert song titled " Each and All " by Livetune feat . Rin Oikawa also doubled as the closing theme of the tenth episode .
Song Riders released " Be " on May 22 , 2013 . This was followed by the release of Livetune 's " Take Your Way " single on June 5 , 2013 . " Take Your Way " sold 9 @,@ 776 copies in its first week , ranking number 12 on the Oricon Singles Chart . The song went on to become the number 1 single for the 23rd week of 2013 . The official " Take Your Way " music video features visuals and direction by Fantasia Utomaro . The first soundtrack album was bundled with the first Blu @-@ ray and DVD volume of the series and released in Japan on June 19 , 2013 . The second album was released in a similar manner , with the third Blu @-@ ray and DVD volume and released on August 21 , 2013 .
A bi @-@ weekly internet radio show hosted by Shūta Morishima was broadcast between April 4 and July 11 , 2013 on the Hibiki Radio and Sound Springs stations . Three drama CDs were additionally released and bundled with the second , fourth and seventh Blu @-@ ray and DVD volumes on July 17 , 2013 , September 19 , 2013 and December 18 , 2013 respectively . The CDs collectively tell parts of a story titled , " Ganbare Hibiki @-@ kun ! " .
Track list
= = Release = =
The thirteen @-@ episode series premiered on the Animeism programming block of MBS on April 4 , 2013 during the 26 : 05 ( 02 : 05 JST ) time slot . This technically resulted in the episodes airing on the days following the ones scheduled . The anime was later aired on TBS , CBC and BS @-@ TBS with online streaming on the Japanese Niconico website . The series was acquired by Crunchyroll for online simulcast streaming with English subtitles in the territories of USA , Canada , UK , Ireland , South Africa , Australia , New Zealand , Netherlands , and Scandinavia . The Anime Network and Hulu later picked up the series for streaming on their online services . The series was also digitally released on the Movies & TV platform by Microsoft and the PlayStation Store .
On June 19 , 2013 , Pony Canyon began releasing the series on Blu @-@ ray and DVD volumes in Japan — with the first volume including the first episode and a bonus CD featuring the first Original Soundtrack for the series . The following volumes each contained two episodes with all but the fifth and sixth volumes containing bonus discs of which included a three volume Drama CD series . The seventh and final DVD and Blu @-@ ray volume was released on December 18 , 2013 while all Limited Edition volumes were distributed with a bonus poster featuring characters from the series . Sentai Filmworks licensed the series for distribution through selected digital outlets and a home video release in North America . The company released the series in its entirety on DVD format on July 1 , 2014 with English and Japanese audio options along with English subtitles . Hanabee Entertainment later licensed the series for a home media release in Australia and New Zealand . The company released the complete series on a DVD volume on September 3 , 2014 . MVM Entertainment also obtained the distribution rights in the United Kingdom and released it on a single DVD set on October 20 , 2014 . Pony Canyon released the entire series on a Blu @-@ ray box set in Japan on January 30 , 2015 . Sentai Filmworks followed their 2014 DVD release with a Blu @-@ ray format release in North America on April 21 , 2015 . Hanabee then followed suit with their own Blu @-@ ray release on May 6 , 2015 .
= = Related media = =
= = = Manga adaptation = = =
A manga adaptation was serialized in Square Enix 's Monthly GFantasy magazine . It is illustrated by Haruto Shiota and written by Makoto Uezu ; based on the original Devil Survivor 2 story by Atlus . The manga made its debut in the January 2013 issue of GFantasy which was published in Japan on December 18 , 2012 . It ran for twenty @-@ five chapters and ended in the November 2014 issue which was published on October 18 , 2014 . The chapters have been collected and released into four tankōbon volumes between March 27 , 2013 and December 27 , 2014 .
= = = = Volumes = = = =
= = = Light novels = = =
A light novel written by Katsumi Amagawa titled " Devil Survivor 2 The Animation : Cetus 's Prequel " was published by Kodansha Box on June 3 , 2013 . The events of the novel take place before the anime and depict a younger Yamato as Director of JP 's and his preparation for the coming apocalypse . A supplementary book titled " Devil Survivor 2 The Animation : Character Archives " was published by Square Enix on June 27 , 2013 . The book contained character biographies in addition to commentaries by Seiji Kishi and Makoto Uezu . Another book titled " Devil Survivor 2 The Animation : Creator Works " was published by Pony Canyon in Japan on August 9 , 2013 . This book contained broad interviews from most of the animation staff , including photos and a behind @-@ the @-@ scene look at the animation process and at the Devil Survivor 2 world .
= = = Merchandising = = =
Numerous products including figurines and mobile phone accessories among other things were released in response to the anime . A set of 16 posters was released by Pos x Pos Collection on October 18 , 2013 .
= = Reception = =
The first episode earned an audience approval rating of 1 @.@ 4 % in Osaka 's Kansai area and 1 @.@ 9 % in Tokyo 's Kantō area during its premiere on April 4 and 5 in those regions respectively . The first Japanese DVD volume of the series sold 1 @,@ 933 copies in its first week , ranking number 7 on the Oricon DVD Chart . Its second volume ranked 12 , selling 844 copies in its first week , while its third debuted at number 23 with 721 copies . Its sixth volume ranked at number 13 and sold 648 copies . The second Japanese Blu @-@ ray volume of the series sold 1 @,@ 488 copies in its first week , ranking number 9 on the Oricon Blu @-@ ray Chart , while the sixth volume debuted at number 10 and sold 1 @,@ 200 copies .
A seasonal review column on the Anime News Network called The Stream generally made light remarks of the first four episodes . Written by Bamboo Dong , the editor called the series mindlessly fun ; jokingly citing how the cell phones are always pointed directly at the demons as if they would be incapable of fighting if it were otherwise . Dong also likened the series as watching someone else play the video game . The designs of the various demons and Septentriones were described as the most interesting part of the series . On the other hand , the editor described the immense amount of [ video game ] plot packed into the next batch of four episodes as messy . Dong also referred to the central premise as being pretty dark since it involved the main characters constantly receiving videos showing exactly how their friends would die . The editor gave the series props for not dabbling in the destruction porn taking place since all of the widespread death around Japan is implied , but added that showing some of it would have aided the realism of the story . After reviewing twelve episodes Dong was not able to develop any interest in the characters . This continued into the series finale and Dong still felt that the characters were not fleshed out as much as they could have been . Dong explained that since there was basically no time to explore how the characters reacted to a disappearing world , it was essentially dehumanizing to such an extent that their deaths carried no emotional weight . Dong presented a full series review in their Shelf Life column and expressed that viewers who like brawn , action and some emotion will enjoy the series as long as they can come to terms with the fact that they 'll pretty much just be watching someone play a video game for several hours .
The Spring 2013 Anime Preview Guide written by Rebecca Silverman , also of the Anime News Network , expressed differing sentiments than that of Dong . Silverman was quick to mention that she had not previously played the game to which the series was based on . With that being said , she described the first episode as not feeling like a game adaptation since you at no point have the sensation of watching someone else play . She also noted that the transformation from the everyday world to one of total chaos and destruction as both swift and impressive . She supported this by citing similar descriptions of the destruction caused by the Great Kantō earthquake of the 1920s . In her full series review , Silverman went into detail about how noticeably dark the series as a whole is when taking into account its animated depictions coupled with the death themes used . Unlike fellow reviewer Bamboo Dong , Silverman felt that character deaths would hit viewers more personally since they get to know them as the story progress and are then suddenly torn down . She further wrote that nearly every character death can potentially pack a punch since they are removed from the ending animation upon their demise . On the other hand , Silverman remarked that some of the characters were truly unlikable as they did not appear to grow and change .
After seven episodes , Richard Eisenbeis of Kotaku disliked the series so much that he discouraged viewers from watching it for that particular season . He supported this by stating that the premise of teenagers summoning monsters has been done to death and that the adaptation has no compelling mysteries nor are there deeper psychological dilemmas being explored . Eisenbeis shared sentiments with the Anime News Network reviewers when he elaborated on what he called the " woefully underdeveloped " characters of Devil Survivor 2 who are only given rudimentary back @-@ stories . This had the added effect of making it nearly impossible to figure out who exactly is a one @-@ off character and who is a main character since they are all equally subjected to the threat of death . Eisenbeis noted that this made their demise genuinely shocking as it added to the viewing tension . Eisenbeis went on to write that the other characters were contrast to the main villain ( or antihero ) Yamato Hotsuin since he gets so much development that much of the series ' runtime is spent on his backstory and goals than all the other characters combined . This helps give an in @-@ depth understanding of the character and simultaneously made him an excellent villain .
The UK Anime Network had Andy Hanley review the first four episodes and he expressed a much more positive outlook than previous reviewers . Hanley wrote about how fast the series was in setting up its premise and described it as an in at the deep end experience . Hanley cited the ruination of Tokyo at the end of the first episode and the countless deaths that occur by episode four to support this . Hanley argued that while this pace leaves the series open to being labelled as shallow , it 's actually very effective in keeping the viewer engaged .
= Brayden Schenn =
Brayden Michael Schenn ( / ˈʃɛn / ; born August 22 , 1991 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey centre currently playing for the Philadelphia Flyers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Schenn , also known as Little Schenn or Schenner , was drafted by the Los Angeles Kings fifth overall in the 2009 NHL Entry Draft . He made his NHL debut for the Kings in October 2009 , after being called up on an emergency basis . Schenn has represented Canada internationally at several tournaments , and won two silver medals at the 2010 and 2011 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships . At the 2011 tournament , Schenn tied Canada 's record for points in a single tournament , and was selected to the Tournament 's All @-@ Star Team as well as being named Top Forward , and Most Valuable Player . His older brother Luke Schenn is a defenceman who plays for the Arizona Coyotes .
= = Hockey career = =
= = = Minor = = =
Schenn played minor hockey in his hometown of Saskatoon , Saskatchewan . He played AAA midget hockey for the Saskatoon Contacts . During the 2006 – 07 season , his teammates included Jared Cowen and Carter Ashton . In the 2006 WHL Bantam Draft , Schenn was selected in the first round , ninth overall , by the Brandon Wheat Kings . His teammates Cowen and Ashton were selected first and eighth overall , respectively . In his last season of midget hockey , he scored 70 points in 41 games .
= = = Junior = = =
Schenn started his major junior career with the Brandon Wheat Kings in 2007 – 08 . He was Brandon 's first pick in the 2006 WHL Bantam Draft . Schenn made his WHL debut on September 21 , 2007 , against the Saskatoon Blades , earning his first WHL point , an assist . Later in the season , on October 17 , he notched his first WHL goal against the Red Deer Rebels . Schenn finished his first season as the Wheat Kings ' leading scorer and as the top rookie scorer in the WHL tallying 28 goals and 43 assists for 71 points , earning him the Jim Piggott Memorial Trophy as WHL Rookie of the Year , and a spot on the Canadian Hockey League ( CHL ) All @-@ Rookie Team . He was also the inaugural winner of the 2007 – 08 Boston Pizza WHL ' Fan 's Choice ' Award . He also picked up the Wheat Kings team awards for Rookie of the Year and Most Popular Player .
Schenn spent the 2008 – 09 season playing with the Wheat Kings and served as their co @-@ captain alongside Matt Calvert . In January 2009 , he was named the WHL and CHL Player of the Week , after scoring 7 points in two games . Also in January , Schenn was selected as the winner of the H. L. ( Krug ) Crawford Memorial Medal which is emblematic of athletic achievement in western Manitoba . He finished the season with 85 points in 69 games to lead the Wheat Kings in scoring a second consecutive season . He finished seventh overall in scoring for the WHL , and was named to the WHL 's Eastern Conference Second All @-@ Star Team . During the season , Schenn played in the CHL Top Prospects Game and represented the WHL in the ADT Canada @-@ Russia Challenge .
Leading up to the 2009 NHL Entry Draft , Schenn had been listed as the third highest prospect among WHL players in the NHL Central Scouting Service ( CSS ) ' s preliminary rankings , while International Scouting ( ISS ) ranked him at fifth overall and first in the WHL . Schenn 's ranking remained the same at fifth overall with the NHL CSS 's midway ranking . E. J. McGuire , the director of NHL 's Central Scouting Bureau compared facets of Schenn 's game to Jonathan Cheechoo and Joe Thornton . At the 2009 NHL Entry Draft , he was drafted fifth overall by the Los Angeles Kings .
At the start of the 2009 – 10 hockey season , Schenn attended training camp with the Kings , but was considered a long shot to make the team . Schenn was returned to Brandon after being one of the last cuts at camp . He served as Brandon 's captain for the 2009 – 10 WHL season . During the season , Schenn again represented the WHL in the Canada @-@ Russia Challenge series . He finished the regular season with 99 points ( 34 goals , 65 assists ) in 59 games , which tied him for fourth overall in WHL scoring with teammate Matt Calvert . Schenn was named to the WHL Eastern Conference First All @-@ Star Team .
On December 3 , 2010 , the Kings returned Schenn to the Brandon Wheat Kings . He played two games with the Wheat Kings during the 2010 @-@ 11 season before joining Team Canada at the 2011 World Junior Championships . After the tournament was complete , Schenn was dealt to his hometown Saskatoon Blades for a package of draft picks and prospects . He played in 27 games with the Blades , scoring 21 goals and adding 32 assists . Despite playing less than half a season in the WHL , Schenn was named to the league 's Eastern Conference Second All @-@ Star Team at the end of the regular season .
= = = Professional = = =
Schenn played his first NHL game on November 26 , 2009 , against the Vancouver Canucks after being called up on an emergency basis and signed to an amateur , one @-@ game try @-@ out contract . At the time of his debut , Schenn was the third youngest player of all @-@ time to skate for the team . On March 3 , 2010 , he was signed to a three @-@ year contract with the Kings . After training camp for the 2010 – 11 season , Schenn made the Kings roster but saw limited playing time . He appeared in nine games with the Kings , and spent time with the Manchester Monarchs of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) for conditioning purposes . On December 3 , 2010 , the Kings returned Schenn to the Brandon Wheat Kings . Following the Saskatoon Blades ' exit from the 2011 WHL Playoffs , he was assigned by the Kings back to the Monarchs on April 17 , 2011 .
Schenn was traded to the Philadelphia Flyers , along with Wayne Simmonds and a 2012 second round pick , for Mike Richards and Rob Bordson on June 23 , 2011 . After sustaining an apparent shoulder injury in the Flyers ' 2011 – 12 training camp , Schenn was sent down to the Adirondack Phantoms of the AHL for conditioning and salary cap purposes . He recorded two assists in his Phantoms debut , a 6 – 3 win over the Connecticut Whale . In his second game with Adirondack , he registered three goals and an assist in a 6 – 3 win against the Bridgeport Sound Tigers . On October 20 , 2011 , Schenn made his Flyers debut in a 5 – 2 loss to the Washington Capitals , a game in which he struggled and registered a plus @-@ minus rating of – 3 . He played three more games with the Flyers , but on October 26 , he broke a bone in his foot blocking a slapshot in a 5 – 1 loss to the Montreal Canadiens . He missed just under a month of playing time . Upon returning from injury , he was reassigned to Adirondack for conditioning purposes . On January 2 , 2012 , Schenn scored his first NHL goal on a rebound during the second period against the New York Rangers , scoring against Henrik Lundqvist during the 2012 NHL Winter Classic . Schenn scored his first career hat trick on February 29 , 2016 against the Calgary Flames .
= = International play = =
Schenn started his Hockey Canada career by representing Saskatchewan at the 2007 Canada Winter Games in Whitehorse , Yukon , where his team finished seventh . During the 2007 – 08 season , Schenn played for Canada West at the 2008 World U @-@ 17 Hockey Challenge , where he was the leading scorer . After his season with Brandon was over , Schenn played with Team Canada at the 2008 IIHF World U18 Championships in Kazan , Russia , as one of five 16 @-@ year @-@ olds , capturing a gold medal . He tallied 1 goal and 2 assists in 7 games in the tournament . During the summer , he also competed in the 2008 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament , earning another gold medal in the Czech Republic . Schenn served as an alternate captain at the Hlinka Memorial Tournament , and recorded six points ( two goals and four assists ) in four games .
During the 2008 – 09 season , Schenn was invited to Team Canada 's tryout camp for the 2009 World Junior Championships , but did not make the final squad . Schenn was invited to Hockey Canada 's summer evaluation camp in August 2009 , and also to the December selection camp for the 2010 World Junior Championships . He made the team and competed in the tournament that was hosted in his home province of Saskatchewan . Schenn won a silver medal with Canada , after they lost the gold medal game in overtime to the American team .
When the Kings returned Schenn to the WHL in December 2010 , it allowed him to try out for Canada 's team at the 2011 World Junior Hockey Championships . Schenn made the team after the December selection camp , and was selected as one of the alternate captains . In Canada 's preliminary round game against the Czech Republic , Schenn was named player of the game . Against Norway , Schenn tied Canada 's record for goals in a single game ( held by Mario Lemieux and Simon Gagne ) with four . He also added an assist to finish the game with five points . In Canada 's gold medal loss to Russia , Schenn scored a goal and added an assist . He recorded 18 points in the tournament , tying Canada 's all @-@ time record for a single tournament , set by Dale McCourt in 1977 . After the tournament , Schenn was the tournament 's top scorer , and was named to the media All @-@ Star team for the event . The IIHF Directorate named him Best Forward and Tournament MVP . Canada 's coaching staff selected him as one of the team 's top three players for the tournament . At the end of the tournament , it was revealed that Schenn had been playing with a separated shoulder he suffered during Canada 's quarter @-@ final victory against Switzerland .
= = Personal life = =
Brayden Schenn was born August 22 , 1991 , in Saskatoon , Saskatchewan , to Jeff and Rita Schenn . His older brother , Luke , is an NHL defenceman who plays for the Los Angeles Kings . They have two younger sisters Madison and Macy .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
= = = Junior = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = Other = = =
= Israeli cuisine =
Israeli cuisine ( Hebrew : המטבח הישראלי ha @-@ mitbach ha @-@ yisra ’ eli ) comprises local dishes by people native to Israel and dishes brought to Israel by Jews from the Diaspora . Since before the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 , and particularly since the late 1970s , an Israeli Jewish fusion cuisine has developed .
Israeli cuisine has adopted , and continues to adapt , elements of various styles of Jewish cuisine , particularly the Mizrahi , Sephardic and Ashkenazi styles of cooking . It incorporates many foods traditionally eaten in Levantine , Middle Eastern and Mediterranean cuisines , and foods such as falafel , hummus , msabbha , shakshouka , couscous , and za 'atar are now widely popular in Israel .
Other influences on the cuisine are the availability of foods common to the Mediterranean region , especially certain kinds of fruits and vegetables , dairy products and fish ; the distinctive traditional dishes prepared at holiday times ; the tradition of keeping kosher ; and food customs specific to Shabbat and different Jewish holidays , such as challah , jachnun , malawach , gefilte fish , hamin and sufganiyot .
New dishes based on | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
in executing his prisoners and by putting on shows in which monks and nuns held hands while the crowd hissed at them . Constantine V seems to have given the factions a political role in addition to their traditionally ceremonial role . The two factions continued their activity until the imperial court was moved to Blachernae during the 12th century .
The Hippodrome in Constantinople remained in use for races , games , and public ceremonies up to the sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204 . In the 12th century , Emperor Manuel I Komnenos ( r . 1143 – 1180 ) even staged Western @-@ style jousting matches in the Hippodrome . During the sack of 1204 , the Crusaders looted the city and , among other things , removed the copper quadriga that stood above the carceres ; it is now displayed at St. Mark 's Cathedral in Venice . Thereafter , the Hippodrome was neglected , although still occasionally used for spectacles . A print of the Hippodrome from the fifteenth century shows a derelict site , a few walls still standing , and the spina , the central reservation , robbed of its splendor . Today , only the obelisks and the Serpent Column stand where for centuries the spectators gathered . In the West , the games had ended much sooner ; by the end of the fourth century public entertainments in Italy had come to an end in all but a few towns . The last recorded chariot race in Rome itself took place in the Circus Maximus in 549 AD .
= Valencia ( Spanish Congress Electoral District ) =
Valencia is one of the 52 electoral districts ( Spanish : circunscripciones ) used for the Spanish Congress of Deputies — the lower chamber of the Spanish Parliament , the Cortes Generales . It is the third largest district in Congress in terms of the numbers of deputies elected . From 1986 until 2015 it elected sixteen deputies out of the total number of three hundred and fifty . Since the 2015 General Election it has elected fifteen members . Corresponding to the Province of Valencia , most of the electorate resides in the metropolitan area of Valencia which includes Valencia City and its satellite towns such as Torrent , Paterna , Mislata , Burjassot and Xirivella .
In political terms , the district has shown a long term shift to the right . Valencia initially favoured the parties of the left and centre left who won nine of the district ’ s fifteen seats in the 1977 election , an election which was won overall by the centre right Union of the Democratic Centre ( UCD ) . However , by 2008 , despite the fact that the centre left Spanish Socialist Workers ' Party ( PSOE ) won the election , the centre right People 's Party ( PP ) won nine of the sixteen seats in the district . Although smaller parties such as United Left and Valencian Union polled over 10 % in previous elections and won seats , elections until 2008 had become dominated by the two main Spanish parties , the PSOE and PP , who won all the seats in the 2008 election and together received over 90 % of the votes cast . However , at the 2011 election , United Left regained a seat , while Coalició Compromís and Union , Progress and Democracy won their first seats in the district .
= = Boundaries and electoral system = =
Under Article 68 of the Spanish constitution , the boundaries of the electoral district must be the same as the province of Valencia and , under Article 140 , this can only be altered with the approval of congress . At the time of the 2008 election , the largest municipality , Valencia City , had 585 @,@ 000 voters out of the total electorate of 1 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 . The next largest municipalities were Torrent ( 56 @,@ 000 ) , Sagunto ( 49 @,@ 000 ) , Gandia ( 48 @,@ 000 ) , Paterna ( 44 @,@ 000 ) , Alzira ( 32 @,@ 000 ) and Mislata ( 32 @,@ 000 ) . There are no other municipalities with electorates over 30 @,@ 000 .
Voting is on the basis of universal suffrage in a secret ballot . The electoral system used is closed list proportional representation with seats allocated using the D 'Hondt method . Only lists which poll 3 % of the total vote ( which includes votes " en blanco " i.e. for none of the above ) can be considered . Under article 12 of the constitution , the minimum voting age is 18 .
= = Electoral procedures = =
The laws regulating the conduct and administration of elections are laid out in detail in the 1985 electoral law . ( Ley Orgánica del Régimen Electoral General . ) Under this law , the elections in Valencia , as in other districts , are supervised by the Electoral Commission ( Junta Electoral ) , a permanent body composed of eight Supreme Court judges and five political scientists or sociologists appointed by the Congress of Deputies . The Electoral commission is supported in its work by the Interior Ministry . On election day , polling stations are run by electoral boards which consist of groups of citizens selected by lottery .
The format of the ballot paper is designed by the Spanish state , however , the law allows political parties to produce and distribute their own ballot papers , either by mailing them to voters or by other means such as street distribution , provided that they comply with the official model . The government then covers the cost of all printed ballot papers . These must then be marked by voters , either in the polling station or outside the polling station and placed inside sealed envelopes which are then placed inside ballot boxes in the polling station . Following the close of polls , the ballots are then counted in each individual polling station in the presence of representatives of the political parties and candidates . The ballots are then immediately destroyed , with the exception of those considered invalid or challenged by the candidates ' representatives , which are retained for further scrutiny . The result is that full recounts are impossible .
= = Eligibility = =
Article 67 @.@ 3 of the Spanish Constitution prohibits dual membership of both chambers of the Cortes or of the Cortes and regional assemblies , meaning that candidates must resign from regional assemblies if elected . Article 70 also makes active judges , magistrates , public defenders , serving military personnel , active police officers and members of constitutional and electoral tribunals ineligible . Additionally , under Article 11 of the Political Parties Law , June 2002 ( Ley Orgánica 6 / 2002 , de 27 de junio , de Partidos Políticos ) , parties and individual candidates may be prevented from standing by the Spanish Supreme Court ( Tribunal Supremo ) , if they are judged to have violated Article 9 of that law which prohibits parties which are perceived to discriminate against people on the basis of ideology , religion , beliefs , nationality , race , gender or sexual orientation ( Article 9a ) , foment or organise violence as a means of achieving political objectives ( Article 9b ) or support or compliment the actions of " terrorist organisations " ( Article 9c ) . Article 55 , Section 2 of the 1985 electoral law also disqualifies director generals or equivalent leaders of state monopolies and public bodies such as the Spanish state broadcaster RTVE . Lastly , following changes to the electoral law which took effect for the 2007 municipal elections , candidates ' lists must be composed of at least 40 % of candidates of either gender and each group of five candidates must contain at least two males and two females .
= = = Presenting candidates = = =
Parties and coalitions of different parties which have registered with the Electoral Commission can present lists of candidates ( Article 44 , 1985 electoral law ) . Groups of electors which have not registered with the commission can also present lists , provided that they obtain the signatures of 1 % of registered electors in a particular district ( Article 169 ) .
= = Number of members = =
In the general elections of 1977 , 1979 and 1982 , Valencia returned 15 members . That figure was increased to 16 members for the 1986 general election and remained at that level until the 2015 General Election , when it was reduced to 15 members . It returned to 16 members for the 2016 General Election .
Under Spanish electoral law , all provinces are awarded an initial minimum of two seats , while the cities of Ceuta and Melilla must be single member districts . The remaining 248 seats are then allocated to provinces according to their population , ignoring the two minimum seats that they were awarded .
The practical effect of this law has been to over @-@ represent smaller provinces at the expense of larger provinces like Valencia . In 2008 , for example , Spain had 35 @,@ 073 @,@ 179 voters giving an average of 100 @,@ 209 voters per deputy . In Valencia , however , the number of voters per deputy was 118 @,@ 704 , in contrast to the smallest provinces of Teruel and Soria where the ratio was 38 @,@ 071 and 38 @,@ 685 , respectively .
= = Political parties = =
The following political parties have won seats in the district .
= = = Active parties = = =
People 's Party ( PP ) : formed in 1989 . It grew out of the earlier Popular Alliance ( AP ) . The PP has been described as conservative and a " catch @-@ all pluralistic party with tendencies towards more conservative neo @-@ liberal policies . " In regional elections , the PP has held the Presidency of the Valencian region since the 1995 elections and the Mayoral position in Valencia city since the 1991 local election .
Spanish Socialist Workers ' Party ( PSOE ) : formed in 1879 , the PSOE is a social @-@ democratic political party . The party held the Presidency of the Valencian region from 1983 to 1995 and the Mayoral position in Valencia city from 1979 until the 1991 local election .
United Left ( IU )
Democratic and Social Centre ( CDS )
Coalició Compromís
Union , Progress and Democracy
= = = Inactive and defunct parties = = =
Union of the Democratic Centre ( UCD )
Popular Socialist Party ( PSP )
Valencian Union ( UV ) : formed in August 1982 , was described variously as a " centre right regionalist party " and " Valencian nationalist " It opposed pan @-@ Catalanism ( the merging of the Valencia region with Catalonia proper ) and regarded Valencian to be a different language from Catalan .
= = Results by municipality = =
In recent elections the People 's Party ( PP ) has polled best in Valencia City , with the Spanish Socialist Workers ' Party ( PSOE ) polling best in the satellite towns , particularly to the immediate west of Valencia in the region known as " L 'Horta Oest " .
= = = 2004 election = = =
While the PP enjoyed a lead of 3 @.@ 5 % overall , PSOE polled strongly in Quart de Poblet where they led the PP by over 20 % . They led by 15 % in the neighbouring municipality of Alaquàs and had leads of 10 % in the nearby towns of Aldaia and Xirivella . PP led by almost 10 % in Valencia City and this was strongly concentrated in the city 's central districts . In four districts in particular — Extramurs , L 'Eixample , Ciutat Vella and El Pla del Real — PP polled between 60 % and 67 % and led PSOE by between 31 % and 41 % .
At neighbourhood level the differences were even more pronounced . While Carmen and Russafa districts were close to the city average , the PP polled nearly 80 % of the vote in the central neighbourhoods of Sant Francesc and El Pla del Remei ( in the latter they had polled 84 @.@ 1 % against 8 @.@ 7 % for the PSOE in the year 2000 ) . PSOE 's best performances came in the outlying neighbourhood of Ciutat Fallera where they led by 20 % and they also polled well in parts of Benimaclet and the Malvarosa area , adjacent Valencia port .
United Left ( IU ) generally failed to break the 10 % barrier in most areas . In the seven largest municipalities , they only polled more than 10 % in Sagunt . They polled best in Favara ( 21 @.@ 0 % ) , Otos ( 20 @.@ 8 % ) , Barxeta ( 20 @.@ 6 % ) and Bunyol , where they received 18 @.@ 6 % of the vote . Bloc Nacionalista Valencia 's best performances were in the Comarca of Safor , near the city of Gandia . There , their best results came in Potries ( 19 @.@ 6 % ) Palmera ( 17 @.@ 6 % ) Guardamar de la Safor ( 17 @.@ 5 % ) and Benifairó de la Valldigna ( 12 @.@ 1 % ) . Outside of Safor , their best result came in Albalat dels Tarongers where they polled almost 12 % .
= = = 2008 election = = =
The 2008 election saw the PP improve their position relative to the PSOE in most municipalities in the Valencian community . In Valencia City , they extended their lead over the PSOE to 15 % and overtook the PSOE to become the most voted party in Burjassot , Mislata , Paterna and Xirivella . In the other satellite towns , PSOE ’ s lead over the PP was cut to 10 % in Quart de Poblet and to 1 % in both Aldaia and Alaquas . PP ’ s highest vote shares came in Castellonet de la Conquesta where they polled nearly 76 % and Terrateig ( 74 % ) . PSOE ’ s highest percentages came in Carricola ( 77 % ) and Sempere ( 74 % ) .
United Left ( IU ) and Bloc Nacionalista Valencia were outpolled by the PP and PSOE in all municipalities . IU ’ s highest vote shares were just over 16 % in Polinyà de Xúquer and Fuenterrobles . Bloc exceeded 10 % of the vote in only two municipalities — Otos and Potries . While Bloc and IU ’ s vote share declined in most areas , IU increased their vote from under 1 % in 2004 in Real de Gandia to 8 % in 2008 . Coalició Valenciana ( CVa ) were the only other party to exceed the 5 % barrier in any municipality which they achieved in Benifla . As in 2004 , Ráfol de Salem had the highest turnout at over 94 % . The lowest turnout was in Andilla at 73 % .
One of the more unusual results relative to 2004 occurred in Puebla de San Miguel which had the lowest turnout in 2004 at 51 % . In 2008 , the turnout increased to 76 % and this benefited the PSOE who increased their vote by 25 % with the PP 's share dropping by 19 % .
= = Summary of seats won 1977 @-@ 2016 = =
Seats shown for the People 's Party include seats won by their predecessors , the Popular Alliance and the Popular Coalition before 1989 - including those won as part of an electoral alliance with the Valencian Union ( UV ) in 1982 . Seats shown for United Left include seats won by the Communist Party of Spain before 1986 .
PP formed an unofficial electoral pact with UV for the 2004 election , under which the UV leader and former Valencia deputy José María Chiquillo was elected to the Spanish Senate as part of the PP ticket . This proved controversial with the membership and led to a split in the party .
= = = Vote share summary 1977 @-@ 2015 = = =
† From 1982 to 1996 Unitat del Poble Valencià , from 2000 to 2008 Valencian Nationalist Bloc , for 2011 Coalició Compromís .
= = 2008 Election = =
The then Deputy Prime Minister and former Madrid deputy María Teresa Fernández de la Vega headed the PSOE list at the 2008 election . This was interpreted as an attempt to at least gain the United Left seat and possibly advance to nine seats . However , the PSOE vote share fell . Controversy over the repeal of a PP plan to divert the River Ebro had been an important issue in the campaign . The National Hydrological Plan , approved by the former PP government in 2001 , had planned to divert the Ebro to the Communities of Valencia and Murcia .
For the PP , former President of the Valencian community , Eduardo Zaplana , moved to Madrid district while Vicente Martinez Pujalte , who became the first deputy in the 2004 @-@ 08 congress to be expelled from the chamber by the speaker , stood instead in Murcia . Both were reelected . After the Mayor of Valencia , Rita Barberá Nolla turned down an offer to head the PP list , Esteban Gonzalez Pons was selected as head of the list .
Isaura Navarro was deselected by the regional federation of United Left ( IU ) on 18 November 2007 being replaced by Antonio Montalbán . The Federal Executive Praesidium of IU annulled this result one month later , citing irregularities in membership registration . Following the controversy , Navarro resigned from IU and stood unsuccessfully as part of a multi @-@ party list which included Bloc Nacionalista Valencia . However , neither Montalbán nor Navarro were successful , with the PP gaining the final seat . Valencian Union , which had previously won seats in the district , decided not to contest the 2008 election .
In the wake of the 2008 election result , the Prime Minister , José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero , highlighted Valencia as one of five areas where the PSOE needed to improve its results .
= = Results = =
= = = 2016 General Election = = =
Turnout = 75 @.@ 4 %
= = = 2015 General Election = = =
Turnout = 76 @.@ 4 %
= = = 2011 General Election = = =
Turnout = 74 @.@ 9 %
* Moreno was replaced by María Martín Revuelta on 10 December 2014 .
# Rodríguez @-@ Piñero was replaced by Antoni Such Botella in July 2014 . On 14 July 2015 , Such was replaced by Talía Roselló Saus .
† Cantó resigned in April 2015 and was replaced by Julio Lleonart Crespo .
= = = 2008 General Election = = =
Turnout = 79 @.@ 1 %
* Catala resigned and was replaced by Teresa García on 14 October 2008 .
# On 16 April 2009 Rodríguez @-@ Piñero was named General Secretary of Infrastructure and was replaced by José Luís Ábalos Meco .
† In August 2009 Michavila resigned his seat , citing " personal and family reasons . " He was replaced by Inmaculada Guaita Vañó on 3 September 2009 .
= = = 2004 General Election = = =
Turnout = 77 @.@ 7 %
* Calomarde resigned from the PP in April 2007 , and subsequently sat in the mixed group - a group which consists of non @-@ party deputies and those parties unable to form a parliamentary group with at least five deputies .
= = = 2000 General Election = = =
Turnout = 72 @.@ 1 %
* On 8 April 2002 , Francisco Camps was replaced by Inmaculada Martínez Cervera .
# José Luis Juan Sanz replaced Martorell on 16 May 2000 . Martorell 's six @-@ week term as deputy is the shortest period served by a Valencia deputy since the restoration of democracy .
† Michavila , who had moved to the district for the 2000 election after representing Madrid for the previous seven years , was replaced by María Oltra Torres on 19 May 2000 .
§ On 19 May 2000 , Gerardo Camps was replaced by Miguel Albiach Chisbert .
≈ On 2 June 2003 , Pla was replaced by Margarita Pin , a former deputy who had lost her seat at the 2000 election .
= = = 1996 General Election = = =
Turnout = 81 @.@ 6 %
* Camps was replaced by Fernando Coquillat Durán on 24 February 1997 . Coquillat was in turn replaced by María José Mora Devis on 19 August 1999 .
# Romero was replaced by Joan Pla Durá on 12 April 1999 .
= = = 1993 General Election = = =
Turnout = 81 @.@ 8 %
* On 10 June 1994 , Albero was replaced by Javier Paniagua Fuentes , a former deputy who had lost his seat at the 1993 election .
# On 27 June 1994 , Garcia @-@ Margallo was replaced by Vicente Martínez @-@ Pujalte López
† On 4 October 1994 , González Lizondo was replaced by José María Chiquillo Barber
= = = 1989 General Election = = =
Turnout = 75 @.@ 1 %
* Agramunt was replaced by Juan Albiñana Calatayud on 11 June 1991 .
= = = 1986 General Election = = =
Turnout = 77 @.@ 0 %
* On 23 June 1987 Sanz was elected to the European parliament and was replaced by former deputy Daniel Vidal Escartí , the second election in a row on which Vidal was elected as a replacement for another deputy . Another returning deputy at this election was García @-@ Margallo , who had represented Melilla for the UCD from 1977 @-@ 1982 , while CDS member Joaquin Abril Martorell was the brother of Fernando Abril Martorell , who had served in the 1979 @-@ 1982 legislature as a UCD deputy .
= = = 1982 General Election = = =
Turnout = 83 @.@ 4 %
* Lerma Blasco was replaced by Daniel Vidal Escartí on 15 February 1983
# Romero was replaced by José Pons Grau on 19 January 1983 .
† Giner Miralles was replaced by Ignacio Gil Lázaro on 26 May 1983 .
= = = 1979 General Election = = =
Turnout = 74 @.@ 8 %
* Albiñana Olmos resigned on 27 February 1980 and was replaced by Adela Pla Pastor , who thus became the first female representative for Valencia after the restoration of democracy .
= = = 1977 General Election = = =
Turnout = 84 @.@ 7 % Source :
= Hurricane Kenneth ( 2005 ) =
Hurricane Kenneth was the strongest and longest @-@ tracked hurricane of the 2005 Pacific hurricane season . The eleventh named storm and fifth hurricane of the season , Kenneth developed from a disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone to the southwest of Mexico on September 14 . It quickly attained peak winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) on September 18 , before weakening due to increased wind shear and turning to a southwest drift . After weakening to tropical storm status , Kenneth attained a steady west @-@ northwest motion and encountered favorable enough conditions for it to gain power and attain hurricane status on September 25 . The cyclone again weakened as its motion halted , and on September 30 Kenneth dissipated a short distance off the Big Island of Hawaii . The remnants of Kenneth produced one of the highest rainfall totals in Hawaii , reaching up to 12 inches ( 305 mm ) on Oahu . The rainfall caused flooding , though no major damage was reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Kenneth are believed to have been from a tropical wave that crossed Central America into the eastern North Pacific Ocean on September 9 . The system tracked westward within the Intertropical Convergence Zone — a belt of thunderstorm activity across the eastern Pacific Ocean — and on September 13 its associated thunderstorm activity began showing signs of organization . Despite being located only 625 miles ( 1010 km ) east @-@ southeast of the larger Tropical Depression Ten , the National Hurricane Center remarked the potential for further development of the system ; as the depression was further west and moving faster than the system , little interference from Jova was anticipated . The system organized further , and at 1800 UTC on September 14 the National Hurricane Center began classifying it as Tropical Depression Eleven about 900 miles ( 1450 km ) west @-@ southwest of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico . The depression maintained a general westward track throughout its entire duration , due to the subtropical ridge to its north .
Initially , the depression was forecast to reach maximum strength as a tropical storm before weakening , and only the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory 's hurricane model predicted it to attain hurricane status . However , low amounts of wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures favored further intensification . After being previously removed from the primary thunderstorm activity , the circulation became situated beneath a persistent area of deep convection . It is estimated the cyclone intensified into Tropical Storm Kenneth early on September 15 . The storm quickly developed banding features — spiral rain showers of convection — as its convection formed into a central area of deep convection . These were all signs for further development , and Kenneth attained hurricane status early on September 16 . By September 17 , the hurricane had finished an eyewall replacement cycle , meaning its original eye was replaced by a larger , better defined eye . As a result , it quickly intensified and attained major hurricane status . With a 23 mile ( 37 km ) wide eye surrounded by very cold cloud tops , Kenneth strengthened to reach peak sustained winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) , a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale , on September 18 about 1725 miles ( 2790 km ) east of the Big Island of Hawaii .
After maintaining peak strength for about 18 hours , Kenneth began a sharp weakening trend due to unfavorable north @-@ northeasterly wind shear ; this was caused by the anticyclone over Hurricane Jova , which eroded the eyewall of Hurricane Kenneth . While weakening , the hurricane turned to a southwest drift , due to a weakness in steering currents . By September 20 , its deepest convection was confined to the southern half of the hurricane , and later in the day Kenneth weakened to tropical storm status . Reduced moisture in the atmosphere weakened the system further , and by September 21 its circulation was exposed to the east @-@ northeast of the convection . Kenneth began a steady west @-@ northwest track due to a weak ridge to its north . Operationally the storm was predicted to continue weakening and dissipate within four days . However , deep convection re @-@ developed near the center as the outflow became better defined , and Kenneth remained a moderate tropical storm for several days . On September 24 , the motion became nearly stationary as steering currents again weakened . Vertical shear sharply declined , allowing the convection to become more symmetrical and for an eye feature to develop . On September 25 , Kenneth again attained hurricane status while located about 1085 miles ( 1745 km ) east @-@ southeast of the Big Island of Hawaii .
Hurricane Kenneth maintained minimal hurricane status for about 30 hours as it drifted southwestward , during which it entered the area of responsibility of the Central Pacific Hurricane Center . Increasing shear weakened Kenneth to tropical storm status on September 26 , and it began a steady northwest track under the influence of low- to mid @-@ level steering flow . By September 27 , most of its convection had dissipated , excluding a small area of thunderstorms to the southeast of the center . Convection intermittently reformed near the center , though the combination of wind shear and cooler water temperatures prevented restrengthening . On September 29 , an intensifying upper @-@ level trough over the Hawaiian Islands weakened Kenneth to tropical depression status . Thunderstorms failed to reform , and on September 30 it degenerated into a tropical wave about 40 miles ( 65 km ) east of the Big Island of Hawaii . A remnant swirl of clouds later moved onshore of the Big Island .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
The remnants of Kenneth produced rainfall in the Hawaiian Islands when they interacted with an upper @-@ level trough , causing some reports of flash flooding . At Nu ‘ uanu Pali on Oahu , a gauge recorded a total precipitation of 10 @.@ 25 inches ( 260 @.@ 4 mm ) ; the gauge also reported 1 @.@ 6 inches ( 40 mm ) in 15 minutes , as well as 4 @.@ 11 inches ( 104 mm ) in one hour . Peak rainfall totals on Oahu included reports of up to 12 inches ( 305 mm ) , which puts Kenneth in a three @-@ way tie for ninth on Hawaii 's rainiest tropical cyclones list , along with Diana in 1972 and a system dubbed " B " from the 1967 season . On October 1 , rains caused the Kaukonahua Stream to burst its banks and Lake Wilson to overflow behind the Wahiawa Dam . The rainfall produced up to 1 foot ( 300 mm ) of flowing water on Pali Highway , leading to surface runoff which flooded a few homes .
On Kauai , the six @-@ hour total at Mount Waialeale was 6 @.@ 17 inches ( 157 mm ) . Flash flooding occurred on the Hanalei River , which resulted in the closure of the Kuhio Highway at the Hanalei Bridge . Rapid water level rises also occurred on the Wailua River and the Hanapepe River , though no significant damages were reported along these waterways .
Large swells churned up by Kenneth generated surf of 8 – 10 ft ( 2 – 3 m ) that crashed ashore on September 30 along the east shores of the islands of Hawaii , Kauai , Molokai , Maui , and Oahu . No reports of injuries or serious damage were received .
During the 61st Interdepartmental Hurricane Conference , the Hawaii State Civil Defense requested the retirement of the name Kenneth , citing that the storm had become memorable due to threat or damage . However , the World Meteorological Organization did not approve the request , and the name is on the list to be reused for the 2011 season .
= Adrenal gland =
The adrenal glands ( also known as suprarenal glands ) are endocrine glands that produce a variety of hormones including adrenaline and the steroids aldosterone and cortisol . They are found above the kidneys . Each gland has an outer cortex which produces steroid hormones and an inner medulla . The adrenal cortex itself is divided into three zones : zona glomerulosa , the zona fasciculata and the zona reticularis .
The adrenal cortex produces three main types of steroid hormones : mineralocorticoids , glucocorticoids , and androgens . Mineralocorticoids ( such as aldosterone ) produced in the zona glomerulosa help in the regulation of blood pressure and electrolyte balance . The glucocorticoids cortisol and corticosterone are synthesized in the zona fasciculata ; their functions include the regulation of metabolism and immune system suppression . The innermost layer of the cortex , the zona reticularis , produces androgens that are converted to fully functional sex hormones in the gonads and other target organs . The production of steroid hormones is called steroidogenesis , and involves a number of reactions and processes that take place in cortical cells . The medulla produces the catecholamines adrenaline and noradrenaline , which function to produce a rapid response throughout the body in stress situations .
A number of endocrine diseases involve dysfunctions of the adrenal gland . Overproduction of cortisol leads to Cushing 's syndrome , whereas insufficient production is associated with Addison 's disease . Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is a genetic disease produced by dysregulation of endocrine control mechanisms . A variety of tumors can arise from adrenal tissue and are commonly found in medical imaging when searching for other diseases .
= = Structure = =
The adrenal glands are located on both sides of the body in the retroperitoneum , above and slightly medial to the kidneys . In humans , the right adrenal gland is pyramidal in shape , whereas the left is semilunar and somewhat larger . The glands are usually about 5x3 cm in size , and their combined weight in an adult human ranges from 7 to 10 grams . The glands are yellowish in colour .
The adrenal glands are surrounded by a fatty capsule and lie within the renal fascia , which also surrounds the kidneys . A weak wall of connective tissue separates the glands from the kidneys . The adrenal glands are directly below the diaphragm , and are attached to the crura of the diaphragm by the renal fascia .
Each adrenal gland has two distinct parts , each with a unique function , the outer adrenal cortex and the inner medulla , both of which produce hormones .
= = = Cortex = = =
The adrenal cortex is the outermost layer of the adrenal gland . Within the cortex are three layers , called " zones " . When viewed under a microscope each layer has a distinct appearance , and each has a different function . The adrenal cortex is devoted to production of hormones , namely aldosterone , cortisol , and androgens .
= = = = Zona glomerulosa = = = =
The outermost layer of the adrenal cortex is the zona glomerulosa . It lies immediately under the fibrous capsule of the gland . Cells in this layer form oval groups , separated by thin strands of connective tissue from the fibrous capsule of the gland and carry wide capillaries .
This layer is the main site for production of aldosterone , a mineralocorticoid , by the action of the enzyme aldosterone synthase . Aldosterone plays an important role in the long @-@ term regulation of blood pressure .
= = = = Zona fasciculata = = = =
The zona fasciculata is situated between the zona glomerulosa and zona reticularis . Cells in this layer are responsible for producing glucocorticoids such as cortisol . It is the largest of the three layers , accounting for nearly 80 % of the volume of the cortex . In the zona fasciculata , cells are arranged in columns radially oriented towards the medulla . Cells contain numerous lipid droplets , abundant mitochondria and a complex smooth endoplasmic reticulum .
= = = = Zona reticularis = = = =
The innermost cortical layer , the zona reticularis , lies directly adjacent to the medulla . It produces androgens , mainly dehydroepiandrosterone ( DHEA ) , DHEA sulfate ( DHEA @-@ S ) , and androstenedione ( the precursor to testosterone ) in humans . Its small cells form irregular cords and clusters , separated by capillaries and connective tissue . The cells contain relatively small quantities of cytoplasm and lipid droplets , and sometimes display brown lipofuscin pigment .
= = = Medulla = = =
The adrenal medulla is at the centre of each adrenal gland , and is surrounded by the adrenal cortex . The chromaffin cells of the medulla are the body 's main source of the catecholamines adrenaline and noradrenaline , released by the medulla . Approximately 20 % noradrenaline ( norepinephrine ) and 80 % adrenaline ( epinephrine ) are secreted here .
The adrenal medulla is driven by the sympathetic nervous system via preganglionic fibers originating in the thoracic spinal cord , from vertebrae T5 – T11 . Because it is innervated by preganglionic nerve fibers , the adrenal medulla can be considered as a specialized sympathetic ganglion . Unlike other sympathetic ganglia , however , the adrenal medulla lacks distinct synapses and releases its secretions directly into the blood .
= = = Blood supply = = =
The adrenal glands have one of the greatest blood supply rates per gram of tissue of any organ : up to 60 small arteries may enter each gland . Three arteries usually supply each adrenal gland :
The superior suprarenal artery , a branch of the inferior phrenic artery
The middle suprarenal artery , a direct branch of the abdominal aorta
The inferior suprarenal artery , a branch of the renal artery
These blood vessels supply a network of small arteries within the capsule of the adrenal glands . Thin strands of the capsule enter the glands , carrying blood to them .
Venous blood is drained from the glands by the suprarenal veins , usually one for each gland :
The right suprarenal vein drains into the inferior vena cava
The left suprarenal vein drains into the left renal vein or the left inferior phrenic vein .
The central adrenomedullary vein , in the adrenal medulla , is an unusual type of blood vessel . Its structure is different from the other veins in that the smooth muscle in its tunica media ( the middle layer of the vessel ) is arranged in conspicuous , longitudinally oriented bundles .
= = = Variability = = =
The adrenal glands may not develop at all , or may be fused in the midline behind the aorta . These are associated with other congenital abnormalities , such as failure of the kidneys to develop , or fused kidneys . The gland may develop with a partial or complete absence of the cortex , or may develop in an unusual location .
= = Function = =
The adrenal gland secretes a number of different hormones which are metabolised by enzymes either within the gland or in other parts of the body . These hormones are involved in a number of essential biological functions .
= = = Corticosteroids = = =
Corticosteroids are a group of steroid hormones produced from the cortex of the adrenal gland , from which they are named . Corticosteroids are named according to their actions :
Mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone regulate salt ( " mineral " ) balance and blood volume .
Glucocorticoids such as cortisol influence metabolism rates of proteins , fats and sugars ( " glucose " ) .
Mineralocorticoids
The adrenal gland produces aldosterone , a mineralocorticoid , which is important in the regulation of salt ( " mineral " ) balance and blood volume . In the kidneys , aldosterone acts on the distal convoluted tubules and the collecting ducts by increasing the reabsorption of sodium and the excretion of both potassium and hydrogen ions . Aldosterone is responsible for the reabsorption of about 2 % of filtered sodium in the kidneys , which is nearly equal to the entire sodium content in human blood under normal glomerular filtration rates . Sodium retention is also a response of the distal colon and sweat glands to aldosterone receptor stimulation . Angiotensin II and extracellular potassium are the two main regulators of aldosterone production . The amount of sodium present in the body affects the extracellular volume , which in turn influences blood pressure . Therefore , the effects of aldosterone in sodium retention are important for the regulation of blood pressure .
Glucocorticoids
Cortisol is the main glucocorticoid in humans . In species that do not create cortisol , this role is played by corticosterone instead . Glucocorticoids have many effects on metabolism . As their name suggests , they increase the circulating level of glucose . This is the result of an increase in the mobilization of amino acids from protein and the stimulation of synthesis of glucose from these amino acids in the liver . In addition , they increase the levels of free fatty acids , which cells can use as an alternative to glucose to obtain energy . Glucocorticoids also have effects not related to the regulation of blood sugar levels , including the suppression of the immune system and a potent anti @-@ inflammatory effect . Cortisol reduces the capacity of osteoblasts to produce new bone tissue and decreases the absorption of calcium in the gastrointestinal tract .
The adrenal gland secretes a basal level of cortisol but can also produce bursts of the hormone in response to adrenocorticotropic hormone ( ACTH ) from the anterior pituitary . Cortisol is not evenly released during the day – its concentrations in the blood are highest in the early morning and lowest in the evening as a result of the circadian rhythm of ACTH secretion . Cortisone is an inactive product of the action of the enzyme 11β @-@ HSD on cortisol . The reaction catalyzed by 11β @-@ HSD is reversible , which means that it can turn administered cortisone into cortisol , the biologically active hormone .
Formation
All corticosteroid hormones share cholesterol as a common precursor . Therefore , the first step in steroidogenesis is cholesterol uptake or synthesis . Cells that produce steroid hormones can acquire cholesterol through two paths . The main source is through dietary cholesterol transported via the blood as cholesterol esters within low density lipoproteins ( LDL ) . LDL enters the cells through receptor @-@ mediated endocytosis . The other source of cholesterol is synthesis in the cell 's endoplasmic reticulum . Synthesis can compensate when LDL levels are abnormally low . In the lysosome , cholesterol esters are converted to free cholesterol , which is then used for steroidogenesis or stored in the cell .
The initial part of conversion of cholesterol into steroid hormones involves a number of enzymes of the cytochrome P450 family that are located in the inner membrane of mitochondria . Transport of cholesterol from the outer to the inner membrane is facilitated by steroidogenic acute regulatory protein and is the rate @-@ limiting step of steroid synthesis .
The layers of the adrenal gland differ by function , with each layer having distinct enzymes that produce different hormones from a common precursor . The first enzymatic step in the production of all steroid hormones is cleavage of the cholesterol side chain , a reaction that forms pregnenolone as a product and is catalyzed by the enzyme P450scc , also known as cholesterol desmolase . After the production of pregnenolone , specific enzymes of each cortical layer further modify it . Enzymes involved in this process include both mitochondrial and microsomal P450s and hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases . Usually a number of intermediate steps in which pregnenolone is modified several times are required to form the functional hormones . Enzymes that catalyze reactions in these metabolic pathways are involved in a number of endocrine diseases . For example , the most common form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia develops as a result of deficiency of 21 @-@ hydroxylase , an enzyme involved in an intermediate step of cortisol production .
Regulation
Glucocorticoids are under the regulatory influence of the hypothalamus @-@ pituitary @-@ adrenal ( HPA ) axis . Glucocorticoid synthesis is stimulated by adrenocorticotropic hormone ( ACTH ) , a hormone released into the bloodstream by the anterior pituitary . In turn , production of ACTH is stimulated by the presence of corticotropin @-@ releasing hormone ( CRH ) , which is released by neurons of the hypothalamus . ACTH acts on the adrenal cells first by increasing the levels of StAR within the cells , and then of all steroidogenic P450 enzymes . The HPA axis is an example of a negative feedback system , in which cortisol itself acts as a direct inhibitor of both CRH and ACTH synthesis . The HPA axis also interacts with the immune system through increased secretion of ACTH at the presence of certain molecules of the inflammatory response .
Mineralocorticoid secretion is regulated mainly by the renin – angiotensin – aldosterone system ( RAAS ) , the concentration of potassium , and to a lesser extent the concentration of ACTH . Sensors of blood pressure in the juxtaglomerular apparatus of the kidneys release the enzyme renin into the blood , which starts a cascade of reactions that lead to formation of angiotensin II . Angiotensin receptors in cells of the zona glomerulosa recognize the substance , and upon binding they stimulate the release of aldosterone .
= = = Adrenaline and noradrenaline = = =
Nowadays referred to as Epinephrine and norepinephrine , Adrenaline and noradrenaline are catecholamines , water @-@ soluble compounds that have a structure made of a catechol group and an amine group . The adrenal glands are responsible for most of the adrenaline that circulates in the body , but only for a small amount of circulating noradrenaline . These hormones are released by the adrenal medulla , which contains a dense network of blood vessels . Adrenaline and noradrenaline act at adrenoreceptors throughout the body , with effects that include an increase in blood pressure and heart rate . The actions of adrenaline and noradrenaline are responsible for the fight or flight response , characterised by a quickening of breathing and heart rate , an increase in blood pressure , and constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body .
Formation
Catecholamines are produced in chromaffin cells in the medulla of the adrenal gland , from tyrosine , a non @-@ essential amino acid derived from food or produced from phenylalanine in the liver . The enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase converts tyrosine to L @-@ DOPA in the first step of catecholamine synthesis . L @-@ DOPA is then converted to dopamine before it can be turned into noradrenaline . In the cytosol , noradrenaline is converted to epinephrine by the enzyme phenylethanolamine N @-@ methyltransferase ( PNMT ) and stored in granules . Glucocorticoids produced in the adrenal cortex stimulate the synthesis of catecholamines by increasing the levels of tyrosine hydroxylase and PNMT .
Catecholamine release is stimulated by the activation of the sympathetic nervous system . Splanchnic nerves of the sympathetic nervous system innervate the medulla of the adrenal gland . When activated , it evokes the release of catecholamines from the storage granules by stimulating the opening of calcium channels in the cell membrane .
= = = Androgens = = =
Cells in zona reticularis of the adrenal glands produce male sex hormones , or androgens , the most important of which is DHEA . In general , these hormones do not have an overall effect in the male body , and are converted to more potent androgens such as testosterone and DHT or to estrogens ( female sex hormones ) in the gonads , acting in this way as a metabolic intermediate .
= = Development = =
The adrenal glands are composed of two heterogenous types of tissue . In the center is the adrenal medulla , which produces adrenaline and noradrenaline and releases them into the bloodstream , as part of the sympathetic nervous system . Surrounding the medulla is the cortex , which produces a variety of steroid hormones . These tissues come from different embryological precursors and have distinct prenatal development paths . The cortex of the adrenal gland is derived from mesoderm , whereas the medulla is derived from the neural crest , which is of ectodermal origin .
The adrenal glands in a newborn baby are much larger as a proportion of the body size than in an adult . For example , at age three months the glands are four times the size of the kidneys . The size of the glands decreases relatively after birth , mainly because of shrinkage of the cortex . The cortex , which almost completely disappears by age 1 , develops again from age 4 – 5 . The glands weigh about 1 g at birth and develop to an adult weight of about 4 grams each . In a fetus the glands are first detectable after the sixth week of development .
= = = Cortex = = =
Adrenal cortex tissue is derived from the intermediate mesoderm . It first appears 33 days after fertilisation , shows steroid hormone production capabilities by the eighth week and undergoes rapid growth during the first trimester of pregnancy . The fetal adrenal cortex is different from its adult counterpart , as it is composed of two distinct zones : the inner " fetal " zone , which carries most of the hormone @-@ producing activity , and the outer " definitive " zone , which is in a proliferative phase . The fetal zone produces large amounts of adrenal androgens ( male sex hormones ) that are used by the placenta for estrogen biosynthesis . Cortical development of the adrenal gland is regulated mostly by ACTH , a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates cortisol synthesis . During midgestation , the fetal zone occupies most of the cortical volume and produces 100 – 200 mg / day of DHEA @-@ S , an androgen and precursor of both androgens and estrogens ( female sex hormones ) . Adrenal hormones , especially glucocorticoids such as cortisol , are essential for prenatal development of organs , particularly for the maturation of the lungs . The adrenal gland decreases in size after birth because of the rapid disappearance of the fetal zone , with a corresponding decrease in androgen secretion .
= = = = Adrenarche = = = =
During early childhood androgen synthesis and secretion remain low , but several years before puberty ( from 6 – 8 years of age ) changes occur in both anatomical and functional aspects of cortical androgen production that lead to increased secretion of the steroids DHEA and DHEA @-@ S. These changes are part of a process called adrenarche , which has only been described in humans and some other primates . Adrenarche is independent of ACTH or gonadotropins and correlates with a progressive thickening of the zona reticularis layer of the cortex . Functionally , adrenarche provides a source of androgens for the development of axillary and pubic hair before the beginning of puberty .
= = = Medulla = = =
The adrenal medulla is derived from neural crest cells , which come from the ectoderm layer of the embryo . These cells migrate from their initial position and aggregate in the vicinity of the dorsal aorta , a primitive blood vessel , which activates the differentiation of these cells through the release of proteins known as BMPs . These cells then undergo a second migration from the dorsal aorta to form the adrenal medulla and other organs of the sympathetic nervous system . Cells of the adrenal medulla are called chromaffin cells because they contain granules that stain with chromium salts , a characteristic not present in all sympathetic organs . Glucocorticoids produced in the adrenal cortex were once thought to be responsible for the differentiation of chromaffin cells . More recent research suggests that BMP @-@ 4 secreted in adrenal tissue is the main responsible for this , and that glucocorticoids only play a role in the subsequent development of the cells .
= = Clinical significance = =
The normal function of the adrenal gland may be impaired by conditions such as infections , tumors , genetic disorders and autoimmune diseases , or as a side effect of medical therapy . These disorders affect the gland either directly ( as with infections or autoimmune diseases ) or as a result of the dysregulation of hormone production ( as in some types of Cushing 's syndrome ) leading to an excess or insufficiency of adrenal hormones and the related symptoms .
= = = Corticosteroid overproduction = = =
= = = = Cushing 's syndrome = = = =
Cushing 's syndrome is the manifestation of glucocorticoid excess . It can be the result of a prolonged treatment with glucocorticoids or be caused by an underlying disease which produces alterations in the HPA axis or the production of cortisol . Causes can be further classified into ACTH @-@ dependent or ACTH @-@ independent . The most common cause of endogenous Cushing 's syndrome is a pituitary adenoma which causes an excessive production of ACTH . The disease produces a wide variety of signs and symptoms which include obesity , diabetes , increased blood pressure , excessive body hair ( hirsutism ) , osteoporosis , depression and , most distinctively , stretch marks in the skin , caused by its progressive thinning .
= = = = Primary aldosteronism = = = =
When the zona glomerulosa produces excess aldosterone , the result is primary aldosteronism . Causes for this condition are bilateral hyperplasia ( excessive tissue growth ) of the glands , or aldosterone @-@ producing adenomas ( a condition called Conn 's syndrome ) . Primary aldosteronism produces hypertension and electrolyte imbalance , increasing potassium depletion and sodium retention .
= = = Adrenal insufficiency = = =
Adrenal insufficiency ( the deficiency of glucocorticoids ) occurs in about 5 in 10 @,@ 000 in the general population . Diseases classified as primary adrenal insufficiency ( including Addison 's disease and genetic causes ) directly affect the adrenal cortex . If a problem that affects the hypothalamic @-@ pituitary @-@ adrenal axis arises outside the gland , it is a secondary adrenal insufficiency .
= = = = Addison 's disease = = = =
Addison 's disease refers to primary hypoadrenalism , which is a deficiency in glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid production by the adrenal gland . In the Western world , Addison 's disease is most commonly an autoimmune condition , in which the body produces antibodies against cells of the adrenal cortex . Worldwide , the disease is more frequently caused by infection , especially from tuberculosis . A distinctive feature of Addison 's disease is hyperpigmentation of the skin , which presents with other nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue .
A complication seen in untreated Addison 's disease and other types of primary adrenal insufficiency is the adrenal crisis , a medical emergency in which low glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid levels result in hypovolemic shock and symptoms such as vomiting and fever . An adrenal crisis can progressively lead to stupor and coma . The management of adrenal crises includes the application of hydrocortisone injections .
= = = = Secondary adrenal insufficiency = = = =
In secondary adrenal insufficiency , a dysfunction of the hypothalamic @-@ pituitary @-@ adrenal axis leads to decreased stimulation of the adrenal cortex . Apart from suppression of the axis by glucocorticoid therapy , the most common cause of secondary adrenal insufficiency are tumors that affect the production of adrenocorticotropic hormone ( ACTH ) by the pituitary gland . This type of adrenal insufficiency usually does not affect the production of mineralocorticoids , which are under regulation of the renin @-@ angiotensin system instead .
= = = = Congenital adrenal hyperplasia = = = =
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is a congenital disease in which mutations of enzymes that produce steroid hormones result in a glucocorticoid deficiency and malfunction of the negative feedback loop of the HPA axis . In the HPA axis , cortisol ( a glucocorticoid ) inhibits the release of CRH and ACTH , hormones that in turn stimulate corticosteroid synthesis . As cortisol cannot be synthesized , these hormones are released in high quantities and stimulate production of other adrenal steroids instead . The most common form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia is due to 21 @-@ hydroxylase deficiency . 21 @-@ hydroxylase is necessary for production of both mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids , but not androgens . Therefore , ACTH stimulation of the adrenal cortex induces the release of excessive amounts of adrenal androgens , which can lead to the development of ambiguous genitalia and secondary sex characteristics .
= = = Adrenal tumors = = =
Adrenal tumors are commonly found as incidentalomas , unexpected asymptomatic tumors found during medical imaging . They are seen in around 3 @.@ 4 % of CT scans , and in most cases they are benign adenomas . Adrenal carcinomas are very rare , with an incidence of 1 case per million per year .
Pheochromocytomas are tumors of the adrenal medulla that arise from chromaffin cells . They can produce a variety of nonspecific symptoms , which include headaches , sweating , anxiety and palpitations . Common signs include hypertension and tachycardia . Surgery , especially adrenal laparoscopy , is the most common treatment for small pheochromocytomas .
= = History = =
Bartolomeo Eustachi , an Italian anatomist , is credited with the first description of the adrenal glands in 1563 @-@ 4 . However , these publications were part of the papal library and did not receive public attention , which was first received with Caspar Bartholin the Elder 's illustrations in 1611 .
The adrenal glands are named for their location relative to the kidneys . The term " adrenal " comes from ad- ( Latin , " near " ) and renes ( Latin , " kidney " ) . Similarly , " suprarenal " , as termed by Jean Riolan the Younger in 1629 , is derived from the Latin supra ( Latin : " above " ) and renes ( Latin : kidney ) . The suprarenal nature of the glands was not truly accepted until the 19th century , as anatomists clarified the ductless nature of the glands and their likely secretory role – prior to this , there was some debate as to whether the glands were indeed suprarenal or part of the kidney .
One of the most recognized works on the adrenal glands came in 1855 with the publication of On the Constitutional and Local Effects of Disease of the Suprarenal Capsule , by the English physician Thomas Addison . In his monography , Addison described what the French physician George Trousseau would later name Addison 's disease , an eponym still used today for a condition of adrenal insufficiency and its related clinical manifestations . In 1894 , English physiologists George Oliver and Edward Schafer studied the action of adrenal extracts and observed their pressor effects . In the following decades several physicians experimented with extracts from the adrenal cortex to treat Addison 's disease . Edward Calvin Kendall , Philip Hench and Tadeusz Reichstein were then awarded the 1950 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries on the structure and effects of the adrenal hormones .
= StarCraft =
StarCraft is a military science fiction media franchise created by Chris Metzen and James Phinney , and owned by Blizzard Entertainment . The series centers on a galactic struggle for dominance between four species — the adaptable and mobile Terrans , the ever @-@ evolving insectoid Zerg , the powerfully enigmatic Protoss , and the " god @-@ like " Xel 'Naga creator race — in a distant part of the Milky Way galaxy known as the Koprulu Sector at the beginning of the 26th century . The series debuted with the video game StarCraft in 1998 . Since then it has grown to include a number of other games as well as eight novelizations , two Amazing Stories articles , a board game , and other licensed merchandise such as collectible statues and toys .
Blizzard Entertainment began planning StarCraft in 1995 , with a development team led by Metzen and Phinney . The game debuted at E3 1996 , and used a modified Warcraft II game engine . StarCraft also marked the creation of Blizzard Entertainment 's film department ; the game introduced high quality cinematics integral to the storyline of the series . Most of the original development team for StarCraft returned to work on the game 's official expansion pack , Brood War ; the game 's development began shortly after StarCraft was released . In 2001 , StarCraft : Ghost began development under Nihilistic Software . Unlike the previous real @-@ time strategy games in the series , Ghost was to be a stealth @-@ action game . After three years of development , work on the game was postponed in 2004 . Development of StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty began in 2003 ; the game was later announced on May 19 , 2007 and was released on July 27 , 2010 . The StarCraft II franchise continued with the StarCraft II : Heart of the Swarm expansion , which was released on March 12 , 2013 . The third StarCraft II installment is titled StarCraft II : Legacy of the Void , released on November 10 , 2015 .
The original game and its official expansion have been praised as one of the benchmark real @-@ time strategy games of its time . The series has gathered a solid following around the world , particularly in South Korea , where professional players and teams participate in matches , earn sponsorships , and compete in televised matches . As of May 31 , 2007 , StarCraft and Brood War have sold almost 10 million copies combined . In addition , the series was awarded a star on the Walk of Game in 2006 , and holds four Guinness World Records in the Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition of 2008 .
= = Story = =
The story focuses on the activities of the three species in a part of the Milky Way known as the Koprulu Sector . Millennia before any of the events of the games , a species known as the Xel 'Naga genetically engineered the Protoss and later the Zerg in attempts to create pure beings . These experiments backfire and the Xel 'Naga are largely destroyed by the Zerg . Centuries before the beginning of StarCraft in 2499 , the hardline international government of Earth , the United Earth Directorate ( UED ) , commissions a colonization program as part of a solution to overpopulation . However , the computers automating the colony ships malfunction , propelling the Terran colonists far off course to the edge of Protoss space . Out of contact with Earth , they form various factions to maintain their interests . Intrigued by the behavior and mentality of the Terrans , the Protoss remain hidden to examine the humans , while protecting them from other threats without their knowledge . However , the Zerg target the Terrans for assimilation to harness their psionic potential , forcing the Protoss to destroy tainted Terran colonies to contain the Zerg infestation .
StarCraft begins just days after the first of these attacks , where the predominant Terran government , the Confederacy of Man , falls into a state of panic as it comes under attack by both the Zerg and the Protoss , in addition to increasing rebel activity led by Arcturus Mengsk against its rule . The Confederacy eventually succumbs to Mengsk 's rebels when they use Confederate technology to lure the Zerg into attacking the Confederate capital , Tarsonis . In the consequent power vacuum , Mengsk crowns himself emperor of a new Terran Dominion . However , during the assault on Tarsonis , Mengsk allows the Zerg to capture and infest his psychic second @-@ in @-@ command , Sarah Kerrigan . This betrayal prompts Mengsk 's other commander , Jim Raynor , to desert him with a small army . Having retreated with Kerrigan to their primary hive clusters , the Zerg are assaulted by Protoss forces commanded by Tassadar and the dark templar Zeratul . Through assassinating a Zerg cerebrate , Zeratul inadvertently allows the Overmind to learn the location of the Protoss homeworld , Aiur . The Overmind quickly launches an invasion to assimilate the Protoss and gain genetic perfection . Pursued by his own people as a her | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
. " But it has always resulted in better @-@ quality work . "
= = Development = =
Blizzard Entertainment began planning development on StarCraft in 1995 , shortly after the beginning of development for Diablo . The development was led by Chris Metzen and James Phinney , who also created the game 's fictional universe . Using the Warcraft II : Tides of Darkness game engine as a base , StarCraft made its debut at E3 1996 . The game 's success led to the development of two authorized add @-@ ons , which were both released in 1998 . However , neither of the two add @-@ ons were particularly well received by critics . StarCraft also marked the debut of Blizzard Entertainment 's film department . Previously , cinematic cut scenes were seen as simply gap fillers that often deviated from the game , but with StarCraft and later Brood War introducing high quality cinematics integral to the storyline of the series , Blizzard Entertainment is cited as having changed this perception and became one of the first game companies to raise the standard regarding such cut scenes .
StarCraft 's success also inspired third @-@ party developer Microstar Software to release an unauthorized add @-@ on , entitled Stellar Forces , in May 1998 . Blizzard Entertainment consequently filed a lawsuit against Microstar for selling the add @-@ on , arguing that as the product was unauthorized and created using StarCraft 's level editing software , it was a breach of the end user license agreement .
In November 1998 , Blizzard Entertainment won the court case against Microstar Software . In the settlement , Microstar agreed to pay an undisclosed amount in punitive damages and to destroy all remaining copies of Stellar Forces in its possession , as well as to formally apologize to Blizzard Entertainment .
After the release of the first two add @-@ on packs , Blizzard Entertainment announced the official expansion pack to StarCraft , entitled Brood War . Most of the team at Blizzard Entertainment responsible for StarCraft returned to work on Brood War . Development on Brood War began shortly after StarCraft 's release , and Blizzard Entertainment were assisted by members of Saffire , who were contracted for a variety of tasks consisting of programming and design for levels , visuals and audio effects .
In 2001 , StarCraft : Ghost began development under Nihilistic Software , with the aim of releasing the game for the Xbox , PlayStation 2 and Nintendo GameCube during late 2003 . Unlike previous real @-@ time strategy StarCraft titles , Ghost was to be a tactical third @-@ person action game . Although the press was positive about the video game console direction taken by Ghost , the game was consistently delayed , and during the third quarter of 2004 , Nihilistic Software discontinued their work with the project . Blizzard stated that Nihilistic Software had completed the tasks it had been contracted for and that the game would be delivered on time . The game was never released .
StarCraft II was announced on May 19 , 2007 , nearly a decade after the original , at the Blizzard Worldwide Invitational in Seoul , South Korea . StarCraft II was being developed , under the codename Medusa , for concurrent release on Windows XP , Windows Vista and Mac OS X. Blizzard announced a release date for July 27 , 2010 . Development on the game began in 2003 , shortly after Warcraft III : The Frozen Throne was released .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Novelizations = = =
The StarCraft series is supported by eight novelizations , with at least two more in the works , all published by Simon & Schuster . At BlizzCon 2007 , Chris Metzen stated that he hoped to novelize the entirety of StarCraft and Brood War into a definitive text @-@ based story . The first novel , StarCraft : Uprising , was written by Micky Neilson , a Blizzard Entertainment employee , and originally released only as an e @-@ book in December 2000 . The novel follows the origins of the character Sarah Kerrigan . The second novel , entitled StarCraft : Liberty 's Crusade , serves as an adaptation of the first campaign of StarCraft , following on a journalist following a number of the key Terran characters in the series . Written by Jeff Grubb and published in March 2001 , it was the first StarCraft novel to be released in paperback . StarCraft : Shadow of the Xel 'Naga , published in July 2001 is the third novel , written by Kevin Anderson under the pseudonym Gabriel Mesta . It serves as a link between StarCraft and Brood War . The fantasy author Tracy Hickman was brought in to write the fourth novel , StarCraft : Speed of Darkness , which was published in June 2002 . Speed of Darkness is written from the viewpoint of a Confederate marine during the early stages of StarCraft . The first four novels , including the e @-@ book Uprising , were later re @-@ released as a single anthology entitled The StarCraft Archive in November 2007 .
A fifth novel entitled StarCraft : Queen of Blades was published in June 2006 . Written by Aaron S. Rosenberg , it is a novelization of the second campaign in StarCraft from the perspective of Jim Raynor . This was followed in November 2006 by StarCraft Ghost : Nova , a book focusing on the early origins of the character of Nova from the postponed StarCraft : Ghost game . Written by Keith R.A. DeCandido , the novel was meant to accompany the release of StarCraft : Ghost , but was continued despite the postponement of the game . In 2007 Christie Golden , an author whose previous work included novels in Blizzard 's Warcraft series , was brought in to write a trilogy entitled the StarCraft : The Dark Templar Saga . The trilogy acts as a link between StarCraft and its sequel StarCraft II . The first installment , Firstborn being published in May 2007 and Shadow Hunters , the second novel , being published in November 2007 . The final part of the trilogy , Twilight was released in June 2009 . I , Mengsk was publish in 2009 , a novel that was written by Graham McNeill which focuses on the origins of the characters in the Mengsk family . Last January 2010 Keith R.A. DeCandido and David Gerrold authored the " StarCraft : Ghost Academy " to elaborate the training of Nova as an espionage agent and in September 2011 , Simon & Schuster published the " StarCraft Ghost : Spectres " as a sequel to the novel " StarCraft Ghost : Nova " . Timothy Zahn will release an unnamed Starcraft novel in 2016 .
In addition to these , Blizzard Entertainment authorized two short stories in Amazing Stories magazine , entitled StarCraft : Revelations and StarCraft : Hybrid . Revelations was authored by series creator Chris Metzen and Sam Moore , a Blizzard employee , and was featured on the cover of the 1999 spring edition with art by Blizzard 's art director Samwise Didier . Hybrid was written by Micky Neilson and again was accompanied by artwork by Didier ; the short story was published in the spring edition of 2000 . At New York Comic @-@ Con in 2008 , TokyoPop announced that they would be producing a number of StarCraft graphic novels . Two series were announced : StarCraft : Frontline , which is a series of short story anthologies that spanned four volumes , and StarCraft : Ghost Academy , which was written by Keith R.A. DeCandido and follows several characters , such as Nova , during their training as the psychic assassins called " ghosts " . There was a Starcraft graphic novel released in 2010 , produced by Wildstorm and DC Comics , which features outlaws working on a last job , the assassination of Jim Raynor .
= = = Merchandise = = =
A number of action figures and collectable statues based upon the characters and units in StarCraft have been produced by ToyCom . A number of model kits , made by Academy Hobby Model Kits , were also produced , displaying 1 / 30 scale versions of the marine and the hydralisk . In addition , Blizzard Entertainment teamed up with Fantasy Flight Games to create a board game based in the StarCraft universe . Blizzard Entertainment also licensed Wizards of the Coast to produce an Alternity based game entitled StarCraft Adventures .
= = Reception and cultural impact = =
The StarCraft series has been a commercial success . After its release , StarCraft became the best @-@ selling PC game for that year , selling over 1 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide . In the next decade , StarCraft sold over 9 @.@ 5 million copies across the globe , with 4 @.@ 5 million of these being sold in South Korea . Since the initial release of StarCraft , Blizzard Entertainment reported that its Battle.net online multiplayer service grew by 800 percent . StarCraft remains one of the most popular online games in the world . After its release , StarCraft rapidly grew in popularity in South Korea , establishing a successful pro @-@ gaming scene . Pro @-@ gamers in South Korea are niche media celebrities and StarCraft games broadcast over three television channels dedicated to gaming . StarCraft has won numerous Game of the Year awards , is often described as one of the best real @-@ time strategy games made , and is widely credited with popularizing the use of distinct and unique sides — as opposed to sides of equal ability and strength — in real @-@ time strategy games .
Although Insurrection and Retribution were not particularly well received , StarCraft : Brood War generally received very positive reviews , with an aggregate GameRankings score of 95 @.@ 00 % . The magazine PC Zone gave Brood War a short but flattering review , describing it as having " definitely been worth the wait " and also drew note to the cinematic cut scenes , stating that they " actually feel like part of the story rather than an afterthought . " IGN stated that Brood War 's enhancements were " enough to enrich the core gameplay without losing the flavor " while GameSpot noted that the expansion was developed with the same level of care as the full game .
The release of StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty performed very well commercially and critically , selling 1 @.@ 8 million copies within the first forty eight hours of release , which breaks the record of best selling strategy game in the history of the gaming industry . It received very positive reviews with an aggregate GameRankings score of 93 % , and was nominated as the " Best PC Game of 2010 " on Gamespot . This success continued with the release of the first expansion pack , StarCraft II : Heart of the Swarm , which had a GameRankings aggregate score of 86 % . The expansion pack sold 1 @.@ 1 million copies within the first two days of its release on March 12 , 2013 , and was the best @-@ selling PC game in that quarter . StarCraft II : Legacy of the Void , the third expansion pack , was similarly well received , having a GameRankings aggregate score of 88 % while selling more than 1 million copies worldwide within the first day of its release .
Since the release of StarCraft II a number of tournaments have been hosted in Korea and elsewhere , such as the GOMTV Global StarCraft II League ( GSL ) .
= Reading , Berkshire =
Reading ( / ˈrɛdɪŋ / RED @-@ ing ) is a large town and unitary authority area in the ceremonial county of Berkshire , England . It was an important centre in the medieval period , as the site of Reading Abbey , a monastery with strong royal connections . The town was seriously affected by the English Civil War , with a major siege and loss of trade , and played a pivotal role in the Revolution of 1688 , with that revolution 's only significant military action fought on the streets of the town . The 19th century saw the coming of the Great Western Railway and the development of the town 's brewing , baking and seed growing businesses . Today Reading is a commercial centre , with involvement in information technology and insurance , and , despite its proximity to London , has a net inward commuter flow .
The first evidence for Reading as a settlement dates from the 8th century . By 1525 , Reading was the largest town in Berkshire , and tax returns show that Reading was the 10th largest town in England when measured by taxable wealth . By 1611 , it had a population of over 5000 and had grown rich on its trade in cloth . The 18th century saw the beginning of a major iron works in the town and the growth of the brewing trade for which Reading was to become famous . During the 19th century , the town grew rapidly as a manufacturing centre . It is ranked the UK 's top economic area for economic success and wellbeing , according to factors such as employment , health , income and skills . Reading is also a retail centre serving a large area of the Thames Valley , and is home to the University of Reading . Every year it hosts the Reading Festival , one of England 's biggest music festivals . Sporting teams based in Reading include Reading Football Club and the London Irish rugby union team , and over 15 @,@ 000 runners annually compete in the Reading Half Marathon .
The Borough of Reading has a population of 155 @,@ 698 ( 2011 census ) and the town formed the largest part of the Reading / Wokingham Urban Area which had a population of 318 @,@ 014 ( 2011 census ) . The town is currently represented in the UK parliament by two members , and has been continuously represented there since 1295 . For ceremonial purposes the town is in the county of Berkshire and has served as its county town since 1867 , previously sharing this status with Abingdon @-@ on @-@ Thames . It is located in the Thames Valley at the confluence of the River Thames and River Kennet , and on both the Great Western Main Line railway and the M4 motorway . By the national road network , Reading is located 40 miles ( 64 km ) east from Swindon , 27 miles ( 43 km ) south from Oxford , 41 miles ( 66 km ) west of central London , and 16 miles ( 26 km ) north from Basingstoke .
= = History = =
Reading may date back to the Roman occupation of Britain , possibly as a trading port for Calleva Atrebatum . However the first clear evidence for Reading as a settlement dates from the 8th century , when the town came to be known as Readingum . The name probably comes from the Readingas , an Anglo @-@ Saxon tribe whose name means Reada 's People in Old English , or less probably the Celtic Rhydd @-@ Inge , meaning Ford over the River . In late 870 , an army of Danes invaded the kingdom of Wessex and set up camp at Reading . On 4 January 871 , in the first Battle of Reading , King Ethelred and his brother Alfred the Great attempted unsuccessfully to breach the Danes ' defences . The battle is described in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , and that account provides the earliest known written record of the existence of Reading . The Danes remained in Reading until late in 871 , when they retreated to their winter quarters in London .
After the Battle of Hastings and the Norman conquest of England , William the Conqueror gave land in and around Reading to his foundation of Battle Abbey . In its 1086 Domesday Book listing , the town was explicitly described as a borough . The presence of six mills is recorded : four on land belonging to the king and two on the land given to Battle Abbey . Reading Abbey was founded in 1121 by Henry I , who is buried within the Abbey grounds . As part of his endowments , he gave the abbey his lands in Reading , along with land at Cholsey . It is not known how badly Reading was affected by the Black Death that swept through England in the 14th century , but it is known that the abbot of Reading Abbey , Henry of Appleford , was one of its victims in 1361 , and that nearby Henley lost 60 % of its population . The Abbey was largely destroyed in 1538 during Henry VIII 's dissolution of the monasteries . The last abbot , Hugh Cook Faringdon , was subsequently tried and convicted of high treason and hanged , drawn and quartered in front of the Abbey Church .
By 1525 , Reading was the largest town in Berkshire , and tax returns show that Reading was the 10th largest town in England when measured by taxable wealth . By 1611 , it had a population of over 5000 and had grown rich on its trade in cloth , as instanced by the fortune made by local merchant John Kendrick . Reading played an important role during the English Civil War . Despite its fortifications , it had a Royalist garrison imposed on it in 1642 . The subsequent Siege of Reading by Parliamentary forces succeeded in April 1643 . The town 's cloth trade was especially badly damaged , and the town 's economy did not fully recover until the 20th century . Reading played a significant role during the Revolution of 1688 : the second Battle of Reading was the only substantial military action of the campaign .
The 18th century saw the beginning of a major iron works in the town and the growth of the brewing trade for which Reading was to become famous . Reading 's trade benefited from better designed turnpike roads which helped it establish its location on the major coaching routes from London to Oxford and the West Country . In 1723 , despite considerable local opposition , the Kennet Navigation opened the River Kennet to boats as far as Newbury . Opposition stopped when it became apparent that the new route benefited the town . After the opening of the Kennet and Avon Canal in 1810 , one could go by barge from Reading to the Bristol Channel . From 1714 , and probably earlier , the role of county town of Berkshire was shared between Reading and Abingdon .
During the 19th century , the town grew rapidly as a manufacturing centre . The Great Western Railway arrived in 1841 , followed by the South Eastern Railway in 1849 and the London and South Western Railway in 1856 . The Summer Assizes were moved from Abingdon to Reading in 1867 , effectively making Reading the sole county town of Berkshire , a decision that was officially approved by the Privy Council in 1869 . The town became a county borough under the Local Government Act 1888 . The town has been famous for the Three Bs of beer ( 1785 – 2010 , Simonds ' Brewery ) , bulbs ( 1837 – 1974 , Suttons Seeds ) , and biscuits ( 1822 – 1976 , Huntley and Palmers ) .
The town continued to expand in the 20th century , annexing Caversham across the River Thames in Oxfordshire in 1911 . Compared to many other English towns and cities , Reading suffered little physical damage during either of the two World Wars that afflicted the 20th century , although many citizens were killed or injured in the conflicts . One significant air raid occurred on 10 February 1943 , when a single Luftwaffe plane machine @-@ gunned and bombed the town centre , resulting in 41 deaths and over 100 injuries . The Lower Earley development , built in 1977 , was one of the largest private housing developments in Europe . It extended the urban area of Reading as far as the M4 motorway , which acts as the southern boundary of the town . Further housing developments have increased the number of modern houses and hypermarkets in the outskirts of Reading . A major town @-@ centre shopping centre , The Oracle , opened in 1999 , is named after the 17th century Oracle workhouse , which once occupied a small part of the site . It provides three storeys of shopping space and boosted the local economy by providing 4 @,@ 000 jobs .
As one of the largest urban areas in the United Kingdom to be without city status , Reading has bid for city status on three recent occasions — in 2000 to celebrate the new millennium ; in 2002 to celebrate the Golden Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II ; and 2012 to celebrate the Diamond Jubilee . All three bids were unsuccessful .
= = Government = =
Local government for the town of Reading is principally provided by Reading Borough Council , a single level unitary authority without civil parishes . However some of the town 's outer suburbs are in West Berkshire and Wokingham unitary authorities . These outer suburbs belong to civil parishes , in some cases with their own town status . Reading has elected at least one Member of Parliament to every Parliament since 1295 . Historically , Reading was represented by the members for the Parliamentary Borough of Reading , and the parliamentary constituencies of Reading , Reading North , and Reading South . Since the 2010 general election , Reading and its surrounding area has been divided between the parliamentary constituencies of Reading East and Reading West . The whole of the town is within the multi @-@ member South East England European constituency .
Reading is the site of both a Crown Court , administering criminal justice , and a County Court , responsible for civil cases . Lesser matters are dealt with in a local Magistrates ' Court .
Reading has had some degree of local government autonomy since 1253 , when the local merchant guild was granted a royal charter . Since then , the town has been run by a borough corporation , as a county borough , and as a district of Berkshire . The Borough of Reading became a unitary authority area in 1998 , when Berkshire County Council was abolished under the Banham Review , and is now responsible for all aspects of local government within the borough .
Prior to the 16th century , civic administration for the town of Reading was situated in the Yield Hall , a guild hall situated by the River Kennet near today 's Yield Hall Lane . After a brief stay in what later became Greyfriars Church , the town council created a new town hall by inserting an upper floor into the refectory of the Hospitium of St John , the former hospitium of Reading Abbey . For some 400 years up to the 1970s , this was to remain the site of Reading 's civic administration through the successive rebuilds that eventually created today 's Town Hall . In 1976 , Reading Borough Council moved to the new Civic Centre .
The government of the Borough of Reading follows the leader and cabinet model . Following the 2011 local elections , a Labour minority administration replaced the previous Conservative @-@ Liberal Democrat coalition on the casting vote of the mayor . The borough also has a ( largely ceremonial ) mayor . Cllr Sarah Hacker has been the mayor of Reading since May 2015 .
Since 1887 , the borough has included the former villages of Southcote and Whitley and small parts of Earley and Tilehurst . By 1911 , it also encompassed the Oxfordshire village of Caversham and still more of Tilehurst . A small area of Mapledurham parish was added in 1977 . An attempt to take over a small area of Eye and Dunsden parish in Oxfordshire was rejected because of strong local opposition in 1997 . Today the borough itself is unparished , and the wards used to elect the borough councillors generally ignore the old parish boundaries and use invented ward names .
Reading 's municipal boundaries do not include all of the surrounding suburbs , some of which ( Tilehurst , Calcot , Earley and Woodley ) are , at least partly within West Berkshire or Wokingham Borough . This unusual configuration creates difficulties . The diminishing amount of land available and suitable for development within the borough 's boundary can bring the council into conflict with its neighbours ' development plans . This particularly affects education ( many schools have catchment areas that cross administrative boundaries ) , and transport . A perennial example is whether to construct a third road crossing of the Thames , which South Oxfordshire 's politicians and residents oppose . On this subject , Rob Wilson , MP for Reading East , said in a House of Commons debate in January 2006 :
" However , the process has been painfully slow and it appears that , for every two steps forwards , there are three steps backwards — mainly because of the view of South Oxfordshire district council , which is being incredibly parochial about this matter . Meanwhile , Reading Borough Council is adopting strategies that prioritise local traffic in Reading , obviously to the detriment of through traffic . We have now reached the point at which we desperately need direct Government intervention to break the logjam between those local authorities . "
= = Geography = =
'As the crow flies ' Reading is 36 miles ( 58 km ) due west of central London , 24 miles ( 39 km ) southeast of Oxford , 70 miles ( 110 km ) east of Bristol , and 50 miles ( 80 km ) north of the English south coast . The centre of Reading is on a low ridge between the River Thames and River Kennet , close to their confluence , reflecting the town 's history as a river port . Just above the confluence , the Kennet cuts through a narrow steep @-@ sided gap in the hills forming the southern flank of the Thames floodplain . The absence of a floodplain on the Kennet in this defile enabled the development of wharves .
As Reading has grown , its suburbs have spread : to the west between the two rivers into the foothills of the Berkshire Downs as far as Calcot , Tilehurst and Purley ; to the south and south @-@ east on the south side of the Kennet as far as Whitley Wood , Lower Earley and Woodley ; and to the north of the Thames into the Chiltern Hills as far as Caversham Heights , Emmer Green and Caversham Park Village . Outside the central area , the floors of the valleys containing the two rivers remain largely unimproved floodplain . Apart from the M4 curving to the south there is only one road across the Kennet floodplain . All other routes between the three built @-@ up areas are in the central area , which is a cause of road congestion there .
The floodplains adjoining Reading 's two rivers are subject to occasional flooding . However , in the 2007 floods that affected much of the UK , no properties were affected by flooding from the Thames and only four properties were affected by flooding from the Kennet .
Depending on the definition adopted , neither the town nor the urban area are necessarily coterminous with the borough . Historically , the town of Reading was smaller than the borough . Definitions include the old ecclesiastical parishes of the churches of St Mary , St Laurence and St Giles , or the even smaller pre @-@ 19th century borough . Today , as well as the town centre Reading comprises a number of suburbs and other districts , both within the borough itself and within the surrounding urban area . The names and location of these suburbs are in general usage but , except where some of the outer suburbs correspond to civil parishes , there are no formally defined boundaries . The Reading urban area , sometimes referred to as Greater Reading , incorporates the town 's eastern and western suburbs outside the borough , in the civil parishes of Earley , Woodley , Purley and Tilehurst .
Like the rest of the United Kingdom , Reading has a maritime climate , with limited seasonal temperature ranges and generally moderate rainfall throughout the year . The nearest official Met Office weather station is located at the Reading University Atmospheric Observatory on the Whiteknights Campus , which has recorded atmospheric measurements and meteorological observations since 1970 . The local absolute maximum temperature of 36 @.@ 4 ° C ( 97 @.@ 5 ° F ) was recorded in August 2003 and the local absolute minimum temperature of − 14 @.@ 5 ° C ( 5 @.@ 9 ° F ) was recorded in January 1982 .
= = Demography = =
The borough has a population of 160 @,@ 825 and a population density of 3 @,@ 981 per square kilometre ( 10 @,@ 311 / sq mi ) ( mid @-@ 2014 est . ) , while the Office for National Statistics ' definition of the urban sub @-@ division of Reading is significantly larger at 218 @,@ 705 people in an area of 51 @.@ 14 square kilometres ( 19 @.@ 75 sq mi ) . This urban subdivision is itself a component of the Reading / Wokingham Urban Area with a population of 318 @,@ 014 ( 2011 census ) , and is the most populous town in the United Kingdom not to have city status .
According to the 2011 census , 74 @.@ 8 % of the population were described as White ( 65 @.@ 3 % White British ) , 9 @.@ 1 % as South Asian , 6 @.@ 7 % as Black , 3 @.@ 9 % Mixed Race , 4 @.@ 5 % as Chinese and 0 @.@ 9 % as other ethnic group . In 2010 it was reported that Reading has 150 different spoken languages within its population . Reading has a large Polish community , which dates back over 30 years , and in October 2006 the Reading Chronicle printed 5 @,@ 000 copies of a Polish edition called the Kronika Reading .
= = Economy = =
Reading is an important commercial centre in the Thames Valley and Southern England . The town hosts the headquarters of several British companies and the UK offices of foreign multinationals , as well as being a major retail centre . Whilst located close enough to London to be sometimes regarded as part of the London commuter belt , Reading is a net inward destination for commuters . During the morning peak period , there are some 30 @,@ 000 inward arrivals in the town , compared to 24 @,@ 000 departures .
Major companies BG Group , ING Direct , Microsoft , Oracle Hibu ( formerly Yell Group ) , have their headquarters in Reading . The insurance company Prudential has an administration centre in the town . PepsiCo and Wrigley have offices . Reading has a significant historical involvement in the information technology industry , largely as a result of the early presence in the town of sites of International Computers Limited and Digital . Other technology companies with a significant presence in the town include Agilent Technologies , Cisco , Ericsson , Symantec , Verizon Business , and Commvault These companies are distributed around Reading or just outside the borough boundary , some in business parks including Thames Valley Park in nearby Earley , Green Park Business Park and Arlington Business Park .
Reading town centre is a major shopping centre . In 2007 , an independent poll placed Reading 16th in a league table of best performing retail centres in the UK . The main shopping street is Broad Street , which runs between The Oracle in the east and Broad Street Mall in the west and was pedestrianised in 1995 . The smaller Friars Walk in Friar Street is derelict and will be demolished if the proposed Station Hill redevelopment project goes ahead . There are three major department stores in Reading : John Lewis Reading ( formerly known as Heelas ) , Debenhams and House of Fraser . The Broad Street branch of bookseller Waterstone 's is a conversion of a nonconformist chapel dating from 1707 . Besides the two major shopping malls , Reading has three smaller shopping arcades , the Bristol and West Arcade , Harris Arcade and The Walk , which contain smaller specialist stores . An older form of retail facility is represented by Union Street , popularly known as Smelly Alley . Reading has no indoor market , but there is a street market in Hosier Street . A farmers ' market operates on two Saturdays a month .
= = Culture = =
Every year Reading hosts the Reading Festival , which has been running since 1971 . The festival takes place on the Friday , Saturday and Sunday of the August bank holiday weekend and is the largest of its kind in the UK aside from the Glastonbury Festival . For some twenty years until 2006 , Reading was also known for its WOMAD Festival until it moved to Charlton Park in Malmesbury , Wiltshire . The Reading Beer Festival was first held in 1994 and has now grown to one of the largest beer festivals in the UK . It is held at King 's Meadow for the five days immediately preceding the May Day bank holiday every year . Reading also holds Reading Pride , an annual LGBTA festival in Kings Meadow .
The Frank Matcham @-@ designed Royal County Theatre , built in 1895 , was located on the south side of Friar Street . It burned down in 1937 . Within the town hall is a 700 @-@ seat concert hall that houses a Father Willis organ . Reading theatre venues include The Hexagon and South Street Arts Centre . Amateur theatre venues in Reading include Progress Theatre , a self @-@ governing , self @-@ funding theatre group and registered charity founded in 1947 that operates and maintains its own 97 @-@ seat theatre .
The demonym for a person from Reading is Readingensian , giving the name of the local rugby team Redingensians , based in Sonning , and of former members of Reading School . An alternative demonym is Readingite .
= = = Cultural references = = =
Jane Austen attended Reading Ladies Boarding School , based in the Abbey Gateway , in 1784 – 86 .
Mary Russell Mitford lived in Reading for a number of years and then spent the rest of her life just outside the town at Three Mile Cross and Swallowfield . The fictional Belford Regis of her eponymous novel , first published in 1835 , is largely based on Reading . Described with topographical accuracy , it is still possible to follow the steps of the novel 's characters in present @-@ day Reading .
Reading also appears in the works of Thomas Hardy where it is called ' Aldbrickham ' . It features most heavily in his final novel , Jude the Obscure , as the temporary home of Jude Fawley and Sue Bridehead .
Oscar Wilde was imprisoned in Reading Gaol from 1895 – 97 . While there , he wrote his letter De Profundis . After his release , he lived in exile in France and wrote The Ballad of Reading Gaol , based on his experience of the execution of Charles Wooldridge , carried out in Reading Gaol whilst he was imprisoned there .
Ricky Gervais , who is from Reading , made the film Cemetery Junction , which , although filmed elsewhere in the UK , is set in 1970s Reading and is named after a busy junction in East Reading .
Jasper Fforde 's Nursery Crimes Division novels , The Big Over Easy and The Fourth Bear are also placed in Reading , Berkshire .
BBC Two Sitcom Beautiful People based on the memoirs of Simon Doonan is set in Reading in the late 1990s .
= = = Landmarks = = =
The Maiwand Lion in Forbury Gardens , an unofficial symbol of Reading , commemorates the 328 officers of the Royal Berkshire Regiment who died in the Battle of Maiwand in 1880 . The Blade , a fourteen @-@ storey building completed in 2009 , is 128 m ( 420 ft ) tall and can be seen from the surrounding area . Jacksons Corner with its prominent sign , former home of Jacksons department store , occupies the corner of Kings Road and High Street , just south of the Market Place .
Reading has five Grade I listed buildings , 22 Grade II * and 853 Grade II buildings , in a wide variety of architectural styles that range from the medieval to the 21st century . The Grade I listed buildings are Reading Abbey , the Abbey Gateway , Greyfriars Church , St Laurence 's Church , and Reading Minster .
= = = Media = = =
Reading has a local newspaper , the Reading Chronicle , published on Thursdays . The town 's other local newspaper , the Reading Post , ceased publication on paper in December 2014 , in order transition to an online only format under the title getreading . An online magazine , Alt Reading , publishes articles focusing on arts , entertainment and culture in Reading . A local publishing company , the Two Rivers Press , has published over 70 book titles , many on the topic of local history and art .
Three local radio stations broadcast from Reading : BBC Radio Berkshire , Jack FM Berkshire and Heart Thames Valley . Other local radio stations , such as London 's 95 @.@ 8 Capital FM , Basingstoke 's The Breeze and East Berkshire 's Time 106 @.@ 6 , can also be received . Local television news programmes are the BBC 's South Today and ITV 's Meridian Tonight .
= = Public services = =
Reading has over 100 parks and playgrounds , including 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of riverside paths . In the town centre is Forbury Gardens , a public park built on the site of the outer court of Reading Abbey . The largest public park in Reading is Prospect Park , previously an estate owned by Frances Kendrick and acquired by the Reading Corporation in 1901 .
The principal National Health Service ( NHS ) hospital in Reading is the Royal Berkshire Hospital , founded in 1839 and much enlarged and rebuilt since . A second major NHS general hospital , the Battle Hospital , closed in 2005 . Berkshire Healthcare NHS Foundation Trust runs a NHS hospital , Prospect Park Hospital , that specialises in the provision of care for people with mental health and learning disabilities . Reading has three private hospitals , the Berkshire Independent Hospital in Coley Park , the Dunedin Hospital situated on the main A4 Bath Road , and the Circle Hospital at Kennet Island .
The Reading Borough Public Library service dates back to 1877 . Initially housed in Reading Town Hall , the central branch of the library relocated in 1985 to a new building on King 's Road .
Mains water and sewerage services are supplied by Thames Water Utilities Limited , a private sector water supply company , whilst water abstraction and disposal is regulated by the Environment Agency . Reading 's water supply is largely derived from underground aquifers , and as a consequence the water is hard .
The commercial energy supplier for electricity and gas is at the consumer 's choice . Southern Electric runs the local electricity distribution network , while SGN runs the gas distribution network . A notable part of the local energy infrastructure is the presence of a 2 @-@ megawatt ( peak ) Enercon wind turbine at Green Park Business Park , wired to the local sub @-@ grid . It has the potential to produce 3 @.@ 5 million units of electricity a year , enough to power over a thousand homes .
The dialling code for fixed @-@ line telephones in Reading is 0118 . BT provides fixed @-@ line telephone coverage throughout the town and ADSL broadband internet connection to most areas . Parts of Reading are cabled by Virgin Media , supplying cable television , telephone and broadband internet connections .
= = Transport = =
Reading 's location in the Thames Valley to the west of London has made the town an important location in the nation 's transport system .
The town grew up as a river port at the confluence of the Thames and the Kennet . Both of these rivers are navigable , and Caversham Lock , Blake 's Lock , County Lock , Fobney Lock and Southcote Lock are all within the borough . Today , navigation is exclusively for purposes of leisure : private and hire boats dominate traffic , while scheduled boat services operate on the Thames from wharves on the Reading side of the river near Caversham Bridge .
Reading was a major staging point on the old Bath Road ( A4 ) from London to Avonmouth , near Bristol . This road still carries local traffic , but has now been replaced for long distance traffic by the M4 motorway , which closely skirts the borough and serves it with three junctions , J10 @-@ J12 . Other main roads serving Reading include the A33 , A327 , A329 , A4074 and A4155 . Within Reading there is the Inner Distribution Road ( IDR ) , a ring road for local traffic . The IDR is linked with the M4 by the A33 relief road . National Express Coaches run out of Reading Coachway , at Junction 12 of the M4 . The Thames is crossed by both Reading and Caversham road bridges , while several road bridges cross the Kennet , the oldest surviving one of which is High Bridge .
Reading is a major junction point of the National Rail system , and hence Reading station is a major transfer point and terminus . In a project that finished in 2015 , Reading station was redeveloped at a cost of £ 850m , with grade separation of some conflicting traffic flows , and extra platforms , to relieve severe congestion at this station . Railway lines link Reading to both Paddington and Waterloo stations in London . Other stations in the Reading area are Reading West , Tilehurst and Earley . Green Park railway station is planned on the Reading to Basingstoke Line to serve Green Park Business Park .
There have been two airfields in or near Reading , one at Coley Park and one at Woodley , but they have both closed . The nearest airport is London Heathrow , 25 miles ( 40 km ) away by road . An express bus service named RailAir links Reading with Heathrow , or the airport can be accessed by rail by taking the Paddington train and changing to the Heathrow Connect rail service at Hayes and Harlington railway station .
Today local public transport is largely by road , which is often affected by peak hour congestion in the borough . A frequent local bus network within the borough , and a less frequent network in the surrounding area , are provided by Reading Buses . Other bus operators include First , Arriva South East , Stagecoach and Thames Travel . ReadiBus provides an on @-@ demand transport service for people with restricted mobility in the area .
The OYBike bicycle sharing system operates in Reading , with approximately 15 bicycles and with docking stations at Reading station , Holiday Inn ( Basingstoke Road ) and Green Park . In March 2011 , Reading Borough Council approved a larger scheme similar to Barclays Cycle Hire in London , with 1 @,@ 000 bicycles available at up to 150 docking stations across Reading .
= = Education = =
Reading School , founded in 1125 , is the 16th oldest school in England . There are six other state secondary schools and 37 state primary schools within the borough , together with a number of private and independent schools and nurseries .
Reading College has provided further education in Reading since 1955 , with over 8 @,@ 500 local learners on over 900 courses .
The University of Reading was established in 1892 as an affiliate of Oxford University . It moved to its London Road Campus in 1904 and to its new Whiteknights Campus in 1947 . It took over the Bulmershe College of Higher Education , a teacher training college , in 1989 , becoming Bulmershe Court Campus . The Henley Management College , situated in Buckinghamshire and about 10 miles ( 16 km ) from Reading , was taken over in 2008 , becoming Greenlands Campus . The University of West London maintains a presence in the town for its higher education students , principally in nursing , but has now divested itself of its previous ownership of Reading College and its further education students .
English language schools located in Reading include Gateway Languages , The English Language Centre , ELC London Street and Eurospeak Language School .
= = = Museums = = =
The Museum of Reading opened in 1883 in the town 's municipal buildings . It contains galleries relating to the history of Reading and to the excavations of Calleva Atrebatum , together with a full @-@ size replica of the Bayeux Tapestry , an art collection , and galleries relating to Huntley and Palmers .
The Museum of English Rural Life , in East Reading , is a museum dedicated to recording the changing face of farming and the countryside in England . It houses designated collections of national importance . It is owned and run by the University of Reading , as are the Ure Museum of Greek Archaeology , the Cole Museum of Zoology and the Harris Botanic Gardens , all of which can be found on the university 's Whiteknights Campus .
The small Riverside Museum at Blake 's Lock tells the story of Reading 's two rivers , the Kennet and the Thames . In the suburb of Woodley , the Museum of Berkshire Aviation has a collection of aircraft and other artefacts relating to the aircraft industry in the town .
= = Religion = =
Reading Minster , or the Minster Church of St Mary the Virgin as it is more properly known , is Reading 's oldest ecclesiastical foundation , known to have been founded by the 9th century and possibly earlier . Although eclipsed in importance by the later Abbey , Reading Minster has regained its importance since the destruction of the Abbey .
Reading Abbey was founded by Henry I in 1121 . He was buried there , as were parts of his daughter Empress Matilda , William of Poitiers , Constance of York , and Princess Isabella of Cornwall , among others . The abbey was one of the pilgrimage centres of medieval England ; it held over 230 relics including the hand of St. James . Today all that remains of the abbey are the inner rubble cores of the walls of many of the major buildings of the abbey , together with a much restored inner gateway and the intact hospitium .
The mediaeval borough of Reading was served by three parish churches : Reading Minster , St Giles ' Church , and St Laurence 's Church . All are still in use by the Church of England . The Franciscan friars built a friary in the town in 1311 . After the friars were expelled in 1538 , the building was used as a hospital , a poorhouse , and a jail , before being restored as the Church of England parish church of Greyfriars Church in 1863 .
The Bishop of Reading is a suffragan bishop within the Church of England 's Diocese of Oxford . The bishop is based in Reading , and is responsible for the archdeaconry of Berkshire . There are a total of 18 Church of England parish churches in Reading .
St James 's Church was built on a portion of the site of the abbey between 1837 – 40 , and marked the return of the Roman Catholic faith to Reading . Reading was also the site of the death of Blessed Dominic Barberi , the Catholic missionary to England in the 19th century who received John Henry Newman into the Catholic faith . There are now a total of 8 Roman Catholic parish churches in Reading .
Reading has had an organized Jewish community since 1886 . At least one Jewish family living in the area has been traced back as far as 1842 . The group grew to 13 families , who in 1886 declared themselves a community and commenced building a synagogue . On 31 October 1900 , Reading Synagogue officially opened in a solemn public ceremony , packed to capacity with dignitaries , led by the Chief Rabbi Hermann Adler . Reading Synagogue , which still stands on its original site at the junction of Goldsmid Road and Clifton Street near the town centre , is a Grade 2 @-@ listed historical structure , built to a traditional design in the Moorish style . The community forms the spiritual and communal centre for Jews in Berkshire and surrounding counties and is affiliated with the Orthodox United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth . Reading also has a Liberal Jewish community which convenes in the Reading Quaker Meeting House and a Reform Jewish community which convenes in nearby | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
" and Jonathan Swift 's " A Description of a City Shower " and " A Description of the Morning " . He took his artistic models from other series of the " Times of Day " , " The Seasons " and " Ages of Man " , such as those by Nicolas Poussin and Nicholas Lancret , and from pastoral scenes , but executed them with a twist by transferring them to the city . He also drew on the Flemish " Times of Day " style known as points du jour , in which the gods floated above pastoral scenes of idealised shepherds and shepherdesses , but in Hogarth 's works the gods were recast as his central characters : the churchgoing lady , a frosty Aurora in Morning ; the pie @-@ girl , a pretty London Venus in Noon ; the pregnant woman , a sweaty Diana in Evening ; and the freemason , a drunken Pluto in Night .
Hogarth designed the series for an original commission by Jonathan Tyers in 1736 in which he requested a number of paintings to decorate supper boxes at Vauxhall Gardens . Hogarth is believed to have suggested to Tyers that the supper boxes at Gardens be decorated with paintings as part of their refurbishment ; among the works featured when the renovation was completed was Hogarth 's picture of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn . The originals of Four Times of the Day were sold to other collectors , but the scenes were reproduced at Vauxhall by Francis Hayman , and two of them , Evening and Night , hung at the pleasure gardens until at least 1782 .
The engravings are mirror images of the paintings ( since the engraved plates are copied from the paintings the image is reversed when printed ) , which leads to problems ascertaining the times shown on the clocks in some of the scenes . The images are sometimes seen as parodies of middle class life in London at the time , but the moral judgements are not as harsh as in some of Hogarth 's other works and the lower classes do not escape ridicule either . Often the theme is one of over @-@ orderliness versus chaos . The four plates depict four times of day , but they also move through the seasons : Morning is set in winter , Noon in spring , and Evening in summer . However , Night — sometimes misidentified as being in September — takes place on Oak Apple Day in May rather than in the autumn .
Evening was engraved by Bernard Baron , a French engraver who was living in London , and , although the designs are Hogarth 's it is not known whether he engraved any of the four plates himself . The prints , along with a fifth picture , Strolling Actresses Dressing in a Barn from 1738 , were sold by subscription for one guinea ( £ 156 @.@ 00 in 2016 ) , half payable on ordering and half on delivery . After subscription the price rose to five shillings per print ( £ 37 @.@ 00 in 2016 ) , making the five print set four shillings dearer overall . Although Strolling Actresses Dressing in a Barn was not directly connected to the other prints , it seems that Hogarth always envisaged selling the five prints together , adding the Strolling Actresses as a complementary theme just as he had added Southwark Fair to the subscription for The Rake 's Progress . Whereas the characters in Four Times play their roles without being conscious of acting , the company of Strolling Actresses are fully aware of the differences between the reality of their lives and the roles they are set to play . Representations of Aurora and Diana also appear in both .
Hogarth advertised the prints for sale in May 1737 , again in January 1738 , and finally announced the plates were ready on 26 April 1738 . The paintings were sold individually at an auction on 25 January 1745 , along with the original paintings for A Harlot 's Progress , A Rake 's Progress and Strolling Actresses Dressing in a Barn . Sir William Heathcote purchased Morning and Night for 20 guineas and £ 20 6s respectively ( £ 3 @,@ 100 and £ 3 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) , and the Duke of Ancaster bought Noon for £ 38 17s ( £ 5 @,@ 800 in 2016 ) and Evening for £ 39 18s ( £ 5 @,@ 900 in 2016 ) . A further preliminary sketch for Morning with some differences to the final painting was sold in a later auction for £ 21 ( £ 3 @,@ 100 in 2016 ) .
= = Series = =
= = = Morning = = =
In Morning , a lady makes her way to church , shielding herself with her fan from the shocking view of two men pawing at the market girls . The scene is the west side of the piazza at Covent Garden , indicated by a part of the Palladian portico of Inigo Jones 's Church of St Paul visible behind Tom King 's Coffee House , a notorious venue celebrated in pamphlets of the time . Henry Fielding mentions the coffee house in both The Covent Garden Tragedy and Pasquin . At the time Hogarth produced this picture , the coffee house was being run by Tom 's widow , Moll King , but its reputation had not diminished . Moll opened the doors once those of the taverns had shut , allowing the revellers to continue enjoying themselves from midnight until dawn . The Mansion House with columned portico visible in the centre of the picture , No. 43 King Street , is attributed to architect Thomas Archer ( later 1st Baron Archer ) and occupied by him at the date of Hogarth 's works . It was situated on the north side of the piazza , while the coffee house was on the south side , as depicted in Hogarth 's original painting . In the picture , it is early morning and some revellers are ending their evening : a fight has broken out in the coffee house and , in the melée , a wig flies out of the door . Meanwhile , stallholders set out their fruit and vegetables for the day 's market . Two children who should be making their way to school have stopped , entranced by the activity of the market , in a direct reference to Swift 's A Description of the Morning in which children " lag with satchels in their hands " . Above the clock is Father Time and below it the inscription Sic transit gloria mundi . The smoke rising from the chimney of the coffee house connects these portents to the scene below .
Hogarth replicates all the features of the pastoral scene in an urban landscape . The shepherds and shepherdesses become the beggars and whores , the sun overhead is replaced by the clock on the church , the snow @-@ capped mountains become the snowy rooftops . Even the setting of Covent Garden with piles of fruit and vegetables echoes the country scene . In the centre of the picture the icy goddess of the dawn in the form of the prim churchgoer is followed by her shivering red @-@ nosed pageboy , mirroring Hesperus , the dawn bearer . The woman is the only one who seems unaffected by the cold , suggesting it may be her element . Although outwardly shocked , the dress of the woman , which is too fashionable for a woman of her age and in the painting is shown to be a striking acid yellow , may suggest she has other thoughts on her mind . She is commonly described as a spinster , and considered to be a hypocrite , ostentatiously attending church and carrying a fashionable ermine muff while displaying no charity to her freezing footboy or the half @-@ seen beggar before her . The figure of the spinster is said to be based on a relative of Hogarth , who , recognising herself in the picture , cut him out of her will . Fielding later used the woman as the model for his character of Bridget Allworthy in Tom Jones .
A trail of peculiar footprints shows the path trodden by the woman on her pattens to avoid putting her good shoes in the snow and filth of the street . A small object hangs at her side , interpreted variously as a nutcracker or a pair of scissors in the form of a skeleton or a miniature portrait , hinting , perhaps , at a romantic disappointment . Although clearly a portrait in the painting , the object is indistinct in the prints from the engraving . Other parts of the scene are clearer in the print , however : in the background , a quack is selling his cureall medicine , and while in the painting the advertising board is little more than a transparent outline , in the print , Dr. Rock 's name can be discerned inscribed on the board below the royal crest which suggests his medicine is produced by royal appointment . The salesman may be Rock himself . Hogarth 's opinion of Rock is made clear in the penultimate plate of A Harlot 's Progress where he is seen arguing over treatments with Dr Misaubin while Moll Hackabout dies unattended in the corner .
Hogarth revisited Morning in his bidding ticket , Battle of the Pictures , for the auction of his works , held in 1745 . In this , his own paintings are pictured being attacked by ranks of Old Masters ; Morning is stabbed by a work featuring St. Francis as Hogarth contrasts the false piety of the prudish spinster with the genuine piety of the Catholic saint .
= = = Noon = = =
The scene takes place in Hog Lane , part of the slum district of St Giles with the church of St Giles in the Fields in the background . Hogarth would feature St Giles again as the background of Gin Lane and First Stage of Cruelty . The picture shows Huguenots leaving the French Church in what is now Soho . The Huguenot refugees had arrived in the 1680s and established themselves as tradesmen and artisans , particularly in the silk trade ; and the French Church was their first place of worship . Hogarth contrasts their fussiness and high fashion with the slovenliness of the group on the other side of the road ; the rotting corpse of a cat that has been stoned to death lying in the gutter that divides the street is the only thing the two sides have in common . The older members of the congregation wear traditional dress , while the younger members wear the fashions of the day . The children are dressed up as adults : the boy in the foreground struts around in his finery while the boy with his back to the viewer has his hair in a net , bagged up in the " French " style .
At the far right , a black man fondles the breasts of a woman , distracting her from her work , her pie @-@ dish " tottering like her virtue " . Confusion over whether the law permitted slavery in England , and pressure from abolitionists , meant that by the mid @-@ eighteenth century there was a sizeable population of free black Londoners ; but the status of this man is not clear . The black man , the girl and bawling boy fill the roles of Mars , Venus and Cupid which would have appeared in the pastoral scenes that Hogarth is aping . In front of the couple , a boy has set down his pie to rest , but the plate has broken , spilling the pie onto the ground where it is being rapidly consumed by an urchin . The boy 's features are modelled on those of a child in the foreground of Poussin 's first version of the Rape of the Sabine Women ( now held in the Metropolitan Museum of Art ) , but the boy crying over his lost pie was apparently sketched by Hogarth after he witnessed the scene one day while he was being shaved .
The composition of the scene juxtaposes the prim and proper Huguenot man and his immaculately dressed wife and son with these three , as they form their own " family group " across the other side of the gutter . The head of John the Baptist on a platter is the advertisement for the pie shop , proclaiming " Good eating " . Below this sign are the embracing couple , extending the metaphor of good eating beyond a mere plate of food , and still further down the street girl greedily scoops up the pie , carrying the theme to the foot of the picture . I. R. F. Gordon sees the vertical line of toppling plates from the top window downwards as a symbol of the disorder on this side of the street . The man reduced to a head on the sign , in what is assumed to be the woman 's fantasy , is mirrored by the " Good Woman " pictured on the board behind who has only a body , her nagging head removed to create the man 's ideal of a " good woman " . In the top window of the " Good Woman " , a woman throws a plate with a leg of meat into the street as she argues , providing a stark contrast to the " good " woman pictured on the sign below . Ronald Paulson sees the kite hanging from the church as part of a trinity of signs ; the kite indicating the purpose of the church , an ascent into heaven , just as the other signs for " Good Eating " and the " Good Woman " indicate the predilections of those on that side of the street ; but he also notes it as another nod to the pastoral tradition : here instead of soaring above the fields it hangs impotently on the church wall .
The time is unclear . Allan Cunningham states it is half past eleven , and suggests that Hogarth uses the early hour to highlight the debauchery occurring opposite the church , yet the print shows the hands at a time that could equally be half past twelve , and the painting shows a thin golden hand pointing to ten past twelve .
In this scene more than any of the others Hogarth 's sympathies seem to be with the lower classes and more specifically with the English . Although there is disorder on the English side of the street , there is an abundance of " good eating " and the characters are rosy @-@ cheeked and well @-@ nourished . Even the street girl can eat her fill . The pinch @-@ faced Huguenots , on the other hand , have their customs and dress treated as mercilessly as any characters in the series . A national enmity towards the French , even French refugees , may explain why the English are depicted somewhat more flatteringly here than they are by figures in the accompanying scenes . Hogarth mocked continental fashions again in Marriage à @-@ la @-@ mode ( 1743 – 1745 ) and made a more direct attack on the French in The Gate of Calais which he painted immediately upon returning to England in 1748 after he was arrested as a spy while sketching in Calais .
= = = Evening = = =
Unlike the other three images , Evening takes place slightly outside the built @-@ up area of the city , with views of rolling hills and wide evening skies . The cow being milked in the background indicates it is around 5 o 'clock . While in Morning winter cold pervades the scene , Evening is oppressed by the heat of the summer . A pregnant woman and her husband attempt to escape from the claustrophobic city by journeying out to the fashionable Sadler 's Wells ( the stone entrance to Sadler 's Wells Theatre is shown to the left ) . By the time Hogarth produced this series the theatre had lost any vestiges of fashionability and was satirised as having an audience consisting of tradesmen and their pretentious wives . Ned Ward described the clientele in 1699 as :
: Butchers and bailiffs , and such sort of fellows ,
mixed with a vermin train 'd up for the gallows ,
As Bullocks and files , housebreakers and padders ,
With prize @-@ fighters , sweetners , and such sort of traders ,
Informers , thief @-@ takers , deer stealers , and bullies .
The husband , whose stained hands reveal he is a dyer by trade , looks harried as he carries his exhausted youngest daughter . In earlier impressions ( and the painting ) , his hands are blue , to show his occupation , while his wife 's face is coloured with red ink . The placement of the cow 's horns behind his head represents him as a cuckold and suggests the children are not his . Behind the couple , their children replay the scene : the father 's cane protrudes between the son 's legs , doubling as a hobby horse , while the daughter is clearly in charge , demanding that he hand over his gingerbread . A limited number of proofs missing the girl and artist 's signature were printed ; Hogarth added the mocking girl to explain the boy 's tears .
The heat is made tangible by the flustered appearance of the woman as she fans herself ( the fan itself displays a classical scene — perhaps Venus , Adonis and Cupid ) ; the sluggish pregnant dog that looks longingly towards the water ; and the vigorous vine growing on the side of the tavern . As is often the case in Hogarth 's work , the dog 's expression reflects that of its master . The family rush home , past the New River and a tavern with a sign showing Sir Hugh Myddleton , who bankrupted himself financing the construction of the river to bring running water into London in 1613 ( a wooden pipe lies by the side of the watercourse ) . Through the open window other refugees from the city can be seen sheltering from the oppressive heat in the bar . While they appear more jolly than the dyer and his family , Hogarth pokes fun at these people escaping to the country for fresh air only to reproduce the smoky air and crowded conditions of the city by huddling in the busy tavern with their pipes .
= = = Night = = =
The final picture in the series , Night , shows disorderly activities under cover of night in the Charing Cross Road , identified by Hubert Le Sueur 's equestrian statue of Charles I of England and the two pubs ; this part of the road is now known as Whitehall . In the background the passing cartload of furniture suggests tenants escaping from their landlord in a " moonlight flit " . In the painting the moon is full , but in the print it appears as a crescent .
The night is 29 May , Oak Apple Day , a public holiday which celebrated the Restoration of the monarchy , demonstrated by the oak boughs above the barber 's sign and on some of the subjects ' hats , which recall the royal oak tree in which Charles II hid after losing the Battle of Worcester in 1651 .
Charing Cross was a central staging post for coaches , but the congested narrow road was a frequent scene of accidents ; here , a bonfire has caused the Salisbury Flying Coach to overturn . Festive bonfires were usual but risky : a house fire lights the sky in the distance . A link @-@ boy blows on the flame of his torch , street @-@ urchins are playing with the fire , and one of their fireworks is falling in at the coach window .
On one side of the road is a barber surgeon whose sign advertises Shaving , bleeding , and teeth drawn with a touch . Ecce signum ! Inside the shop , the barber , who may be drunk , haphazardly shaves a customer , holding his nose like that of a pig , while spots of blood darken the cloth under his chin . The surgeons and barbers had been a single profession since 1540 and would not finally separate until 1745 , when the surgeons broke away to form the Company of Surgeons . Bowls on the windowsill contain blood from the day 's patients .
Underneath the windowshelf , a homeless family have made a bed for themselves .
In the foreground , a drunken freemason , identified by his apron and set square medallion as the Worshipful Master of a lodge , is being helped home by his Tyler , as the contents of a chamber pot are emptied onto his head from a window . In some of the prints , a woman standing back from the window looks down on him , suggesting that his soaking is not accidental . The freemason is traditionally identified as Sir Thomas de Veil , who was a member of Hogarth 's first Lodge , Henry Fielding 's predecessor as the Bow Street magistrate , and the model for Fielding 's character Justice Squeezum in The Coffee @-@ House Politician ( 1730 ) . He was unpopular for his stiff sentencing of gin @-@ sellers , which was deemed to be hypocritical as he was known to be an enthusiastic drinker . He is supported by his Tyler , a servant equipped with sword and candle @-@ snuffer , who may be Brother Montgomerie , the Grand Tyler .
All around are pubs and brothels . The Earl of Cardigan tavern is on one side of the street , and opposite is the Rummer , whose sign shows a rummer ( a short wide @-@ brimmed glass ) with a bunch of grapes on the pole . Masonic lodges met in both taverns during the 1730s , and the Lodge at the Rummer and Grapes in nearby Channel Row was the smartest of the four founders of the Grand Lodge . The publican is adulterating a hogshead of wine , a practice recalled in the poetry of Matthew Prior who lived with his uncle Samuel Prior , the Landlord successively of both the Rummer and Grapes and the Rummer " .
My uncle , rest his soul , when living ,
Might have contriv 'd me ways of thriving ;
Taught me with cider to replenish
My vats , or ebbing tide of Rhenish .
On either side of the street are signs for The Bagnio and The New Bagnio . Ostensibly a Turkish bath , bagnio had come to mean a disorderly house .
The 6th Earl of Salisbury scandalised society by driving and upsetting a stagecoach . John Ireland suggests that the overturned " Salisbury Flying Coach " below the " Earl of Cardigan " sign was a gentle mockery of the Grand Master 4th Earl of Cardigan , George Brudenell , later Duke of Montagu , who was also renowned for his reckless carriage driving , ; and it also mirrors the ending of Gay 's " Trivia " in which the coach is overturned and wrecked at night .
= = Reception = =
Four Times of the Day was the first series of prints that Hogarth had issued since the success of the Harlot and Rake ( and would be the only set he would issue until Marriage à @-@ la @-@ mode in 1745 ) , so it was eagerly anticipated . On hearing of its imminent issue , George Faulkner wrote from Dublin that he would take 50 sets . The series lacks the moral lessons that are found in the earlier series and revisited in Marriage à @-@ la @-@ mode , and its lack of teeth meant it failed to achieve the same success , though it has found an enduring niche as a snapshot of the society of Hogarth 's time . At the auction of 1745 , the paintings of Four Times of the Day raised more than those of the Rake ; and Night , which is generally regarded as the worst of the series , fetched the highest single total . Cunningham commented sarcastically : " Such was the reward then , to which the patrons of genius thought these works entitled " . While Horace Walpole praised the accompanying print , Strolling Actresses Dressing in a Barn , as being the finest of Hogarth 's works , he had little to say of Four Times of the Day other than that it did not find itself wanting in comparison with Hogarth 's other works .
Morning and Night are now in the National Trust Bearsted Collection at Upton House , Warwickshire . The collection was assembled by Walter Samuel , 2nd Viscount Bearsted and gifted to the Trust , along with the house , in 1948 . Noon and Evening remain in the Ancaster Collection at Grimsthorpe Castle , Lincolnshire .
= Crass =
Crass were an English collective and punk rock band formed in 1977 which promoted anarchism as a political ideology , a way of life and a resistance movement . Crass popularised the anarcho @-@ punk movement of the punk subculture , advocating direct action , animal rights and environmentalism . The band used and advocated a DIY punk ethic approach to its sound collages , leaflets , albums and films .
Crass spray @-@ painted stencilled graffiti messages in the London Underground system and on advertising billboards , coordinated squats and organised political action . The band expressed its ideals by dressing in black , military @-@ surplus @-@ style clothing and using a stage backdrop amalgamating icons of perceived authority such as the Christian cross , the swastika , the Union Jack and the ouroboros .
The band was critical of punk subculture and youth culture in general . Crass promoted an anarchism which became more common in the punk @-@ music scene . They are considered art punk in their use of tape collages , graphics , spoken word releases , poetry and improvisation .
= = History = =
= = = 1977 : Origins = = =
The band was based around Dial House , an open @-@ house community near Epping , Essex , and formed when Dial House founder Penny Rimbaud began jamming with Steve Ignorant ( who was staying in the house at the time ) . Ignorant was inspired to form a band after seeing The Clash perform at Colston Hall in Bristol , whilst Rimbaud , a veteran of avant garde performance art groups such as EXIT and Ceres Confusion , was working on his book Reality Asylum . They produced " So What ? " and " Do They Owe Us A Living ? " as a drum @-@ and @-@ vocal duo . They briefly called themselves Stormtrooper before choosing Crass in reference to a line in the David Bowie song " Ziggy Stardust " ( " The kids was just crass " ) .
Other friends and household members joined ( including Gee Vaucher , Pete Wright , N. A. Palmer and Steve Herman ) , and Crass played their first live gig at a squatted street festival in Huntley Street , North London . They planned to play five songs , but a neighbour " pulled the plug " after three . Guitarist Steve Herman left the band soon afterwards , and was replaced by Phil Clancey , aka Phil Free . Joy De Vivre and Eve Libertine also joined around this time . Other early Crass performances included a four @-@ date tour of New York City , a festival gig in Covent Garden and regular appearances with the U.K. Subs at The White Lion , Putney and Action Space in central London . The latter performances were often poorly attended : " The audience consisted mostly of us when the Subs played and the Subs when we played " .
Crass played two gigs at the Roxy Club in Covent Garden , London . According to Rimbaud , the band arrived drunk at the second show and were ejected from the stage ; this inspired their song , " Banned from the Roxy " , and Rimbaud 's essay for Crass ' self @-@ published magazine International Anthem , " Crass at the Roxy " . After the incident the band took themselves more seriously , avoiding alcohol and cannabis before shows and wearing black , military surplus @-@ style clothing on and offstage .
They introduced their stage backdrop , a logo designed by Rimbaud 's friend Dave King . This gave the band a militaristic image , which led to accusations of fascism . Crass countered that their uniform appearance was intended to be a statement against the " cult of personality " , so ( in contrast to many rock bands ) no member would be identified as the " leader " .
Conceived and intended as cover artwork for a self @-@ published pamphlet version of Rimbaud 's Christ 's Reality Asylum , the Crass logo was an amalgam of several " icons of authority " including the Christian cross , the swastika , the Union Jack and a two @-@ headed Ouroboros ( symbolising the idea that power will eventually destroy itself ) . Using such deliberately mixed messages was part of Crass ' strategy of presenting themselves as a " barrage of contradictions " , challenging audiences to ( in Rimbaud 's words ) " make your own fucking minds up " . This included using loud , aggressive music to promote a pacifist message , a reference to their Dadaist , performance @-@ art backgrounds and situationist ideas .
The band eschewed elaborate stage lighting during live sets , preferring to play under 40 @-@ watt household light bulbs ; the technical difficulties of filming under such lighting conditions partly explains why there is little live footage of Crass . They pioneered multimedia presentation , using video technology ( back @-@ projected films and video collages by Mick Duffield and Gee Vaucher ) to enhance their performances , and also distributed leaflets and handouts explaining anarchist ideas to their audiences .
= = = 1978 – 1979 : The Feeding of the 5000 and Crass Records = = =
Crass ' first release was The Feeding of the 5000 ( an 18 @-@ track , 12 " 45 rpm EP on the Small Wonder label ) in 1978 . Workers at the record @-@ pressing plant refused to handle it due to the allegedly blasphemous content of the song " Asylum " , and the record was released without it . In its place were two minutes of silence , entitled " The Sound of Free Speech " . This incident prompted Crass to set up their own independent record label , Crass Records , to prevent Small Wonder from being placed in a compromising position and to retain editorial control over their material .
A re @-@ recorded , extended version of " Asylum " , renamed " Reality Asylum " , was shortly afterwards released on Crass Records as a 7 " single and Crass were investigated by the police due to the song 's lyrics . The band were interviewed at their Dial House home by Scotland Yard 's vice squad , and threatened with prosecution ; however , the case was dropped . " Reality Asylum " retailed at 45p ( when most other singles cost about 90p ) , and was the first example of Crass ' " pay no more than ... " policy : issuing records as inexpensively as possible . The band failed to factor value added tax into their expenses , causing them to lose money on every copy sold . A year later Crass Records released new pressings of " The Feeding of the 5000 " ( subtitled " The Second Sitting " ) , restoring the original version of " Asylum " .
= = = 1980 : Stations of the Crass and Bloody Revolutions = = =
In 1979 the band released their second album ( Stations of the Crass ) , financed with a loan from Poison Girls , a band with whom they regularly appeared . This was a double album , with three sides of new material and a fourth side recorded live at the Pied Bull in Islington .
The next Crass single , 1980 's " Bloody Revolutions " , was a benefit release with Poison Girls which raised £ 20 @,@ 000 to fund the Wapping Autonomy Centre . The words were a critique ( from an anarchist @-@ pacifist perspective ) of the traditional Marxist view of revolutionary struggle , and were ( in part ) a response to violence marring a gig at Conway Hall in London 's Red Lion Square at which both bands performed in September 1979 . The show was intended as a benefit for the so @-@ called " Persons Unknown " , a group of anarchists facing conspiracy charges . During the performance Socialist Workers Party supporters and other anti @-@ fascists attacked British Movement neo @-@ Nazis , triggering violence . Crass afterwards argued that the leftists were largely to blame for the fighting , and organizations such as Rock Against Racism were causing audiences to become polarised into left- and right @-@ wing factions . Others ( including the anarchist organisation Class War ) were critical of Crass 's position , stating that " like Kropotkin , their politics are up shit creek " . Many of the band 's punk followers felt that they failed to understand the violence to which they were subjected from the right .
" Rival Tribal Rebel Revel " , a flexi disc single given away with the Toxic Grafity [ sic ] fanzine , was also a commentary about the events at Conway Hall attacking the mindless violence and tribalistic aspects of contemporary youth culture . This was followed by the single , " Nagasaki Nightmare / Big A Little A " . The strongly anti @-@ nuclear lyrics of the first song were reinforced by the fold @-@ out @-@ sleeve artwork . It featured an article by Mike Holderness of Peace News magazine connecting the atomic power industry and the manufacture of nuclear weapons , and a large poster @-@ style map of nuclear installations in the UK . The other side of the record , " Big A Little A " , was a statement of the band 's anti @-@ statist and individualist anarchist philosophy :
" Be exactly who you want to be , do what you want to do / I am he and she is she but you 're the only you "
= = = 1981 : Penis Envy = = =
Crass released their third album , Penis Envy , in 1981 . This marked a departure from the hardcore @-@ punk image The Feeding of the 5000 and Stations of the Crass had given the group . It featured more @-@ complex musical arrangements and female vocals by Eve Libertine and Joy De Vivre ( singer Steve Ignorant was credited as " not on this recording " ) . The album addressed feminist issues , attacking marriage and sexual repression .
The last track on Penis Envy , a parody of an MOR love song entitled " Our Wedding " , was made available as a white flexi disc to readers of Loving , a teenage romance magazine . Crass tricked the magazine into offering the disc , posing as " Creative Recording And Sound Services " . Loving accepted the offer , telling their readers that the free Crass flexi would make " your wedding day just that bit extra special " . A tabloid controversy resulted when the hoax was exposed , with the News of the World stating that the title of the flexi 's originating album was " too obscene to print " . Despite Loving 's annoyance , Crass had broken no laws .
The album was banned by the retailer HMV , and in 1984 copies of the album were seized from the Eastern Bloc record shop by Greater Manchester Police under the direction of Chief Constable James Anderton . The shop owners were charged with displaying " obscene articles for publication for gain " . The judge ruled against Crass in the ensuing court case , although the decision was overturned by the Court of Appeal ( except the lyrics to one song , " Bata Motel " , which were upheld as " sexually provocative and obscene " ) .
= = = 1982 – 1983 : Christ – The Album and strategy change = = =
The band 's fourth LP , 1982 's double set Christ - The Album , took almost a year to record , produce and mix ( during which the Falklands War broke out and ended ) . This caused Crass to question their approach to making records . As a group whose primary purpose was political commentary , they felt overtaken and redundant by world events :
The speed with which the Falklands War was played out and the devastation that Thatcher was creating both at home and abroad , forced us to respond far faster than we had ever needed to before . Christ – The Album had taken so long to produce that some of the songs in it , songs that warned of the imminence of riots and war , had become almost redundant . Toxteth , Bristol , Brixton and the Falklands were ablaze by the time that we released . We felt embarrassed by our slowness , humbled by our inadequacy .
Subsequent releases ( including the singles " How Does It Feel ? ( to Be the Mother of a Thousand Dead ) " and " Sheep Farming in the Falklands " and the album Yes Sir , I Will ) saw the band 's sound go back to basics and were issued as " tactical responses " to political situations . They anonymously produced 20 @,@ 000 copies of a flexi @-@ disc with a live recording of " Sheep Farming ... " , copies of which were randomly inserted into the sleeves of other records by sympathetic workers at the Rough Trade Records distribution warehouse to spread their views to those who might not otherwise hear them .
= = = Direct Action and internal debates = = =
From their early days of spraying stencilled anti @-@ war , anarchist , feminist and anti @-@ consumerist graffiti messages in the London Underground and on billboards , Crass was involved in politically motivated direct action and musical activities . On 18 December 1982 , the band helped co @-@ ordinate a 24 @-@ hour squat in the empty west London Zig Zag club to prove " that the underground punk scene could handle itself responsibly when it had to and that music really could be enjoyed free of the restraints imposed upon it by corporate industry " . About 500 people attended ; the bands playing ( in running order ) were Faction , D and V , Omega Tribe , Lack of Knowledge , Sleeping Dogs , the Apostles , Amebix , Null & Void , Soldiers of Fortune , the Mob , Polemic Attack , Poison Girls , Conflict , Flux of Pink Indians , Crass and DIRT .
In 1983 and 1984 , Crass were part of the Stop the City actions co @-@ ordinated by London Greenpeace which foreshadowed the anti @-@ globalisation rallies of the early 21st century . Support for these activities was provided in the lyrics and sleeve notes of the band 's last single , " You 're Already Dead " , expressing doubts about their commitment to non @-@ violence . It was also a reflection of disagreements within the group , as explained by Rimbaud ; " Half the band supported the pacifist line and half supported direct and if necessary violent action . It was a confusing time for us , and I think a lot of our records show that , inadvertently " . This led to introspection within the band , with some members becoming embittered and losing sight of their essentially positive stance . Reflecting this debate , the next release under the Crass name was Acts of Love : classical @-@ music settings of 50 poems by Penny Rimbaud , described as " songs to my other self " and intended to celebrate " the profound sense of unity , peace and love that exists within that other self " .
= = = Thatchergate = = =
Another Crass hoax was known as the " Thatchergate tapes " , a recording of an apparently accidentally overheard telephone conversation ( due to crossed lines ) . The tape was constructed by Crass from edited recordings of Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan . On the ' rather clumsily ' forged tape , they appear to discuss the sinking of the HMS Sheffield during the Falklands War and agree that Europe would be a target for nuclear weapons in a conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union .
Copies were leaked to the press via a Dutch news agency during the 1983 general election campaign . The U.S. State Department and British Government believed the tape to be propaganda produced by the KGB ( as reported by the San Francisco Chronicle and The Sunday Times ) . Although the tape was produced anonymously , The Observer linked the tape with the band . Previously classified government documents made public in January 2014 under the UK 's ' Thirty Year Rule ' reveal that the prime minister was personally aware of the tape and had discussed it with her cabinet .
= = = 1984 : Breakup = = =
Crass had become a thorn in the side of Margaret Thatcher 's government after the Falklands War . Questions about the band in Parliament and an attempted prosecution by Conservative Party MP Timothy Eggar under the UK 's Obscene Publications Act for their single , " How Does It Feel ... " , made them question their purpose :
We found ourselves in a strange and frightening arena . We had wanted to make our views public , had wanted to share them with like minded people , but now those views were being analysed by those dark shadows who inhabited the corridors of power ( … ) We had gained a form of political power , found a voice , were being treated with a slightly awed respect , but was that really what we wanted ? Was that what we had set out to achieve all those years ago ?
The band had also incurred heavy legal expenses for the Penis Envy prosecution ; this , combined with exhaustion and the pressures of living and operating together , finally took its toll . On 7 July 1984 the band played a benefit gig at Aberdare , Wales for striking miners , and on the return trip guitarist N. A. Palmer announced that he intended to leave the group . This confirmed Crass 's previous intention to quit in 1984 , and the band split up .
= = = Crass Collective , Crass Agenda and Last Amendment = = =
In November 2002 several former members arranged Your Country Needs You , a concert of " voices in opposition to war " , as the Crass Collective . At Queen Elizabeth Hall on London 's South Bank , Your Country Needs You included Benjamin Britten 's War Requiem and performances by Goldblade , Fun @-@ Da @-@ Mental , Ian MacKaye and Pete Wright 's post @-@ Crass project , Judas 2 . In October 2003 the Crass Collective changed their name to Crass Agenda , with Rimbaud , Libertine and Vaucher working with Matt Black of Coldcut and jazz musicians such as Julian Siegel and Kate Shortt . In 2004 Crass Agenda spearheaded a campaign to save the Vortex Jazz Club in Stoke Newington , north London ( where they regularly played ) . In June 2005 Crass Agenda was declared to be " no more " , changing its name to the " more pertinent " Last Amendment . After a five @-@ year hiatus , Last Amendment performed at the Vortex in June 2012 . Rimbaud has also performed and recorded with Japanther and the Charlatans . A " new " Crass track ( a remix of 1982 's " Major General Despair " with new lyrics ) , " The Unelected President " , is available .
= = = 2007 : Ignorant 's The Feeding of the 5000 = = =
On 24 and 25 November 2007 , Steve Ignorant performed Crass ' The Feeding of the 5000 album live at the Shepherds Bush Empire with a band of " selected guests " . Other members of Crass were not involved in these concerts . Initially Rimbaud refused Ignorant permission to perform Crass songs he had written , but later changed his mind : " I acknowledge and respect Steve 's right to do this , but I do regard it as a betrayal of the Crass ethos " . Ignorant had a different view : " I don 't have to justify what I do ... Plus , most of the lyrics are still relevant today . And remember that three @-@ letter word , " fun " ? "
= = = 2010 : Crassical Collection reissues = = =
In 2010 it was announced that Crass would release The Crassical Collection , remastered reissues of their back catalogue . Three former members objected , threatening legal action . Despite their concerns the project went ahead , and the remasters were eventually released . First in the series was The Feeding of the 5000 , released in August 2010 . Stations of the Crass followed in October , with new editions of Penis Envy , Christ – The Album , Yes Sir , I Will and Ten Notes on a Summer 's Day released in 2011 and 2012 . Critics praised the improved sound quality and new packaging of the remastered albums .
= = = 2011 : The Last Supper = = =
In 2011 Steve Ignorant embarked on an international tour , entitled " The Last Supper " . He performed Crass material , culminating with a final performance at the Shepherds Bush Empire on 19 November . Ignorant said that this was the last time he would sing the songs of Crass , with Rimbaud 's support ; the latter joined him onstage for a drum @-@ and @-@ vocal rendition of " Do They Owe Us A Living " , bringing the band 's career full circle after 34 years : " And then Penny came on ... and we did it , ' Do They Owe Us A Living ' as we 'd first done it all those years ago . As it started , so it finished " . Ignorant 's lineup for the tour were Gizz Butt , Carol Hodge , Pete Wilson and Spike T. Smith , and he was joined by Eve Libertine for a number of songs . The set list included a cover of " West One ( Shine on Me ) " by The Ruts , when Ignorant was joined onstage by the Norfolk @-@ based lifeboat crew with whom he volunteers .
= = Influences and Influence = =
For Rimbaud the initial inspiration for founding Crass was the death of his friend Phil ' Wally Hope ' Russell , as detailed in his book The Last of the Hippies : An Hysterical Romance . Russell had been placed in a psychiatric hospital after helping to set up the first Stonehenge free festival in 1974 , and died shortly afterwards . Rimbaud believed that Russell was murdered by the State for political reasons .
Band members have also cited influences ranging from existentialism and Zen to situationism , the poetry of Baudelaire , British working class ' kitchen sink ' literature and films such as Kes and the films of Anthony McCall ( McCall 's Four Projected Movements was shown as part of an early Crass performance ) .
Crass have said that their musical influences were seldom drawn from rock , but more from classical music ( particularly Benjamin Britten , on whose work , Rimbaud states , some of Crass ' riffs are based ) , free jazz , European atonality and avant @-@ garde composers such as John Cage and Karlheinz Stockhausen .
Crass influenced the anarchist movement in the UK , the US and beyond . The growth of anarcho @-@ punk spurred interest in anarchist ideas . The band have also claimed credit for revitalising the peace movement and the UK Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament during the late 1970s early 1980s . Others contend that they overestimated their influence , their radicalising effect on militants notwithstanding . Crass ' philosophical and aesthetic influences on 1980s punk bands were far @-@ reaching , although few mimicked their later free @-@ form style ( heard on Yes Sir , I Will and their final recording , Ten Notes on a Summer 's Day ) . Their painted and collage black @-@ and @-@ white record sleeves ( by Gee Vaucher ) may have influenced later artists such as Banksy ( with whom Vaucher collaborated ) and the subvertising movement . Anti @-@ folk artist Jeffrey Lewis 's 2007 album , 12 Crass Songs , features acoustic covers of Crass material .
In February 2011 , artist Toby Mott exhibited a portion of his Crass ephemera collection at the Roth Gallery in New York . The exhibit featured artwork , albums ( including 12 " LPs and EPs ) , 7 " singles from Crass Records and a complete set of Crass ' self @-@ published zine , Inter @-@ National Anthem .
= = Members = =
Steve Ignorant ( vocals )
Eve Libertine ( vocals )
Joy De Vivre ( vocals )
N. A. Palmer ( guitar )
Phil Free ( guitar )
Pete Wright ( bass , vocals )
Penny Rimbaud ( drums , vocals )
Gee Vaucher ( artwork , piano , radio )
Mick Duffield ( films )
John Loder , sound engineer and founder of Southern Studios , is sometimes considered the " ninth member " of Crass .
Steve Herman ( guitar ; left shortly after their first performance )
= = Discography = =
( All released on Crass Records unless otherwise stated . )
= = = LPs = = =
The Feeding of the 5000 ( LP , 1978 , 45 rpm , Small Wonder Records – UK Indie – No. 1 . Reissued in 1980 as LP 33 rpm as The Feeding of the 5000 – Second Sitting , UK Indie – No. 11 )
Stations of the Crass ( 521984 , double LP , 1979 ) ( UK Indie – No. 1 )
Penis Envy ( 321984 / 1 , LP , 1981 ) ( UK Indie – No. 1 )
Christ – The Album ( BOLLOX 2U2 , double LP , 1982 ) ( UK Indie – No. 1 )
Yes Sir , I Will ( 121984 / 2 , LP , 1983 ) ( UK Indie – No. 1 )
Ten Notes on a Summer 's Day ( catalog No. 6 , LP , 1986 , Crass Records ) ( UK Indie – No. 6 )
= = = Compilations and remastered editions = = =
Best Before 1984 ( 1986 – CATNO5 ; compilation album of singles ) ( UK Indie – No. 7 )
The Feeding of the 5000 ( The Crassical Collection ) ( 2010 – CC01CD remastered edition )
Stations of the Crass ( The Crassical Collection ) ( 2010 – CC02CD remastered )
Penis Envy ( The Crassical Collection ) ( 2010 – CC03CD remastered edition )
Christ – The Album ( The Crassical Collection ) ( 2011 – CC04CD remastered edition )
Yes Sir , I Will ( The Crassical Collection ) ( 2011 – CC05CD remastered edition )
Ten Notes on a Summer 's Day ( The Crassical Collection ) ( 2012 – CC06CD remastered edition )
= = = Singles = = =
" Reality Asylum " / " Shaved Women " ( CRASS1 , 7 " , 1979 ) ( UK Indie – No. 9 )
" Bloody Revolutions " / " Persons Unknown " ( 421984 / 1 , 7 " single , joint released with the Poison Girls , 1980 ) ( UK Indie – No. 1 )
" Rival Tribal Rebel Revel " ( 421984 / 6F , one @-@ sided 7 " flexi disc single given away with Toxic Grafity [ sic ] fanzine , 1980 )
" Nagasaki Nightmare " / " Big A Little A " ( 421984 / 5 , 7 " single , 1981 ) ( UK Indie – No. 1 )
" Our Wedding " ( 321984 / 1F , one @-@ sided 7 " flexi @-@ disc single by Creative Recording And Sound Services made available to readers of teenage magazine Loving )
" Merry Crassmas " ( CT1 , 7 " single , 1981 , Crass ' stab at the Christmas novelty market ) ( UK Indie – No. 2 )
" Sheep Farming in the Falklands " / " Gotcha " ( 121984 / 3 , 7 " single , 1982 , originally released anonymously as a flexi @-@ disc ) ( UK Indie – No. 1 )
" How Does It Feel To Be The Mother of 1000 Dead ? " / " The Immortal Death " ( 221984 / | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
be adapted into books by then @-@ current Bond novelist Raymond Benson . Benson 's version is expanded from the screenplay including additional scenes with Wai Lin and other supporting characters not in the film . The novel traces Carver 's background as the son of media mogul Lord Roverman , whom Carver blackmails into suicide , later taking over his business . The novel also attempts to merge Benson 's series with the films , particularly by continuing a middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road approach to John Gardner 's continuity . Notably it includes a reference to the film version of You Only Live Twice where he states that Bond was lying to Miss Moneypenny when he said he had taken a course in Asian languages . Tomorrow Never Dies also mentions Felix Leiter , although it states that Felix had worked for Pinkertons Detective Agency , which is thus exclusive to the literary series . Subsequent Bond novels by Benson were affected by Tomorrow Never Dies , specifically Bond 's weapon of choice being changed from the Walther PPK to the Walther P99 . Benson said in an interview that he felt Tomorrow Never Dies was the best of the three novelisations he wrote .
The film was also adapted into a third @-@ person shooter PlayStation video game , Tomorrow Never Dies . The game was developed by Black Ops and published by Electronic Arts on 16 November 1999 . Game Revolution described it as " really just an empty and shallow game " , and IGN said it was " mediocre " .
= Plunketts Creek Bridge No. 3 =
Plunketts Creek Bridge No. 3 was a rubble masonry stone arch bridge over Plunketts Creek in Plunketts Creek Township , Lycoming County in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . It was built between 1840 and 1875 , probably closer to 1840 , when the road along the creek between the unincorporated villages of Barbours and Proctor was constructed . Going upstream from the mouth , the bridge was the third to cross the creek , hence its name .
The bridge was 75 feet ( 23 m ) long , with an arch that spanned 44 feet ( 13 m ) , a deck 18 feet 8 inches ( 5 @.@ 69 m ) wide , and a roadway width of 15 feet 3 inches ( 4 @.@ 65 m ) . It carried a single lane of traffic . In the 19th century , the bridge and its road were used by the lumber , leather , and coal industries active along the creek . By the early 20th century , these industries had almost entirely left , and the villages declined . The area the bridge served reverted mostly to second growth forest and it was used to access Pennsylvania State Game Lands and a state pheasant farm .
Plunketts Creek Bridge No. 3 was considered " significant as an intact example of mid @-@ 19th century stone arch bridge construction " , and was added to the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) on June 22 , 1988 . Although it was repaired after a major flood in 1918 , a record flood on January 21 , 1996 , severely damaged the bridge , and it was demolished in March 1996 . Before the 1996 flood about 450 vehicles crossed it each day . Later that year , a replacement bridge was built and the old stone structure was documented by the Historic American Engineering Record . It was removed from the NRHP on July 22 , 2002 .
= = History = =
= = = Early inhabitants and name = = =
Plunketts Creek is in the West Branch Susquehanna River drainage basin , the earliest recorded inhabitants of which were the Susquehannocks . Their numbers were greatly reduced by disease and warfare with the Five Nations of the Iroquois , and by 1675 they had died out , moved away , or been assimilated into other tribes . The West Branch Susquehanna River valley was subsequently under the nominal control of the Iroquois , who invited displaced tribes , including the Lenape ( Delaware ) and Shawnee to live in the lands vacated by the Susquehannocks . The French and Indian War ( 1754 – 1763 ) led to the migration of many Native Americans westward to the Ohio River basin . On November 5 , 1768 , the British acquired the New Purchase from the Iroquois in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix , including what is now Plunketts Creek . The first settlement along the creek by European colonists took place between 1770 and 1776 .
Plunketts Creek is named for Colonel William Plunkett , a physician , who was the first president judge of Northumberland County after it was formed in 1772 . During conflicts with Native Americans , he treated wounded settlers and fought the natives . Plunkett led a Pennsylvania expedition in the Pennamite @-@ Yankee War to forcibly remove settlers from Connecticut , who had claimed and settled on lands in the Wyoming Valley also claimed by Pennsylvania . For his services , Plunkett was granted six tracts of land that totaled 1 @,@ 978 acres ( 800 ha ) on November 14 , 1776 , although the land was not actually surveyed until September 1783 . Plunkett 's land included the creek 's mouth , so Plunketts Creek was given his name . He died in 1791 , aged about 100 , and was buried in Northumberland without a grave marker or monument ( except for the creek that bears his name ) .
Lycoming County was formed from Northumberland County in 1795 . When Plunketts Creek Township was formed in Lycoming County in 1838 , the original name proposed was " Plunkett Township " , but Plunkett 's lack of active support for the American Revolution some years earlier had led some to believe his loyalty lay with the British Empire . The lingering suspicion of his loyalist sympathies led to the proposed name being rejected . Naming the township for the creek rather than its namesake was seen as an acceptable compromise .
= = = Villages and road = = =
In 1832 , John Barbour built a sawmill on Loyalsock Creek near the mouth of Plunketts Creek . This developed into the village of Barbours Mills , today known as Barbours . In the 19th century , Barbours had several blacksmiths , a temperance hotel , post office , many sawmills , a school , store and wagon maker . In 1840 , a road was built north from Barbours along Plunketts Creek , crossing it several times . This is the earliest possible date for construction of the bridge , but the surviving county road docket on the construction mentions neither bridges nor fords for crossing the creek .
The bridge is at the mouth of Coal Mine Hollow , and the road it was on was used by the lumber and coal industries that were active in Plunketts Creek Township during the 19th and early 20th centuries . Creeks in the township supplied water power to 14 mills in 1861 , and by 1876 there were 19 sawmills , a shingle mill , a woolen factory , and a tannery . By the latter half of the 19th century , these industries supported the inhabitants of two villages in Plunketts Creek Township .
In 1868 the village of Proctorville was founded as a company town for Thomas E. Proctor 's tannery , which was completed in 1873 . Proctor , as it is now known , is 1 @.@ 66 miles ( 2 @.@ 67 km ) north of Barbours along Plunketts Creek , and the main road to it crossed the bridge . The bark from eastern hemlock trees was used in the tanning process , and the village originally sat in the midst of vast forests of hemlock . The tannery employed " several hundred " workers at wages between 50 cents and $ 1 @.@ 75 a day . These employees lived in 120 company houses , which each cost $ 2 a month to rent . In 1892 , Proctor had a barber shop , two blacksmiths , cigar stand , Independent Order of Odd Fellows hall , leather shop , news stand , a post office ( established in 1885 ) , a two @-@ room school , two stores , and a wagon shop .
The road between Barbours and Proctor crosses Plunketts Creek four times and the four bridges are numbered in order , starting from the southernmost in Barbours near the mouth and going upstream . While evidence such as maps indicates that the third bridge was constructed close to 1840 , the first definitive proof of its existence is a survey to relocate the road between the second and third bridges in 1875 . The first bridge over Plunketts Creek was replaced with a covered bridge in 1880 , and the second bridge was replaced in 1886 . That same year , the road between the second and third bridges was moved again , returning to its original position on the west side of the creek .
Finished sole leather was hauled over the bridge by horse @-@ drawn wagon south about 8 miles ( 13 km ) to Little Bear Creek , where it was exchanged for " green " hides and other supplies brought north from Montoursville . These were then hauled north across the bridge into Proctor . The hides , which were tanned to make leather , came from the United States , and as far away as Mexico , Argentina , and China . Hemlock bark , used in the tanning process , was hauled to the tannery from up to 8 miles ( 13 km ) away in both summer and winter , using wagons and sleds . The lumber boom on Plunketts Creek ended when the virgin timber ran out . By 1898 , the old growth hemlock was exhausted and the Proctor tannery , then owned by the Elk Tanning Company , was closed and dismantled .
= = = 20th century = = =
Small @-@ scale lumbering continued in the watershed in the 20th century , but the last logs were floated under the bridge down Plunketts Creek to Loyalsock Creek in 1905 . In 1918 , a flood on the creek damaged the road for 100 feet ( 30 m ) on both sides of the bridge , and caused " settling and cracking of the bridge itself " . The bridge had needed repairs and reconstruction . In 1931 , the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania passed legislation that gave the state responsibility for the costs of road and bridge maintenance for many highways belonging to local municipalities . This took effect in 1932 , relieving Plunketts Creek Township and Lycoming County of the responsibility .
Without timber and the tannery , the populations of Proctor and Barbours declined , as did traffic on the road and bridges between them . The Barbours post office closed in the 1930s and the Proctor post office closed on July 1 , 1953 . Both villages also lost their schools and almost all of their businesses . Proctor celebrated its centennial in 1968 , and a 1970 newspaper article on its 39th annual " Proctor Homecoming " reunion called it a " near @-@ deserted old tannery town " . In the 1980s , the last store in Barbours closed , and the former hotel ( which had become a hunting club ) was torn down to make way for a new bridge across Loyalsock Creek .
Plunketts Creek has been a place for lumber and tourism since its villages were founded , and as industry declined , nature recovered . Second growth forests have since covered most of the clear @-@ cut land . Pennsylvania 's state legislature authorized the acquisition of abandoned and clear @-@ cut land for Pennsylvania State Game Lands in 1919 , and the Pennsylvania Game Commission ( PGC ) acquired property along Plunketts Creek for State Game Lands Number 134 between 1937 and 1945 . The main entrance to State Game Lands 134 is just north of the bridge site , on the east side of the creek .
The PGC established the Northcentral State Game Farm in 1945 on part of State Game Lands 134 to raise wild turkey . The farm was converted to ringneck pheasant production in 1981 , and , as of 2007 , it was one of four Pennsylvania state game farms that produced about 200 @,@ 000 pheasants each year for release on land open to public hunting . The Northcentral State Game Farm is chiefly in the Plunketts Creek valley , just south of Proctor and north of the bridge . The opening weekend of the trout season brings more people into the village of Barbours at the mouth of Plunketts Creek than any other time of the year .
On June 22 , 1988 , the bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) , as part of the Multiple Property Submission ( MPS ) of Highway Bridges Owned by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania , Department of Transportation , TR . The MPS included 135 bridges owned by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation ( PennDOT ) , 58 of which were of the stone arch type . While the individual NRHP form for the bridge cites a 1932 inspection report ( the year that the state took over its maintenance ) , the MPS form mistakenly gives the bridge 's date of construction as 1932 .
= = = Flood and destruction = = =
In January 1996 , there was major flooding throughout Pennsylvania . The 1995 – 1996 early winter was unusually cold , and considerable ice buildup formed in local streams . A major blizzard on January 6 – 8 produced up to 40 inches ( 100 cm ) of snow , which was followed on January 19 – 21 by more than 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of rain with temperatures as high as 62 ° F ( 17 ° C ) and winds up to 38 miles per hour ( 61 km / h ) . The rain and snowmelt caused flooding throughout Pennsylvania and ice jams made this worse on many streams . Elsewhere in Lycoming County , flooding on Lycoming Creek in and near Williamsport killed six people and caused millions of dollars in damage .
On Plunketts Creek , ice jams led to record flooding , which caused irreparable major damage to the mid @-@ 19th century stone arch bridge . Downstream in Barbours , the waters were 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) deep in what was then called the village 's " worst flood in history " . Plunketts Creek Bridge No. 3 was one of two destroyed in Lycoming County , and on January 31 a photograph of the damaged bridge was featured on the front page of the Williamsport Sun @-@ Gazette with the caption " This old stone arch bridge over Plunketts Creek must be replaced . " In neighboring Sullivan County , the Sonestown Covered Bridge , also on the NRHP , was so damaged by the flood that it remained closed for repairs until late December 1996 . Throughout Pennsylvania , these floods led to 20 deaths and 69 municipal- or state @-@ owned bridges being either " destroyed or closed until inspections could verify their safety " .
When it became clear that the bridge could not be repaired , PennDOT awarded an emergency contract for a temporary bridge before the end of January , citing " emergency vehicles that can no longer travel directly from Barbours " to Proctor and beyond . The temporary bridge cost $ 87 @,@ 000 and was 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) wide . The photographs for the bridge 's inclusion in the Historic American Engineering Record ( HAER ) were taken in January , and the HAER " documentation package was prepared as mitigation for the emergency demolition " of the bridge , which was collapsed in March . The permanent replacement bridge was completed in 1996 , and the old bridge was removed from the NRHP on July 22 , 2002 .
= = Description and construction = =
Plunketts Creek Bridge No. 3 was a rubble masonry stone arch bridge , oriented roughly east – west over Plunketts Creek . Its overall length was 75 feet ( 23 m ) and its single semi @-@ circular arch spanned 44 feet ( 13 m ) . The bridge deck width was 18 feet 8 inches ( 5 @.@ 69 m ) , and its roadway was 15 feet 3 inches ( 4 @.@ 65 m ) wide , which could accommodate only a single lane of traffic . Just before the flood that led to the bridge 's destruction , about 450 vehicles crossed the bridge daily . The outside corners of the wing walls were 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) apart , which combined with the overall length of 75 feet ( 23 m ) led to a total area of 1 @,@ 875 square feet ( 174 @.@ 2 m2 ) being listed on the NRHP .
The bridge rested on abutments which had been jacketed with concrete after its original construction . The arch was supported by voussoirs made of " irregular rubble stone " , without a keystone . There was also no stone giving the date or other construction information . The approaches were flanked by wing walls constructed of riprap stones , and the spandrel walls were topped by parapets made of " rough , crenellated stones " . The bridge 's road deck rested directly on the top of its arch . This led to a " narrow wall at the arch crown " and a " protruding rock parapet " atop this spandrel wall on either side . Most stone arch bridges have solid parapets without decoration ; this bridge 's parapet crenellation was an ornamental feature . The parapet construction and appearance made the bridge unique among the 58 Pennsylvania stone arch bridges with which it was nominated for the NRHP .
Pennsylvania has a long history of stone arch bridges , including the oldest such bridge in use in the United States , the 1697 Frankford Avenue Bridge over Pennypack Creek in Philadelphia . Such bridges typically used local stone , with three types of finishing possible . Rubble or third @-@ class masonry construction used stones just as they came from the quarry ; squared @-@ stone or second @-@ class masonry used stones that had been roughly dressed and squared ; and ashlar or first @-@ class masonry used stones which had been finely dressed and carefully squared . Rubble masonry was the quickest and cheapest for construction , and had the largest tolerances . Many of the oldest stone bridges in Pennsylvania were built using rubble masonry techniques .
Stone bridge construction started with the excavation of foundations for the abutments . Then a temporary structure known as a center or centering would be built of wood or iron . This structure supported the stone arch during construction . Once the stone arch was built , the spandrel walls and wing walls could be added . Then the road bed was built , with fill ( loose stones or dirt ) added to support it as needed . Wall and arch stones were generally set in place dry to ensure a good fit , then set in mortar . Once the bridge was complete and the mortar had properly hardened , the center was gradually lowered and then removed . In March 1996 , after standing for between 156 and 121 years , the arch of Bridge No. 3 finally collapsed .
= = Note = =
= MTV Unplugged ( Thirty Seconds to Mars EP ) =
MTV Unplugged is an extended play ( EP ) and live album by American rock band Thirty Seconds to Mars , released in the United States on August 19 , 2011 by Virgin Records . It features an acoustic performance taped at Sony Music Studios in New York City on May 13 of that year for the television series MTV Unplugged . The show 's purpose is to present name artists , and feature them stripped of studio equipment . The performance was accompanied by musicians from the Vitamin String Quartet , a gospel choir and included the contribution of the band 's fans .
The extended play includes rearranged versions of three songs extracted from Thirty Seconds to Mars ' third studio album , This Is War ( 2009 ) , and a cover version of a song by U2 . Upon release , MTV Unplugged received universal acclaim from music critics , many of whom complimented the band 's musicianship and the album 's production . Commercially , it debuted at number 76 on the Billboard 200 and experienced moderate success in some international markets .
= = Recording = =
Thirty Seconds to Mars recorded their performance on May 13 , 2011 at Sony Music Studios in New York City . The show featured a number of musicians from the Vitamin String Quartet and back @-@ up vocalists from The Late Show 's Gospel Choir . It marked the first live performance by the former . The show was produced by Lee Rolontz , Jay Peterson and Leah Culton @-@ Gonzales through the production company Original Media .
Thirty Seconds to Mars dedicated several days to rehearsals , in which they reworked and experimented with their musical repertoire . The band invited their fans to attend the rehearsal sessions to work on songs that needed background vocals . Jared Leto expressed his gratitude to the band 's fans , termed as the Echelon , emphasizing their strong collaboration . During rehearsals , musicians from the Vitamin String Quartet were also involved , with Leto stating that they were " really open and collaborative , [ ... ] fluid and in the moment and improvisational . " Thirty Seconds to Mars explained the scrupulous process of deciding which songs to cover , considering tracks by artists as varied as Cyndi Lauper , Gheorghe Zamfir , Eminem , and Fleetwood Mac . The band stated that they also considered a song by Dolly Parton , before they decided on " Where the Streets Have No Name " by U2 , which is reputed a special song for Jared and Shannon Leto .
The show began with " Hurricane " , followed by " Alibi " , " Kings and Queens " , " Closer to the Edge " , " Night of the Hunter " , " Where the Streets Have No Name " , and " Message in a Bottle " , originally by The Police . Short instrumental versions of songs by The Cure , Pantera and Slayer were also played by Tomo Miličević , Shannon Leto and Tim Kelleher . The Vitamin String Quartet musicians which took part al the recording included three violinists , a cellist and a conductor . The performance of " Where the Streets Have No Name " featured The Late Show 's Gospel Choir , consisting of five men and five women dressed in red . After filming , Jared Leto described the band 's excitement about being asked to record for MTV Unplugged stating , " I think our generation , it was kind of a rite of passage , and if you were invited to do MTV Unplugged , it certainly was a pretty big deal . So many of our favorite bands did ' Unplugged ' and still do it , so we were really thrilled to be asked . "
= = Release = =
The MTV Unplugged episode featuring Thirty Seconds to Mars premiered on MTV on July 19 , 2011 . The televised performance was shortened to five tracks , excluding " Alibi " and " Message in a Bottle " . The episode debuted on MTV.com as part of a live viewing event where fans had the opportunity to interact with others through instant messaging while watching the show . Beginning on July 21 , " Hurricane " went into music video rotations through MTV 's main channels . A thirty @-@ minute special debuted on the high @-@ definition music channel Palladia on July 29 , with an encore at midnight .
The concert 's success prompted Virgin Records to release it as a four @-@ track extended play on August 19 , 2011 in digital format . The label also planned to release a video accompaniment package in time for the Christmas holidays . However , the deadline for the release was missed after some technical issues and Thirty Seconds to Mars decided to release it for download on VyRT in December 2011 . Aside from featuring the four tracks which appears on the extended play , it includes the performance of " Alibi " and some exclusive footage of the recording . Virgin later released the video to digital retailers on March 2 , 2012 .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , MTV Unplugged received universal acclaim from music critics . Ryan Jones from Alternative Addiction gave the album four stars out of five , writing that " the final product has been touched up perfectly and the four songs on the EP are the perfect selections . " He described both " Where the Streets Have No Name " and " Kings and Queens " as " chilling " , but concluded his review saying that " it would have been nice to get a few more songs . " Joanna Bomberg from MTV commented that " Thirty Seconds to Mars have delivered a truly visual and sonically compelling performance that will inspire their fans and captivate new ones . " Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly praised the show and felt that the band 's cover of " Where the Streets Have No Name " was " stellar . " Alex Easton of AltSounds called the show " emotional , powerful and stunning . " He praised Leto 's vocals and wrote that the album " not only brings a different element to some classic songs , but cements Thirty Seconds to Mars ' place as one of the finest acts of this generation . "
Amy Sciarretto from Loudwire praised the band 's musicianship and wrote , " While U2 songs are often sacred ground , Thirty Seconds to Mars handle their rendition of ' Where the Streets Have No Name ' perfectly . " Kayleigh Burn , writing for Chemical magazine , awarded the album five stars out of a possible five and felt that the band " conquer [ s ] the listener with a barrage of stunning vocals , memorable guitars and the recurring hum of the violins . " She opined that " Hurricane " was " the best representation of a steadfast performance " and commented that the album " lends the opportunity for a tranquil and calm display of their abilities and more importantly , their hearts . " At the end of 2011 , the Unplugged version of " Hurricane " won the MTV Award for Best Live Performance , with critic James Montgomery commenting that the band 's performance " is very much a communal thing , one where a celebration never seems all that far off . "
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , MTV Unplugged debuted at number 76 on the Billboard 200 and number 15 on the Digital Albums on the issue dated September 10 , 2011 . It also entered the Alternative Albums at number 12 and the Rock Albums at number 16 . On September 2 , 2011 , the album debuted at number 38 on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 . In Italy , it reached number 35 on the Musica e dischi singles chart on the week ending September 2 , 2011 . In Norway , MTV Unplugged entered the VG @-@ lista at number 38 during the week of August 30 , 2011 .
In Portugal , the album debuted at number ten , eventually peaking at number nine the following week . On the week dated October 8 , 2011 , the track " Where the Streets Have No Name " reached number ten on the national singles chart . After spending ten weeks on the chart , the album was certified gold by the Associação Fonográfica Portuguesa ( AFP ) , denoting sales of over 10 @,@ 000 units throughout the country . In the United Kingdom , the album debuted at number 133 on the UK Singles Chart , during the week dated September 3 , 2011 . It also entered the UK Rock Chart at number three .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Jared Leto , except where noted .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= The Fire ( The Office ) =
" The Fire " is the fourth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's tenth episode overall . Written by B. J. Novak and directed by Ken Kwapis , the episode first aired in the United States on October 11 , 2005 on NBC . The episode features Amy Adams as Jim 's girlfriend , Katy .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) takes it upon himself to teach Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) about business , but soon everyone is forced to evacuate the office due to a fire . While outside , Michael continues to show an interest in Ryan , causing Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) to be jealous . Meanwhile , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) organizes games to play outside .
According to B. J. Novak , the episode was " a fun one to film " . Although the cast and crew appear to be cold in the finished episode , " The Fire " was filmed in 100 @-@ degree weather ; thus , the actors " couldn 't look hot " and had to pretend to shiver . The firemen in the scene were played by actual firemen , and their costumes were designed in order to look like authentic Scranton firefighters .
= = Plot = =
Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) learns that Jim ( John Krasinski ) and Katy ( Amy Adams ) have started dating . Michael ( Steve Carell ) gives Ryan ( B.J. Novak ) a glowing checkpoint review . When Ryan expresses his interest in starting his own business someday , Michael takes it upon himself to teach Ryan the " ten rules of business " . The fire alarm sounds , and while Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) and Angela ( Angela Kinsey ) both attempt to take charge of the evacuation , Michael pushes others out of the way in his escape out of the building .
The employees play games to pass the time , including " Desert Island Picks " and " Who Would You Do ? " When Ryan reveals that he is attending business school at night , Michael becomes enamored of his newfound protégé . Dwight becomes noticeably jealous of Ryan 's favor with Michael , and he is seen sulking in his car to the tune " Everybody Hurts " by R.E.M. When Michael mentions that he left his cell phone in the office , Dwight rushes back into the building to fetch it .
Michael asks Ryan to call his cell phone to help Dwight find it . The phone rings , which happens to be in Michael 's pocket . Dwight emerges , coughing , from the building and reveals that the fire was started by Ryan , who left a cheese pita in the toaster @-@ oven set to " oven " instead of " toaster " . Dwight and Michael mock Ryan and dub him " The Fire Guy " by doing a song parody of the Billy Joel song " We Didn 't Start the Fire " .
= = Production = =
" The Fire " was the fourth episode of the series directed by Ken Kwapis . Kwapis had previously directed " Pilot " , " Diversity Day " , and " Sexual Harassment " . " The Fire " was written by B. J. Novak , who also acts on the show as Ryan Howard . Novak had previously penned the episodes " Diversity Day " and " Sexual Harassment " . " The Fire " featured the second appearance of Katy , portrayed by Amy Adams . Adams thoroughly enjoyed her work on the show . In an interview with Advocate.com , she said , " [ The Office ] was the best work experience . I loved that show and that cast so much . I don ’ t know if they believe me , but every time I see them I ’ m like , ' Oh my gosh , I ’ ll do anything to come back . ' "
Novak described the episode as " a fun one to film " . The episode was filmed in 100 @-@ degree weather , but according to cast member B. J. Novak , they " couldn 't look hot " . The area outside the building was shot in Van Nuys , California in what Novak called a " bad area " : he later noted that they " had to pretend we weren 't scared , even though every car that is left next to our set overnight is stripped to the bone for parts . " Greg Daniels noted that during the filming of " The Fire " , the cast and crew kept being interrupted by the sound of helicopters . The firemen in the scene were played by actual firemen . The crew of The Office had someone in Scranton take photographs of local firefighters ' uniforms , so the costumes would be accurate . However , in an interview with the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette , Scranton firefighter Art Franklin pointed out that the uniform is actually tan , instead of the black ones seen on the show .
= = Cultural references = =
When lecturing Ryan , Michael compares himself to Yoda and Mr. Miyagi . When he later attempts to do a Yoda voice , Ryan misinterprets it as an impression of Fozzie Bear . When Dwight is dejectedly listening to music in his car , he is playing " Everybody Hurts " by R.E.M. Dwight and Michael 's " Ryan Started the Fire " is an thinly veiled song parody of the Billy Joel song " We Didn 't Start the Fire " .
During the game of desert island , many of the employees reference specific films and books . Angela says she would take The Bible , A Purpose Driven Life , and The Da Vinci Code , but only to burn the latter . Dwight notes that he would take the Physicians ' Desk Reference , but hollow it out and fill it with supplies ; he also states we would bring Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone or Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban in case he got bored . Meredith later reveals that she would bring Legends Of The Fall , My Big Fat Greek Wedding , Legally Blonde , The Bridges of Madison County , and " just the pottery scene " from Ghost to watch . Pam picks Fargo , Edward Scissorhands , Dazed And Confused , The Breakfast Club , and The Princess Bride . After asking what Dwight would bring , he says The Crow .
= = Reception = =
" The Fire " originally aired on NBC in the United States on October 11 , 2005 . The episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 6 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 7 rating / 9 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode won its timeslot . An encore presentation of the episode , on June 6 , 2006 , received 1 @.@ 9 rating / 6 % share and was viewed by over 4 @.@ 6 million viewers .
" The Fire " received mostly positive reviews from critics . TV Squad 's Michael Sciannamea wrote that " The Fire " was " another good episode . " Sciannamea went on to write that " show has definitely improved and it 's nice to see the other characters emerge " . " Miss Alli " of Television Without Pity graded the episode with a " B + " . Dwight 's reinterpretation of " We Didn 't Start the Fire " inspired fans of the office to make their own song parodies . One version , aptly titled " Ryan Started the Fire " , lists several events from The Office , much like the original . After posting the song , Margaret Lyons from Entertainment Weekly wrote , " Yay for the Internet ! "
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an " A – " , noting that " ' The Fire ' is not the second season ’ s funniest half @-@ hour , but I love it for its simplicity . " Writing that the episode bore similarities to a bottle episode , he enjoyed the way that the conversations among the employees allowed the audience to more fully understand all of the individual characters better . Adams also praised the interaction between Carell and Novak , as well as the performance of Wilson , which he called " unsettling " .
= Lycoperdon perlatum =
Lycoperdon perlatum , popularly known as the common puffball , warted puffball , gem @-@ studded puffball , or the devil 's snuff @-@ box , is a species of puffball fungus in the family Agaricaceae . A widespread species with a cosmopolitan distribution , it is a medium @-@ sized puffball with a round fruit body tapering to a wide stalk , and dimensions of 1 @.@ 5 to 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) wide by 3 to 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 8 in ) tall . It is off @-@ white with a top covered in short spiny bumps or " jewels " , which are easily rubbed off to leave a netlike pattern on the surface . When mature it becomes brown , and a hole in the top opens to release spores in a burst when the body is compressed by touch or falling raindrops .
The puffball grows in fields , gardens , and along roadsides , as well as in grassy clearings in woods . It is edible when young and the internal flesh is completely white , although care must be taken to avoid confusion with immature fruit bodies of poisonous Amanita species . L. perlatum can usually be distinguished from other similar puffballs by differences in surface texture . Several chemical compounds have been isolated and identified from the fruit bodies of L. perlatum , including sterol derivatives , volatile compounds that give the puffball its flavor and odor , and the unusual amino acid lycoperdic acid . Laboratory tests indicate that extracts of the puffball have antimicrobial and antifungal activities .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described in the scientific literature in 1796 by mycologist Christiaan Hendrik Persoon. synonyms include Lycoperdon gemmatum ( as described by August Batsch in 1783 ) ; the variety Lycoperdon gemmatum var. perlatum ( published by Elias Magnus Fries in 1829 ) ; Lycoperdon bonordenii ( George Edward Massee , 1887 ) ; and Lycoperdon perlatum var. bonordenii ( A.C. Perdeck , 1950 ) .
L. perlatum is the type species of the genus Lycoperdon . Molecular analyses suggest a close phylogenetic relationship with L. marginatum .
The specific epithet perlatum is Latin for " widespread " . It is commonly known as the common puffball , the gem @-@ studded puffball ( or gemmed puffball ) , the warted puffball , or the devil 's snuff @-@ box ; Samuel Frederick Gray called it the pearly puff @-@ ball in his 1821 work A Natural Arrangement of British Plants . Because some indigenous peoples believed that the spores caused blindness , the puffball has some local names such as " blindman 's bellows " and " no @-@ eyes " .
= = Description = =
The fruit body ranges in shape from pear @-@ like with a flattened top , to nearly spherical , and reaches dimensions of 1 @.@ 5 to 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) wide by 3 to 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 8 in ) tall . It has a stem @-@ like base . The outer surface of the fruit body ( the exoperidium ) is covered in short cone @-@ shaped spines that are interspersed with granular warts . The spines , which are whitish , gray , or brown , can be easily rubbed off , and leave reticulate pock marks or scars after they are removed . The base of the puffball is thick , and has internal chambers . It is initially white , but turns yellow , olive , or brownish in age . The reticulate pattern resulting from the rubbed @-@ off spines is less evident on the base .
In maturity , the exoperidium at the top of the puff | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
ick , Scotland on 30 November 1872 . The match ended in a goalless draw . All eleven players who represented Scotland that day played for Glasgow amateur club Queen 's Park . Over the next forty years , Scotland played matches exclusively against the other three Home Nations — England , Wales and Ireland . The British Home Championship began in 1883 , making these games competitive . The encounters against England were particularly fierce and a rivalry quickly developed .
Scotland lost just two of their first 43 international matches . It was not until a 2 – 0 home defeat by Ireland in 1903 that Scotland lost a match to a team other than England . This run of success meant that Scotland would have regularly topped the Elo ratings , which were calculated in 1997 , between 1876 and 1904 . Scotland won the British Home Championship outright on 24 occasions , and shared the title 17 times with at least one other team . A noteworthy victory for Scotland before the Second World War was the 5 – 1 victory over England in 1928 , which led to that Scotland side being known as the " Wembley Wizards " . Scotland played their first match outside the British Isles in 1929 , beating Norway 7 – 3 in Bergen . Scotland continued to contest regular friendly matches against European opposition and enjoyed wins against Germany and France before losing to the Austrian " Wunderteam " and Italy in 1931 .
Scotland , like the other Home Nations , did not enter the three FIFA World Cups held during the 1930s . This was because the four associations had been excluded from FIFA due to a disagreement regarding the status of amateur players . The four associations , including Scotland , returned to the FIFA fold after the Second World War . A match between a United Kingdom team and a " Rest of the World " team was played at Hampden Park in 1947 to celebrate this reconciliation .
= = = 1950s = = =
The readmission of the Scottish Football Association to FIFA meant that Scotland were now eligible to enter the 1950 FIFA World Cup . FIFA advised that places would be awarded to the top two teams in the 1950 British Home Championship , but the SFA announced that Scotland would only attend the finals if Scotland won the competition . Scotland won their first two matches , but a 1 – 0 home defeat by England meant that the Scots finished as runners @-@ up . This meant that the Scots had qualified by right for the World Cup , but had not met the demand of the SFA to win the Championship . The SFA stood by this proclamation , despite pleas to the contrary by the Scotland players , supported by England captain Billy Wright and the other England players . The SFA instead sent the Scots on a tour of North America .
The same qualification rules were in place for the 1954 FIFA World Cup , with the 1954 British Home Championship acting as a qualifying group . Scotland again finished second , but this time the SFA allowed a team to participate in the Finals , held in Switzerland . To quote the SFA website , " The preparation was atrocious " . The SFA only sent 13 players to the finals , even though FIFA allowed 22 @-@ man squads . Despite this self @-@ imposed hardship in terms of players , the SFA dignitaries travelled in numbers , accompanied with their wives . Scotland lost 1 – 0 against Austria in their first game in the finals , which prompted the team manager Andy Beattie to resign hours before the game against Uruguay . Uruguay were reigning champions and had never before lost a game at the World Cup finals , and they defeated Scotland 7 – 0 .
The 1958 FIFA World Cup finals saw Scotland draw their first game against Yugoslavia 1 – 1 , but they then lost to Paraguay and France and went out at the first stage . Matt Busby had been due to manage the team at the World Cup , but the severe injuries he suffered in the Munich air disaster meant that trainer Dawson Walker took charge of the team instead .
= = = 1960s = = =
Under the management of Ian McColl , Scotland enjoyed consecutive British Home Championship successes in 1962 and 1963 . Jock Stein , John Prentice and Malky MacDonald all had brief spells as manager before Bobby Brown was appointed in 1967 . Brown 's first match as manager was against the newly crowned world champions England at Wembley Stadium . Despite being underdogs , Scotland won 3 – 2 thanks to goals from Denis Law , Bobby Lennox and Jim McCalliog . Having defeated the world champions on their own turf , the Scotland fans hailed their team as the " unofficial world champions " . Despite this famous win , the Scots failed to qualify for any major competitions during the 1960s .
= = = 1970s = = =
After Tommy Docherty 's brief spell as manager , Willie Ormond was hired in 1973 . Ormond lost his first match in charge 5 – 0 to England , but recovered to steer Scotland to their first World Cup finals in 16 years in 1974 . At the 1974 World Cup finals in West Germany , Scotland achieved their most impressive performance at a World Cup tournament . The team was unbeaten but failed to progress beyond the group stages on goal difference . After beating Zaïre , they drew with both Brazil and Yugoslavia , and went out because they had beaten Zaïre by the smallest margin .
Scotland appointed Ally MacLeod as manager in 1977 , with qualification for the 1978 World Cup in Argentina far from assured . The team made a strong start under MacLeod by winning the 1977 British Home Championship , largely thanks to a 2 – 1 victory over England at Wembley . The Scotland fans invaded the pitch after the match , ripping up the turf and breaking a crossbar . Scotland 's good form continued as they secured qualification for the World Cup with victories over Czechoslovakia and Wales .
During the build @-@ up to the 1978 FIFA World Cup , MacLeod fuelled the hopes of the nation by stating that Scotland would come home with a medal . As the squad left for the finals in Argentina , they were given an enthusiastic send off as they were paraded around a packed Hampden Park . Thousands more fans lined the route to Prestwick Airport as the team set off for South America . Scotland 's first game was against Peru in Córdoba . Two spectacular goals by Teófilo Cubillas meant that the result was a 3 – 1 loss . The second game was a very disappointing 1 – 1 draw against Iran . The disconsolate mood of the nation was reflected by footage of Ally MacLeod in the dugout with his head in his hands .
After taking a single point from their opening two games , Scotland had to defeat the Netherlands by three clear goals to progress . Despite the Dutch taking the lead , Scotland fought back to win 3 – 2 with a goal from Kenny Dalglish and two from Archie Gemmill , the second of which is considered one of the greatest World Cup goals ever ; Gemmill beat three Dutch defenders before lifting the ball over goalkeeper Jan Jongbloed into the net . The victory was not sufficient to secure a place in the second round , and Scotland were eliminated on goal difference for the second successive World Cup .
= = = 1980s = = =
MacLeod resigned as manager shortly after the 1978 World Cup , and Jock Stein , who had won nine consecutive Scottish league titles and the European Cup as manager of Celtic , was appointed as his successor . After failing to qualify for the 1980 European Championship , Scotland qualified for the 1982 FIFA World Cup from a tough group including Sweden , Portugal , Israel and Northern Ireland , losing just one match in the process . They beat New Zealand 5 – 2 in their first game at the World Cup , but lost 4 – 1 to a Brazil team containing Socrates , Zico , Eder and Falcão . Scotland were again eliminated on goal difference , after a 2 – 2 draw with the Soviet Union .
Scotland qualified for the 1986 FIFA World Cup , their fourth in succession , in traumatic circumstances . The squad went into their last qualification match against Wales needing a point to progress to a qualifying playoff against Australia . With only nine minutes remaining and Wales leading 1 – 0 , Scotland were awarded a penalty kick , which was calmly scored by Davie Cooper . The 1 – 1 draw meant that Scotland progressed , but as the players and fans celebrated , national coach Jock Stein suffered a heart attack and died shortly afterwards . His assistant Alex Ferguson took over . Scotland qualified by winning 2 – 0 against Australia in a two @-@ leg playoff , but were eliminated from the tournament with just one point from their three matches , a goalless draw with Uruguay following defeats by Denmark and West Germany .
In July 1986 , Andy Roxburgh was the surprise appointment as the new manager of Scotland . Scotland did not succeed in qualifying for Euro 1988 , but their 1 – 0 away win over Bulgaria in the final fixture in November 1987 helped Ireland to a surprise first @-@ place finish and qualification for the finals in West Germany .
= = = 1990s = = =
Scotland qualified for their fifth consecutive World Cup in 1990 by finishing second in their qualifying group , ahead of France . Scotland were drawn in a group with Costa Rica , Sweden , and Brazil , but the Scots lost 1 – 0 to Costa Rica . While they recovered to beat Sweden 2 – 1 in their second game , they lost to Brazil in their third match 1 – 0 and were again eliminated after the first round .
By a narrow margin , Scotland qualified for the UEFA European Championship for the first time in 1992 . A 1 – 0 defeat by Romania away from home left qualification dependent upon other results , but a 1 – 1 draw between Bulgaria and Romania in the final group match saw Scotland squeeze through . Despite playing well in matches against the Netherlands and Germany and a fine win against the CIS , the team was knocked out at the group stage . Scotland failed to qualify for the 1994 FIFA World Cup . The team finished fourth in their qualifying group behind Italy , Switzerland and Portugal . When it became clear that Scotland could not qualify , Andy Roxburgh resigned from his position as team manager .
New manager Craig Brown successfully guided Scotland to the 1996 European Championship tournament . The first game against the Netherlands ended 0 – 0 , raising morale ahead of a much anticipated game against England at Wembley Stadium . Gary McAllister missed a penalty kick and a goal by Paul Gascoigne led to a 2 – 0 defeat . Scotland recovered to beat Switzerland 1 – 0 with a goal by Ally McCoist . England taking a 4 – 0 lead in the other match briefly put both teams in a position to qualify , but a late goal for the Netherlands meant that Scotland were again knocked out on goal difference .
Brown again guided Scotland to qualification for a major tournament in 1998 , and Scotland were drawn against Brazil in the opening game of the 1998 World Cup . John Collins equalised from the penalty spot to level the score at 1 – 1 , but a Tom Boyd own goal led to a 2 – 1 defeat . Scotland drew their next game 1 – 1 with Norway in Bordeaux , but the final match against Morocco ended in an embarrassing 3 – 0 defeat .
During the qualification for the 2000 European Championship , Scotland faced England in a two @-@ legged playoff nicknamed the " Battle of Britain " by the media . Scotland won the second match 1 – 0 with a goal by Don Hutchison , but lost the tie 2 – 1 on aggregate .
= = = 2000s = = =
Scotland failed to qualify for the 2002 FIFA World Cup , finishing third in their qualifying group behind Croatia and Belgium . This second successive failure to qualify prompted Craig Brown to resign from his position after the final qualifying match . The SFA appointed former Germany manager Berti Vogts as Brown 's successor . Scotland reached the qualification play @-@ offs for Euro 2004 . Scotland beat Netherlands 1 – 0 at Hampden Park , but suffered a 6 – 0 defeat in the return leg . Poor results in friendly matches and a bad start to the 2006 World Cup qualification caused the team to drop to a record low of 77th in the FIFA World Rankings . Vogts announced his resignation in 2004 , blaming the hostile media for his departure .
Walter Smith , a former Rangers and Everton manager , was brought in to replace Vogts . Improved results meant that Scotland rose up the FIFA rankings and won the Kirin Cup , a friendly competition in Japan . Scotland failed to qualify for the 2006 FIFA World Cup , finishing third in their group behind Italy and Norway . Smith left the national side in January 2007 to return to Rangers , with Scotland leading their Euro 2008 qualification group . Alex McLeish was named as Smith 's successor and Scotland 's twentieth manager . McLeish guided Scotland to wins against Georgia , the Faroe Islands , Lithuania , France and Ukraine , but defeats by Georgia and Italy ended their chances of qualification for Euro 2008 . These improved results , particularly the wins against France , lifted Scotland into the top 20 of the FIFA world rankings .
After the narrow failure to qualify for Euro 2008 , McLeish left to join Premier League club Birmingham City . Southampton manager George Burley was hired as the new manager , but he came in for criticism from the media after the team lost their first qualifier against Macedonia . After Scotland lost their fourth match 3 – 0 to the Netherlands , captain Barry Ferguson and goalkeeper Allan McGregor were excluded from the starting lineup for the following match against Iceland due to a " breach of discipline " . Despite winning 2 – 1 against Iceland , Scotland suffered a terrible 4 – 0 defeat by Norway in the following qualifier , which left Scotland effectively needing to win their last two games to have a realistic chance of making the qualifying play @-@ offs . Scotland defeated Macedonia 2 – 0 in the first of those two games , but were eliminated by a 1 – 0 loss to the Netherlands in the second game . Burley was allowed to continue in his post after a review by the SFA board , but a subsequent 3 – 0 friendly defeat by Wales led to the SFA sacking Burley .
= = = 2010s = = =
The SFA appointed Craig Levein as head coach of the national team in December 2009 . In UEFA Euro 2012 qualification , Scotland were grouped with Lithuania , Liechtenstein , Czech Republic and world champions Spain . They took just four points from the first four games , leaving the team needing three wins from their remaining four games to have a realistic chance of progression . They only managed two wins and a draw and were eliminated after a 3 – 1 defeat by Spain in their last match . Levein left his position as head coach following a poor start to 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification , having taken just two points from four games .
Gordon Strachan was appointed Scotland manager in January 2013 , but defeats in his first two competitive matches meant that Scotland were the first UEFA team to be eliminated from the 2014 World Cup . Scotland finished their qualification section by winning three of their last four matches , including two victories against Croatia . In UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying , Scotland appeared to have a better chance of qualification as the finals tournament was expanded from 16 teams to 24 . After losing their opening match in Germany , Scotland recorded home wins against Georgia , the Republic of Ireland and Gibraltar . Steven Fletcher scored the first hat @-@ trick for Scotland since 1969 in the game with Gibraltar . Later in the group , Scotland produced an " insipid " performance as they lost 1 – 0 in Georgia . A home defeat by Germany and a late equalising goal by Poland eliminated Scotland from contention . After a win against Gibraltar in the last qualifier , Strachan agreed a new contract with the SFA .
In qualification for the 2018 FIFA World Cup , Scotland were drawn in the same group as England , facing their rivals in a competitive fixture for the first time since 1999 .
= = Competitive record = =
= = = FIFA World Cup = = =
Scotland did not compete in the first three World Cup competitions , held in 1930 , 1934 and 1938 . FIFA ruled that all its member associations must provide " broken @-@ time " payments to cover the expenses of players who participated in football at the 1928 Summer Olympics . In response to what they considered to be unacceptable interference , the football associations of Scotland , England , Ireland and Wales held a meeting at which they agreed to resign from FIFA . The Scottish Football Association did not rejoin FIFA as a permanent member until 1946 . The Scottish Football Association declined to participate in 1950 although they had qualified , as Scotland were not the British champions .
Scotland have since qualified for eight finals tournaments , including five consecutive tournaments from 1974 to 1990 . Scotland have never advanced beyond the first round of the finals competition – no country has qualified for as many World Cup finals without progressing past the first round . They have missed out on progressing to the second round three times on goal difference : in 1974 , when Brazil edged them out ; in 1978 , when the Netherlands progressed ; and in 1982 , when the Soviet Union went through .
= = = UEFA European Championship = = =
Scotland have qualified for two European Championships , but have failed to advance beyond the first round on both occasions . Their most recent participation was at the 1996 European Championship , where the Netherlands progressed instead of Scotland on goals scored .
= = = Other honours = = =
British Home Championship
Winners ( 24 ) : 1884 , 1885 , 1887 , 1889 , 1894 , 1896 , 1897 , 1900 , 1902 , 1910 , 1921 , 1922 , 1923 , 1929 , 1935 , 1936 , 1946 , 1949 , 1951 , 1962 , 1963 , 1967 , 1976 , 1977
Shared ( 17 ) : 1886 , 1890 , 1903 , 1906 , 1908 , 1912 , 1927 , 1931 , 1935 , 1939 , 1953 , 1956 , 1960 , 1964 , 1970 , 1972 , 1974
Rous Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 1985
Kirin Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 2006
= = Stadium = =
Hampden Park in Glasgow is the traditional home of the Scotland team and is described by the Scottish Football Association as the National Stadium . The present stadium is one of three stadiums to have used the name . Stadiums named Hampden Park have hosted international matches since 1878 . The present site was opened in 1903 and became the primary home ground of the Scotland team from 1906 , as it has hosted every match against England since then . The attendance record of 149 @,@ 415 was set by the Scotland v England match in 1937 . Safety regulations reduced the capacity to 81 @,@ 000 by 1977 and the stadium was completely redeveloped during the 1990s , giving the present capacity of 52 @,@ 000 . Hampden is rated as a category four ( elite ) stadium within the UEFA stadium categories , having previously held the 5 – star status under the old rating system .
Some friendly matches are played at smaller venues . Pittodrie Stadium in Aberdeen and Easter Road in Edinburgh were both used as venues during the 2012 – 13 season . Other stadiums were also used while Hampden was being redeveloped during the 1990s . Celtic Park , Pittodrie Stadium , Ibrox Stadium and Rugby Park all hosted matches during the 1998 World Cup qualifying campaign , while Tynecastle Stadium , Pittodrie , Celtic Park and Ibrox were used for Euro 2000 qualifying matches . Since the last redevelopment to Hampden was completed in 1999 , Scotland have played most of their competitive matches there . The most recent exception to this rule was in 2014 , when Hampden was temporarily converted into an athletics stadium for the 2014 Commonwealth Games .
= = Media coverage = =
Scotland 's home matches are presently covered by the pay @-@ TV broadcaster Sky Sports . Television rights to away games vary ; Sky Sports currently hold the rights to both home and away qualifiers for Euro 2016 and the 2018 World Cup . The arrangements to show Scotland matches on pay @-@ TV have been criticised by the Scottish Government , who have argued that qualifying matches should be included in the list of sporting events which can only be broadcast on free @-@ to @-@ air television . The Scottish Football Association have argued that limiting the rights to free @-@ to @-@ air broadcasters would severely reduce the amount of revenue that they could generate . An independent advisory panel recommended that qualifying matches played by all four Home Nations be added to the list , but UK Sports Minister Hugh Robertson deferred a decision until the completion of the digital switchover .
BBC Scotland , STV , Setanta Sports , Channel 5 and BT Sport are among other networks that have previously shown live fixtures . All matches are broadcast with full commentary on BBC Radio Scotland and , when schedules allow , BBC Radio 5 Live also . In Australia , Scotland 's national football team home games and selected away games are broadcast by Setanta Sports Australia .
= = Colours = =
Scotland traditionally wear dark blue shirts with white shorts and dark blue socks , the colours of the Queen 's Park team who represented Scotland in the first international . The blue Scotland shirt was earlier used in a February 1872 rugby international , with reports stating that " the scotch were easily distinguishable by their uniform of blue jerseys .... the jerseys having the thistle embroidered " . The thistle had previously been worn to represent Scotland in the 1871 rugby international , but on brown shirts . The shirt is embroidered with a crest based upon the lion rampant of the Royal Standard of Scotland . Another style often used by Scotland comprises blue shirts , white shorts and red socks . Change colours vary , but are most commonly white or yellow shirts with blue shorts . From 1994 – 96 a tartan kit was used . The current version of the crest is a roundel similar to the crest used from 1961 to 1988 enclosing a shield , with " Scotland " written on the top and " Est 1873 " on the bottom . In the shield background there are 11 thistles , representing the national flower of Scotland , in addition to the lion rampant . Since 2005 , the SFA have supported the use of Scottish Gaelic on the national team 's strip in recognition of the language 's revival in Scotland .
Scotland have not always played in dark blue ; on a number of occasions between 1881 and 1951 they played in the primrose and pink racing colours of Archibald Primrose , 5th Earl of Rosebery . A former Prime Minister , Lord Rosebery was an influential figure in Scottish football , serving as honorary President of the Scottish Football Association and Edinburgh team Hearts . His colours were used most frequently in the first decade of the twentieth century , but were discontinued in 1909 . The colours were briefly reprised in 1949 , and were last used against France in 1951 . In 1900 , when Scotland defeated England 4 – 1 . Lord Rosebery remarked , " I have never seen my colours so well sported since Ladas won the Derby " . Rosebery colours were revived as a change kit for the UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying matches .
= = Supporters = =
Scotland fans are collectively known as the Tartan Army . During the 1970s , Scotland fans became known for their hooliganism in England , particularly after they invaded the Wembley pitch and destroyed the goalposts after the England v Scotland match in 1977 . Since then , the Tartan Army have won awards from UEFA for their combination of vocal support , friendly nature and charity work . The Tartan Army have been awarded a Fair Play prize by the Belgian Olympic Committee and were named as the best supporters during the 1992 European Championship . The fans were also presented with a trophy for non @-@ violence in sport and were voted by journalists to be the best supporters for their sense of fair play and sporting spirit at the 1998 World Cup in France .
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
The following players were called up for the matches against Italy on 29 May 2016 and France on 4 June 2016 .
As of 21 : 32 , 4 June 2016 ( UTC )
= = = Recent players = = =
The following players have been selected by Scotland in the past 12 months , but were not selected in the May / June 2016 squad , or withdrew from that squad due to injury or suspension .
= = = Honoured players = = =
The Scottish Football Association operates a roll of honour for every player who has made more than 50 appearances for Scotland . As of March 2016 there are 30 members of this roll , with Alan Hutton and Scott Brown the most recent additions to the list . The qualifying mark of 50 appearances means that many notable Scotland players including Jim Baxter , Hughie Gallacher , John Greig , Jimmy Johnstone , Billy McNeill , Bobby Murdoch and Lawrie Reilly are not on the roll of honour .
The Scottish Football Museum operates a hall of fame which is open to players and managers involved in Scottish football . This means that membership is not restricted to people who have played for Scotland ; inductees include Brian Laudrup and Henrik Larsson . At the most recent induction ceremony , Alan Rough , Martin Buchan , Eddie Gray , Tommy Docherty , Scot Symon and Bobby Walker were added to its membership . Sportscotland operates the Scottish Sports Hall of Fame , which has inducted some footballers .
= = Managers = =
From 1872 to 1953 , and 1954 to 1957 , the Scotland national team was appointed by a selection committee . Andy Beattie was manager for six matches in 1954 when Scotland competed at their first World Cup . After the tournament the selection committee resumed their duties , continuing until the appointment of Matt Busby in 1958 . Busby was initially unable to assume his duties due to the serious injuries he sustained in the Munich air disaster .
Statistically the most successful manager was Alex McLeish , who won seven of the ten games during his tenure . Discounting managers who took charge of less than ten games , the least successful manager was George Burley , with just three wins in 14 games .
Last updated : France v Scotland , 4 June 2016 . Statistics include official FIFA @-@ recognised matches only . The Scottish Football Association includes a match against a Hong Kong League XI played on 23 May 2002 in its statistical totals .
= = Records = =
Kenny Dalglish holds the record for Scotland appearances , having played 102 times between 1971 and 1986 . He is the only Scotland player to have reached 100 caps . Jim Leighton is second , having played 91 times , a Scottish record for appearances by a goalkeeper . Former Scotland manager Alex McLeish played for the team 77 times and is the third most capped player .
The title of Scotland 's highest goalscorer is shared by two players . Denis Law scored 30 goals between 1958 and 1974 , during which time he played for Scotland on 55 occasions . Kenny Dalglish scored an equal number from 102 appearances . Hughie Gallacher as well as being the third highest scorer is also the most prolific with his 23 goals coming from only 20 games ( averaging 1 @.@ 15 goals per game ) . Other notable strikers include , Lawrie Reilly , Ally McCoist , Mo Johnston and Joe Jordan .
The largest margin of victory achieved by a Scotland side is 11 – 0 against Ireland in the 1901 British Home Championship . The record defeat occurred during the 1954 FIFA World Cup , a 7 – 0 deficit against reigning world champions Uruguay .
Scotland 's 1937 British Home Championship match against England set a new world record for a football attendance . The Hampden Park crowd was officially recorded as 149 @,@ 415 , though the true figure is unknown as a large number of additional fans gained unauthorised entry . This attendance was surpassed 13 years later by the decisive match of the 1950 FIFA World Cup , but remains a European record .
= = United Kingdom team = =
Scotland has always participated by itself in most of the major tournaments , such as the FIFA World Cup and the UEFA European Championship . At the Olympic Games the International Olympic Committee charter only permit a Great Britain Olympic football team , representing the whole of the United Kingdom , to compete . Teams of amateur players represented Great Britain at the Olympics from 1900 until 1972 , but the FA stopped entering a team after then because the distinction between amateur and professional was abolished . The successful bid by London for the 2012 Summer Olympics prompted the FA to explore how a team could be entered . The SFA responded by stating that it would not participate , as it feared this would threaten the independent status of the Scotland national team . FIFA President Sepp Blatter denied this , but the SFA expressed concern that a future President could take a different view . An agreement was reached in May 2009 whereby the FA would be permitted to organise a team using only England @-@ qualified players , but this was successfully challenged by the British Olympic Association . Only English and Welsh players were selected for the men 's squad , but two Scottish players were selected for the women 's team .
= 1996 Andhra Pradesh cyclone =
The 1996 Andhra Pradesh cyclone ( also known as Cyclone 07B ) , was a small but powerful storm that left heavy damage in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh . It formed on November 4 in the eastern Bay of Bengal . Moving westward , it quickly organized and developed a well @-@ defined eye . On November 6 , the cyclone struck about 50 km ( 30 mi ) south of Kakinada , Andhra Pradesh at peak intensity . The India Meteorological Department estimated peak winds of 145 km / h ( 90 mph ) , while the American @-@ based Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) assessed peak winds of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) . Soon after landfall , the cyclone weakened and dissipated by November 7 .
Ahead of the storm , about 225 @,@ 000 families evacuated , although many towns lacked proper storm shelters . When the cyclone made landfall , it produced strong winds up to 100 km ( 60 mi ) inland , dropped 210 millimetres ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) of rainfall across a 40 km ( 25 mi ) region , and flooded over 250 villages along a 60 km ( 37 mi ) portion of the coast . About 70 % of the overall damage was in East Godavari district , where two villages were entirely destroyed . The storm destroyed 241 @,@ 802 ha ( 597 @,@ 510 acres ) of crops and killed millions of cattle and chicken . Across Andhra Pradesh , the storm damaged 647 @,@ 554 houses , including over 10 @,@ 000 that were destroyed . Overall damage totaled ₹ 21 @.@ 5 billion ( equivalent to ₹ 82 billion or US $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in 2016 ) , comparable to a cyclone in 1977 that also hit Andhra Pradesh . There were 1 @,@ 077 confirmed deaths with many others missing , although many of the dead were washed into the sea and were unlikely to be found . After the storm , the government and local Red Cross chapters helped residents recover from the damage , while the World Bank provided money to better prepare Andhra Pradesh for future storms .
= = Meteorological history = =
On October 30 , a Pacific tropical depression crossed the Kra Isthmus into the Bay of Bengal , dissipating the next day over Myanmar . A new area of convection , or thunderstorms , developed over the Andaman Sea on November 1 The system was located within the monsoon trough , and a weak flow steered it slowly westward across the Bay of Bengal , bringing it briefly over southwestern Myanmar . After the convection organized more , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert at 07 : 30 UTC on November 3 . At 12 : 00 UTC that day , the agency initiated advisories on the system , designating it Tropical Cyclone 07B about 645 km ( 400 mi ) west of Yangon , Myanmar . The India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) – the official Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the basin – did not classify the system until November 4 ; at 15 : 00 UTC , the agency designated it as a depression .
Located beneath the axis of an upper @-@ level ridge , the depression was able to intensify and organize more , with prominent outflow developing . On November 5 , the IMD upgraded the system to a deep depression and later to a cyclonic storm . At 06 : 00 UTC on the same day , the JTWC upgraded the storm to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , estimating 1 minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . It continued westward toward eastern India at a slow pace , later turning more to the west @-@ northwest . Early on November 6 , the storm began rapidly intensifying , and the IMD upgraded the storm to a severe cyclonic storm and later a very severe cyclonic storm . At 04 : 00 UTC that day , an irregular eye formed in the middle of the central dense overcast , which quickly became more circular and distinct . At 06 : 00 UTC on November 6 , the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) , the equivalent of a Category 4 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale , and a minimum barometric pressure of 922 mbar ( 27 @.@ 2 inHg ) . The IMD assessed a much lower intensity , estimating 3 minute winds of 145 km / h ( 90 mph ) based on a Dvorak rating of 4 @.@ 5 .
While approaching land , the eye contracted from a peak width of 64 km ( 40 mi ) to 17 km ( 11 mi ) . At 16 : 00 UTC on November 6 , the cyclone made landfall about 50 km ( 30 mi ) south of Kakinada , Andhra Pradesh along the east coast of India . The estimated landfall pressure was 978 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . It was a smaller @-@ than @-@ normal cyclone , only 450 km ( 280 mi ) in diameter . The storm rapidly weakened after moving ashore , deteriorating into a deep depression early on November 7 . The JTWC issued their last advisory at 06 : 00 UTC that day , and the IMD downgraded the system to a remnant low pressure area over Telangana at 12 : 00 UTC .
= = Preparations and impact = =
The IMD issued warnings related to the cyclone that were distributed to the public by television , telegraph , news outlets , and other government departments . The All India Radio broadcast warnings beginning on November 5 , the day before landfall . Train service was disrupted throughout Andhra Pradesh , stranding thousands of travelers . India 's Oil and Natural Gas Corporation suspended operations during the storm . The storm caused local Diwali festivities to be canceled . It ultimately struck about 50 km ( 30 mi ) north of where it was expected , in a region farther away from state shelters . About 225 @,@ 000 families evacuated due to the storm . However , about 30 % of the towns in the region lacked a storm shelter , and the existing shelters were generally in poor shape . Some residents avoided the shelters due to their state of disrepair , or stayed in their homes for fear they would be robbed . In addition , storm emergency plans enacted after a cyclone in 1977 that struck Andhra Pradesh had not been used since 1986 . Roads and shelters built following a cyclone in 1990 fared the storm better than older structures .
The powerful cyclone brought intense winds , heavy rainfall , and high waves to Andhra Pradesh in eastern India . Hurricane @-@ force winds – at least 120 km / h ( 75 mi ) – penetrated 100 km ( 60 mi ) inland . Peak gusts were estimated at 200 km / h ( 124 mph ) , based on anemometers that were blown away in Yanam . The highest recorded sustained wind was 111 km / h ( 69 mph ) by a ship at the Kakinada Port , only 50 km ( 30 mi ) from the landfall location . The storm dropped heavy rainfall near the coast , peaking at 390 mm ( 15 in ) in Amalapuram . Rainfall rates of over 210 millimetres ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) occurred over 3 hours in a 40 km ( 25 mi ) stretch of land . Along a 60 km ( 37 mi ) portion of the coast , 3 @.@ 7 m ( 12 ft ) waves accompanied a 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) storm surge , spreading 5 km ( 3 mi ) inland . The storm struck just three weeks after another storm killed 350 people . Storm damage extended 130 km ( 80 mi ) inland . Widespread areas of crop fields were inundated with floodwaters , washing away tons of rice , coconuts , and bananas . The winds knocked down about 5 million coconut trees . It was estimated that the storm destroyed 174 @,@ 000 ha ( 430 @,@ 000 acres ) of rice paddy , along with 67 @,@ 802 ha ( 167 @,@ 540 acres ) of other crops . About 13 @,@ 500 livestock and 1 million chickens were killed by the storm ; many of them rotted on arable fields after the waters receded .
Heavy rainfall and high tides flooded more than 250 villages , and the cyclone affected 1 @,@ 380 villages throughout Andhra Pradesh . Many canals and drains were breached by the floods . The storm washed four cargo ships ashore and sank or destroyed 6 @,@ 464 boats . About 70 % of the overall damage was in East Godavari district , where Kakinada was among the hardest hit villages . Two nearby villages – Bhairvapada and Bulusutippa – were entirely destroyed . The villages did not receive advanced warning , and Bhairvapada did not have a functioning cyclone shelter . There , 90 % of the boats were damaged or destroyed . In Amalapuram , also in East Godavari , roughly two of every three houses were destroyed . The cyclone also destroyed 55 electrical towers , including a 100 m ( 330 ft ) tall telecommunications tower , as well as nearly 17 @,@ 000 power lines in West Godavari . About 1 @,@ 300 km ( 810 mi ) of roads were damaged or washed out , including 210 km ( 130 mi ) of National Highway 5 . Flooding also washed out several railroads , while damaged water drainage systems spewed sewage onto the streets . Many hospitals in the region were washed away or flooded . Across Andhra Pradesh , the storm damaged 647 @,@ 554 houses , with about 200 @,@ 000 sustaining roof damage , and over 10 @,@ 000 that were destroyed . Over 100 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . In the hardest hit areas , only houses made of brick and cement withstood the high winds , and huts made of mud and thatch were decimated . Overall damage was officially estimated at RS $ 21 @.@ 5 billion ( US $ 602 million ) . However , the World Bank indicated damage reached as high as US $ 1 @.@ 5 billion . Officials likened damage to the 1977 cyclone that also struck Andhra Pradesh .
After the storm , there were 1 @,@ 000 fishermen missing at sea , despite warnings not to leave port . After being presumed lost , 162 boats returned to port four days after the storm , and additional fishermen returned over the succeeding days . However , there were 569 fishermen killed or left missing due to lost boats at sea . Many of these fishermen had departed days before the storm , and those that survived had transistors in their boats . Lacking advanced warning , many shrimp farmers in remote villages were swept away by waves . Hundreds of dead bodies were discovered along the shore ; after they were identified , the corpses were cremated instead of bringing the bodies into local villages . Most of the fatalities on land were the result of buildings collapsing on people who stayed inside . A ferry crossing the Godavari River sank amid rough waves , killing all 42 people on board . Overall , the cyclone killed at least 978 people in Andhra Pradesh , with 1 @,@ 375 people listed as missing in January 1997 . However , the Red Cross did not expect to find all of the missing bodies , as some were likely washed into the Bay of Bengal . A later report to the Food and Agriculture Organization indicated there were 1 @,@ 077 confirmed deaths , with an unconfirmed death toll as high as 2 @,@ 760 .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the storm 's heavy damage , homeless residents resided in temporary camps . Later , the Indian government set up 742 relief centers housing 177 @,@ 000 people , utilizing schools and office buildings . However , residents did not stay for extended periods of time in the shelters , as rebuilding began within three days of the storm 's landfall . Many of the displaced people returned to their homes after the storm receded . Workers restored water service and distributed potable water to those in need . Workers used cranes to remove trees from highways . Roads and communication links were quickly restored , as was the power supply . Later , damaged houses were reconstructed with tiled roofs while destroyed houses were rebuilt on concrete slabs , both to withstand stronger winds .
The Andhra Pradesh government coordinated with the Indian Red Cross Society to provide relief goods to the affected citizens , such as 75 kg ( 165 lb ) of rice per family . The Red Cross sent 10 trucks carrying blankets , food , and cooking supplies from Delhi to Andhra Pradesh , to be distributed by the Andhra Pradesh Red Cross . India 's military enacted search and rescue missions in the days following the storm . Six helicopters worked continuously to airlift food , water , and medicine to storm victims , although residents fought over the aid in poor areas . Helicopters also surveyed the storm damage , as many affected small villages were not linked by roads . About 935 medical teams were established following the storm , and chlorinated drinking tablets were distributed to purify water , in an attempt to prevent a cholera outbreak . Cholera spreads through stagnant contaminated water , and there were eight reports of storm victims contracting the disease . In the months after the storm , foreign governments and international organizations donated about US $ 500 @,@ 000 .
The World Bank considered the cyclone as having a significant effect on Andhra Pradesh 's economy . Andhra Pradesh 's chief minister N. Chandrababu Naidu estimated that the state would take as long as 30 years to recover from the storm . The government provided RS $ 1 @,@ 500 ( US $ 420 ) to every family whose hut collapsed during the storm , and RS $ 100 @,@ 000 ( US $ 2 @,@ 857 ) to the family of every person killed by the storm . However , there were also reports of people stealing bodies to receive the payment . The federal government provided about US $ 12 million to the state , as well as tax deductions for monetary donations . Former Union Minister Rangaiah Naidu opined that the state government overinflated the damage estimates to qualify for additional aid , in part due to the government spending annual disaster subsidies for salaries . The World Bank credited the government 's experience with disasters as saving lives , although the response to the disaster was largely in repairing damage , rather than mitigating against future storms . The storm also demonstrated the region 's outdated infrastructure .
Following the heavy damage from the cyclone and other recent disasters , the World Bank enacted a plan for Andhra Pradesh in April 1997 , consisting of repairing damaged infrastructure , an updated disaster plan , and technical assistance to the state government . Shelters and roads would be improved to higher standards . This plan ultimately cost about US $ 175 million and was completed in July 2003 , three years longer than expected but at a lower cost due to the Indian rupee losing some of its value . Power lines were improved to withstand winds of 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) , while drains were enlarged and a coastal plant system was created to lessen flooding . An additional 82 public shelters were constructed . However , the plan failed to yield a long term disaster policy for the state .
= USS Saugus ( 1863 ) =
USS Saugus was a single @-@ turreted Canonicus @-@ class monitor built for the Union Navy during the American Civil War . The vessel was assigned to the James River Flotilla of the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron upon completion in April 1864 . The ship spent most of her time stationed up the James River where she could support operations against Richmond and defend against a sortie by the Confederate ironclads of the James River Squadron . She engaged Confederate artillery batteries during the year and later participated in both attacks on Fort Fisher , defending the approaches to Wilmington , North Carolina , in December 1864 – January 1865 . Saugus returned to the James River after the capture of Fort Fisher and remained there until Richmond , Virginia was occupied in early April .
A few days later , the monitor was transferred to Washington , D. C. and used to temporarily incarcerate some of the suspected conspirators after the assassination of President Lincoln . She was decommissioned in June and recommissioned in early 1869 for service in the Caribbean and off the coast of Florida . Saugus was again recommissioned in late 1872 and generally remained active until late 1877 . She was condemned in 1886 and sold for scrap in 1891 .
= = Description and construction = =
The ship was 223 feet ( 68 @.@ 0 m ) long overall , had a beam of 43 feet 4 inches ( 13 @.@ 2 m ) and had a maximum draft of 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 1 m ) . Saugus had a tonnage of 1 @,@ 034 tons burthen and displaced 2 @,@ 100 long tons ( 2 @,@ 100 t ) . Her crew consisted of 100 officers and enlisted men .
Saugus was powered by a two @-@ cylinder horizontal vibrating @-@ lever steam engine that drove one propeller using steam generated by two Stimers horizontal fire @-@ tube boilers . The 320 @-@ indicated @-@ horsepower ( 240 kW ) engine gave the ship a top speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . She carried 140 – 150 long tons ( 140 – 150 t ) of coal . Saugus 's main armament consisted of two smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading , 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) Dahlgren guns mounted in a single gun turret . Each gun weighed approximately 43 @,@ 000 pounds ( 20 @,@ 000 kg ) . They could fire a 350 @-@ pound ( 158 @.@ 8 kg ) shell up to a range of 2 @,@ 100 yards ( 1 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of + 7 ° .
The exposed sides of the hull were protected by five layers of 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) wrought iron plates , backed by wood . The armor of the gun turret and the pilot house consisted of ten layers of one @-@ inch plates . The ship 's deck was protected by armor 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick . A 5 @-@ by @-@ 15 @-@ inch ( 130 by 380 mm ) soft iron band was fitted around the base of the turret to prevent shells and fragments from jamming the turret as had happened to earlier monitors during the First Battle of Charleston Harbor in April 1863 . The base of the funnel ( ship ) was protected to a height of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) by 8 inches ( 200 mm ) of armor . A " rifle screen " of 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ inch ( 13 mm ) armor 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) high was installed on the top of the turret to protect the crew against Confederate snipers based on a suggestion by Commander Tunis A. M. Craven , captain of her sister ship Tecumseh .
The contract for Saugus , the first Navy ship to be named Saugus after the town of Saugus , Massachusetts , was awarded to Harlan & Hollingsworth ; the ship was laid down in 1862 at their Wilmington , Delaware shipyard . She was launched on 14 December 1863 and commissioned on 7 April 1864 with Commander Edmund R. Colhoun in command . The ship 's construction was delayed by multiple changes ordered while she was being built that reflected battle experience with earlier monitors . This included the rebuilding of the turrets and pilot houses to increase their armor thickness from 8 inches ( 203 mm ) to 10 inches and to replace the bolts that secured their armor plates together with rivets to prevent them from being knocked loose by the shock of impact from shells striking the turret . Other changes included deepening the hull by 18 inches ( 457 mm ) to increase the ship 's buoyancy , moving the position of the turret to balance the ship 's trim and replacing all of the ship 's deck armor . As far as is known the ship was not modified after her completion .
= = Service = =
Saugus was assigned to the James River Flotilla and arrived at Fort Monroe on 1 May . By 22 May , the ship was deployed with her sisters Canonicus and Tecumseh on the James River where they protected the transports of Major General Benjamin Butler 's Army of the James , supplying the army as it operated on the south bank of the river during the Bermuda Hundred Campaign . On 21 June , Commander Craven of the Tecumseh spotted a line of breastworks that the Confederates were building at Howlett 's Farm and his ship opened fire at the workers . The Confederates replied with a battery of four guns near the breastworks and Saugus and Canonicus joined in the bombardment . A half @-@ hour later , Confederate ships near Dutch Gap joined in , but their fire was ineffective because they were firing blindly at the Union monitors . During the engagement , Saugus fired thirty @-@ six 15 @-@ inch shells and was hit once by a Confederate shell that struck the deck and ricocheted into the turret ; no one was wounded or killed during the engagement . Eight days later , Saugus and the side @-@ wheel gunboat Hunchback engaged a battery at Deep Bottom Creek . The same pair of ships engaged another battery on Four Mile Creek on 31 June and 1 July .
Saugus was still under repair at the Norfolk Navy Yard in early September when she received orders to proceed with Canonicus and the gunboats Glaucus and Juniata to Port Royal , South Carolina , and there await Admiral David Farragut , the prospective commander of the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron , in anticipation of an attack on Fort Fisher . This deployment was cancelled on 19 September when poor health caused Farragut to decline the appointment . The ship returned to the James and resumed supporting the Union Army . In an engagement with Howlett 's Battery on 5 December , Saugus was hit twice . One of the shots from a 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) Brooke rifle disabled her turret temporarily when it cracked an armor plate and broke a number of 2 @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) bolts . The monitor ran aground on 14 December and she was refloated the following day . Saugus was repaired at Norfolk and she was then towed by the gunboat Nereus . They departed on 22 December and arrived off Fort Fisher on Christmas Eve . The next day , Saugus joined the bombardment of the Confederate fortifications from a range of 800 yards ( 730 m ) . Colhoun reported that he saw one Confederate gun dismounted by his ship 's shells ; Saugus fired 64 shells during the day . After Butler ordered his men re @-@ embarked onto their transports on 26 December , the monitor was towed to Beaufort , South Carolina by the gunboat Quaker City .
Towed by the side @-@ wheel gunboat Alabama , Saugus arrived back at Fort Fisher on 13 January 1865 . Together with her sisters Canonicus and Mahopac , the double @-@ turreted monitor Onondaga and the armored frigate New Ironsides , she bombarded the fort for three days until it was captured by Union troops . Despite the bursting of one of her guns on 13 January , which wounded one crewman , the ship fired 212 shells during the battle . Saugus was hit 11 times , cracking armor plates on her pilothouse and turret in addition to breaking bolts , but she was not badly damaged . Nonetheless , the monitor was ordered to return to Norfolk for repairs on 16 January , towed by the sidewheel gunboat Rhode Island . On 23 January , as the ship was en route for the Washington Navy Yard for repairs , the Confederate James River Squadron attempted to slip through the obstructions at Trent 's Reach for an attack on the Union gunboats and transports , but they were repulsed before Saugus reached City Point four days later .
Saugus remained on the James for the next month and contributed boats for clearing the river of " torpedoes " after the Confederate ships were scuttled on the night of 2 / 3 April and Richmond occupied . On 5 April , the ship , now under the command of Lieutenant B. F. Day , and Mahopac were ordered report to the Washington Navy Yard . After the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln on 15 April , eight of the suspected conspirators were incarcerated aboard Saugus and the monitor Montauk . On 30 April , they were transferred off the ships to the Arsenal Penitentiary .
= = Post @-@ war operations = =
Saugus was decommissioned and laid up at Washington , D. C. , on 13 June 1865 . Recommissioned on 30 April 1869 , the monitor steamed to Cuba to investigate reports of mistreatment of US citizens during a revolt there . She then patrolled along the Florida coast until she was laid up at Key West , Florida on the last day of 1870 . During this time , the ship was renamed Centaur on 15 June 1869 , but resumed her original name on 10 August 1869 . After being towed to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania for repairs , Saugus was recommissioned there on 9 November 1872 and was based at Key West until transferred to Port Royal , South Carolina in 1876 . During this period the ship was out of commission from 9 March to 10 October 1874 . Saugus returned to Washington in 1877 and was decommissioned there on 8 October . She was condemned in 1886 and sold for scrap on 25 May 1891 .
= Paresh Mokashi =
Paresh Mokashi ( born 6 February 1969 ) is an Indian filmmaker , producer , actor and Theatre director @-@ producer ; working predominantly in Marathi cinema and Marathi theatre . He started working as a backstage worker for theatre and did few minor roles for plays as well as films . Mokashi made his directorial debut for theatre with the Marathi play , Sangeet Debuchya Mulee in 1999 . He continued to work for theatre and made his directorial debut for cinema with the 2009 Marathi feature film , Harishchandrachi Factory . The film depicts the making of India 's first full @-@ length feature film , Raja Harishchandra ( 1913 ) , made by Dadasaheb Phalke . The film was acclaimed critically and won several awards . It was also selected as India 's official entry to 82nd Academy Awards in the Best Foreign Language Film category .
= = Personal life = =
Paresh Mokashi was born to a Maharashtrian family in Pune and was brought up in Lonavla . He is a grandson of a noted Marathi writer D. B. Mokashi . Mokashi finished his schooling in Lonavla and acquired Bachelor of Arts degree from a Pune @-@ based college . He has also formed his production company , " Mayasabha Productions " , which has produced some of his own work including his 2005 Marathi play , Samudra and 2009 Marathi film , Harishchandrachi Factory . He currently lives in Mumbai and is married to theatre actor @-@ writer Madhugandha Kulkarni , who had also done a minor role in Mokashi 's debut film , Harishchandrachi Factory . | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
History = =
Prairie Avenue once served as an Indian trail linking Fort Dearborn to Fort Wayne in Indiana and thus derived its name from the vast midwestern prairie land between the two endpoints . In 1812 , the Battle of Fort Dearborn occurred in the area that is now the northern section of the street , in what is known as the Near South Side community area . Casualties of the battle , such as William Wells and George Ronan , were struck down here .
Over time , the district has evolved from an upscale neighborhood to a factory district and back to an upscale neighborhood . Zoning in 1853 anticipated residential development , although only one grand villa existed at the time . By 1877 the eleven @-@ block area of Prairie Avenue as well as Calumet Avenue housed elite residences . By 1886 the finest mansions in the city , each equipped with its own carriage house , stood on Prairie Avenue . In the 1880s and 1890s , mansions for George Pullman , Marshall Field , John J. Glessner and Philip Armour anchored a neighborhood of over fifty mansions known as " Millionaire 's Row " . Many of the leading architects of the day , such as Richard Morris Hunt , Henry Hobson Richardson and Daniel Burnham designed mansions on the street . At the time of the 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition , guidebooks described the street as " the most expensive street west of Fifth Avenue " . However , after Bertha Palmer , society wife of Potter Palmer , built the Palmer Mansion that anchored the Gold Coast along Lake Shore Drive , the elite residents began to move north .
By 1911 , warehouses and factories cramped the Prairie Avenue District . Large industry overtook the district by 1950 . Early 21st century deindustrialisation , urban congestion , and historic preservation have brought the return of trendy buildings , and restored as well as renovated structures . Simultaneously new infill housing is resuscitating the district . Now , the historic northern section of the street is part of the Chicago Landmark Prairie Avenue District that is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . It was declared a Chicago Landmark on December 27 , 1979 , and added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 15 , 1972 . The historic district includes the 1800 and 1900 @-@ blocks of South Prairie , the 1800 block of South Indiana and 211 through 217 East Cullerton .
= = Background = =
In the 1850s , railroad related industries prospered near the lumber district along the South Branch of the Chicago River . Thus , the business district began to supplant the elegant residences along Michigan and Wabash Avenues south of Jackson Boulevard . Shortly after the Civil War , the city 's wealthy residents settled on Prairie Avenue due to its proximity to the Loop less than a mile away and the fact that traveling there did not involve crossing the Chicago River . In 1870 , Daniel Thompson erected the first large upper @-@ Prairie Avenue home . Marshall Field followed in 1871 with a Richard Morris Hunt design . Prairie Avenue was the most posh Chicago address by the time of the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 .
Many of South Michigan Avenue 's elegant villas were destroyed in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 . The post @-@ fire South Side of Chicago grew rapidly as all economic classes left the city 's center . Many of Chicago 's elite families settled along Prairie Avenue . By the 1870s and 1880s , Prairie Avenue was the location of elaborate houses between 16th Street and 22nd Street ( now Cermak Road ) . In 1886 , the urban elite , including George Pullman , Marshall Field , Philip Armour and John B. Sherman all owned family homes in this area that created an opulent Prairie Avenue streetscape reminiscent of European city streets ; as such , it was widely regarded as the city 's most fashionable neighborhood . Businesses , such as the Pullman Company , Armour & Company and D.H. Burnham & Company , with ties to Prairie Avenue had national and international reach and impact . Additional grand homes ( including many Queen Anne Style architecture and Richardsonian Romanesque ) were located on Prairie between 26th and 30th Streets starting in the mid @-@ 1880s . The last mansion , a three @-@ story Georgian Revival residence with 21 rooms , was built in the district at 2126 Prairie Avenue in 1905 .
However , as the start of the 20th century came , industry 's pervasive reach , increased railroad soot , and an encroaching vice district , caused the area to become less desirable , and the social elite vacated the region for quieter neighborhoods such as Kenwood , the Gold Coast and more commonly the suburban North Shore . The Chicago Tribune highlighted 1898 Prairie Avenue as a place that was undesirable to those for whom it was affordable , and unaffordable to those for whom it was desirable . Light industry and vacant lots overtook Prairie Avenue during the second half of the 20th century . The elegant mansions were mostly torn down or fell into extreme disrepair . By the 1970s , most of the residential buildings had been replaced by factories and parking lots . Starting in the late 1990s , the downtown housing market flourished in Chicago and the resulting boom that has transformed many neighborhoods revived Prairie Avenue , causing most of the factories to be demolished or converted to loft condominiums . The factories have been replaced by condominium projects and most of the remaining mansions have been renovated .
= = Influence = =
During the 1870s , 1880s and 1890s , upper Prairie Avenue residents were central to cultural and social fabric of the city . The economy was supported by the thousands of jobs created by the Pullman Car Company and Armour and Company . Chicago 's richest man , Marshall Field , changed the buying habits of the city . John Shorthall saved the property from total chaos after the Great Chicago Fire by saving property records . At one point in the 1880s , sixteen of the 60 members of the Commercial Club of Chicago lived on Prairie Avenue . George Armour headed the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts , which became the Art Institute of Chicago . 1801 South Prairie resident , William Wallace Kimball , employed about 1500 people around the start of the 20th century in his organ and piano manufacturing company . John Glessner , a founder of International Harvester , built what has been described as the centerpiece of the historic district .
As a home to many of Chicago 's leading families , Prairie Avenue became the base of many important political movements . Woman 's suffrage had activists , such as Illinois Women Suffrage Association President Jane Jones , on Prairie Avenue . Illinois Central Railroad Co. v. State of Illinois , 146 U.S. 387 ( 1892 ) , pitted the public welfare of the city against the railroad industry and was the foundation for the public trust doctrine which facilitated the city 's reclamation of much of the lakefront . Prairie Avenue residents bolstered other efforts to fight against the railroads . The concentration of wealth also made Prairie Avenue the target of complaints about taxation inequities .
Many of these leading families also took part in philanthropy . John Shorthall , founder of Chicago Title & Trust and Prairie Avenue resident , created the Illinois Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and convened local and state societies to unite under a national organization ( American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals ) that could combine its political strength and lobby Congress . The Illinois Institute of Technology was a successor entity of the Armour Institute of Technology , which was an outgrowth of the generosity of Philip and Joseph Armour .
= = Preservation = =
Historic preservation in Chicago has saved some of the city 's architectural heritage . The efforts of the Chicago Architecture Foundation and the Landmarks and Preservation Council of Illinois have been at the forefront of these efforts . The Commission on Chicago Landmarks ( now part of the city 's Department of Planning and Development ) has designated the Prairie Avenue Historic District as a city landmark .
A few of the mansions of the heyday still remain in the 1800 @-@ block including the National Historic landmark designated John J. Glessner House designed in 1886 by architect Henry H. Richardson for Glessner ; these provide a sense of the street 's former character . Glessner House , which was the subject of a notable preservation battle in the 1960s , is considered to be Richardson 's finest urban residence . This district includes the Henry B. Clarke House , which although twice relocated is purported to be the city 's oldest standing house . In addition to the Clarke House and the Glessner House , nine other houses from the late @-@ 19th century remain in the historic district portion of Prairie Avenue . Both the Glessner House and the Clarke House are on the National Historic Register and now serve as museums . Most of the Prairie Avenue families worshiped at the Chicago Landmark Second Presbyterian Church of Chicago , which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
Marshall Field lived at 1905 South Prairie and purchased 1919 South Prairie for Marshall Field , Jr . It is believed that Solon Spencer Beman had contributed to the design of what is now known as the Marshall Field , Jr . Mansion . Then , Field hired Daniel Burnham to design extensions and additions to the property after purchasing it 1890 . In 2007 , the Commission on Chicago Landmarks announced the rehabilitation of the Marshall Field Jr . Mansion , which had been vacant for 40 years and which was renovated as six private residences , won a Preservation Award .
Today , Prairie Avenue has buildings indexed in the Chicago Historic Resources Survey in the Near South Side , Douglas , Grand Boulevard , Washington Park and Chatham community areas . Among the properties listed is a simple two @-@ flat used by Al Capone in the 1920s at 7244 South Prairie in Greater Grand Crossing . Other current prominent addresses are the Kimball House at 1801 South Prairie ( Near South Side ) , 2801 , 3564 , 3566 , and 3600 South Prairie ( Douglas ) , and 4919 South Prairie ( Grand Boulevard ) .
The William Wallace Kimball House , which is a three @-@ story turreted chateau , was designed by Solon Beman , who is best known for his work in the Pullman District of the Pullman community area . Adjacent to the Kimball House and across from the Glessner House is the Coleman @-@ Ames mansion at 1811 South Prairie . These two houses were formerly owned by R.R. Donnelley & Sons Company and now jointly serve as the national headquarters for the United States Soccer Federation ( USSF ) , which leased them from 1991 until 1998 when it purchased them from the Chicago Architectural Foundation . The Kimball house , which has been the product of a $ 1 million renovation in the 1990s by the USSF was featured in Richard Gere 's Primal Fear as well as several television shows .
Al Capone and his family lived in the two @-@ story red brick duplex at 7244 South Prairie Avenue from 1923 , which is shortly after he moved to Chicago , until 1931 , when he was sent off to prison for income tax fraud . The Capone family kept the home until his mother 's death in 1952 . In 1988 , the privately owned house was nominated for the National Register of Historic Places by historians as the home of one of Chicago 's most famous citizens . The nomination was withdrawn after local politicians and members of Italian @-@ American groups sharply argued that it would appear to validate the life of a murderer and hoodlum . The house retains the security bars on the basement windows and the brick garage out back , which the Capone built for his bullet @-@ proof Cadillac limousine .
In 2000 , the Howard Van Doren Shaw @-@ designed 1907 Georgian Revival Platt Luggage Building at 2301 South Prairie was the subject of preservation debates when McCormick Place attempted to tear it down to build a parking garage . The conflict , which was not settled before wreckers had knocked a hole in a corner of the building and which included protests and a petition to the Illinois Supreme Court , was described on the front page of The New York Times . Preservationists , including the Landmarks Preservation Council of Illinois and the National Trust for Historic Preservation , eventually dropped their appeals once the Metropolitan Pier and Exposition Authority committed to incorporating the original facade of the building into the exterior of the parking garage at an additional cost of $ 2 @.@ 5 million to the project . The Harriet F. Rees House at 2110 South Prairie was spared demolition in 2014 and moved one block north to 2017 South Prairie .
A book on the history of the street , entitled Chicago 's Historic Prairie Avenue , was published on June 2 , 2008 , as part of Arcadia Publishing Co . ' s Images of America series . William H. Tyre is the author . In 2006 , the Prairie District Neighborhood Alliance , a non @-@ profit organization , was formed to provide representation for thousands of South Loop residents , including the Prairie District , Central Station and Museum Park , Motor Row , the South Michigan Ave Corridor , as well as other areas of the Near South Side .
= = Today = =
In 2003 , the area redevelopment was well underway . Deindustrialization and urbanization had pushed out manufacturing . As a result , factories were generally demolished , or converted to loft apartment buildings . Some neglected mansions survive as restored or renovated properties in the historic district . Today , Prairie Avenue is undergoing a redevelopment that includes One Museum Park ( 1215 South Prairie Avenue ) and One Museum Park West ( 1201 South Prairie Avenue ) . These Prairie Avenue addresses border the Roosevelt Road side of Grant Park . One Museum Park is the tallest building on Chicago 's South Side and among the tallest buildings in Chicago . It surpassed 340 on the Park as the tallest all @-@ residential building in Chicago , and it is second to the Trump World Tower in the United States .
= Daniel Santos ( boxer ) =
Daniel Santos ( born October 10 , 1975 in San Juan , Puerto Rico ) is a Puerto Rican professional boxer . As an amateur Santos represented Puerto Rico in international events , including the 1990 and 1992 Junior World Championships , Pan American Boxing Tournament , Goodwill Games , 1995 Pan American Games and the 1996 Summer Olympics , where he won a bronze medal in the Welterweight Division . Santos debuted as a professional in 1996 . Santos won the World Boxing Organization Welterweight championship on June 5 , 2000 . On March 16 , 2002 he vacated the welterweight division 's championship in order to compete against Yori Boy Campas for the vacant World Boxing Organization Light middleweight championship . Santos defended this championship on four occasions , against Mehrdud Takaloo ( in a fight where he won the World Boxing Union Light middleweight championship ) , Fulgencio Zúñiga , Michael Lerma and Antonio Margarito before losing it to Sergiy Dzindziruk by unanimous decision in a fight that took place on December 3 , 2005 . On July 11 , 2008 , Santos won his third professional championship , knocking out Joachim Alcine in six rounds to win the World Boxing Association 's light middleweight title .
= = Amateur career and early life = =
Santos was raised in a family where boxing was a common profession , with his father Paquito Santos being a trainer and his brother Edgardo Santos being a former professional boxer . Early in his life Daniel Santos was enrolled in a school specialized in sports , located in a facility designed for the training of Olympic athletes in Puerto Rico . He eventually graduated from this institution and continued a career in boxing . Santos began to compete in the international amateur circuit in 1990 . On this year he won the bronze medal in the World Junior Championships that were organized in Lima , Peru . Two years later he competed in the World Junior Championships that were celebrated in Montreal , Canada , where he won the bronze medal , for the second straight time in a competition with worldwide scope . On 1993 he debuted in the adult division when he competed in the Panamerican Boxing championship . This event took place in Salinas , Puerto Rico . Santos won the gold medal on this tournament . In 1994 Santos represented Puerto Rico in the Goodwill Games that took place in Saint Petersburg , Russia . Here , Santos finished third in his division and won the bronze medal . His next international participation was in the 1995 Pan American games celebrated in Mar del Plata , Argentina , where he won the silver medal . The result of the championship fight was controversial , when David Reid won the fight by decision after Santos scored a knockdown during the course of the contest . Santos represented Puerto Rico once again at the 1996 Summer Olympics organized in Atlanta , Georgia . Here he competed in three fights , he defeated two adversaries by unanimous decision , these were : Kabil Lahsen of Morocco with score of 16 @-@ 4 and Nariman Atayev of Uzbekistan with a score of 28 @-@ 15 . In his first fight he defeated Ernest Atangana Mboa of Cameroon by RSC ( referee stopping contest ) at the 2 : 54 mark of the first round . His last fight was against Oleg Saitov of Russia where he lost by points with score of 11 @-@ 13 . He finished the competition in the third global place and won the bronze medal , with this medal Santos became the sixth Puerto Rican boxer to win an Olympic medal . Daniel finished his amateur career compiling a record of 117 fights won and three defeats .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Welterweight = = =
Santos debuted as a professional on September 28 , 1996 against Andre Hawthorne in Fort Worth , Texas , in a fight where he won by technical knockout in the first round . Following this fight Santos compiled a record of twenty @-@ one victories , one defeat and one draw before competing for a world championship . During this period Santos boxed in the welterweight division , his adversaries in this stage of his career included : Bernard Gray , Miguel Gonzalez , Fidel Avendao , Juan Caslos Rodriguez , William Ruiz and Humberto Rodriguez . The first draw in Santos ' career occurred in a fight with Jose Luis Verdugo , that was part of a card that took place in El Cajon , California . On May 7 , 1999 Santos competed against Kofi Jantuah in Las Vegas , Nevada . Jantuah won this contest by technical knockout in the fifth round , marking Santos ' first defeat in the professional circuit .
= = = = WBO welterweight title = = = =
Santos fought Ahmed Kotiev for the World Boxing Organization 's welterweight championship on November 27 , 1999 . Kotiev retained the championship by split decision . The scores of the judges were 115 @-@ 113 and 115 @-@ 113 in favor of Kotiev and 117 @-@ 111 in favor of Santos . The fight was subsequently described as a " competitive and highly entertaining fight " and the result was reviewed as a " disputed " close split decision . On May 6 , 2000 these two boxers competed in a rematch of their previous fight . In the fifth round Santos won the fight by knockout , in the process winning his first professional championship , the World Boxing Organization 's championship .
On July 21 , 2000 , Santos defended the welterweight championship against Giovanni Parisi in Calabria , Italy . Santos won the fight by knockout in the fourth round . Following the fight Parisi stated that the welterweight championship was always his interest as he wanted to become the first Italian to win world championships in three different divisions . In this interview he claimed that his training prior to the fight was insufficient . Giovanni said : " We battled in Reggio Calabria , a coin toss from Sicily , and he KOed me during the 4th round . I have no excuses . I didn ’ t train properly . "
His second defense was against Neil Sinclair in Yorkshire , Great Britain . In the first round Sinclair 's offensive was effective and he scored a knockdown on the defending champion . On the second round Santos responded to Sinclair 's strategy and won the fight by knockout . Prior to the fight Sinclair noted that a fight between Santos and him was supposed to happen eight years before , " We were both in the 1992 World junior championships in Montreal . We were both at the same weight and were at other side of the draw from each other and ended up with bronze medals . So I have watched him fight in person and shook hands on the podium . If we had both won our semi @-@ finals we would have faced each other . " Sinclair also stated that he expected to win based on his training , he said that all of his sparring partners were southpaws since Santos is one , this preparation also included contracting a new trainer .
On July 21 , 2001 , Santos defended against Antonio Margarito in a card that took place in Bayamón , Puerto Rico . This marked the first time that Santos fought a world title fight in Puerto Rico . At the moment of the fight Margarito was the mandatory challenger appointed by the World Boxing Organization , and it was televised on Showtime Too . The fight ended in at the 2 : 11 mark on the first round when the fight was stopped due to a large injury over Margarito 's right eye , the cut caused by an accidental head butt . The fight was declared a no @-@ contest and Santos retained the welterweight championship by default . Following the conclusion of the contest both competitors were visibly angered at the sudden conclusion .
= = = Light @-@ middleweight = = =
= = = = WBO light @-@ middleweight title = = = =
Santos boxed for the vacant WBO light @-@ middleweight title against Yori Boy Campas in a fight that took place at Bally 's Event Center in Las Vegas , Nevada . Santos won the fight when referee Joe Cortez intervened in the eleventh round . During the course of the fight numerous combinations hurt Campas and cut his face , in the eleventh round following one of Santos ' punches Campas informed Cortez that his vision was not functioning properly . At the moment of the fight 's conclusion the scores of the judges were 99 @-@ 91 , 97 @-@ 93 and 99 @-@ 90 in favor of Santos . On August 17 , 2002 , Santos defended this championship for a first time against Mehrdud Takaloo , in a fight that also involved the World Boxing Union Light middleweight championship . The event took place in the Cardiff Castle located in Cardiff , Wales . Takaloo began the fight by using his right hand often and on the fourth round he scored a knockdown . As the fight progressed Takaloo began to show signs of exhaustion and Santos managed to have a strong performance in the second half of the fight . Takaloo received cuts around both of his eyes which made the referee consider stopping the fight twice in the tenth round . When the fight ended Santos won the contest by unanimous decision and the judges ' scores were 116 @-@ 111 , 116 @-@ 112 , 117 @-@ 110 .
On January 14 , 2004 , Warrior 's Boxing Promotions announced that they had signed Santos to exclusively acquire the rights to promote the fights where he performed . At the moment of the announcement Santos said that he expected to have a productive business relationship with the promotion , and highlighted the company 's organization , he said : “ I am very impressed with the Warriors organization and believe that they will provide me with the platform to show the world that I am truly one of the best champions competing today . ” The executive director of the promotion , Jessie Robinson said that the company had been scouting Daniel for years , his words were : “ We have had our eye on Santos for the past two years and strongly feel that he is a serious player in the junior middleweight division . We will be announcing our long term plans for Mr. Santos shortly . ”
On September 11 , 2004 Santos fought in a rematch against Antonio Margarito as part of the undercard of the Cotto @-@ Pinto undercard . Early in the fight Santos ' strategy consisted of connecting with short punches with his left arm , including a strong impact to Margarito 's face in the first round . In the fifth round Margarito connected several strong punches to his head and body . Throughout the course of the fight both boxers fought at close quarters which led to their heads hitting against each other several times . Margarito 's face began bleeding in the sixth round which led to the referee stopping the fight twice in this round . Attempts by Francisco Ezpinoza , Margarito 's cutman , to stop the bleeding were unsuccessful . In the late rounds Santos began boxing and focused some of his punches in Margarito 's wound . In the tenth round Margarito responded to the bell but following the first seconds of the round the ringside doctor declared that he could not continue further . The result of the fight was decided by the scores of the judges , awarding Santos a victory by technical decision . On June 28 , 2003 he defended against Fulgencio Zúñiga in a card that took place in the Ruben Rodriguez Coliseum in Bayamón , Puerto Rico . Daniel won the contest by unanimous decision with identical scores of 118 @-@ 110 .
Santos was under contract with Warrior 's Boxing Promotions for one year , his contract ended when he abandoned the promotion . On April 26 , 2005 , Don King Productions announced that the company had acquired the exclusive rights to promote Santos ' fights . At the moment of the announcement Don King stated that : “ Daniel is another proud Puerto Rican world champion and I ’ m excited to have him with me , Junior middleweight is a solid division and there are many fights we can make for this great champion . Viva Puerto Rico ! . ” Santos said that this event held significance in his life because : “ I want to fight all the best fighters and by being with the best promoter , I know I will get those fights and make good money . I look forward to a long and happy relationship with Don King . ” When interviewed about Santos ' signing , Félix Trinidad Sr. said that he was impressed by Santos ' performance against Antonio Margarito and said that a fight between him and Félix Trinidad seemed plausible at the moment . On December 3 , 2005 Santos was scheduled to defend the light middleweight championship against Sergiy Dzindziruk . In the eight round of the competition Dzinziruk scored a knockdown . The three judges gave the fight a score of 115 @-@ 112 in favor of Dzinziruk thus making him the new WBO champion .
On October 6 , 2007 Santos returned to action following a period of fifteen months of inactivity . This event took place in a fight card presented in the Madison Square Garden , against José Antonio Rivera . The contest ended in the eight round when Rivera 's corner surrendered by " throwing in the towel " . At the moment of the fight 's conclusion Rivera was receiving several combinations of punches to the face and displayed several injuries and cuts in his face as well as having his nose swollen . Prior to the decision Santos scored a knockdown which lasted until the count of eight . Following the fight Daniel noted that " it was a hard fight . " and that Rivera was a " hardy boxer with strong punches " , stating that his physical condition was responsible for his resistance throughout the contest .
= = = = WBA light @-@ middleweight title = = = =
On July 11 , 2008 , Santos competed in his first title fight since returning to action , facing Joachim Alcine for the WBA 's light middleweight championship . The first round was used by both fighters to study their adversary 's technique . Alcine began the second round aggressively , displaying accuracy in some of his punches . Santos focused on counter @-@ attacking Alcine 's offense during the following two rounds . He continued using this pattern , establishing notable control of the fight 's tempo in the fifth episode . In the sixth Santos connected a jab and followed it with a left hook , this combination injured Alcine who was unable to respond to the referee 's count , losing the contest by knockout . Subsequently , Santos was scheduled to defend the championship against Nobihiro Ishida on January 3 , 2009 . However , the fight was cancelled after it was suddenly suspended less than a month before the date . Don King proposed a unificatory contest against Sergio Gabriel Martínez , who held the World Boxing Council 's interim championship . Santos refused the offer , citing that he had less than a month to train for it after a long period of inactivity , but expressed interest in organizing it in another date . Consequently , the pugilist was inactive for several months . King made an offer to Ricardo Mayorga , pursuing a fight between both pugilists in May , but the negotiations failed to advance . On August 17 , 2009 , Top Rank won a bid to organize a fight between Santos and the WBA ’ s first contender , Yuri Foreman . The promotion scheduled the contest to take place as part of the undercard of " Firepower " , a card featuring a fight between Miguel Cotto and Manny Pacquiao in the main event . On that date , Santos lost the championship by unanimous decision to Foreman , with scores of 116 @-@ 110 and 117 @-@ 109 twice .
= Harrya chromapes =
Harrya chromapes , commonly known as the yellowfoot bolete or the chrome @-@ footed bolete , is species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae . The bolete is found in eastern North America , Costa Rica , and eastern Asia , where it grows on the ground , in a mycorrhizal association with deciduous and coniferous trees . Fruit bodies have smooth , rose @-@ pink caps that are initially convex before flattening out . The pores on the cap undersurface are white , aging to a pale pink as the spores mature . The thick stipe has fine pink or reddish dots ( scabers ) , and is white to pinkish but with a bright yellow base . The mushrooms are edible but are popular with insects , and so they are often infested with maggots .
In its taxonomic history , Harrya chromapes has been shuffled to several different genera , including Boletus , Leccinum , and Tylopilus , and is known in field guides as a member of one of these genera . In 2012 , it was transferred to the newly created genus Harrya when it was established that morphological and molecular evidence demonstrated its distinctness from the genera in which it had formerly been placed .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described scientifically by American mycologist Charles Christopher Frost as Boletus chromapes . Cataloging the bolete fungi of New England , Frost published 22 new bolete species in that 1874 publication . Rolf Singer placed the species in Leccinum in 1947 due to the scabrous dots on the stipe , even though the spore print color was not typical of that genus . In 1968 , Alexander H. Smith and Harry Delbert Thiers thought that Tylopilus was a more appropriate fit as they believed the pinkish @-@ brown spore print — characteristic of that genus — to be of greater taxonomic significance . Other genera to which it has been shuffled in its taxonomic history include Ceriomyces by William Alphonso Murrill in 1909 , and Krombholzia by Rolf Singer in 1942 ; Ceriomyces and Krombholzia have since been subsumed into Boletus and Leccinum , respectively . Additional synonyms include Tylopilus cartagoensis , described by Wolfe & Bougher in 1993 , and a later combination based on this name , Leccinum cartagoense .
Molecular analysis of large @-@ subunit ribosomal DNA and translation elongation factor 1α showed that the species belonged to a unique lineage in the family Boletaceae , and the genus Harrya was circumscribed to contain both it ( as the type species ) and the newly described H. atriceps . Javan species referred to Tylopilus pernanus are sister to the Harrya lineage .
The specific epithet chromapes is Latin for " yellow foot " . It is commonly known as the " yellowfoot bolete " or the " chrome @-@ footed bolete " .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies have caps that are initially convex before flattening out in maturity , reaching diameters between 3 and 15 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 and 5 @.@ 9 in ) . The cap surface is dry to slightly sticky . It is initially pink to rose @-@ colored , fading to tan or pinkish tan in maturity . The cap margin may curl upward in maturity . The flesh is white , and does not stain blue when it is bruised or injured ( an important diagnostic feature of many bolete species ) . It does not have any distinct odor or taste . The pore surface is initially white before becoming pinkish to flesh @-@ colored in age . The individual pores are circular to angular , numbering two or three per millimeter , while the tubes are 8 – 14 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) long . Tubes near the top of the stipe are depressed and almost free from attachment . The stipe measures 4 – 14 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) long by 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick and is equal in width throughout its length , or with a slight taper in either direction . The stipe surface has a scurfy texture from scabers that are colored white , pink or reddish . The underlying surface color is white or pinkish except for the yellow base . The mushrooms are edible and good , but popular with insects , and so are often infested with maggots .
The spore print has been reported as ranging in color from pinkish , to pinkish @-@ brown , to rosy brown , to vinaceous @-@ fawn . The variation in spore print color results in part from differences in moisture content when recorded . Spores are roughly oblong to oval , smooth , hyaline ( translucent ) to pale brown , and measure 11 – 17 by 4 – 5 @.@ 5 µm . They are covered in a gelatinous sheath . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , two- and four @-@ spored , thin @-@ walled , and measure 25 – 35 by 10 – 14 µm . Pleurocystidia ( found on the tube walls ) are roughly cylindrical to fuse @-@ shaped with rounded tips , and measure 37 – 50 by 5 – 8 µm . Cheilocystidia ( on the tube edges ) are fuse @-@ shaped with a central swelling , thin @-@ walled , and measure 23 – 40 by 6 – 8 µm . Caulocystidia at the top of the stipe have various shapes and dimensions of 25 – 45 by 10 – 15 µm ; at the stipe base , the caulocystidia are 30 – 40 by 7 – 23 µm and are mostly club @-@ shaped to roughly spherical to tear @-@ shaped . The cap cuticle comprises a single layer of tangled hyphae that are 4 – 6 µm thick .
Several chemical tests can be used to confirm the identify of the mushroom . A drop of ferrous sulfate ( FeSO4 ) on the flesh turns it greenish , while potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) turns it brown . The cap cuticle turns yellow with nitric acid ( HNO3 ) , and yellow with ammonium hydroxide ( NH4OH ) .
= = = Similar species = = =
Fruit bodies of Harrya chromapes are readily identified in the field by their rosy color , bright yellow stipe base , and reddish scabers on the stipe . Tylopilus subchromapes is a similar species found in Australia . Tylopilus ballouii has a more orangish cap and lacks the distinctive chrome @-@ yellow stipe base . Harrya atriceps is a closely related rare species from Costa Rica . In contrast to its more common relative , it lacks reddish color in its stipe scabers and has a black cap , although it has a similar yellow stipe base .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Harrya chromapes is an ectomycorrhizal species , and its fruit bodies grow singly to scattered on soil . They are usually found in forests containing conifers , Betulaceae and oak in North America . The North American distribution includes eastern Canada south to Georgia and Alabama , including Mexico . It extends west to Michigan and Mississippi . The fruit season extends from late spring to late summer . In Costa Rica , where the species associates with oak , it has been recorded from the Cordillera Talamanca , the Poás and Irazu Volcano . It is also in Guatemala . In Asia , it is known from India ( West Bengal ) , Taiwan , Japan , and in China , where it associates with trees from the beech and pine families .
Fruit bodies can be parasitized by the molds Sepedonium ampullosporum , S. laevigatum , and S. chalcipori . In Sepedonium infections , a white to powdery yellow mold covers the surface of the fruit body . The mushrooms are a food source and rearing habitat for several insect species , including the fungus gnats Mycetophila fisherae and M. signatoides , and flies such as Pegomya winthemi and species of the genera Sciophila and Mydaea . The cottontail rabbit species Sylvilagus brasiliensis has been recorded feeding on the mushrooms in Costa Rica .
= Origin of the name " Empire State " =
The U.S. State of New York has been known by many nicknames , most notably as the Empire State , adopted as late as the 19th century . This nickname has been incorporated into the names of several state buildings and events , and is commonly believed to refer to the state 's wealth and resources . However , the origin of the term remains unclear .
There are several theories on the origin of the name . Two of them involve George Washington , one credits aggressive trade routes , and another associates the nickname with New York exceeding Virginia in population . None has been proven . One commonly accepted tale says that , when Washington was given a full map of New York prior to the Battle of New York , he remarked on New York 's natural geographic advantages , proclaiming New York the " Seat of an Empire " .
The origin of the term has puzzled many historians ; as American writer Paul Eldridge put it , " Who was the merry wag who crowned the State ... [ as the Empire State ] ? New York would certainly raise a monument to his memory , but he made his grandiose gesture and vanished forever . "
= = History = =
The source of the term " Empire State " is uncertain . It has been attributed to the state 's wealth and resources , but there is some doubt regarding that . Two possible stories involve America 's first president George Washington .
The first refers to an April 10 , 1785 letter to New York City Mayor James Duane in which Washington called New York " the Seat of the Empire " . Washington is also said to have used the phrase " Pathway to Empire " once when referring to the state in conversation with Governor George Clinton in the 1790s ; no documentation exists for this exchange , however .
Alexander Flick 's History of New York State claims that the title was used as early as 1819 , coinciding with New York surpassing Virginia in population . He does not provide any source for this claim . Further , Flick adds that the term was " universally acknowledged and accepted " by the time that the Erie Canal was completed in 1825 . In a later work , Flick and coauthor John Jacob Anderson claim that " New York is well called the Empire State ... not only because of the vastness of its resources , but because it so conspicuously illustrates the imperial power of law @-@ abiding liberty among the people . "
Milton Klein proposes in The Empire State : A History of New York that the name may have accompanied the success of the Black Ball Line in 1818 " because of the signal advantage the regularity of shipping gave to New York 's merchants over those in other coastal cities . " He claims that , by 1820 , it was clear that " Empire State " was in wide use , though he is doubtful that a clear origin of the term will ever be determined . The 1940 Guide to the Empire State included the following quotation : " ... it would gratify the people of New York if they could discover who first dared that spacious adjective . "
= = Namesakes = =
New York is widely known by the nickname " Empire State " , and its effects can be seen throughout the state . Manhattan 's Empire State Building opened in 1931 and was the world 's tallest building until the completion of the north tower of the World Trade Center in 1970 . Following the September 11 attacks , the Empire State Building once again became the tallest building in Manhattan until One World Trade Center claimed the title in April 2012 . The main offices of state government are located at the Empire State Plaza ( ESP ) in Albany , the state capital . Its most iconic structure is the Erastus Corning Tower , the tallest building in New York outside of New York City .
The nickname has also been used for train routes . The Empire State Express of the New York Central Railroad was established in 1891 , and Amtrak currently offers its Empire Service from New York City to Buffalo via Albany . SUNY Empire State College was established in 1971 in Saratoga Springs and makes use of the name . The Empire State Games were established in 1978 as an Olympic @-@ style competition for amateur athletes from New York . Additionally , the term " Empire State " has been included on New York State license plates since 2001 . In 2009 , Jay @-@ Z and Alicia Keys released the 5x @-@ platinum single " Empire State of Mind . "
= Shannon Moore =
Shannon Moore ( born July 27 , 1979 ) is an American professional wrestler . He is best known for his work with World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) between 1999 and 2001 and with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) for several years in the 2000s . He has also worked for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) .
Moore befriended Matt and Jeff Hardy as a child , and they later trained him to wrestle . He debuted in 1995 , and competed for several North Carolina @-@ based promotions , winning several Light Heavyweight Championships . He also wrestled for The Hardy Boyz ' promotion , Organization of Modern Extreme Grappling Arts ( OMEGA ) , where he won the OMEGA Light Heavyweight Championship twice and the OMEGA New Frontiers Championship once . In 1999 , he signed with WCW , and became part of 3 Count , a boy band parody . The three members of 3 Count jointly won the WCW Hardcore Championship in 2000 . In 2001 , he briefly held the NWA Wildside Tag Team Championship with Shane Helms .
He later joined the then @-@ WWF in 2001 , and was assigned to Heartland Wrestling Association , a developmental territory , where he won the HWA Tag Team Championship with Evan Karagias . After debuting on the SmackDown brand , he became a follower of ' Mattitude ' and appeared regularly as Matt Hardy 's sidekick . Between late 2003 and 2005 , Moore was used mainly in WWE 's cruiserweight division , until his release in July 2005 . After a stint on the independent circuit , Moore joined TNA in December 2005 . In March 2006 , he re @-@ signed with WWE , initially appearing on the ECW brand , before returning to SmackDown in 2007 . He formed a tag team with Jimmy Wang Yang , and the pair challenged unsuccessfully for the WWE Tag Team Championship on several occasions . Following his release in August 2008 , he once again returned to the independent circuit , before rejoining TNA in January 2010 . He soon formed a tag team , known as Ink Inc . , with Jesse Neal in April .
Aside from wrestling , Moore is also a tattoo artist , and used to own a tattoo parlor known as Gas Chamber Ink in Southern Pines , North Carolina . He is also a musician , having written his own entrance music , and was part of the band Peroxwhy ? gen with Jeff Hardy .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career ( 1995 – 1999 ) = = =
Moore befriended Matt and Jeff Hardy as a child and competed in their own backyard wrestling circuit . After the Hardy brothers began wrestling professionally , they trained Moore and he debuted on April 8 , 1995 against Jeff . Moore began working on the independent circuit , wrestling for the North Carolina @-@ based Southern Championship Wrestling and National Championship Wrestling promotions as " Kid Dynamo " , and won the Light Heavyweight Championship in both . In addition , he frequently wrestled for Organization of Modern Extreme Grappling Arts ( OMEGA ) , the promotion operated by the Hardys . In OMEGA , he won the OMEGA New Frontiers Championship once , and the OMEGA Light Heavyweight Championship on two occasions . During his time in OMEGA , he met Gregory Shane Helms , and the pair later formed the Bad Street Boys with Christian York and Joey Matthews in NWA Worldwide . In the late 1990s , Moore began wrestling for the Tennessee @-@ based Music City Wrestling promotion .
= = = World Championship Wrestling ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = =
In 1999 , Moore was hired by World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) by Chris Kanyon , who had been granted the authority to employ twenty @-@ one young cruiserweights for the Atlanta @-@ based promotion . He was placed in a faction known as " 3 Count " by Jimmy Hart . 3 Count , which consisted of Moore , Evan Karagias and Shane Helms , was a trio of young male wrestlers who utilized a boy band gimmick , parodying bands like the Backstreet Boys and ' N Sync . 3 Count debuted in WCW in November 1999 @.@ and they began lip synching the song " Can 't Get You Out Of My Heart " in the ring before their matches . On the February 28 , 2000 episode of WCW Monday Nitro in Minneapolis , Minnesota , all three members of 3 Count defeated Brian Knobs to win the WCW Hardcore Championship with all 3 members of the team simultaneously pinning him . 3 Count reigned as " co @-@ champions " until March 19 , at Uncensored where Knobs regained the title by pinning all three men consecutively .
3 Count were not involved in the Millionaire 's Club versus The New Blood angle that took place in mid @-@ 2000 because Helms was legitimately sidelined with a broken nose . When the team reconvened late in the summer of 2000 , they began performing a new song , " Dance With 3 Count " . In storyline , Ultimate Fighting Championship mixed martial artist Tank Abbott became an avid fan of 3 Count , and he began protecting them during their performances , attacking anyone who disrupted them , eventually acting as their talent manager and occasional inserting himself as a back @-@ up dancer . 3 Count were involved with a long @-@ running feud ( scripted rivalry ) with The Jung Dragons , with the Dragons attempting to steal 3 Count 's fictional recording contract . This led to a ladder match between the two teams at New Blood Rising , which 3 Count won due to Abbott 's interference . As a result , Abbott claimed that he should be the lead singer of 3 Count , and was kicked out by the other three members , leading to a feud . Following this , 3 Count briefly feuded with Misfits In Action .
In late 2000 , 3 Count began to fall apart , with Moore and Helms kicking Karagias out of the group for continually stealing the spotlight . Karagias joined forces with former Jung Dragons member Jamie Knoble and the three teams met in a Triangle match at Mayhem , which 3 Count won . At Starrcade , the six men faced off in a ladder match for the number contendership to the WCW Cruiserweight Championship . Both Moore and Helms grabbed the contract at the same time , and later wrestled for the opportunity to face the champion , which Helms won .
In 2001 , Moore and Helms briefly appeared in NWA Wildside , where they held the NWA Wildside Tag Team Championship for a single day , after defeating Suicidal Tendencies ( John Phoenix and Adam Jacobs ) on January 19 , 2001 . Moore and Helms both participated in a cruiserweight elimination match at SuperBrawl Revenge on February 18 , in which Helms eliminated Moore and went on to win the match . Following the match , Moore and former partner Karagias attacked Helms . Moore and Karagias joined forces once again to take part in a tournament for the WCW Cruiserweight Tag Team Championship , but were eliminated by Billy Kidman and Rey Mysterio , Jr ..
= = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment ( 2001 – 2005 ) = = =
In March 2001 , the World Wrestling Federation purchased WCW , which included Moore 's contract . Moore was assigned to the Heartland Wrestling Association ( HWA ) , a Louisville @-@ based WWF developmental territory . There , he teamed with Evan Karagias , and the two won the HWA Tag Team Championship on October 13 , 2001 , by defeating Dean and Chet Jablonski . They held the championship for a month , before losing it to The Island Boyz on November 14 . In early 2002 , Moore won the HWA Cruiserweight Championship on two occasions .
In July 2002 , Moore was assigned to the SmackDown ! brand , initially appearing on Velocity . In December , Moore became a heel ( villainous ) acolyte of Matt Hardy , who had begun proselytizing a philosophy known as " Mattitude " and calling himself " Matt Hardy Version 1 @.@ 0 " . Moore became a " Mattitude Follower " ( abbreviated " MF 'er " ) and started dressing like Hardy , accompanying him to ringside and interfering in his matches . Moore helped Hardy to lose several pounds in order to qualify for a WWE Cruiserweight Championship match at No Way Out . During the championship match , Moore distracted champion Billy Kidman to enable Hardy to get the win and the championship . On April 24 , Crash Holly was revealed as the newest MF 'er . He was subordinate to Moore and , as such , was referred to as a " Moore @-@ on " . When Hardy was displeased with either Moore or Holly , he would physically attack them . Holly was later released from WWE on June 30 . On September 23 , Moore and Hardy challenged Los Guerreros for the WWE Tag Team Championship , but were unsuccessful .
Moore and Hardy continued to work together until November 17 , when Hardy left SmackDown ! and joined the Raw brand . As a result , Paul Heyman , SmackDown ! ' s then @-@ general manager , decided to punish Hardy vicariously for leaving his show by forcing Moore to face a series of much larger opponents . In successive weeks , Moore was squashed by Matt Morgan , Nathan Jones , and The Big Show before unexpectedly defeating A @-@ Train in an upset on the December 11 episode of SmackDown ! . The following week , WWE Champion Brock Lesnar was scheduled to defend the championship against a wrestler chosen by a lottery machine , which produced Moore 's name . After defeating Moore , Lesnar revealed that the process had been rigged , and Moore 's name was on all the balls . Immediately afterward , Moore teamed with Hardcore Holly to defeat A @-@ Train and Morgan , earning Holly a championship match against Lesnar . In 2004 , at WrestleMania XX Moore took part in a " Cruiserweight Open " for the Cruiserweight Championship , but was eliminated by Último Dragón . His next high profile appearance was on the July 8 episode of SmackDown ! , which saw Moore wrestle under a mask as " El Gran Luchadore " to face John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) in the match for the WWE Championship . Initially Moore was dominated by his much larger opponent , but a second Luchadore ( the disguised Eddie Guerrero ) took Moore 's place , prompting Layfield to run away and giving Moore the victory by countout . Moore would start to drastically change his appearance by wearing red eye shadow , as well as new attire , and sporting a mohawk . Moore received a WWE Championship match on the December 30 , 2004 episode of SmackDown , but was quickly defeated by JBL . Moore appeared at the No Way Out pay @-@ per @-@ view in February 2005 , competing in a gauntlet match for the Cruiserweight Championship , but was eliminated by Paul London .
On March 21 he suffered a concussion and whiplash after his Hummer was involved in a head @-@ on collision with a vehicle driven by an inebriated United States Army Sergeant in Fort Bragg , North Carolina . He quickly recovered from his injuries , but was released by WWE on July 5 .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = =
Moore returned to the independent circuit soon thereafter , although the no @-@ compete clause in his contract ( which prohibits WWE employees who are fired or who negotiate a contract release from appearing on television within a given time period ) did not expire until November 1 of that year . Moore appeared at an AWA Superstars of Wrestling show , competing in a tournament for the WSL World Light Heavyweight Championship . Moore defeated Dexter Poindexter , Ricky Landell , and " Amazing " N8 Mattson before losing to " Krazy K " Kirby Mack in the finals . Over the next few months he wrestled Davey Richards at a Pro Wrestling WAR event , J.J. Perez at an All Pro Wrestling show , and Sonjay Dutt at Universal Uproar . He also wrestled A.J. Styles on a United Wrestling Association charity show on February 2 , 2006 .
During this time , Moore opened a professional wrestling school known as the " School of Punk " .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = =
Moore made his Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) television debut on the December 17 episode of Impact ! , appearing in the rafters of the Impact Zone and holding a sign reading " X Division needs to get Punk 'd " . Upon joining the roster , he gained the nickname the " Prince of Punk " . He appeared again in the rafters on the following episode of Impact ! .
On the December 31 episode , Moore was seen | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
, but was defeated by Alex Shelley in the match , which also included Amazing Red and Robbie E. Ink Inc. returned on the September 22 episode of Impact Wrestling , attacking Mexican America , now the TNA World Tag Team Champions , at a tattoo parlour . On the October 13 episode of Impact Wrestling , Toxxin aligned herself with Ink Inc. by saving them from Mexican America . On October 16 , during the Bound for Glory pre @-@ show , Ink Inc. unsuccessfully challenged Mexican America for the TNA World Tag Team Championship and at Turning Point the following month , they again failed to win the championship in a six @-@ person tag team match , which also included Toxxin and Mexican America 's Sarita . In December , Neal parted ways with TNA , effectively dissolving Ink Inc .
On the December 22 episode of Impact Wrestling , Moore teamed up with Anarquia in the Wild Card Tournament but lost to Eric Young and ODB . Following a brief hiatus , Moore returned on February 12 , 2012 , at Against All Odds , answering Robbie E 's open invitational and unsuccessfully challenging him for the TNA Television Championship . On May 31 , Moore announced that he would not be returning to TNA and on July 2 , he announced he had been granted his release .
= = = Return to the independent circuit ( 2008 – 2009 , 2012 – present ) = = =
On September 28 , 2008 , Moore won the World Stars of Wrestling World Championship by defeating Joe E. Legend . Three months later , on November 22 , Moore won the Free @-@ Style Championship Wrestling World Heavyweight Championship by defeating Mot Van Kunder ; however , he lost it immediately afterwards to Rico Bushido .
In mid @-@ 2009 , Moore took a six @-@ month hiatus from wrestling . During November , Moore participated in the Hulkamania tour of Australia , where he took part in a best of three match series for a prize of US $ 25 @,@ 000 with Spartan 3000 . Spartan won the first match on November 21 , and Moore won the second on November 24 . The rubber match ended in a draw on November 26 , resulting in a ladder match for the final match of the tour , which Spartan won .
After leaving TNA in 2012 , Moore did not wrestle for approximately two years , and on July 6 , 2014 , he announced on Twitter that he is finished with in @-@ ring competition . Despite this , Moore returned to wrestling on December 14 , 2014 , at Xtreme Intense Championship Wrestling ( XICW ) ' s Hardcore With A Heart ; he defeated Hakim Zane to win the XICW Midwest Heavyweight Championship . On January 17 , 2015 , at Best in Detroit 8 Moore lost the XICW Midwest Heavyweight Title to Rhino .
= = Other media = =
Moore was in a band with Jeff Hardy called " Peroxwhy ? gen " , but later left to concentrate on wrestling . He wrote his own entrance music . Moore is part of Matt and Jeff Hardy 's side project , a reality show called " The Hardy Show " . He also appears on the DVD OMEGA : Uncommon Passion , which details the history of the OMEGA promotion .
= = Personal life = =
Moore has been married twice . First , to Crystal , a country singer . Second , to Julie Youngberg , who works for WWE as a seamstress , in April 2009 . Moore has known Jeff and Matt Hardy since around 1987 . Moore cites Shawn Michaels , The Rock ' n ' Roll Express , André the Giant and the Ultimate Warrior as his influences .
Moore has multiple tattoos including one on the inside of his lip that says " extinct " . He also has 2 tattoos across his fingers saying " Hard Knox " and " Made 1979 " . In 2005 , he had 2BME tattooed on his stomach . He operated a tattoo shop called Gas Chamber Ink in Southern Pines , North Carolina . He also has a total of three piercings ; one in each ear and one in his septum .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Halo ( Corkscrew senton bomb )
Mooregasm ( Hip toss neckbreaker )
Bottom 's Up ( WCW ) ( Leg drop bulldog )
Signature moves
Diving hurricanrana
Exploder suplex
Moonsault to the outside
Multiple kick variations
Drop
Enzuigiri
Spinning heel
Northern Lights
Springboard crossbody
Sunset flip powerbomb
Managers
Tank Abbott
Brandi Richardson
Toxxin
Nicknames
" The Prince of Punk "
" The Reject "
Entrance themes
" Moore @-@ On " by Jim Johnston ( 2003 – 2005 )
" I 'll Do Anything " by Ronn L. Chick , Dennis Winslow and Robert J. Walsh ( 2006 – 2008 )
" Tattooed Attitude " by Shannon Moore and Dale Oliver ( TNA ; 2010 – 2012 )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Free @-@ Style Championship Wrestling
FCW World Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Heartland Wrestling Association
HWA Cruiserweight Championship ( 2 times )
HWA Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Evan Karagias
NWA Wildside / National Championship Wrestling
NCW Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NWA Wildside Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Shane Helms
Organization of Modern Extreme Grappling Arts
OMEGA Light Heavyweight Championship ( 2 times )
OMEGA New Frontiers Championship ( 1 time )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him 67 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the year in the PWI 500 in 2002
Southern Championship Wrestling
SCW Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
World Championship Wrestling
WCW Hardcore Championship ( 1 time )
World Stars of Wrestling
WSW World Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Xtreme Intense Championship Wrestling
XICW Midwest Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
= Magna Carta =
Magna Carta Libertatum ( Latin for " the Great Charter of the Liberties " ) , commonly called Magna Carta ( " the Great Charter " ) , is a charter agreed to by King John of England at Runnymede , near Windsor , on 15 June 1215 . First drafted by the Archbishop of Canterbury to make peace between the unpopular King and a group of rebel barons , it promised the protection of church rights , protection for the barons from illegal imprisonment , access to swift justice , and limitations on feudal payments to the Crown , to be implemented through a council of 25 barons . Neither side stood behind their commitments , and the charter was annulled by Pope Innocent III , leading to the First Barons ' War . After John 's death , the regency government of his young son , Henry III , reissued the document in 1216 , stripped of some of its more radical content , in an unsuccessful bid to build political support for their cause . At the end of the war in 1217 , it formed part of the peace treaty agreed at Lambeth , where the document acquired the name Magna Carta , to distinguish it from the smaller Charter of the Forest which was issued at the same time . Short of funds , Henry reissued the charter again in 1225 in exchange for a grant of new taxes ; his son , Edward I , repeated the exercise in 1297 , this time confirming it as part of England 's statute law .
The charter became part of English political life and was typically renewed by each monarch in turn , although as time went by and the fledgling English Parliament passed new laws , it lost some of its practical significance . At the end of the 16th century there was an upsurge in interest in Magna Carta . Lawyers and historians at the time believed that there was an ancient English constitution , going back to the days of the Anglo @-@ Saxons , that protected individual English freedoms . They argued that the Norman invasion of 1066 had overthrown these rights , and that Magna Carta had been a popular attempt to restore them , making the charter an essential foundation for the contemporary powers of Parliament and legal principles such as habeas corpus . Although this historical account was badly flawed , jurists such as Sir Edward Coke used Magna Carta extensively in the early 17th century , arguing against the divine right of kings propounded by the Stuart monarchs . Both James I and his son Charles I attempted to suppress the discussion of Magna Carta , until the issue was curtailed by the English Civil War of the 1640s and the execution of Charles .
The political myth of Magna Carta and its protection of ancient personal liberties persisted after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 until well into the 19th century . It influenced the early American colonists in the Thirteen Colonies and the formation of the American Constitution in 1787 , which became the supreme law of the land in the new republic of the United States . Research by Victorian historians showed that the original 1215 charter had concerned the medieval relationship between the monarch and the barons , rather than the rights of ordinary people , but the charter remained a powerful , iconic document , even after almost all of its content was repealed from the statute books in the 19th and 20th centuries . Magna Carta still forms an important symbol of liberty today , often cited by politicians and campaigners , and is held in great respect by the British and American legal communities , Lord Denning describing it as " the greatest constitutional document of all times – the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot " .
In the 21st century , four exemplifications of the original 1215 charter remain in existence , held by the British Library and the cathedrals of Lincoln and Salisbury . There are also a handful of the subsequent charters in public and private ownership , including copies of the 1297 charter in both the United States and Australia . The original charters were written on parchment sheets using quill pens , in heavily abbreviated medieval Latin , which was the convention for legal documents at that time . Each was sealed with the royal great seal ( made of beeswax and resin sealing wax ) : very few of the seals have survived . Although scholars refer to the 63 numbered " clauses " of Magna Carta , this is a modern system of numbering , introduced by Sir William Blackstone in 1759 ; the original charter formed a single , long unbroken text . The four original 1215 charters were displayed together at the British Library for one day , 3 February 2015 , to mark the 800th anniversary of Magna Carta .
= = History = =
= = = 13th century = = =
= = = = Background = = = =
Magna Carta originated as an unsuccessful attempt to achieve peace between royalist and rebel factions in 1215 , as part of the events leading to the outbreak of the First Barons ' War . England was ruled by King John , the third of the Angevin kings . Although the kingdom had a robust administrative system , the nature of government under the Angevin monarchs was ill @-@ defined and uncertain . John and his predecessors had ruled using the principle of vis et voluntas , or " force and will " , taking executive and sometimes arbitrary decisions , often justified on the basis that a king was above the law . Many contemporary writers believed that monarchs should rule in accordance with the custom and the law , with the counsel of the leading members of the realm , but there was no model for what should happen if a king refused to do so .
John had lost most of his ancestral lands in France to King Philip II in 1204 and had struggled to regain them for many years , raising extensive taxes on the barons to accumulate money to fight a war which ultimately ended in expensive failure in 1214 . Following the defeat of his allies at the Battle of Bouvines , John had to sue for peace and pay compensation . John was already personally unpopular with many of the barons , many of whom owed money to the Crown , and little trust existed between the two sides . A triumph would have strengthened his position , but in the face of his defeat , within a few months after his return from France John found that rebel barons in the north and east of England were organising resistance to his rule .
The rebels took an oath that they would " stand fast for the liberty of the church and the realm " , and demanded that the King confirm the Charter of Liberties that had been declared by King Henry I in the previous century , and which was perceived by the barons to protect their rights . The rebel leadership was unimpressive by the standards of the time , even disreputable , but were united by their hatred of John ; Robert FitzWalter , later elected leader of the rebel barons , claimed publicly that John had attempted to rape his daughter , and was implicated in a plot to assassinate John in 1212 .
John held a council in London in January 1215 to discuss potential reforms , and sponsored discussions in Oxford between his agents and the rebels during the spring . Both sides appealed to Pope Innocent III for assistance in the dispute . During the negotiations , the rebellious barons produced an initial document , which historians have termed " the Unknown Charter of Liberties " , which drew on Henry I 's Charter of Liberties for much of its language ; seven articles from that document later appeared in the " Articles of the Barons " and the subsequent charter .
It was John 's hope that the Pope would give him valuable legal and moral support , and accordingly John played for time ; the King had declared himself to be a papal vassal in 1213 and correctly believed he could count on the Pope for help . John also began recruiting mercenary forces from France , although some were later sent back to avoid giving the impression that the King was escalating the conflict . In a further move to shore up his support , John took an oath to become a crusader , a move which gave him additional political protection under church law , even though many felt the promise was insincere .
Letters backing John arrived from the Pope in April , but by then , the rebel barons had organised into a military faction . They congregated at Northampton in May and renounced their feudal ties to John , marching on London , Lincoln , and Exeter . John 's efforts to appear moderate and conciliatory had been largely successful , but once the rebels held London , they attracted a fresh wave of defectors from the royalists . The King offered to submit the problem to a committee of arbitration with the Pope as the supreme arbiter , but this was not attractive to the rebels . Stephen Langton , the Archbishop of Canterbury , had been working with the rebel barons on their demands , and after the suggestion of papal arbitration failed , John instructed Langton to organise peace talks .
= = = = Great Charter of 1215 = = = =
John met the rebel leaders at Runnymede , a water @-@ meadow on the south bank of the River Thames , on 10 June 1215 . Runnymede was a traditional place for assemblies , but it was also located on neutral ground between the royal fortress of Windsor Castle and the rebel base at Staines , and offered both sides the security of a rendezvous where they were unlikely to find themselves at a military disadvantage . Here the rebels presented John with their draft demands for reform , the ' Articles of the Barons ' . Stephen Langton 's pragmatic efforts at mediation over the next ten days turned these incomplete demands into a charter capturing the proposed peace agreement ; a few years later , this agreement was renamed Magna Carta , meaning " Great Charter " . By 15 June , general agreement had been made on a text , and on 19 June , the rebels renewed their oaths of loyalty to John and copies of the charter were formally issued .
Although , as the historian David Carpenter has noted , the charter " wasted no time on political theory " , it went beyond simply addressing individual baronial complaints , and formed a wider proposal for political reform . It promised the protection of church rights , protection from illegal imprisonment , access to swift justice , and , most importantly , limitations on taxation and other feudal payments to the Crown , with certain forms of feudal taxation requiring baronial consent . It focused on the rights of free men — in particular the barons . However , the rights of serfs were included in articles 16 , 20 , and 28 . Its style and content reflected Henry I 's Charter of Liberties , as well as a wider body of legal traditions , including the royal charters issued to towns , the operations of the Church and baronial courts and European charters such as the Statute of Pamiers .
Under what historians later labelled " clause 61 " , or the " security clause " , a council of 25 barons would be created to monitor and ensure John 's future adherence to the charter . If John did not conform to the charter within 40 days of being notified of a transgression by the council , the 25 barons were empowered by clause 61 to seize John 's castles and lands until , in their judgement , amends had been made . Men were to be compelled to swear an oath to assist the council in controlling the King , but once redress had been made for any breaches , the King would continue to rule as before . In one sense this was not unprecedented ; other kings had previously conceded the right of individual resistance to their subjects if the King did not uphold his obligations . Magna Carta was however novel in that it set up a formally recognised means of collectively coercing the King . The historian Wilfred Warren argues that it was almost inevitable that the clause would result in civil war , as it " was crude in its methods and disturbing in its implications " . The barons were trying to force John to keep to the charter , but clause 61 was so heavily weighted against the King that this version of the charter could not survive .
John and the rebel barons did not trust each other , and neither side seriously attempted to implement the peace accord . The 25 barons selected for the new council were all rebels , chosen by the more extremist barons , and many among the rebels found excuses to keep their forces mobilised . Disputes began to emerge between those rebels who had expected the charter to return lands that had been confiscated and the royalist faction .
Clause 61 of Magna Carta contained a commitment from John that he would " seek to obtain nothing from anyone , in our own person or through someone else , whereby any of these grants or liberties may be revoked or diminished " . Despite this , the King appealed to Pope Innocent for help in July , arguing that the charter compromised the Pope 's rights as John 's feudal lord . As part of the June peace deal , the barons were supposed to surrender London by 15 August , but this they refused to do . Meanwhile , instructions from the Pope arrived in August , written before the peace accord , with the result that papal commissioners excommunicated the rebel barons and suspended Langton from office in early September . Once aware of the charter , the Pope responded in detail : in a letter dated 24 August and arriving in late September , he declared the charter to be " not only shameful and demeaning but also illegal and unjust " since John had been " forced to accept " it , and accordingly the charter was " null , and void of all validity for ever " ; under threat of excommunication , the King was not to observe the charter , nor the barons try to enforce it .
By then , violence had broken out between the two sides ; less than three months after it had been agreed , John and the loyalist barons firmly repudiated the failed charter : the First Barons ' War erupted . The rebel barons concluded that peace with John was impossible , and turned to Philip II 's son , the future Louis VIII , for help , offering him the English throne . The war soon settled into a stalemate . The King became ill and died on the night of 18 October , leaving the nine @-@ year @-@ old Henry III as his heir .
= = = = = Lists of participants in 1215 = = = = =
= = = = Great Charter of 1216 = = = =
Although the Charter of 1215 was a failure as a peace treaty , it was resurrected under the new government of the young Henry III as a way of drawing support away from the rebel faction . On his deathbed , King John appointed a council of thirteen executors to help Henry reclaim the kingdom , and requested that his son be placed into the guardianship of William Marshal , one of the most famous knights in England . William knighted the boy , and Cardinal Guala Bicchieri , the papal legate to England , then oversaw his coronation at Gloucester Cathedral on 28 October .
The young King inherited a difficult situation , with over half of England occupied by the rebels . He had substantial support though from Guala , who intended to win the civil war for Henry and punish the rebels . Guala set about strengthening the ties between England and the Papacy , starting with the coronation itself , during which Henry gave homage to the Papacy , recognising the Pope as his feudal lord . Pope Honorius III declared that Henry was the Pope 's vassal and ward , and that the legate had complete authority to protect Henry and his kingdom . As an additional measure , Henry took the cross , declaring himself a crusader and thereby entitled to special protection from Rome .
The war was not going well for the loyalists , but Prince Louis and the rebel barons were also finding it difficult to make further progress . John 's death had defused some of the rebel concerns , and the royal castles were still holding out in the occupied parts of the country . Henry 's government encouraged the rebel barons to come back to his cause in exchange for the return of their lands , and reissued a version of the 1215 Charter , albeit having first removed some of the clauses , including those unfavourable to the Papacy and clause 61 , which had set up the council of barons . The move was not successful , and opposition to Henry 's new government hardened .
= = = = Great Charter of 1217 = = = =
In February 1217 , Louis set sail for France to gather reinforcements . In his absence , arguments broke out between Louis ' French and English followers , and Cardinal Guala declared that Henry 's war against the rebels was the equivalent of a religious crusade . This declaration resulted in a series of defections from the rebel movement , and the tide of the conflict swung in Henry 's favour . Louis returned at the end of April , but his northern forces were defeated by William Marshal at the Battle of Lincoln in May .
Meanwhile , support for Louis ' campaign was diminishing in France , and he concluded that the war in England was lost . He negotiated terms with Cardinal Guala , under which Louis would renounce his claim to the English throne ; in return , his followers would be given back their lands , any sentences of excommunication would be lifted , and Henry 's government would promise to enforce the charter of the previous year . The proposed agreement soon began to unravel amid claims from some loyalists that it was too generous towards the rebels , particularly the clergy who had joined the rebellion .
In the absence of a settlement , Louis remained in London with his remaining forces , hoping for the arrival of reinforcements from France . When the expected fleet did arrive in August , it was intercepted and defeated by loyalists at the Battle of Sandwich . Louis entered into fresh peace negotiations , and the factions came to agreement on the final Treaty of Lambeth , also known as the Treaty of Kingston , on 12 and 13 September 1217 . The treaty was similar to the first peace offer , but excluded the rebel clergy , whose lands and appointments remained forfeit ; it included a promise , however , that Louis ' followers would be allowed to enjoy their traditional liberties and customs , referring back to the Charter of 1216 . Louis left England as agreed and joined the Albigensian Crusade in the south of France , bringing the war to an end .
A great council was called in October and November to take stock of the post @-@ war situation ; this council is thought to have formulated and issued the Charter of 1217 . The charter resembled that of 1216 , although some additional clauses were added to protect the rights of the barons over their feudal subjects , and the restrictions on the Crown 's ability to levy taxation were watered down . There remained a range of disagreements around the management of the royal forests , which involved a special legal system that had resulted in a source of considerable royal revenue ; complaints existed over both the implementation of these courts , and the geographic boundaries of the royal forests . A complementary charter , the Charter of the Forest , was created , pardoning existing forest offences , imposing new controls over the forest courts , and establishing a review of the forest boundaries . To distinguish the two charters , the term magna carta libertatum , " the great charter of liberties " , was used by the scribes to refer to the larger document , which in time became known simply as Magna Carta .
= = = = Great Charter of 1225 = = = =
Magna Carta became increasingly embedded into English political life during Henry III 's minority . As the King grew older , his government slowly began to recover from the civil war , regaining control of the counties and beginning to raise revenue once again , taking care not to overstep the terms of the charters . Henry remained a minor and his government 's legal ability to make permanently binding decisions on his behalf was limited . In 1223 , the tensions over the status of the charters became clear in the royal court , when Henry 's government attempted to reassert its rights over its properties and revenues in the counties , facing resistance from many communities that argued — if sometimes incorrectly — that the charters protected the new arrangements . This resistance resulted in an argument between Archbishop Langton and William Brewer over whether the King had any duty to fulfil the terms of the charters , given that he had been forced to agree to them . On this occasion , Henry gave oral assurances that he considered himself bound by the charters , enabling a royal inquiry into the situation in the counties to progress .
Two years later , the question of Henry 's commitment to the charters re @-@ emerged , when Louis VIII of France invaded Henry 's remaining provinces in France , Poitou and Gascony . Henry 's army in Poitou was under @-@ resourced , and the province quickly fell . It became clear that Gascony would also fall unless reinforcements were sent from England . In early 1225 , a great council approved a tax of £ 40 @,@ 000 to dispatch an army , which quickly retook Gascony . In exchange for agreeing to support Henry , the barons demanded that the King reissue Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest . The content was almost identical to the 1217 versions , but in the new versions , the King declared that the charters were issued of his own " spontaneous and free will " and confirmed them with the royal seal , giving the new Great Charter and the Charter of the Forest of 1225 much more authority than the previous versions .
The barons anticipated that the King would act in accordance with these charters , subject to the law and moderated by the advice of the nobility . Uncertainty continued , and in 1227 , when he was declared of age and able to rule independently , Henry announced that future charters had to be issued under his own seal . This brought into question the validity of the previous charters issued during his minority , and Henry actively threatened to overturn the Charter of the Forest unless the taxes promised in return for it were actually paid . In 1253 , Henry confirmed the charters once again in exchange for taxation .
Henry placed a symbolic emphasis on rebuilding royal authority , but his rule was relatively circumscribed by Magna Carta . He generally acted within the terms of the charters , which prevented the Crown from taking extrajudicial action against the barons , including the fines and expropriations that had been common under his father , John . The charters did not address the sensitive issues of the appointment of royal advisers and the distribution of patronage , and they lacked any means of enforcement if the King chose to ignore them . The inconsistency with which he applied the charters over the course of his rule alienated many barons , even those within his own faction .
Despite the various charters , the provision of royal justice was inconsistent and driven by the needs of immediate politics : sometimes action would be taken to address a legitimate baronial complaint , while on other occasions the problem would simply be ignored . The royal courts , which toured the country to provide justice at the local level , typically for lesser barons and the gentry claiming grievances against major lords , had little power , allowing the major barons to dominate the local justice system . Henry 's rule became lax and careless , resulting in a reduction in royal authority in the provinces and , ultimately , the collapse of his authority at court .
In 1258 , a group of barons seized power from Henry in a coup d 'état , citing the need to strictly enforce Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest , creating a new baronial @-@ led government to advance reform through the Provisions of Oxford . The barons were not militarily powerful enough to win a decisive victory , and instead appealed to Louis IX of France in 1263 – 1264 to arbitrate on their proposed reforms . The reformist barons argued their case based on Magna Carta , suggesting that it was inviolable under English law and that the King had broken its terms .
Louis came down firmly in favour of Henry , but the French arbitration failed to achieve peace as the rebellious barons refused to accept the verdict . England slipped back into the Second Barons ' War , which was won by Henry 's son , Prince Edward . Edward also invoked Magna Carta in advancing his cause , arguing that the reformers had taken matters too far and were themselves acting against Magna Carta . In a conciliatory gesture after the barons had been defeated , in 1267 Henry issued the Statute of Marlborough , which included a fresh commitment to observe the terms of Magna Carta .
= = = = = Witnesses in 1225 = = = = =
= = = = Great Charter of 1297 : statute = = = =
King Edward I reissued the Charters of 1225 in 1297 in return for a new tax . It is this version which remains in statute today , although with most articles now repealed .
The Confirmatio Cartarum ( Confirmation of Charters ) was issued in Norman French by Edward I in 1297 . Edward , needing money , had taxed the nobility , and they had armed themselves against him , forcing Edward to issue his confirmation of Magna Carta and the Forest Charter to avoid civil war . The nobles had sought to add another document , the De Tallagio , to Magna Carta . Edward I 's government was not prepared to concede this , they agreed to the issuing of the Confirmatio , confirming the previous charters and confirming the principle that taxation should be by consent , although the precise manner of that consent was not laid down .
A passage mandates that copies shall be distributed in " cathedral churches throughout our realm , there to remain , and shall be read before the people two times by the year " , hence the presence of a copy during the month of May 2014 at St Edmundsbury Cathedral , and the permanent installation of a copy in Salisbury Cathedral . In the Confirmation 's second article , it is confirmed that
if any judgement be given from henceforth contrary to the points of the charters aforesaid by the justices , or by any other our ministers that hold plea before them against the points of the charters , it shall be undone , and holden for nought .
With the reconfirmation of the Charters in 1300 , an additional document was granted , the Articuli super Cartas ( The Articles upon the Charters ) . It was composed of 17 articles and sought in part to deal with the problem of enforcing the Charters . Magna Carta and the Forest Charter were to be issued to the sheriff of each county , and should be read four times a year at the meetings of the county courts . Each county should have a committee of three men who could hear complaints about violations of the Charters .
Pope Clement V continued the papal policy of supporting monarchs ( who ruled by divine grace ) against any claims in Magna Carta which challenged the King 's rights , and annulled the Confirmatio Cartarum in 1305 . Edward I interpreted Clement V 's papal bull annulling the Confirmatio Cartarum as effectively applying to the Articuli super Cartas , although the latter was not specifically mentioned . In 1306 Edward I took the opportunity given by the Pope 's backing to reassert forest law over large areas which had been " disafforested " . Both Edward and the Pope were accused by some contemporary chroniclers of " perjury " , and it was suggested by Robert McNair Scott that Robert the Bruce refused to make peace with Edward I 's son , Edward II , in 1312 with the justification : " How shall the king of England keep faith with me , since he does not observe the sworn promises made to his liege men ... "
= = = = Magna Carta 's influence on English medieval law = = = =
The Great Charter was referred to in legal cases throughout the medieval period . For example , in 1226 , the knights of Lincolnshire argued that their local sheriff was changing customary practice regarding the local courts , " contrary to their liberty which they ought to have by the charter of the lord king " . In practice , cases were not brought against the King for breach of Magna Carta and the Forest Charter , but it was possible to bring a case against the King 's officers , such as his sheriffs , using the argument that the King 's officers were acting contrary to liberties granted by the King in the charters .
In addition , medieval cases referred to the clauses in Magna Carta which dealt with specific issues such as wardship and dower , debt collection , and keeping rivers free for navigation . Even in the 13th century , some clauses of Magna Carta rarely appeared in legal cases , either because the issues concerned were no longer relevant , or because Magna Carta had been superseded by more relevant legislation . By 1350 half the clauses of Magna Carta were no longer actively used .
= = = 14th – 15th centuries = = =
During the reign of King Edward III six measures , later known as the Six Statutes , were passed between 1331 and 1369 . They sought to clarify certain parts of the Charters . In particular the third statute , in 1354 , redefined clause 29 , with " free man " becoming " no man , of whatever estate or condition he may be " , and introduced the phrase " due process of law " for " lawful judgement of his peers or the law of the land " .
Between the 13th and 15th centuries Magna Carta was reconfirmed 32 times according to Sir Edward Coke , and possibly as many as 45 times . Often the first item of parliamentary business was a public reading and reaffirmation of the Charter , and , as in the previous century , parliaments often exacted confirmation of it from the monarch . The Charter was confirmed in 1423 by King Henry VI .
By the mid @-@ 15th century , Magna Carta ceased to occupy a central role in English political life , as monarchs reasserted authority and powers which had been challenged in the 100 years after Edward I 's reign . The Great Charter remained a text for lawyers , particularly as a protector of property rights , and became more widely read than ever as printed versions circulated and levels of literacy increased .
= = = 16th century = = =
During the 16th century , the interpretation of Magna Carta and the First Barons ' War shifted . Henry VII took power at the end of the turbulent Wars of the Roses , followed by Henry VIII , and extensive propaganda under both rulers promoted the legitimacy of the regime , the illegitimacy of any sort of rebellion against royal power , and the priority of supporting the Crown in its arguments with the Papacy .
Tudor historians rediscovered the Barnwell chronicler , who was more favourable to King John than other 13th @-@ century texts , and , as historian Ralph Turner describes , they " viewed King John in a positive light as a hero struggling against the papacy " , showing " little sympathy for the Great Charter or the rebel barons " . Pro @-@ Catholic demonstrations during the 1536 uprising cited Magna Carta , accusing the King of not giving it sufficient respect .
The first mechanically printed edition of Magna Carta was probably the Magna Carta cum aliis Antiquis Statutis of 1508 by Richard Pynson , although the early printed versions of the 16th century incorrectly attributed the origins of Magna Carta to Henry III and 1225 , rather than to John and 1215 , and accordingly worked from the later text . An abridged English @-@ language edition was published by John Rastell in 1527 and , in 1534 , George Ferrers published the first unabridged English @-@ language edition of Magna Carta , dividing the Charter into 37 numbered clauses .
At the end of the 16th century , there was an upsurge in antiquarian interest in England . This work concluded that there was a set of ancient English customs and laws , temporarily overthrown by the Norman invasion of 1066 , which had then been recovered in 1215 and recorded in Magna Carta , which in turn gave authority to important 16th century legal principles . Modern historians note that although this narrative was fundamentally incorrect — many refer to it as a " myth " – it took on great importance among the legal historians of the time .
The antiquarian William Lambarde , for example , published what he believed were the Anglo @-@ Saxon and Norman law codes , tracing the origins of the 16th @-@ century English Parliament back to this period , albeit misinterpreting the dates of many documents concerned . Francis Bacon argued that clause 39 of Magna Carta was the basis of the 16th @-@ century jury system and judicial processes . Antiquarians Robert Beale , James Morice , and Richard Cosin argued that Magna Carta was a statement of liberty and a fundamental , supreme law empowering English government . Those who questioned these conclusions , including the Member of Parliament Arthur Hall , faced sanctions .
= = = 17th – 18th centuries = = =
= = = = Political tensions = = = =
In the early 17th century , Magna Carta became increasingly important as a political document in arguments over the authority of the English monarchy . James I and Charles I both propounded greater authority for the Crown , justified by the doctrine of the divine right of kings , and Magna Carta was cited extensively by their opponents to challenge the monarchy .
Magna Carta , it was argued , recognised and protected the liberty of individual Englishmen , made the King subject to the common law of the land , formed the origin of the trial by jury system , and acknowledged the ancient origins of Parliament : because of Magna Carta and this ancient constitution , an English monarch was unable to alter these long @-@ standing English customs . Although the arguments based on Magna Carta were historically inaccurate , they nonetheless carried symbolic power , as the charter had immense significance during this period ; antiquarians such as Sir Henry Spelman described it as " the most majestic and a sacrosanct anchor to English Liberties " .
Sir Edward Coke was a leader in using Magna Carta as a political tool during this period . Still working from the 1225 version of the text — the first printed copy of the 1215 charter only emerged in 1610 – Coke spoke and wrote about Magna Carta repeatedly . His work was challenged at the time by Lord Ellesmere , and modern historians such as Ralph Turner and Claire Breay have critiqued Coke as " misconstruing " the original charter " anachronistically and uncritically " , and taking a " very selective " approach to his analysis . More sympathetically , J. C. Holt noted that the history of the charters had already become " distorted " by the time Coke was carrying out his work .
In 1621 , a bill was presented to Parliament to renew Magna Carta ; although this bill failed , lawyer John Selden argued during Darnell 's Case in 1627 that the right of habeas corpus was backed by Magna Carta . Coke supported the Petition of Right in 1628 , which cited Magna Carta in its preamble , attempting to extend the provisions , and to make them binding on the judiciary . The monarchy responded by arguing that the historical legal situation was much less clear @-@ cut than was being claimed , restricted the activities of antiquarians , arrested Coke for treason , and suppressed his proposed book on Magna Carta . Charles initially did not agree to the Petition of Right , and refused to confirm Magna Carta in any way that would reduce his independence as King .
England descended into civil war in the 1640s , resulting in Charles I 's execution in 1649 . Under the republic that followed , some questioned whether Magna Carta , an agreement with a monarch , was still relevant . An anti @-@ Cromwellian pamphlet published in 1660 , The English devil , said that the nation had been " compelled to submit to this Tyrant Nol or be cut off by him ; nothing but a word and a blow , his Will was his Law ; tell him of Magna Carta , he would lay his hand on his sword and cry Magna Farta " . In a 2005 speech the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales , Lord Woolf , repeated the claim that Cromwell had referred to Magna Carta as " Magna Farta " .
The radical groups that flourished during this period held differing opinions of Magna Carta . The Levellers rejected history and law as presented by their contemporaries , holding instead to an " anti @-@ Normanism " viewpoint . John Lilburne , for example , argued that Magna Carta contained only some of the freedoms that had supposedly existed under the Anglo @-@ Saxons before being crushed by the Norman yoke . The Leveller Richard Overton described the charter as " a beggarly thing containing many marks of intolerable bondage " . Both saw Magna Carta as a useful declaration of liberties that could be used against governments they disagreed with . Gerrard Winstanley , the leader of the more extreme Diggers , stated " the best lawes that England hath , [ viz . , the Magna Carta ] were got by our Forefathers importunate petitioning unto the kings that still were their Task @-@ masters ; and yet these best laws are yoaks and manicles , tying one sort of people to be slaves to another ; Clergy and Gentry have got their freedom , but the common people still are , and have been left servants to work for them . "
= = = = Glorious Revolution = = = =
The first attempt at a proper historiography was undertaken by Robert Brady , who refuted the supposed antiquity of Parliament and belief in the immutable continuity of the law . Brady realised that the liberties of the Charter were limited and argued that the liberties were the grant of the King . By putting Magna Carta in historical context , he cast doubt on its contemporary political relevance ; his historical understanding did not survive the Glorious Revolution , which , according to the historian J. G. A. Pocock , " marked a setback for the course of English historiography . "
According to the Whig interpretation of history , the Glorious Revolution was an example of the reclaiming of ancient liberties . Reinforced with Lockean concepts , the Whigs believed England 's constitution to be a social contract , based on documents such as Magna Carta , the Petition of Right , and the Bill of Rights . The English Liberties ( 1680 , in later versions often British Liberties ) by the Whig propagandist Henry Care ( d . 1688 ) was a cheap polemical book that was influential and much @-@ reprinted , in the American colonies as well as Britain , and made Magna Carta central to the history and the contemporary legitimacy of its subject .
Ideas about the nature of law in general were beginning to change . In 1716 , the Septennial Act was passed , which had a number of consequences . First , it showed that Parliament no longer considered its previous statutes unassailable , as it provided for a maximum parliamentary term of seven years , whereas the Triennial Act ( 1694 ) ( enacted less than a quarter of a century previously ) had provided for a maximum term of three years .
It also greatly extended the powers of Parliament . Under this new constitution , monarchical absolutism was replaced by parliamentary supremacy . It was quickly realised that Magna Carta stood in the same relation to the King @-@ in @-@ Parliament as it had to the King without Parliament . This supremacy would be challenged by the likes of Granville Sharp . Sharp regarded Magna Carta as a fundamental part of the constitution , and maintained that it would be treason to repeal any part of it . He also held that the Charter prohibited slavery .
Sir William Blackstone published a critical edition of the 1215 Charter in 1759 , and gave it the numbering system still used today . In 1763 , Member of Parliament John Wilkes was arrested for writing an inflammatory pamphlet , No. 45 , 23 April 1763 ; he cited Magna Carta continually . Lord Camden denounced the treatment of Wilkes as a contravention of Magna Carta . Thomas Paine , in his Rights of Man , would disregard Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights on the grounds that they were not a written constitution devised by elected representatives .
= = = = Use in the Thirteen Colonies and the United States = = = =
When English colonists left for the New World , they brought royal charters that established the colonies . The Massachusetts Bay Company charter , for example , stated that the colonists would " have and enjoy all liberties and immunities of free and natural subjects . " The Virginia Charter of 1606 , which was largely drafted by Sir Edward Coke , stated that the colonists would have the same " liberties , franchises and immunities " as people born in England . The Massachusetts Body of Liberties contained similarities to clause 29 of Magna Carta ; when drafting it , the Massachusetts General Court viewed Magna Carta as the chief embodiment of English common law . The other colonies would follow their example . In 1638 , Maryland sought to recognise Magna Carta as part of the law of the province , but the request was denied by Charles I.
In 1687 , William Penn published The Excellent Privilege of Liberty and Property : being the birth @-@ right of the Free @-@ Born Subjects of England , which contained the first copy of Magna Carta printed on American soil . Penn 's comments reflected Coke 's , indicating a belief that Magna Carta was a fundamental law . The colonists drew on English law books , leading them to an anachronistic interpretation of Magna Carta , believing that it guaranteed trial by jury and habeas corpus .
The development of parliamentary supremacy in the British Isles did not constitutionally affect the Thirteen Colonies , which retained an adherence to English common law , but it directly affected the relationship between Britain and the colonies . When American colonists fought against Britain , they were fighting not so much for new freedom , but to preserve liberties and rights that they believed to be enshrined in Magna Carta .
In the late 18th century , the United States Constitution became the supreme law of the land , recalling the manner in which Magna Carta had come to be regarded as fundamental law . The Constitution 's Fifth Amendment guarantees that " no person shall be deprived of life , liberty , or property , without due process of law " , a phrase that was derived from Magna Carta . In addition , the Constitution included a similar writ in the Suspension Clause , Article 1 , Section 9 : " The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended , unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion , the public safety may require it . "
Each of these proclaim that no person may be imprisoned or detained without evidence that he or she committed a crime . The Ninth Amendment states that " The enumeration in the Constitution , of certain rights , shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people . " The writers of the U.S. Constitution wished to ensure that the rights they already held , such as those that they believed were provided by Magna Carta , would be preserved unless explicitly curtailed .
The Supreme Court of the United States has explicitly referenced Lord Coke 's analysis of Magna Carta as an antecedent of the Sixth Amendment 's right to a speedy trial .
= = = 19th – 21st centuries = = =
= = = = Interpretation = = = =
Initially , the Whig interpretation of Magna Carta and its role in constitutional history remained dominant during the 19th century . The historian William Stubbs 's Constitutional History of England , published in the 1870s , formed the high @-@ water mark of this view . Stubbs argued that Magna Carta had been a major step in the shaping of the English nation , and he believed that the barons at Runnymede in 1215 were not just representing the nobility , but the people of England as a whole , standing up to a tyrannical ruler in the form of King John .
This view of Magna Carta began to recede . The late @-@ Victorian jurist and historian Frederic William Maitland provided an alternative academic history in 1899 , which began to return Magna Carta to its historical roots . In 1904 , Edward Jenks published an article entitled " The Myth of Magna Carta " , which undermined the traditionally accepted view of Magna Carta . Historians such as Albert Pollard agreed with Jenks in concluding that Edward Coke had largely " invented " the myth of Magna Carta in the 17th century ; these historians argued that the 1215 charter had not referred to liberty for the people at large , but rather to the protection of baronial rights .
This view also became popular in wider circles , and in 1930 Sellar and Yeatman published their parody on English history , 1066 and All That , in which they mocked the supposed importance of Magna Carta and its promises of universal liberty : " Magna Charter was therefore the chief cause of Democracy in England , and thus a Good Thing for everyone ( except the Common People ) " .
In many literary representations of the medieval past , however , Magna Carta remained a foundation of English national identity . Some authors used the medieval roots of the document as an argument to preserve the social status quo , while others pointed to Magna Carta to challenge perceived economic injustices . The Baronial Order of Magna Charta was formed in 1898 to promote the ancient principles and values felt to be displayed in Magna Carta . The legal profession in England and the United States continued to hold Magna Carta in high esteem ; they were instrumental in forming the Magna Carta Society in 1922 to protect the meadows at Runnymede from development in the 1920s , and in 1957 , the American Bar Association erected the Magna Carta Memorial at Runnymede . The prominent lawyer Lord Denning described Magna Carta in 1956 as " the greatest constitutional document of all times – the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot " .
= = = = Repeal of articles and constitutional influence = = = =
Radicals such as Sir Francis Burdett believed that Magna Carta could not be repealed , but in the 19th century clauses which were obsolete or had been superseded began to be repealed . The repeal of clause 26 in 1829 , by the Offences against the Person Act 1828 ( 9 Geo . 4 c . 31 s . 1 ) , was the first time a clause of Magna Carta was repealed . Over the next 140 years , nearly the whole charter was repealed , leaving just clauses 1 , 9 , and 29 still in force after 1969 . Most of the clauses were repealed in England and Wales by the Statute Law Revision Act 1863 , and in Ireland by the Statute Law ( Ireland ) Revision Act 1872 .
Many later attempts to draft constitutional forms of government trace their lineage back to Magna Carta . The British dominions , Australia and New Zealand , Canada ( except Quebec ) , and formerly the Union of South Africa and Southern Rhodesia , reflected the influence of Magna Carta in their laws , and the Charter 's effects can be seen in the laws of other states that evolved from the British Empire .
= = = = Modern legacy = = = =
Magna Carta continues to have a powerful iconic status in British society , being cited by politicians and lawyers in support of constitutional positions . Its perceived guarantee of trial by jury and other civil liberties , for example , led to Tony Benn 's reference to the debate in 2008 over whether to increase the maximum time terrorism suspects could be held without charge from 28 to 42 days as " the day Magna Carta was repealed " . Although rarely invoked in court in the modern era , in 2012 the Occupy London protestors attempted to use Magna Carta in resisting their eviction from St. Paul 's Churchyard by the City of London . In his judgment the Master of the Rolls gave this short shrift , noting somewhat drily that although clause 29 was considered by many the foundation of the rule of law in England , he did not consider it directly relevant to the case , and the two other surviving clauses actually concerned the rights of the Church and the City of London .
Magna Carta carries little legal weight in modern Britain , as most of its clauses have been repealed and relevant rights ensured by other statutes , but the historian James Holt remarks that the survival of the 1215 charter in national life is a " reflexion of the continuous development of English law and administration " and symbolic of the many struggles between authority and the law over the centuries . The historian W. L. Warren has observed that " many who knew little and cared less about the content of the Charter have , in nearly all ages , invoked its name , and with good cause , for it meant more than it said " .
It also remains a topic of great interest to historians ; Natalie Fryde characterised the charter as " one of the holiest of cows in English medieval history " , with the debates over its interpretation and meaning unlikely to end . In many ways still a " sacred text " , Magna Carta is generally considered part of the uncodified constitution of the United Kingdom ; in a 2005 speech , the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales , Lord Woolf , described it as the " first of a series of instruments that now are recognised as having a special constitutional status " .
The document also continues to be honoured in the United States as an antecedent of the United States Constitution and Bill of Rights . In 1976 , the UK lent one of four surviving originals of the 1215 Magna Carta to the United States for their bicentennial celebrations and also donated an ornate display case for it . The original was returned after one year , but a replica and the case are still on display in the United States Capitol Crypt in Washington , D.C.
= = = = Celebration of the 800th anniversary = = = =
The 800th anniversary of the original charter occurred on 15 June 2015 , and organisations and institutions planned celebratory events . The British Library brought together the four existing copies of the 1215 manuscript on 3 February 2015 for a special exhibition . British artist Cornelia Parker was commissioned to create a new artwork , Magna Carta ( An Embroidery ) , which was unveiled at the British Library on 15 May 2015 and remained on display until 24 July . The artwork is a copy of an earlier version of this Wikipedia page ( as it appeared on the document 's 799th anniversary , 15 June 2014 ) , embroidered into the form of a tapestry .
On 15 June 2015 , a commemoration ceremony was conducted in Runnymede at the National Trust park , attended by British and American dignitaries .
The copy held by Lincoln Cathedral was exhibited in the Library of Congress in Washington , D.C. , from November 2014 until January 2015 . A new visitor centre at Lincoln Castle will also be opened for the anniversary . The Royal Mint released two commemorative two @-@ pound coins .
In 2014 , Bury St Edmunds in Suffolk celebrated the 800th anniversary of the barons ' Charter of Liberties , said to have been secretly agreed there in November 1214 .
= = Content = =
= = = Physical format = = =
Numerous copies , known as exemplifications , were made of the various charters , and many of them still survive . The documents were written in heavily abbreviated medieval Latin in clear handwriting , using quill pens on sheets of parchment made from sheep skin , approximately 15 by 20 inches ( 380 by 510 mm ) across . They were sealed with the royal great seal by an official called the spigurnel , equipped with a special seal press , using beeswax and resin . There were no signatures on the charter of 1215 , and the barons present did not attach their own seals to it . The charters were not numbered or divided into paragraphs or separate clauses at the time ; the numbering system used today was introduced by the jurist Sir William Blackstone in 1759 .
= = = Exemplifications = = =
= = = = 1215 exemplifications = = = =
At least 13 original copies of the 1215 charter were issued by the royal chancery at the time , seven in the first tranche distributed on 24 June and another six later ; they were sent to county sheriffs and bishops , who would probably have been charged for the privilege . Variations would have existed between each of these copies and there was probably no single " master copy " . Of these documents , only four survive , all held in the UK — two in the British Library , one by Lincoln Cathedral , and one in Salisbury Cathedral . Each of these versions is slightly different in size and text , and each is considered by historians to be equally authoritative .
The two 1215 charters held by the British Library , known as Cotton MS. Augustus II.106 and Cotton Charter XIII.31a , were acquired by the antiquarian Sir Robert Cotton in the 17th century . One of these was originally found by Humphrey Wyems , a London lawyer , who may have discovered it in a tailor 's shop . The other was found in Dover Castle in 1630 by Sir Edward Dering . The Dering charter is usually identified as the copy originally sent to the Cinque Ports in 1215 . ( In 2015 it was announced that David Carpenter had found Dering 's copy to be identical to a 1290s transcription made from Canterbury Cathedral 's 1215 copy and so he suggests that the Dering copy 's destination was the Cathedral rather than the Cinque Ports . ) This copy was damaged in the Cotton library fire of 1731 , when its seal was badly melted . The parchment was somewhat shrivelled but otherwise relatively unscathed , and an engraved facsimile of the charter was made by John Pine in 1733 . In the 1830s , however , an ill @-@ judged and bungled attempt at cleaning and conservation rendered the manuscript largely illegible to the naked eye . This is , nonetheless , the only surviving 1215 copy still to have its great seal attached .
Lincoln Cathedral 's original copy of the 1215 charter has been held by the county since 1215 ; it was displayed in the Common Chamber in the cathedral before being moved to another building in 1846 . It was being displayed at the 1939 World Fair in New York when the Second World War broke out , and it spent the majority of the war in Fort Knox for safety . Winston Churchill wanted to gift the charter to the American people , hoping that this would encourage the United States , then neutral , to enter the war against the Axis powers , but the cathedral was unwilling and the plans were dropped .
The copy was returned to England and put on display in 1976 as part of the cathedral 's medieval library . It was subsequently displayed in San Francisco , and was taken out of display for a time to undergo conservation in preparation for another visit to the United States , where it was exhibited in 2007 at the Contemporary Art Center of Virginia and the National Constitution Center in Philadelphia . The document returned to New York to be displayed at the Fraunces Tavern Museum during 2009 .
The fourth copy , owned by Salisbury Cathedral , was first given in 1215 to its predecessor , Old Sarum Cathedral . Rediscovered by the cathedral in 1812 , it has remained in Salisbury throughout its history , except when being taken off @-@ site for restoration work . It is possibly the best preserved of the four , although small pin holes can be seen in the parchment from where it was once pinned up . The handwriting on this version is different from that of the other three , suggesting that it was not written by a royal scribe but rather by a member of the cathedral staff , who then had it exemplified by the royal court .
= = = = Later exemplifications = = = =
Other early versions of the charters survive today . Only one exemplification of the 1216 charter survives , held in Durham Cathedral . Four copies of the 1217 charter exist ; three of these are held by the Bodleian Library in Oxford and one by Hereford Cathedral . Hereford 's copy is occasionally displayed alongside the Mappa Mundi in the cathedral 's chained library and has survived along with a small document called the Articuli super Cartas that was sent along with the charter , telling the sheriff of the county how to observe the conditions outlined in the document . One of the Bodleian 's copies was displayed at San Francisco 's California Palace of the Legion of Honor in 2011 .
Four exemplifications of the 1225 charter survive : the British Library holds one , which was preserved at Lacock Abbey until 1945 ; Durham Cathedral also holds a copy , with the Bod | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
uxent , MD 231 heads southeast through the neck of far eastern Charles County that reaches to the Patuxent River between Prince George 's County and St. Mary 's County . Before reaching the river , the state highway passes to the north of the village of Benedict , which was the site of the landing of British troops to march toward Washington prior to the Battle of Bladensburg during the War of 1812 . The state highway crosses the Patuxent River on the Benedict Bridge , a 3 @,@ 343 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 019 m ) long steel beam bridge whose roadway is 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) wide . At the Patuxent River 's navigation channel , the bridge features a through steel girder swing span that has 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) vertical clearance when closed and provides two openings with 50 feet ( 15 m ) horizontal clearance when opened .
MD 231 enters Calvert County at Hallowing Point and continues east as Hallowing Point Road , passing an industrial park and Hallowing Point Park . After intersecting MD 508 ( Adelina Road ) , the state highway veers northeast through the village of Barstow , where the highway intersects Barstow Road , which serves the historic homes Cedar Hill and Willow Glenn . MD 231 passes the Prince Frederick campus of the College of Southern Maryland before entering Prince Frederick . The state highway meets MD 2 and MD 4 , which run concurrently as Solomons Island Road , on the west side of the county seat . MD 231 continues northeast as Church Street , passing the historic home Linden , home of the Calvert County Historical Society . The state highway reaches its eastern terminus at MD 765 ( Main Street ) , a short distance north of the county courthouse .
MD 231 is a part of the main National Highway System from MD 5 in Hughesville to MD 2 and MD 4 in Prince Frederick .
= = History = =
The Prince Frederick Road portion of MD 231 , originally named Benedict Road , was constructed as a gravel road by 1921 . The Hallowing Point Road section was built in gravel around 1923 . Burnt Store Road was constructed of gravel starting in 1930 and was completed by 1933 . At MD 231 's western terminus , Olivers Shop Road was originally MD 232 , which ran from MD 234 at Wicomico north to what was then MD 233 ( Woodville Road ) north of Bryantown . MD 232 was removed from the state highway system around 1989 , leaving MD 231 's western terminus at a county highway .
Ferry service began between Benedict and Hallowing Point began around 1933 . On the west side of the Patuxent River , MD 231 originally turned south into the village of Benedict , following Benedict Avenue to the ferry terminal where the avenue starting following the riverbank . The Hallowing Point terminal remains today as a boat ramp immediately south of the bridge . State senator Louis L. Goldstein of Calvert County sponsored a bill to construct a bridge between Benedict and Hallowing Point . In order to get enough votes to pass , the bridge bill stipulated the bridge would have a 25 @-@ cent toll . Work on the Benedict Bridge began in May 1950 . The toll plaza and administration building were completed on the Calvert County side of the bridge in autumn 1951 . The bridge itself and 24 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) wide gravel approach roads on both sides of the river were completed and opened in spring 1952 . The toll was removed from the bridge in 1955 due to very low traffic ; a daily average of 237 vehicles used the bridge in its first year . By comparison , the bridge had an average annual daily traffic figure of 12 @,@ 312 vehicles in 2013 .
The completion of the Benedict Bridge greatly improved the connection between Calvert County and both Charles and St. Mary 's counties . Prior to 1952 , the southernmost bridge on the Patuxent River had been Hills Bridge , by which MD 4 crosses the river at Upper Marlboro . By 1953 , MD 231 between MD 5 in Hughesville and MD 2 in Prince Frederick was marked as a " main highway " on the state highway map . Reconstruction of MD 231 between MD 5 and MD 2 began in 1954 . In both counties , the road was resurfaced in two stages : a first stage of bituminous stabilized gravel and a second stage of bituminous concrete . The reconstruction of MD 231 was completed from Prince Frederick to Hallowing Point in 1956 and from Hughesville to Benedict by 1958 . The Benedict Bridge remained the southernmost crossing of the Patuxent River until the opening of the Governor Thomas Johnson Bridge between Solomons at the bottom of Calvert County and California in St. Mary 's County in 1978 . The " functionally obsolete " bridge underwent major repairs in 2002 , during which the bridge was reduced to one lane of traffic in alternating directions .
= = Junction list = =
= Providence College =
Providence College ( also known as Providence or PC ) is a private , coeducational , Roman Catholic university located about two miles west of downtown Providence , Rhode Island , United States , the state 's capital city . With a 2012 – 2013 enrollment of 3 @,@ 852 undergraduate students and 735 graduate students , the college specializes in academic programs in the liberal arts . It is the only college or university in North America administered by the Dominican Friars .
Founded in 1917 , the college offers 49 majors and 34 minors and , beginning with the class of 2016 , requires all its students to complete 16 credits in the Development of Western Civilization , which serves as a major part of the college 's core curriculum ( down from 20 credits previously ) . Fr . Brian Shanley has been the school 's president since 2005 .
In athletics , Providence College competes in the NCAA 's Division I and is a founding member of the Big East Conference and Hockey East . In December 2012 , the College announced it and six other Catholic colleges would leave the Big East Conference to form its own league , taking with them the Big East name and branding .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
In 1917 , Providence College was founded as an all @-@ male school through the efforts of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Providence and the Dominican Province of St. Joseph . The central figure in the college 's incorporation was Matthew Harkins , Bishop of Providence , who sought an institution which would establish a center of advanced learning for the Catholic youth of Rhode Island .
Opening its doors at the corner of Eaton Street and River Avenue in 1919 and with only one building , Harkins Hall , the college under inaugural president Dennis Albert Casey , O.P. ( 1917 – 1921 ) began with 71 students and nine Dominican faculty members . Under second president William D. Noon , O.P. ( 1921 – 1927 ) , the college added its first lay faculty member and opened its first dormitory , Guzman Hall ( now known as Martin Hall ) . Under President Lorenzo C. McCarthy , O.P. ( 1927 – 1936 ) , Providence College athletics soon received their moniker , as the " Friars " in black and white had early success in basketball , football , and baseball . In 1933 , the school received regional accreditation by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges . The college conferred its first Master of Arts , Doctor of Philosophy , and Master of Science degrees by 1935 , the year when the school 's newspaper ( The Cowl ) was first published .
By 1939 , Aquinas Hall dormitory had been built to accommodate more students enrolling in general studies , but with the impact of World War II upon enrollment , President John J. Dillon , O.P. ( 1936 – 1944 ) lobbied Rhode Island 's congressional delegation to pressure the War Department to assign Providence College an Army Specialized Training Program unit . Unit # 1188 arrived on campus in the Summer of 1943 , allowing the college to continue operation . A class of approximately 380 soldiers @-@ in @-@ training studied engineering at Providence College for a year before going overseas .
= = = Post @-@ World War II expansion = = =
Robert J. Slavin , O.P. served as president from 1947 to 1961 . During his tenure in 1955 , Providence acquired the House of Good Shepard property that pushed the original boundaries of campus to Huxley Avenue . Slavin also oversaw the establishment of the Reserve Officers ' Training Corps ( ROTC ) on campus in 1951 , and the Liberal Arts Honors Program in 1957 .
The athletics program of the college gained acceptance into the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) in 1948 . Prior to the opening of Alumni Hall in 1955 , the men 's basketball team played in local Providence high schools . The college also hired Joe Mullaney as the men 's basketball coach .
President Vincent C. Dore , O.P. ( 1961 – 1965 ) opened the doors of the college 's graduate school as well as a new dormitory building , now called Meagher Hall . President William P. Haas , O.P. ( 1965 – 1971 ) opened Phillips Memorial Library in 1969 .
= = = Co @-@ educational shift = = =
In 1967 , the college added its first lay faculty members in its Departments of Theology and Philosophy , as well as its first full @-@ time female faculty member . Two years later , the student dress code was abolished . In 1970 , the college decided to admit women starting with the 1971 – 1972 school year . The same year , the first female administrator was hired .
Subsequent president Thomas R. Peterson , O.P. ( 1971 – 1985 ) instituted the Development of Western Civilization program , while in 1974 , the college acquired the property of the former Charles V. Chapin Hospital on the other side of Huxley Avenue . The campus was then split in half by Huxley Avenue , providing an " Upper " campus ( due to the uphill nature of the landscape on Smith Hill ) and " Lower " campus ( the new , flatter area of the College ) . In 1974 , the School of Continuing Education awarded the college 's first Associate 's degree .
With men 's basketball tickets becoming a hot commodity at the 2 @,@ 600 @-@ seat Alumni Hall gymnasium , and with the opening of the Providence Civic Center in 1972 , the Friars moved downtown in time for their Final Four appearance behind Providence natives Ernie DiGregorio and Marvin Barnes . Two years later , the men 's hockey team played their first season in the new home on campus , as Schneider Arena opened in 1974 with Ron Wilson leading the way .
In the early morning hours of December 13 , 1977 , a dormitory fire killed ten female residents of Aquinas Hall . Meanwhile , the demographics of the student body continued to change , as women outnumbered men in incoming classes and non @-@ Rhode Island students soon outnumbered in @-@ state students . In 1984 , Peterson also opened St. Thomas Aquinas Priory at the entrance of campus to accommodate the growing number of Dominican brethren living on campus .
= = = Recent expansion = = =
John F. Cunningham , O.P. ( 1985 – 1994 ) succeeded Peterson as president in 1985 and saw the Friars men 's hockey team win the inaugural Hockey East Championship the same year over rival Boston College and reach the championship game of the NCAA Tournament to lose 2 – 1 to Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute . Men 's basketball again took center stage on the Providence campus , as coach Rick Pitino and senior Billy Donovan took the Friars to their second Final Four appearance in the 1987 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . Cunningham used the exposure and fundraising opportunities to build two apartment @-@ style residence halls on campus , Davis and Bedford Halls , providing an alternative to dormitory and off @-@ campus housing for upperclassmen .
Philip A. Smith , O.P. ( 1994 – 2005 ) succeeded Cunningham in 1994 and oversaw the new influence of women 's athletics at Providence , as several alumni and then @-@ current students won the gold medal for women 's ice hockey as part of the U.S. national team in the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano , Japan .
By 2001 , a new on @-@ campus chapel was built , St. Dominic Chapel , followed three years later by the construction of two other major buildings on " Lower " campus : Suites Hall , a suite @-@ style residence hall to provide added upperclassmen housing , and the Smith Center for the Arts . Elected in 2005 , President Brian J. Shanley , O.P. ( 2005 – present ) has overseen the construction of the Concannon Fitness Center in 2007 as part of an overall renovation to Alumni Hall , as well as renovation and expansion of the Slavin Center in 2009 . In 2012 , a groundbreaking was held for the Ruane Center for the Humanities .
Shanley also removed the college 's SAT requirement for admissions in addition to transferring a significant portion of the school 's scholarship funds to need @-@ based aid , in order to give more diverse students the opportunity to afford the college . In 2008 , Shanley oversaw the founding of the Providence College School of Business ( PCSB ) , creating separate Schools of Arts and Sciences and Professional Studies .
= = Campus = =
The college is located on a gated 105 acres ( 0 @.@ 42 km2 ) campus in the city 's Elmhurst neighborhood atop Smith Hill , the highest point in the city of Providence . The campus is located in a residential urban neighborhood about two miles west of downtown Providence . The Smith Hill neighborhood , which borders the east end of campus , is a predominantly low @-@ income area with crime rates higher than the city average .
There are three main gates to campus , at Cunningham Square ( the intersection of River Avenue and Eaton Street ) and on Huxley Avenue to the upper campus , and at the southeast corner of the lower campus , along Eaton Street . The campus consists of nineteen academic and administrative buildings , nine dormitories , five apartment complexes , three residences , four athletic buildings , a power plant , a physical plant , and a security office gate house . There is also a Dominican cemetery , two quads , four athletic fields , a six @-@ court tennis court , an artificial turf field , and several parking areas ( including a structure below the turf field ) .
Renovations completed in 2009 to the Slavin Center , the campus student union , added solar panels and a bioretention system .
After purchasing Huxley Avenue in 2013 , the college began a campus transformation project with plans to develop campus facilities to meet the growing needs of the students . The renovations as of October 2015 include the groundbreaking of the Arthur and Patricia Ryan Center for Business Studies , handicap accessibility to Aquinas Hall , and the addition to outdoor classrooms .
= = Organization and administration = =
Since 1934 , Providence College has been governed by a 12 @-@ member corporation and a board of trustees consisting of 25 to 35 members .
The corporation consists of four ex officio members : the president of the college , the Prior Provincial of the Dominican Province of St. Joseph , the Bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Providence , and the chairman of the Board of Trustees . In addition , there are eight other members , each of whom serve three @-@ year terms ; four are Dominican friars and four are lay persons . The corporation has the " ultimate authority to exercise control over ownership of property , to promulgate and amend the by @-@ laws , to accept or reject the recommendation for election to the Presidency of the College by the Board of Trustees , and to elect members of the Corporation and of the Board of Trustees . "
All other affairs of the college not reserved to the corporation are handled by the board of trustees , which meets three times a year . These duties include " establishing major institutional goals , engaging in long @-@ range planning and policy @-@ making , overseeing the annual operating budget of the College and overseeing the review process and recommending a Dominican Friar for election to the Presidency of the College . " All members of the corporation and the executive vice president of the College serve on the board of trustees as ex officio , in addition to candidates elected by the corporation who serve a maximum of three , three @-@ year terms .
= = Academics = =
= = = Overview = = =
As of 2013 , Providence College reports an acceptance rate of 56 @.@ 0 percent . The average class size is 21 students , with nearly half of all classes including fewer than 20 students . There is a student @-@ to @-@ faculty ratio of 12 @-@ to @-@ 1 .
All classes are taught by full @-@ time professors . The college offers 49 majors and 34 minors . The majority of students declare majors in the liberal arts or business . Regardless of major , all students are required to a complete a core curriculum which includes credits in the Development of Western Civilization , mathematics , philosophy , theology , natural science , English , fine arts , and social science . Beginning with the Class of 2016 , the core curriculum was modified to reduce the required credits in natural science and social science , while adding credits in a " core focus " area , as well as proficiencies in intensive writing , oral communication , diversity , and civic engagement .
Constructed in 1969 , the Phillips Memorial Library consists of 3 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 volumes and is a member of the HELIN library consortium of Rhode Island .
= = = Academic divisions = = =
Providence College comprises four schools :
= = = = School of Arts & Sciences = = = =
The School of Arts & Sciences was created in 2008 as part of the college 's addition of a stand @-@ alone School of Business . The School offers undergraduate degrees in social sciences , natural sciences , mathematics , the humanities , and fine arts . It also offers graduate programs with Masters of Arts in history , biblical studies , mathematics , and theology , as well as a Master of Theological Studies degree .
= = = = School of Business = = = =
The School of Business was created in 2008 and immediately began the accreditation process for the AASCB . The college 's successful accreditation was received in 2012 . The school offers four undergraduate degrees , in management , finance , accountancy , and marketing , in addition to a Master of Business Administration ( MBA ) graduate program . The school also offers a certificate program in business studies .
= = = = School of Professional Studies = = = =
Created as a separate school in 2008 , the School of Professional Studies includes undergraduate and graduate degree programs in education and special education , social work , and health policy . It also offers a certificate program in special education administration .
= = = = School of Continuing Education = = = =
The School of Continuing Education offers courses to complete an associate 's degree or bachelor 's degree with programs including social sciences , theology , organizational studies , humanities , and liberal studies . In addition , it offers numerous certificate programs , including a Teacher Certification Program ( TCP ) .
= = = Academic programs = = =
= = = = Liberal Arts Honors Program = = = =
The Liberal Arts Honors Program was created in 1957 and accepts approximately the top 125 students in each freshman class , offering three levels of academic scholarships for participation in the program . Honors students take separate Development of Western Civilization courses with smaller classes , in addition to one or two honors @-@ level classes in other programs and a capstone honors " colloquium " course .
= = = = Development of Western Civilization = = = =
The Development of Western Civilization ( commonly referred to by students as " Civ " or " DWC " ) is a two @-@ year @-@ long program of courses required of all students attending the school , taken in students ' first four semesters at the school . Meeting in the Ruane Center for the Humanities , a lecture hall specifically built in 2013 for the program , the class meets three days a week , with one day being typically reserved for seminar work and / or exams . The class is taught by a team of professors , usually three , who specialize in literature , theology , philosophy , or history . Students move through Western history , studying original texts in each of the four course disciplines . The new Development of Western Civilization Program , implemented in late 2012 , features three semesters of standard lectures which move chronologically from ancient history to the modern period . The fourth and final semester of the program is organized into various colloquia , specialized courses taught by two professors that are more concentrated to students ' interests and majors .
There is a tradition which has grown over time from the course called " civ scream . " The event takes place the night before DWC final exams in December and May , and is usually centered on the " quad " area between Aquinas , Meagher , and McDermott Halls . It is intended to be a harmless gathering to let off steam from the long hours of studying for the intense course 's final exam , and is completely unsanctioned . As such , the " civ scream " can become loud with wild behavior .
= = Student life = =
The Providence College student population is made up of about 3 @,@ 852 undergraduates and 735 postgraduate students . As of 2012 , 58 percent of the student body is female , while 42 percent is male . The student population is drawn mostly from the southern New England states of Rhode Island , Massachusetts , and Connecticut , as well as New York , New Jersey , and other Mid @-@ Atlantic states . About one @-@ third of incoming students attended Catholic high schools .
A 2007 survey published by The Princeton Review rated Providence College as having the most homogeneous student population in the country , as well as ranking the college eighth nationally in the survey 's " little race / class interaction " category . As of 2012 , 88 percent of the student body is white or unreported , while only four percent of students come from outside of the United States . In 2011 , President Brian Shanley created an Office of Institutional Diversity , while hiring a Chief diversity officer , to " help balance the College 's socioeconomic representation . "
While 95 percent of the student population are residents , 17 percent live in nearby off @-@ campus housing . With the exception of Aquinas Hall , all dormitories are single @-@ sex , and all students living on campus must comply with " parietals " , which limit visitation hours of opposite @-@ sex students in dormitories .
As of 2011 , Providence College is ranked first in the country by The Princeton Review in the " Lots of Hard Liquor " category .
= = = Clubs and activities = = =
Students run the college 's radio station , WDOM , as well the on @-@ campus television station , PCTV . The station was ranked the 11th @-@ best college radio station in the country by the Princeton Review in 2011 . The student @-@ run campus newspaper since 1935 has been The Cowl .
The college does not officially sanction Greek life ; there are no fraternities or sororities on- or off @-@ campus .
The college 's oldest club / student organization is Providence College Debate Society . It was founded in 1921 and has had several periods of inactivity and subsequent revival . Despite being a small group averaging 15 @-@ 20 students a year the Debate Society has had notable achievements . Most recently the society was ranked 21st nationally in 2015 and has produced several nationally ranked debaters .
Providence also has many club sports team 's both men and woman . Most notably the Men 's Rugby who won the 2012 – 2013 Northeast Rugby Championship .
= = Athletics = =
The school 's 19 varsity men 's and women 's sports teams are called the Friars , after the Dominican Catholic order that runs the school . They are the only collegiate team to use the name . All teams participate in the NCAA Division I and in the Big East Conference , except for the men 's and women 's ice hockey programs , which compete in Hockey East . In 2015 , the men 's hockey team won its first NCAA Division I National Championship .
The school 's current athletic director is Robert Driscoll . The team colors are black and white , the same as the Dominicans , with silver as an accent color . The school 's current logos and identity marks were released in 2002 , and feature the profile of a friar wearing the black cappa ( hood ) of the Dominicans , above the word mark . All teams use the primary logo except the hockey teams , which have used the " skating Friar " logo since 1973 . In addition to the Friar mascot , the school 's animal mascot was a Dalmatian named " Friar Boy . " The school 's closest rivalries are Boston University and Boston College in hockey and the University of Connecticut and the University of Rhode Island in the school 's other sports , especially in soccer , tennis , swimming and diving , and basketball .
= = = Men 's basketball = = =
The Friars men 's basketball team is an original member of the Big East Conference , which was created in 1979 by a group led by former Providence coach Dave Gavitt and headquartered in Providence . The Friars play their home games at the 13 @,@ 000 @-@ seat Dunkin ' Donuts Center in downtown Providence , a facility that underwent an $ 80 million renovation completed in 2008 . Despite having the smallest enrollment of any Big East Conference school , the Friars have routinely averaged over 10 @,@ 000 fans per game during the 30 @-@ plus year history of the facility , all while earning postseason berths and placing many players in the National Basketball Association . In addition to producing NBA players , former Friars players and coaches have also gone on to become basketball icons in the coaching world , such as Rick Pitino , Billy Donovan , Lenny Wilkens , Pete Gillen , Rick Barnes , Johnny Egan , and John Thompson . They are currently coached by Ed Cooley .
Providence College won the 1961 and 1963 NIT championship and participated in the 1973 and 1987 Final Four , and the 1997 squad advanced to the NCAA Elite Eight . Overall , the team has earned 15 NCAA basketball tournament berths and 18 NIT berths , as well as having numerous players named All @-@ Americans .
= = Marks and seals = =
The college 's graphic identity represents the shape of a window in Harkins Hall with a flame inside , representing Veritas , or Truth , the official college motto . The college motto was borrowed from the Dominican Order , and has been used since the college 's inception .
The official seal of Providence College is an ornate triangle , representing the Trinity , with the flame of learning and a scroll with the College Motto , Veritas , superimposed on it . The seal is surrounded by a ring with the words Sigillum Collegii Providentiensis ( " Seal of Providence College " ) inside it .
= = Notable alumni = =
A number of prominent local and national politicians and judges are Providence College alumni . Former United States Senator from Connecticut Chris Dodd graduated in 1966 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English literature , while his father , Thomas J. Dodd , also a long @-@ serving U.S. Senator from Connecticut , graduated in 1930 with a degree in philosophy . Former United States Representative from Rhode Island Patrick J. Kennedy , the son of former United States Senator Ted Kennedy , earned a Bachelor of Science degree in 1991 .
In addition , 1963 graduate and star basketball player Raymond Flynn earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in education – social studies before serving as a three @-@ term Mayor of Boston and the United States Ambassador to the Holy See . Six @-@ term Mayor of Chicago Richard M. Daley graduated in 1964 from Providence College . Former United States Attorney General , United States Senator from Rhode Island , and Governor of Rhode Island J. Howard McGrath was a 1926 graduate of the College .
In athletics , two Basketball Hall of Fame players or coaches have graduated from Providence College : Lenny Wilkens and John Thompson . In addition , two @-@ time NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament champion , former University of Florida men 's basketball and current Oklahoma City Thunder head coach Billy Donovan , graduated from Providence College . Former Big East Conference commissioner John Marinatto is a Providence College graduate , while former Toronto Maple Leafs general manager Brian Burke , former New Jersey Devils CEO / President and current Toronto Maple Leafs general manager Lou Lamoriello , and Boston Celtics president Rich Gotham are also alumni .
Actor John O 'Hurley , film directors Peter Farrelly and James O 'Brien , actress and comedian Janeane Garofalo , and film producer and actor David Gere are graduates of Providence College , as are ESPN women 's basketball commentator Doris Burke , sports journalist Sean McAdam , and esteemed classical film critic John Vesce IV .
= Broken Sword : The Angel of Death =
Broken Sword : The Angel of Death ( Secrets of the Ark : A Broken Sword Game in North America ) is a 3D point @-@ and @-@ click adventure game developed by Revolution Software and Sumo Digital , which was released in 2006 in Europe and Australia and in 2007 in North America . Being released only on Windows , it is the only game in the Broken Sword series not to be released on any console . The player assumes the role of George Stobbart , an American patent lawyer , as he and Anna Maria , a girl with an old manuscript , search for a great treasure that the manuscript leads them to . The game uses a point and click interface , though George 's moves can be controlled using a keyboard .
Revolution Software and THQ announced The Angel of Death in August 2005 . According to game director Charles Cecil , after the release of Broken Sword : The Sleeping Dragon , the demand from fans for a sequel was overwhelming . Though The Sleeping Dragon benefited commercially from being released on console as well as Windows , it was held back by the constraints of the console versions . As a result , The Angel of Death was written for Windows only . As a series ' first , it was co @-@ developed by Revolution and Sumo Digital instead of having Revolution as the sole developer . It uses Sumo 's Emmersion engine and is the first game in history to be amBX enabled .
The game has received mostly positive reviews , with critics praising it as a fine example in the adventure gaming genre . While most critics agreed the game addressed many flaws in The Sleeping Dragon , it has also received some criticism , particularly for its rushed ending and at times poor controls .
= = Gameplay = =
Broken Sword : The Angel of Death uses both a point and click and direct control interface . The player guides George Stobbart 's movements with a mouse or keyboard , and Nicole Collard is also a playable character in selected portions of the game . George must collect objects that can be used with other collectible objects , parts of the scenery , or other people in the game world to solve puzzles and progress in the game . George can engage in dialogue with other characters through conversation trees to gain hints of what needs to be done to solve the puzzles or to progress the plot . As in the first three Broken Sword games , the death of the player character is possible in The Angel of Death .
= = Plot = =
After the events in The Sleeping Dragon , George Stobbart is running a bail bonds office in New York with his partner Virgil . George meets Anna Maria , a girl with an old manuscript who wants his help to decode it . A group of mobsters after the manuscript ransack Anna Maria 's hotel room , as well as George 's bail bonds office , and steal the manuscript . George discovers that the mobsters are led by Fingers Martino , who runs an old meat packing factory . George sneaks into the factory and overhears a conversation between Fingers and Mr. Spallacci , who has obtained the manuscript . George manages to covertly take back the manuscript , which he examines with Anna Maria . George figures out that the fortified city on it must be Istanbul .
In the Pasha Palace hotel in Istanbul , a waiter named Mevlut informs George about a citadel that is located beneath the Topkapi Palace . George and Anna Maria enter the palace and its catacombs where they find a golden cherub ; they take it back to the hotel . After a romantic night with Anna Maria , George wakes up without her , and Mevlut comes in armed with a gun . George is locked up in a cell , as he is suspected to be a terrorist . In his cell , George gets a visit from Father Nicolas and Sister Immaculata , who says that he should meet her on the roof . George escapes from the cell and meets with Immaculata , who appears to be Nicole " Nico " Collard ( his companion in previous installments ) . They return to the hotel , where George finds out Anna Maria has an apartment in Rome . In Rome , in front of Anna Maria 's apartment building , George meets Brother Mark . After George figures out how to enter the building , Mark is not willing to give him a package that has arrived for Anna Maria . Inside her apartment , he finds a photo of Anna Maria who , dressed as a nun , is standing in front of a Vatican wall . Another clue mentions a place near the Vatican , and he also discovers an airline ticket to Phoenix , Arizona .
At a monastery in the Vatican , George covertly enters a wafer factory and finds Anna Maria 's file in an office . After George is discovered and is being escorted outside by Cardinal Gianelli , Father Gregor tells him that Anna Maria used to here , but that she has stolen a manuscript , and he hands over his business card . By showing the card to Mark , he is willing to help and gives George Anna Maria 's package . From Mark , he learns about the Black Cat club . The package contains a DVD with an interview with a man called Maynard , who has managed to make " monatomic gold " . Nico leaves to Phoenix to check things out . George gains access to the Black Cat club , where he meets Duane ( who he has met before in previous installments ) . Duane reveals that Spallaci owns the club . Afterwards , George is caught for stealing a towel and tied to a chair . Spallaci interrogates him about Anna Maria , and he overhears the recorded voice of Nico . Shots are being fired , so he thinks Nico has been killed . When he finds a way to escape , he goes for a drink , trying to forget the loss of Nico . The next day , still drunk , he arrives at Anna Maria 's apartment , where Nico returns and George faints .
In a flashback scene , Nico explores an old facility in Phoenix , where she is confronted by Spallaci 's men , but is saved by Maynard . However , Maynard dies after he gets locked in the centrifuge , and Nico manages to escape by tricking Spallaci 's men . Back in Rome , Nico informs George that the monatomic gold is being used to build a weapon called the Ark . They return to the monastery and witness Father Gregor shoot Gianelli ; Nico is taken away and George is knocked out . When he awakens , the dying Gianelli hands over a manuscript in Latin , and tells him that the Ark 's purpose is to use the monatomic gold to destroy the unbelievers . George goes to rescue Nico and meets Anna Maria in the catacombs , who tells him her side of the story and that the Ark needs a human interface to be activated . George arrives at the ceremony to see Nico chained to the Ark , ready to become the new Angel of Death . Mevlut , who is in fact ex @-@ Turkish security and only pretended to be a waiter and priest , enters the scene armed with a gun , but Anna Maria points her gun at him as well . George succeeds in stopping the ceremony in time and frees Nico , but Anna Maria and Mevlut shoot each other and die .
= = Development = =
Revolution Software and THQ announced Broken Sword : The Angel of Death on August 17 , 2005 . According to Charles Cecil , the Broken Sword series was originally planned to be a trilogy , but that after the release of Broken Sword : The Sleeping Dragon , the demand from fans for a sequel was overwhelming . Though The Sleeping Dragon benefited commercially from being released on console as well as Windows , this approach required certain development compromises as the PC version , with its superior graphics and processing power , was held back by the constraints of the console versions . As a result , Revolution agreed with THQ to write The Angel of Death for Windows only " so as to really push the boundaries in terms of the technology and graphics . "
The Angel of Death was co @-@ developed by Revolution and Sumo Digital , as opposed to the other games in the Broken Sword series , which had Revolution as the sole game developer . Cecil believed that because of the requirement for ever larger development team sizes , it was no longer possible to maintain a large team to write single , original titles . As a result , Revolution concentrated on design , while Sumo concentrated on production . The game uses Sumo 's Emmersion engine . It is the first game ever to be amBX enabled .
Broken Sword : The Sleeping Dragon was criticized for featuring a high number of action elements , which aimed to put the player under pressure . While Cecil still stood behind this principle , he thought the action elements were not the right approach . The Sleeping Dragon was also criticized for using a high number of crate puzzles . As a result , Cecil reduced the number of them in The Angel of Death . The music in the game was composed by Ben McCullough and features tracks by Übernoise . While Rolf Saxon returns to voice George Stobbart , Nicole " Nico " Collard was this time played by Katherine Pageon , making this the first time Nico was voiced by a native French speaker . The rest of the credited voice actors were Regina Regan , Toby Longsworth , Bob Golding , Wayne Forester , Andrew Secombe , Tasmin Heatley and Alison Pettitt .
The Angel of Death was released in Europe on September 15 , 2006 . It was released in North America on February 13 , 2007 as Secrets of the Ark : A Broken Sword Game . The game may be purchased from GOG.com , and is also a part of the Broken Sword Complete package from Mastertronic . As a series ' first , the game 's soundtrack , Broken Sword : The Angel of Death : Soundtrack to the Video Game , was released on the iTunes Store on September 12 , 2006 .
= = Reception = =
The Angel of Death received mostly positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a rating out of 100 to reviews from critics , the game received an average score of 73 based on 31 reviews , which indicates " mixed or average reviews . "
PC Zone said , " It 's hard , its opening acts don 't match the quality of those which follow and some characters grate — but as a modern rendition of a traditional formula , The Angel Of Death has both pointed and clicked wisely . It 's another nail out of the adventure gaming coffin — although admittedly quite a few remain . " Adventure Classic Gaming said , " Not only the game succeeds in addressing many of the flaws in Broken Sword : The Sleeping Dragon that have plagued the previous title , this sequel is able to surpass the high standard and expectation set forth by past games in the series to create yet another chapter in the legend of the Knights Templar . " Eurogamer said , " As an example of classic , back to basics point and click adventuring , there can perhaps be no finer recent example in the genre than The Angel of Death — it 's a nailed @-@ down must @-@ buy if you 're an adventure diehard who plays every one . "
= Toronto FC =
Toronto FC ( TFC ) is a Canadian professional soccer club based in Toronto , Ontario that competes in Major League Soccer ( MLS ) , in the Eastern Conference of the league . The team plays their home matches at their BMO Field , located in Exhibition Place along the western part of the Toronto lake shore .
Toronto FC was MLS 's fourteenth , and first Canadian , franchise in the league . The team is coached by Greg Vanney and operated by Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment , which also operates the NHL 's Toronto Maple Leafs , the AHL 's Toronto Marlies , the NBA 's Toronto Raptors ( and the NBA Development League 's Raptors 905 by extension ) and the USL 's Toronto FC II .
Toronto FC are five @-@ time Canadian Champions , and its most significant achievement to date is reaching the semifinals of the 2011 – 12 CONCACAF Champions League .
= = History = =
= = = Expansion = = =
Toronto was awarded an expansion team in 2005 , with team owner Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment Ltd . ( MLSE ) paying $ 10 million for the team . The name of the club was officially announced on May 11 , 2006 . The " FC " in the team 's name is the conventional initialism for Football Club .
The announcement followed an online consultation in which the public was invited to vote on the name during a limited period . The voting options were " Toronto Northmen , " " Inter Toronto FC , " " Toronto Reds , " and " Toronto FC . " MLSE 's strategy in choosing " Toronto FC " following this process was based on two reasons . Firstly , over 40 percent of the online vote supported the simplified Toronto FC name during the consultation ; secondly , MLSE hoped that the fairly generic name would help the new club earn a more organic nickname from the Toronto fans rather than having one imposed upon the club . The team has been called " TFC " and " the Reds " by the media and the club .
= = = Early years ( 2007 – 2010 ) = = =
Despite a long scoreless streak to start the team 's history , Toronto FC quickly began to establish itself as a club with significant fan support . The club 's first win on May 12 at BMO Field saw Danny Dichio score in the 24th minute , which prompted the sellout crowd to toss promotional plastic seat cushions onto the field in celebration . Though TFC would slip to the bottom of the MLS standings with a record of 6 – 17 – 7 , the club built a foundation as the first Canadian team in MLS . In the club 's second season in 2008 , Toronto hosted the 2008 MLS All @-@ Star Game . The team finished last in the Eastern Conference with a record of 9 – 13 – 8 , but the enthusiastic fan base continued to fill BMO Field to capacity . To determine the Canadian Soccer Association 's representative in the CONCACAF Champions League , Toronto FC played in the inaugural 2008 Canadian Championship competing for the Voyageurs Cup . TFC were the favourites to win the championship in its first year , but the Montreal Impact prevailed .
The last @-@ place New York Red Bulls defeated Toronto FC 5 – 0 in the final 2009 regular season game , leaving TFC one point out of the playoffs . Despite bringing in some high profile talent , the Reds could not seem to field a consistent side . Dwayne De Rosario became an immediate scoring influence and Amado Guevara was a strong playmaker and established MLS veteran , but the Honduran 's future at the Canadian club seemed murky with looming 2010 FIFA World Cup duties . Rookie goalkeeper Stefan Frei quickly replaced Greg Sutton as a regular starter and immediately became a fan favourite . TFC only scored 2 goals in the final 15 minutes of games all season ( last in MLS ) . During the same 15 @-@ minute period they gave up 16 goals ( most in MLS ) , thus creating a − 14 goal differential during the final 15 minutes .
In the 2009 Canadian Championship , Toronto FC required a four @-@ goal victory over the Montreal Impact in the final game of the competition to nullify the Vancouver Whitecaps ' + 4 goal differential . Anything less would result in Vancouver winning the championship . Toronto FC went down 1 – 0 early , but overwhelmed an under @-@ strength Impact side 6 – 1 on the back of a hat @-@ trick by De Rosario . Guevara added two , scoring in the 69th and 92nd minute . Chad Barrett scored the decisive goal in the 82nd minute , which gave TFC the lead over Vancouver . The unlikely victory was dubbed by fans and media as the Miracle in Montreal . Toronto FC subsequently participated in the 2009 – 10 CONCACAF Champions League , but lost 1 – 0 on aggregate to the Puerto Rico Islanders in the preliminary round of the tournament .
After failing to qualify on the final day of the 2009 campaign , Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment said anything short of a playoff spot in 2010 would be unacceptable . With that directive , former director of soccer Mo Johnston hired Preki and made wholesale changes to the roster to reflect the US Hall of Famer ’ s plan to play a tough , defensive style . Despite scoring troubles , TFC played well at the start , going undefeated in seven games at one time . The team struggled following the World Cup break . Sensing problems in the locker room and to try to salvage the season , MLSE dismissed both Johnston and Preki on September 14 , naming Earl Cochrane interim director of soccer and Nick Dasovic interim coach . The players responded to Dasovic 's more open , flexible style , but it wasn 't enough as the club was eliminated from playoff contention with three games left in the season . Off @-@ field issues with season @-@ seat holders over the 2011 season ticket package added to the fans ' frustrations , forcing MLSE to hold a series of town hall meetings .
Toronto FC played C.D. Motagua in the preliminary round of the 2010 – 11 CONCACAF Champions League . TFC won 1 – 0 in the first leg on a goal by Chad Barrett , and tied 2 – 2 in the second leg on goals by De Rosario and Barrett , qualifying for the group stage . Toronto FC won their first ever group stage match 2 – 1 against Cruz Azul on August 17 , 2010 . However , the team failed to qualify for the championship round after finishing in 3rd place behind group winners Real Salt Lake and 2nd place Cruz Azul .
= = = Highs and extreme lows of Ajax culture ( 2011 – 2012 ) = = =
On November 3 , 2010 , MLSE formally announced the hiring of former German international and coach Jürgen Klinsmann , and his California @-@ based company , SoccerSolutions , to fix the club 's game . Over the next six months , Klinsmann assessed the club , identifying a playing style and recommended a candidate for the director of soccer position . On January 6 , 2011 , the new management team for Toronto FC was announced . Aron Winter was hired as Head coach with his compatriot , Bob de Klerk named First Assistant coach . Paul Mariner was named as Director of soccer . Winter was selected to bring the Ajax culture , possession and 4 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 system to Toronto FC . Management made wholesale changes to the roster before and during the 2011 season , trading numerous players and eventually their captain and Toronto native De Rosario .
Toronto FC used its remaining two designated player slots on two notable European players , signing Torsten Frings and Danny Koevermans to 2 @.@ 5 year contracts . The team went on to set a record for most players used in a MLS season with 39 . Despite a strong finish to the season with only 2 losses in their last 12 games , TFC missed the MLS playoffs for a fifth straight year . Nonetheless , they earned a win in their final group stage match of 2011 – 12 CONCACAF Champions League at Pizza Hut Park against FC Dallas , securing a berth in the knockout stage versus LA Galaxy . After a 2 – 2 draw in Toronto before 47 @,@ 658 fans at the Rogers Centre , Toronto FC defeated the Galaxy 2 – 1 in Los Angeles to reach the CONCACAF Champions League semifinals , the first Canadian team to do so . They were defeated by Santos Laguna in their semifinal .
On June 7 , 2012 , Aron Winter resigned from the club upon refusing to be reassigned from his Head coaching role after the team started the season with a nine @-@ game losing streak , setting an MLS record for worst start to a season . Under Winter in 2012 , the club 's league record was 1 – 9 – 0 and in all other competitions was 3 – 1 – 4 , including a fourth @-@ straight Canadian Championship . He was replaced by Paul Mariner , but TFC continued to struggle finishing with a 4 – 12 – 8 record in league play under him . Toronto FC also failed to advance in the CONCACAF Champions League , finishing second in its group with a 2 – 2 – 0 record . Overall , they finished the MLS season on a 14 @-@ game winless streak and ended up in last place , with just 5 wins and 23 points ( both franchise lows ) .
= = = New levels of ambition , first playoffs ( 2013 – present ) = = =
It was announced Kevin Payne would be leaving D.C. United for the general manager position at Toronto | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the tax base . ) The RLA attempted to sell the land on January 29 , 1965 , but there were no buyers .
The building was constructed pursuant to an agreement between the General Services Administration ( GSA ) and Boston developer David Nassif , Sr. In July 1965 , President Lyndon B. Johnson began planning to unite various disparate transportation agencies into a new United States Department of Transportation . GSA ( the property owner and manager for the U.S. federal government ) began seeking to lease or build a structure to house the new agency in late 1965 . Donald T. Kirwan , chief of GSA 's leasing division , knew Nassif from a previous lease negotiation , and discussed with him the siting of a building and its size . Nassif approached the RLA on April 21 , 1966 , and asked to buy the newly razed block of land bounded by 6th , 7th , D , and E Streets SW . In May 1967 , GSA sent a letter to Nassif advising him that it was likely to lease the entire structure he intended to build . The $ 5 @.@ 9 million land purchase was finalized on October 30 , 1967 . The cost of the structure is unclear . On November 15 , 1967 , Nassif had secured a $ 39 million construction loan . But The Washington Post pegged the cost of the building at $ 27 million in July 1968 . The newspaper said in August 1970 that the cost of the structure was $ 26 @.@ 5 million . The building was designed by architect Edward Durrell Stone , who also designed the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts . On April 11 , 1968 , GSA leased the entire building from Nassif for 20 years for $ 98 million . John A. Volpe Construction was the chief contractor .
Construction began in July 1968 ( although it was delayed for a very short time when unionized ironworkers at the site went on strike ) and was completed in 1969 . The main entrance faced 7th Street SW . It included a central courtyard ( open to the sky ) which featured a fountain , footpaths , benches , and landscaping . Four 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) high arcades pierced the building in the center of the block on each side , creating access to the courtyard . The facade 's vertical marble ribs were obtained from the same quarry near Carrara , Italy , that provided the marble for the Kennedy Center . The finished building had 10 floors , three basement floors , overhanging eaves , and 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 square feet ( 230 @,@ 000 m2 ) of space ( 1 @,@ 019 @,@ 000 square feet ( 94 @,@ 700 m2 ) of usable space ) . It was the largest privately owned office building in the city at the time .
Kirwan 's contacts with Nassif later became the subject of a legal investigation . Kirwan not only shared inside information with Nassif about leasing plans of the GSA , he later invested in Nassif 's D.C. business and became an officer in it . This relationship ( Kirwan left GSA in December 1966 , before the letter indicating intention to lease was set to Nassif ) , and GSA 's irregular leasing of the building , became public knowledge in August 1970 . An internal GSA audit was critical of the leasing process and the costs of the lease .
That same month , refinancing of the building was called into question . In the U.S. , it is common business practice for the initial lender to provide an interim loan ( the " construction loan " ) to build a building . The interim loan is then paid off by a second lender , who becomes the mortgage lender and receives payments from the building 's owner . Riggs Bank , a local D.C. bank , had provided the interim construction loan to Nassif . The New York City Employees Retirement System was to have paid off this construction loan . That payment was halted when the loan officer Nassif had dealt with was indicted for taking bribes to approve loans . When the pension fund refused to provide the loan , Riggs Bank sued for payment and threatened to foreclose on the Nassif Building .
From 1969 until 2007 , the Nassif Building served as the headquarters of the U.S. Department of Transportation ( DOT ) . The building was designed to have removable interior walls to permit easy reconfiguration of the interior space . In November 1970 , the federal government exercised its powers of eminent domain and seized control of the three @-@ story basement parking garage from Nasif in order to provide inexpensive parking for DOT workers . Over the years , so many government workers complained of ailments while working in the structure that some believed it suffered from sick building syndrome . David Nassif Associates , owner of the building , disputed these claims . However , when the Department of Transportation announced it would leave the building in 2000 , the owners promised a $ 100 million renovation that included a new air ventilation and cleaning system as an inducement for the agency to stay . The owners also unsuccessfully sued the General Services Administration in 1999 to force it to renew the federal lease on the building . The Department of Transportation completed their move out of the Nassif Building and into their new headquarters in June 2007 .
The L 'Enfant Plaza Metro station opened an escalator entrance in the structure 's north arcade on July 1 , 1977 . The entrance was one of two which opened that day ( Metro Blue Line 's opening day ) . The third entrance ( inside the L 'Enfant Promenade underground shopping center at L 'Enfant Plaza ) opened in October 1977 . In June 1992 , Virginia Railway Express opened the $ 1 @.@ 1 million VRE L 'Enfant Station on Virginia Avenue SE ( about a half block north of Constitution Center ) .
= = Renovation = =
In 2006 , Nassif Associates announced a $ 220 million renovation of the building and renamed it " Constitution Center " . SmithGroup was the architectural firm overseeing the redesign , and Davis Construction oversaw the construction .
The renovation included some of the highest security features of any building in the D.C. area . They included a central and perimeter security system ; closing of the central plaza of the building , which , along with other changes , increased its interior footage by 80 @,@ 000 square feet ( 7 @,@ 400 m2 ) ; steel @-@ jacketed underground parking garage columns capable of withstanding a powerful explosion ; six fully staffed security screening points ; concrete blockades built into the façade ; communication , potable water , and utilities contained in blast @-@ proof spaces ; ventilation shafts for the parking garage in a secure area ; and special security procedures to obtain access to the building 's critical systems . The security enhancements made the office building suitable for all federal agencies with the exception of the United States Department of Defense . The 700 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 65 @,@ 000 m2 ) underground parking garage contains 1 @,@ 500 spaces .
Several amenities were also added to the building . These included a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 930 m2 ) , 400 @-@ seat auditorium on the courtyard / plaza level ; a six @-@ room , 11 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 000 m2 ) conference center which can accommodate meetings of 10 to 500 people ; a full @-@ service cafeteria on the plaza level , with access to the courtyard ; and a fitness center for 100 people .
The exterior of the building was also radically changed . The celebrated key visual feature of the building , its exterior vertical white marble ribbing , was completely removed after it was found to be bowed from age and weather . Although this fundamentally changed the nature of Durrell 's building , there was almost no public outcry . It was replaced by an energy @-@ efficient , all @-@ glass facade . Perhaps the most significant renovation feature was the structure 's use of a chilled beam HVAC system , which uses chilled or heated water circulated in strategically placed columns in the interior space to cool and warm the building . To test the efficiency of the chilled beam technology , the system was installed in the penthouse of the building and tested for a full year . The architect agreed to use the system after the test outperformed specifications . The installation represented the first large @-@ scale use of the chilled beam technology in the United States . Other energy @-@ saving enhancements included motion and daylight detectors to turn lights off when not needed , and special exterior windows which automatically dim to prevent daytime heating . The building 's ventilation system was also upgraded . The renovation left the structure with 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 square feet ( 130 @,@ 000 m2 ) of interior space . The final cost of the renovation was pegged at $ 250 million .
Some aesthetic improvements were made as well . The building now features a 1 acre ( 0 @.@ 40 ha ) park in its open @-@ to @-@ the @-@ sky central courtyard . Most of the courtyard 's concrete was removed and trees , shrubs , and flowers planted to absorb rainwater . The park , which is now no longer accessible by the public , also includes a very large granite abstract art sculpture ( " Legacy " ) by Richard Deutsch . The sculpture is meant to reflect the original facade of the building by Edward Durrell Stone as well as the memory of David Nassif , Sr. and his son , David Nassif , Jr .. The L 'Enfant Plaza Metro station still has an entrance under the building on D Street SW ( although this entrance closed between October 2007 and July 2008 for the building 's reconstruction ) . The renovation installed artwork by internationally @-@ known artist Stephen Knapp near this entrance , in which strong beams of light are passed through dyed glass to splay brightly colored patterns on the ceiling . The light sculpture , titled " Transformation " , symbolizes the building 's renovation and rebirth .
The Constitution Center is registered with the Green Building Council for Gold LEED Certification .
The renovated Constitution Center won two awards . The Mid @-@ Atlantic Construction construction news Web site gave the building its " Project of the Year – Renovation / Restoration " accolade in December 2010 . On March 25 , 2011 , the Washington Building Congress bestowed its 2011 WBC Craftsmanship Award on J.E. Richards , Inc. for excellence in workmanship in installing the power generation , distribution , and switchgear at Constitution Center .
In January 2011 , Constitution Center was valued at $ 446 million by city tax assessors , making it the third most valuable private property in the city that year .
= = Tenants = =
The late @-@ 2000s recession left the renovated building struggling to find tenants . It was empty for nearly two years after it was opened for occupancy in April 2009 . Both the United States Department of Homeland Security and NASA explored leasing all or part of it in 2009 and 2010 , but chose not to do so . In August 2010 , the United States Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) signed a letter contract for 900 @,@ 000 square feet ( 84 @,@ 000 m2 ) of space at Constitution Center . The SEC planned to take occupancy in September 2011 . In January 2011 , the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency agreed to lease 640 @,@ 000 square feet ( 59 @,@ 000 m2 ) of space and the Federal Housing Finance Agency signed an agreement to occupy 335 @,@ 000 square feet ( 31 @,@ 100 m2 ) of space . The Office of the Comptroller and the Federal Housing Finance Agency both occupied the building by March 2012 .
The SEC 's occupancy of the building did not occur as planned . In October 2010 , the SEC informed Nassif Associates that it needed only 340 @,@ 000 square feet ( 32 @,@ 000 m2 ) of the 900 @,@ 000 square feet ( 84 @,@ 000 m2 ) it had leased . On January 20 , 2011 , the SEC 's inspector general launched an investigation into whether the SEC leased was proper and legal . SEC chairman Mary Schapiro was strongly criticized by Republicans in the United States House of Representatives for her handling of the lease , which she had personally approved . By May , it was unclear if the SEC would occupy any space at all in the building . On May 23 , the SEC inspector general requested a formal opinion by the Comptroller General of the United States as to whether the lease violated the Antideficiency Act . The inspector general said SEC " grossly overestimated the amount of space needed at SEC Headquarters for the SEC 's projected expansion by more than 300 percent and used these groundless and unsupportable figures to justify the SEC committing to an expenditure of $ 556 @.@ 8 million over 10 years " .
In early July 2011 , Nassif Associates said it had agreed to release the SEC from occupying 550 @,@ 000 square feet ( 51 @,@ 000 m2 ) of space at Constitution Center . The company asked the SEC to reimburse it for $ 45 million in build @-@ out and other expenses incurred between August 2010 and July 2011 , but the agency declined to do so . Nassif Associates said it declined to file suit against the agency , although it indicated it would continue to negotiate with the SEC and other federal agencies to seek reimbursement . At the same time , the United States Department of Justice said it was considering whether to prosecute officials at the SEC over the lease 's handling and the alleged forging of documents designed to justify it .
Occupancy issues at Constitution Center were further confused by legislative action . In October 2011 , the United States House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure voted 31 @-@ to @-@ 22 to permit the Federal Trade Commission to lease 160 @,@ 000 square feet ( 15 @,@ 000 m2 ) of space at Constitution Center and vacate the Apex Building ( which would be turned over to the National Gallery of Art ) . Although this legislation was not adopted by Congress , the Transportation and Infrastructure Committee in March 2012 directed the General Services Administration ( GSA ) to analyze space needs for the Federal Trade Commission and several other federal agencies in the District of Columbia and issue a report to the committee on how Constitution Center could meet these needs . GSA reported in June 2012 that Constitution Center held too little space to house the entire FTC , and it was too costly to do so ( after accounting for moving expenses and rental prices ) . GSA instead proposed that the FTC lease additional space at 601 New Jersey Avenue NW and 1800 M Street NW ( where it already leased space , and where additional room was available ) .
In April 2012 , Nassif Associates said the SEC owed it rent as well . The company said the letter contract required the agency to pay $ 1 @.@ 3 million a month beginning November 1 , 2011 . As of April 30 , 2012 , the agency owed $ 7 @.@ 75 million in back rent , a company spokesperson said . The agency disputed the cost , saying the build @-@ out of the interior was never completed . SEC officials also said the agency now needed no space at all at Constitution Center , and that the SEC was working with GSA to find other federal tenants to take over its lease . In late May , the Federal Aviation Administration said it might lease 270 @,@ 000 square feet ( 25 @,@ 000 m2 ) of space in the building as part of a major consolidation of six of its offices in the city .
In July 2012 , GSA bowed to congressional pressure and moved 1 @,@ 100 FTC workers into Constitution Center from leased locations at 601 New Jersey Avenue NW and 1800 M Street NW . The deal kept the FTC in its Apex Building headquarters . Three months later , GSA rented out the last of its space in Constitution Center by signing leases for the National Endowment for the Arts and National Endowment for the Humanities .
= = 2012 sale = =
On April 22 , 2011 , David Nassif Associates announced it was putting Constitution Center up for sale , and said it hoped to find a buyer by the end of summer 2011 . The company also said it hoped for a $ 900 million purchase price . Real estate banking firm Eastdil Secured assisted in securing a buyer .
In June 2012 , the Washington Business Journal reported that CommonWealth Partners and Nassif Associates had negotiated a purchase agreement , but were unable to reach agreement . CommonWealth Partners then withdrew from any further discussions .
A deal for the sale of Constitution Center was agreed to in December 2012 . MetLife and an unidentified investor ( represented by Clarion Partners LLC ) each purchased a 50 percent interest in the building . The sale price was $ 734 million , or $ 524 per square foot ( 0 @.@ 093 square meters ) . The sale price was the most expensive in D.C. history for a single building . ( It was the most paid per square foot , however . That record went to two @-@ building Market Square at 701 and 801 Pennsylvania Avenue NW , which sold in 2011 to Wells Real Estate Investment Trust for $ 905 per square foot . ) When the deal closed in February 2013 , David Nassif Associates announces it would wind down its operations and liquidate its remaining obligations .
City tax assessors said that Constitution Center 's value rose to $ 725 @.@ 8 million in 2014 , up from $ 573 @.@ 5 million in 2013 ( an increase of $ 152 @.@ 3 million ) , making it the most valuable taxable property in the District of Columbia .
= Hurricane Neki =
Hurricane Neki was the final tropical cyclone of the 2009 Pacific hurricane season . It developed on October 18 as an unusually large disturbance from a trough south of Hawaii . Moving northwestward , it slowly organized at first due to its large size . After reaching hurricane status on October 21 , Neki intensified at a much faster rate and peaked with winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) . It later turned to the north and north @-@ northeast and weakened due to hostile conditions . While passing through the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument , Neki was downgraded to a tropical storm after the center became exposed from the deepest convection . It caused little impact in the island chain . After stalling and executing a small loop , Neki resumed its northward track and dissipated on October 27 .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Neki were from a surface trough that persisted near the equator in the central Pacific Ocean in the middle of October 2009 . A weak tropical disturbance became evident in the trough on October 15 , and three days later the system began developing curved bands of convection on its northern and southern periphery . This created an unusually large gyre for the region . Following the formation of a well @-@ defined circulation , it is estimated the system developed into Tropical Depression Three @-@ C late on October 18 , about 730 mi ( 1175 km ) south of Ka Lae , Hawaii .
Upon developing into a tropical cyclone , the storm was moving west @-@ northwestward , influenced by a ridge to its north . It was located over an area of warm sea surface temperatures and moderate wind shear , which favored gradual intensification . The convection diminished during a diurnal cycle before redeveloping the next day . Maintaining an unusually large size , the depression slowly organized , gradually separating from the trough from which it developed . On October 19 , the CPHC upgraded it to Tropical Storm Neki , and shortly thereafter the storm turned toward the northwest . By the next day , the cyclone resembled the structure of a monsoon depression typically found in the western Pacific Ocean . However , the structure began to more resemble a tropical cyclone after the outermost convection diminished and the thunderstorms around the center increased . Following the development of a banding @-@ eye feature , Neki intensified into a hurricane early on October 21 about 625 mi ( 1010 km ) southwest of Honolulu , Hawaii , or about 335 mi ( 535 km ) east @-@ southeast of Johnston Atoll .
After reaching hurricane status , Neki began rapidly intensifying as it turned northward , due to an approaching upper @-@ level trough to its north . An anticyclone aloft provided favorable outflow , which contributed in the strengthening . Early on October 22 , Neki reached its peak winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) about 215 mi ( 345 km ) northeast of Johnston Atoll , based on estimates from satellite imagery using the Dvorak technique . Afterward , the trough that influenced the hurricane 's track also began restricting westerly outflow and increasing wind shear , which caused a steady weakening trend . It maintained major hurricane status – a Category 3 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale – for about 24 hours , during which the track turned toward the north @-@ northeast . The weakening and deterioration of the storm 's structure became more marked on October 23 after the thunderstorms failed to persist over the center .
While approaching the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument , Neki weakened to tropical storm status . Continued wind shear exposed the circulation from the convection , although further weakening was slow to occur . On October 24 , Neki made its closest approach to land after passing within 13 mi ( 21 km ) of the uninhabited Necker Island . Its forward motion slowed due to a building ridge to the north , causing the storm to execute a small loop . Despite the shear , Neki was initially able to continue developing thunderstorms , although cooler water temperatures resulted in further weakening . The storm resumed its northward motion after the ridge receded to the east , and on October 26 Neki weakened to a tropical depression once the circulation decoupled from the thunderstorms . The next day it dissipated as the center became elongated ahead of an approaching cold front .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Although still a minimal tropical storm at the time , the CPHC anticipated Neki to become a hurricane as it tracked northwestward . As such , they issued a hurricane watch for Johnston Island on the afternoon of October 19 . The following day , the hurricane watch was replaced by a tropical storm watch as Neki was no longer forecast to pass close enough to the island to produce hurricane @-@ force winds . Later that day , a hurricane watch was issued for the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument for areas between the French Frigate Shoals and Lisianski Island . The following morning , a supplementary hurricane warning was issued for the monument for areas between the French Frigate Shoals and Nihoa . Additionally , the tropical storm watch for Johnston Island was discontinued . Early on October 22 , the hurricane watch for Lisianski Island to Marco Reef was replaced by a tropical storm watch . Several hours later , the CPHC discontinued this watch . Early on October 23 , as Neki weakened to a tropical storm , the hurricane warning for areas between the French Frigate Shoals and Nihoa was replaced by a tropical storm warning . The tropical storm warning remained in effect for more than a day before being canceled during the afternoon of October 24 .
As the hurricane turned northward and was seen as a threat to the Hawaiian Islands , officials in the Papahanaumokuakea requested that all 17 personnel in the region be evacuated . Several days before the storm passed through the islands , an AC @-@ 130 aircraft was flown to the area and evacuated the people stationed on Tern Island , while a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration vessel evacuated the temporary residents on Laysan Island . Hurricane Neki caused relatively little damage in the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument . All of the structures were undamaged ; however , two small natural habitat islands , Round and Disappearing Islands , were affected substantially . The former lost some land area and the latter was completely washed away . The storm damaged coral reefs in the region , which quickly regrew in the subsequent years . Neki did not affect the state of Hawaii , other than producing high clouds across the region .
= Prussian Homage ( painting ) =
The Prussian Homage ( Polish : Hołd pruski ) is an oil on canvas painting by Polish painter Jan Matejko painted between 1879 and 1882 in Kraków ( then part of Austria @-@ Hungary ) . The painting depicts the " Prussian Homage , " a significant political event from the time of the Renaissance in Poland in which Albrecht Hohenzollern , the Duke of Prussia paid tribute and swore allegiance to King Sigismund I the Old in Kraków 's market square on 10 April 1525 . Matejko depicted over thirty important figures of the Polish Renaissance period , taking the liberty of including several who were not actually present at the event .
The painting glorifies this event in Poland 's past and its culture , and the majesty of its kings . At the same time , the painting has darker undertones , reflecting the troubled times that befell Poland in the late eighteenth century , for the Kingdom of Prussia would become one of the partitioning powers that ended the independence of Poland . The painting was seen by some as anti @-@ Prussian , foretelling its perceived betrayal of Poland ; others have noted it is also critical of Poland , as Matejko included signs that signify this seemingly triumphant moment was a hollow , wasted victory . Matejko created his painting to remind others about the history of the no @-@ longer @-@ independent country he loved , and about the changing fates of history . The painting is counted among his masterpieces .
= = History = =
Matejko began to paint the Prussian Homage on Christmas Eve 1879 and finished it in 1882 . He donated it to the Polish nation during the meeting of the Diet of Galicia ( Sejm Krajowy ) in Lwów ( Lviv ) on 7 October 1882 to start a collection designed to revive the remodelling of Wawel Castle . It was subsequently exhibited in Kraków , Lwów and Warsaw , as well as in Berlin , Paris , Budapest , and most notably in Rome and Vienna . When it returned to Kraków in 1885 , it was temporarily exhibited in the Sukiennice Museum because the Royal Wawel Castle was occupied at that time by the Austrian army , as Kraków was part of the Austrian partition of Poland .
Because of the pro @-@ Polish and anti @-@ Prussian character of the painting German emperor William I objected to a proposal to reward Matejko . During this period , Prussia was trying to suppress Polish culture in its territory and Germanise it . During World War II , the Nazis systematically tried to destroy all Polish cultural artefacts in occupied Poland . This painting , together with Matejko 's painting of the Battle of Grunwald , was on their " most wanted " list . Fortunately it was hidden and safeguarded throughout the war in the town of Zamość .
For most of the twentieth and at the beginning of the twentieth @-@ first centuries , the painting has been hung in the National Museum gallery in the Sukiennice Museum in Kraków , where it is usually displayed in the Prussian Homage Hall .
Renovation work started in the Sukiennice Museum in June 2008 . The painting previously had been restored in 1915 and 1938 . During World War II it was damaged while it was at Zamość , and in 1945 it was renovated . In 1974 , experts again tried to restore it to its original condition before it went on public exhibition in Moscow . The most recent restoration process took place between 2006 and 2008 , when the painting was finally returned to its former glory .
In 2011 , the painting was sent to Germany for an art exhibition entitled " Side by Side Poland – Germany " , which was promoted as part of the 1000 Years of Art and History project of Royal Warsaw Castle in cooperation with the Martin @-@ Gropius @-@ Bau exhibition hall in Berlin . It was on display there between 23 September 2011 and 9 January 2012 .
= = Significance = =
This painting is considered among Matejko 's most famous works and is also one of his largest canvases . It portrays an event of significant political triumph for Poland , the Prussian Homage , in which Poland was able to enforce its will over Prussia . Prussia latter gained independence and turned against the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth , becoming one of the nations that divided Poland among them . Matejko 's painting was created during the partition period , when independent Poland had ceased to exist , and like many of Matejko 's other works , it aimed to remind the Polish people of their most famous historical triumphs .
At the same time , the painting foreshadows the tragedies of the future through the gestures and facial expressions of certain characters . This is visible , for example , in the figures of King Sigismund I the Old and Albrecht Hohenzollern , who is kneeling before him . Sigismund is portrayed as a powerful and majestic figure but not threatening . He treats Albrecht lightly — signifying that this event was only a temporary victory and not a total , lasting domination that crushed his opponent . Albrecht 's character is portrayed with many signs of his villainous intent . He kneels on both knees , which a duke should do only in front of a God , not a sovereign . This implies that he does not see Sigismund as a sovereign . He grips his standard strongly , but touches the Bible only lightly . The standard flies on a military lance , implying that Prussia had further military ambitions . Finally , there is a gauntlet on the ground , an implied challenge to Sigismund from Albrecht .
Due to its criticism of Albrecht and the event it portrayed , the painting often is seen as strongly anti @-@ Prussian . While it appears to glorify Poland , it is also critical of the country . Matejko went beyond portraying the glory of a historical event and attempted to convey hints of how the country 's history would play out in the future . This event was merely a hollow victory that failed to secure Poland 's future . Matejko shows that the homage was an empty gesture and that it was Prussia that exploited it rather than Poland . Nobody in the painting is smiling except a lady of the court who is engaged in idle gossip .
The painting has been the subject of numerous art historical studies and has been reinterpreted through the works of artists such as Tadeusz Kantor . In 1992 , the Piwnica pod Baranami cabaret group organized a historical re @-@ enactment of the painting .
= = Historical characters in the painting = =
Matejko depicted many important figures of the Polish Renaissance period including taking the liberty to include at least one who were not actually present at the event . In a similar vein , although the event portrayed took place in 1525 , Matejko painted fragments of the Sukiennice in Renaissance style , a form that dates from the year 1555 , after a fire which destroyed the building in its original Gothic style . St. Mary 's Basilica is visible in the background .
At the center of the painting , Albrecht , Duke of Prussia is kneeling before King Sigismund I the Old of Poland . Sigismund Augustus is shown here as a 5 @-@ year @-@ old boy wearing a red dress , held up by Piotr Opaliński , the court house tutor . Matejko portrayed Józef Szujski , professor of the Jagiellonian University , as Opaliński . Thirty one other political figures contemporary with the event are also depicted , including :
Behind Albrecht , Duke of Prussia are two other German rulers , George , Margrave of Brandenburg @-@ Ansbach and Frederick II of Legnica , who joined Albrect in the homage .
In the space between George and Frederick , was Castellan Łukasz II Górka ( the old , bearded man ) , who was a sympathizer with Prussia .
Albrecht 's advisor , Frederic von Heideck is behind the standard , waiting to receive it after the scene is over .
The Bishop of Kraków , Piotr Tomicki ( wearing a bishop 's mitre ) stands to the right of the King Sigismund .
The man holding up a sword is Hieronymus Jaroslaw Łaski , a diplomat and nephew of Archbishop Jan Łaski . Both men are shown to the right of the king , at the top of the crowd . Jan is separated from Hieronymous by Bishop Tomicki . Hieronymous is holding the sword with which Albrecht will be knighted stiffly as a warning to the Prussian ruler .
Duchess Anna Radziwiłł , ruler of Masovia , appears top left . Historically , the Duchess died in 1522 before the event occurred . However , Matejko included her in the painting to emphasize the connection between Masovia and Poland .
Janusz III of Masovia , the last Duke of Masovia of the Piast line . He died at a very young age in 1526 .
Hedwig Jagiellon , Electress of Brandenburg , who was daughter of Sigismund I the Old and his first wife Barbara Zápolya . Her parents planned her marriage to Prince Janusz . The death of the Duke ruined her plans . The character was modeled by Matejko 's daughter Beata . She is seen just below Anna Radziwiłł at the top left of the painting .
Mauritius Ferber , Bishop of Warmia , and Krzysztof Kreutzer , Prussian diplomat , are engaged in discussion just below and to the left of Hedwig . Ferber appears worried and makes a well @-@ hidden gesture to repel evil ; Kreutzer tries to calm him .
Queen Bona Sforza appears center @-@ left . Matejko used his wife Teodora as a model for the Queen .
Piotr Kmita Sobieński , Grand Marshal of the Crown and governor of Kraków , appears with his right hand raised purportedly a gesture to demand silence and order from the crowd .
Przecław Lanckoroński , starost of Khmilnyk , appears on horseback in the lower right of the painting . He is a notable military commander and his figure personifies the still @-@ respectable military prowess of the Commonwealth .
The old mustached man in white above Bishop Ferber and to the left of Duchess Anna is Prince Konstanty Ostrogski , Grand Hetman ( top military commander ) of Lithuania , Voivode ( governor ) of Trakai , and Castellan of Vilnius .
Located to the right of Prince Ostrogski and wearing a helmet is Jan Amor Tarnowski , the governor of Kraków who would later achieve high military office . This portrait was based on Stanisław Tarnowski , a professor of the Jagiellonian University and literary historian who would publish Matejko 's biography four years after his death .
The man taking coins from the tray is Andrzej Kościelecki , treasurer and Court Marshal who skillfully managed the state finances . Looking proudly , unworried , seeing only victory , he symbolizes the importance and wealth of Polish officials of the period .
To the right of the large black figure of Opaliński is Krzysztof Szydłowiecki who was one of King Sigismund 's chief advisors in matters of foreign affairs . Holding the globus cruciger , he was one of the main political figures in contemporary Polish and Prussian politics and his worried visage questions the honesty of the ceremony .
Hetman Mikołaj Firlej , Castellan of Kraków , is located between Krzysztof Szydłowiecki and Andrzej Tęczyński . One of many characters with a worried expression , Firlej , a respected military leader , is likely considering the possibility of Prussia growing into a military power .
Andrzej Tęczyński , Ensign of Kraków , who later became Castellan of Kraków , appears holding the banner in the top right corner . He is having difficulty holding the Polish flag unfolded , which once again foreshadows the troubles ahead .
Albrecht Goštautas ( Olbracht Gasztołd ) , Chancellor of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and voivode of Vilnius , is barely visible in the top right of the painting . His presence in the painting is intended to symbolize the wisdom of the king as a legislator .
Below the king sits Stańczyk . His worried face shows doubt that the homage will mean victory in the long run , and he is making a gesture to repel bad luck .
In the lower @-@ left corner of the painting holding a document bearing the royal seal , stands Bartolommeo Berrecci , architect who rebuilt Royal Wawel Castle . Next to him is Seweryn Boner , an important burgher and banker . His face is one of the two self @-@ portraits of Jan Matejko . The second is the face of the royal jester Stańczyk . As Berrecci , Matejko portrayed himself as a gray eminence , dominating the scene , with a royal scepter in his hand .
= = = Generic characters of some significance = = =
Some generic characters of minor importance were also depicted by Matejko in the painting . The following personages are :
An old Teutonic soldier is shown under Hedwig ; he signifies the end of the Teutonic Order .
Underneath the soldier at the bottom of the painting , an executor or a city guard keeps watch on the crowd , ensuring no unrest will disrupt the proceedings .
At the top of the painting , a dove symbolizing peace can be seen .
= Chad Harris @-@ Crane =
Chad Harris @-@ Crane is a fictional character on the American soap opera Passions , which aired on NBC from 1999 to 2007 and on DirecTV in 2007 – 08 . Passions followed the romantic and supernatural adventures in the fictional New England coastal town of Harmony . Created by the soap 's founder and head writer James E. Reilly , the role was portrayed by two actors over the course of the show : Donn Swaby ( 1999 to 2002 ) and Charles Divins ( 2002 to 2007 ) . Swaby left the show in order to pursue roles outside daytime television and was replaced by Divins .
Chad is a member of the Russell and Crane families . Introduced as a music producer from Los Angeles County , California who is looking for his real family , Chad becomes involved in a love triangle with sisters Whitney and Simone Russell . His romance with Whitney is complicated by the possibility they may be engaging in an incestuous relationship . Chad 's later storylines focus on his confusion over his sexual identity , and his sexual relationship with tabloid reporter Vincent Clarkson . Chad attempts to reconcile with Whitney , after his affair with Vincent is revealed , before being killed by Crane Industries founder and CEO Alistair Crane while trying to protect his best friend , Ethan Winthrop .
Critical response to Chad was mixed ; some critics praised the sensationalism of the incest storyline with Whitney , while others criticized his relationship with Vincent as an irresponsible and problematic representation of racial and sexual identity . The character made daytime television , soap opera history as a participant in a scene of two men simulating sex ; he has also been cited as expanding the representation of LGBT characters on daytime television . Media outlets were uncertain of the exact nature of Chad 's sexual orientation , debating if he was straight , gay , or bisexual . Despite being initially discomforted while filming the sequences involving Chad 's sexuality , Divins paid close attention to portrayed the character and his confusion on his sexual orientation in a responsible manner .
= = Development = =
= = = Creation and casting = = =
Sheraton Kalouria , senior vice president of NBC 's daytime programming , described the show 's use of color @-@ blind casting as part of an effort to build characters " as diverse as the U.S. " , and set the show apart from other soap operas , by including the " the African American Russells and the Hispanic Lopez @-@ Fitzgeralds " . While Chad was not introduced as a direct member of the Russells , media outlet closely associated him with the family since he was the " object of affection for both Simone and Whitney " .
The role was played by two actors over the course of the show : Donn Swaby ( 1999 to 2002 ) and Charles Divins ( 2002 to 2007 ) . Passions was Swaby 's first time acting in a television series . On May 27 , 2002 , Swaby announced on his official website that he had decided to leave the show in order pursue other opportunities outside daytime television . Divins assumed the role on September 12 , 2002 ; it was Divins ' first audition and acting experience as he had previously worked full @-@ time as a fashion model . Divins explained that his desire to switch professions developed " because as a model you do commercials , you 're in front of a moving camera rather than a film camera . That 's kind of how I caught the bug and I figured that this is something I 'd really want to pursue " . Divins initially auditioned for another soap opera , but its producers suggested that he instead take a role on Passions . He described his time working on the show , as a " scholarship to acting " .
= = = Characterization and cast response = = =
Chad was initially characterized as a " street @-@ kid " by the show 's official website and " a tough dude from the hood " by David Alexander Nahmod of the Bay Area Reporter . Swaby called his character " talented , ambitious , adventurous , passionate | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
ages both of her children from pursuing a relationship with Chad , fearing he will be a bad influence on her daughter in the same way Julian was on her teenage self . Whitney and Chad keep their romantic and sexual encounters secret for years while he pretends to be in love with Simone . The love triangle continues until Simone catches Whitney kissing Chad . Simone breaks up publicly with Chad and tells everyone in Harmony about his relationship with Whitney . During 2003 , Chad 's connection to Whitney steadily unravels after the discovery of his marriage to Latoya Harris and her attempt to murder Whitney .
In 2004 , Eve 's vengeful adoptive sister Liz Sanbourne arranges for Eve 's past relationship with Julian to be exposed to the Russell family and the rest of Harmony , resulting in Chad being erroneously identified as their son . The possible incestuous implications of Chad 's relationship with Whitney serves as one of his primary storylines on the soap opera . Whitney discovers that she is pregnant with Chad 's child who would later be known as Miles Harris @-@ Crane . She initiates a relationship with Fox Crane in order to be able to insinuate that he is the father and protect herself , and her child , from the stigma of incest . On March 23 , 2005 , she gives birth to a son and immediately uses her then @-@ boyfriend Fox Crane 's power of attorney to put him up for adoption . Two couples — Julian and Eve , and T.C. and Liz — compete to adopt the boy , but Chad is awarded custody of the child . He attempts to use the child to reconnect with Whitney . Whitney and Chad name their baby Miles Davis Harris after jazz musician Miles Davis . During the show 's 2005 summertime extravaganza , Whitney has sex with Chad in the middle of a tsunami and admits to Chad that he is Miles ' biological father . Identified as the Vendetta plot , the show 's 2006 summertime extravaganza centers on Alistair Crane luring Whitney , Chad , and several other residents of Harmony , to Rome . While in Rome , Chad is given his birth certificate by tabloid editor JT Cornell and discovers that he was conceived during Alistair 's rape of Liz . Following the revelation of his true paternity , Chad restarts his relationship with Whitney and they decide to raise their son together ; they get married on December 26 , 2006 .
Unbeknownst to Whitney , Chad previously began a sexual relationship with the tabloid reporter Vincent Clarkson at an unspecified time around the Vendetta plot , and continues the affair after their reunion and wedding . Chad is unaware that Vincent is Eve 's child with Julian and his half @-@ brother , making Vincent his half @-@ uncle , adoptive half @-@ cousin , and half @-@ brother @-@ in @-@ law . While confessing his affair to his friends Paloma Lopez @-@ Fitzgerald and Noah Bennet , Chad repeatedly insists that he is not gay , and that his relationship with Vincent is based solely on sex . Whitney becomes increasingly suspicious of Chad 's fidelity after discovering she is pregnant with their second child . Furious with Chad for continuing to sleep with Whitney , Vincent engineers a scenario in which Whitney sees Vincent and Chad having sex in the back of a gay bar ; Whitney leaves Chad immediately and he distances himself from Vincent . The estranged couple start to reconcile as they try to help Theresa and Ethan reunite , but that possibility is cut short on August 28 , 2007 , when Chad is killed by Alistair while trying to protect his best friend Ethan Winthrop . Chad dies while professing his love for Whitney and their children .
= = Reception and impact = =
The exact nature of Chad 's relationship with Whitney attracted frequent speculation from media outlets . The incest storyline led media outlets to sensationalize Harmony as the place where " half @-@ siblings sleep with one another " . An article in Soap Opera Digest listed the 2006 revelation that Whitney and Chad were not related by blood as one of Passions ' most shocking secrets . In her book The A to Z of African @-@ American Television , professor Kathleen Fearn @-@ Banks wrote that Chad 's romance with his presumed half sister was the direct result of " the indiscretion of his parents , a white man and a black woman " ; Fearn @-@ Banks added that television frequently associated a biracial character with a traumatic existence .
The soap opera made daytime history by being the first to represent two men simulating sex . Jamey Giddens of Daytime Confidential opined that Chad and Vincent 's relationship should have received more media attention in comparison to Luke Snyder and Noah Mayer from the CBS soap opera As the World Turns , and Oliver Fish and Kyle Lewis from the ABC soap opera One Life to Live . NewNowNext.com 's Brent Hartinger applauded the development of Chad 's sexuality for increasing the representation of LGBT people of color on daytime television . A writer from Soaps.com wrote the storyline concerning Chad 's sexuality reflected the show 's " unique perspective and zest for controversy " while challenging the " often too safe and predictable world of soaps " . Ross von Metze of Edge Media Network applauded the show for " taking risks where other TV shows have failed " through its inclusion of gay and black characters . Following James E. Reilly 's death on October 12 , 2008 , Gawker 's Kyle Buchanan praised the " insanely convoluted incest storylines " involving Chad and Vincent as one of " the most insane things that have ever happened on television " .
Media outlets expressed confusion over the exact nature of Chad 's sexuality . Soap opera journalist Roger Newcomb of We Love Soaps included Chad in his review of gay , lesbian , and bisexual characters in the history of daytime television , but questioned the character 's self @-@ identification . Newcomb claimed that Vincent 's reveal as intersex leads to Chad 's heterosexuality being " rescued " as he " was sleeping only with Vincent 's female anatomy " . Hartinger called Chad a " closeted bisexual " , and Nahmod referred to him as a gay black man . An article on NewNowNext.com listed Divins ' interpretation of the character as a choice for the " Favorite Gay ( Male ) TV Character Poll " . Joel McHale from E ! ' s weekly television series The Soup turned a scene in which Chad insisted he was " not gay " despite his affair with Vincent into a running gag by referring to the character as " Not Gay Chad " . During the show 's season five premiere , Divins made a cameo appearance on The Soup to explain to McHale that he was not his character and was neither dead nor gay . After Divins leaves the shot , McHale jokingly asks " so your character sleeps with transsexuals ? " in reference to the reveal that Vincent was intersex .
Chad 's sexual relationship with Vincent has also received negative feedback from critics , and has been characterized as being poorly written , and irresponsible in terms of racial and sexual identity . Herndon L. Davis of Windy City Times was critical of the character 's development , saying the soap opera " recklessly wrote a down @-@ low storyline which involved an African @-@ American man but eventually turned it into an outrageous intersex serial killer storyline " . Slate 's Ta @-@ Nehisi Coates determined that Chad 's sexuality was an example of the down @-@ low narrative , criticizing its continued use in media like Passions as leading to a " distrust that haunts relationships between black men and black women " . Mike Perigard of the Boston Herald criticized the death of lesbian Rae Thomas following the reveal of Chad 's affair with a man and believed it was written to maintain a low quota of gay characters on the show . Viewers were divided over the reveal of Chad 's affair being with a man . Some felt the scenes between Chad and Vincent were " appalling " and in appropriate for daytime television , while one viewer praised the soap opera for " continu [ ing ] their outstanding jobs as they teach the people of today 's world about daily life experiences " . A writer from Soaps.com defended the show by pointing out graphic sex scenes between men and women were previously aired without complaint .
= Pig Bride =
Pig Bride ( Korean : 정체불명 새색시 ) is a manhwa written and illustrated by Huh Kook @-@ hwa ( 허국화 ) and Kim Su @-@ jin ( 김수진 ) . The story follows Si @-@ Joon Lee , who was tricked as an eight @-@ year @-@ old boy , into fulfilling a prophecy and marrying the mysterious " Pig Bride " - a young blonde girl who hides her supposedly disfigured face under a pig @-@ faced mask . When Si @-@ Joon turns sixteen , the Bride reappears and causes havoc , interrupting the blossoming romance between Si @-@ Joon and classmate Doe @-@ Doe .
The series was released in five volumes between 2007 and 2008 in South Korea by Haksan Publishing and later localized by Yen Press for North American distribution . Yen Press also serialized Pig Bride in Yen Plus , a manga anthology . Yen Press 's localization kept the Korean onomatopoeia and sound effects and used Anglicization followed by the English translation . Reception of the initial volumes was mixed and the entire series was reviewed negatively by Manga Critic 's Katherine Dacey as one of the worst manga of 2009 . The artwork and styling received mixed praise , but the manhwa @-@ style artwork was noted to be a divisive aspect for readers .
= = Plot = =
Rebellious and spoiled eight @-@ year @-@ old Si @-@ Joon Lee is sent to a summer camp in the mountains by his senator father . He escapes and finds himself lost , but is saved when he finds a house in the middle of nowhere . A mysterious woman who lives there reveals to him that he is part of an ancient prophecy and must marry her daughter , Mu @-@ Yeon , a descendant of the Park family of the ' Park Bride ' folktale . The daughter is a small girl of Si @-@ Joon 's age who hides her face behind a smiling pig mask . Tempted by food , Si @-@ Joon agrees to the marriage . That night , Mu @-@ Yeon tells him she will meet him on his sixteenth birthday . True to her words , on his sixteenth birthday , she appears before Si @-@ Joon with her sister and bodyguard , Mu @-@ Hwa . A holy priest who serves Si @-@ Joon 's family reveals that the marriage must commence and the prophecy must be fulfilled or Si @-@ Joon will die before the year ends . Si @-@ Joon attempts to live his life normally , but begins to experience flashbacks involving his past life and Mu @-@ Yeon . The last volume 's epilogue reveals that Mu @-@ Yeon became South Korea 's first female president , Si @-@ Joon continues to " work behind the scenes " , Ji @-@ Oh became a doctor , Mu @-@ Hwa became the head of Secret Service , and Doe Doe became a banker .
= = Production = =
Huh had difficulty in designing the Pig Girl 's mask and attempted several different designs which were rejected before arriving at the chosen mask , but cannot imagine Mu @-@ Yeon wearing any other mask now . Yen Press licensed Pig Bride for an English @-@ language release in North America and began serializing it in the manga anthology Yen Plus . The final issue of Yen Plus in July 2010 contained the conclusion to Pig Bride . The English localization process included Korean onomatopoeia and sound effects with the anglicized word followed by the English translations . Signage and text is commonly written with English translations in or near the panel it appears instead of replacing the original text .
= = Volume list = =
= = Reception = =
Joy Kim of Manga Life also praised the art style saying the characters were distinctive . She criticized the relationship of the lead couple , Si @-@ Joon Lee and Mu @-@ Yeon Park , saying that Mu @-@ Yeon should not be so sweet and protective of someone who does not return her feelings . Kim praised the character Ji @-@ Oh Yun as the most interesting character in the series and that his relationship with Mu @-@ Hwa Park is interesting . Melinda Beasi of Manga Bookshelf reviewed the first volume and concluded that despite being " somewhat muddled , the visual storytelling is not . The art is clean , lovely , and easy to follow , with a nicely restrained use of elaborate backgrounds and imaginative panel layouts . The character designs are pretty , distinct , and occasionally even creepy , as with Mu @-@ Yeon 's eternally smiling mask . The overall look is undeniably " manhwa " – a draw for some and a turn @-@ off for others . " Erin Jones of Mania.com noted the distinct and typical romance story in the first volume , but found the first volume enjoyable and noted that the interactions of the " Pig Girl " are what will drive the series despite the volume ending without strong development of the characters . A review of volume two by Pop Culture Shock gave it a " B + " despite confusion caused by the plot and " vagueness on the villain front , Pig Bride is still a very entertaining tale . "
The series was received negatively by Katherine Dacey of Mangacritic.com where it was listed as fifth on Manga Critic 's " The 2009 Manga Hall of Shame Inductees " . Dacey criticized the series ' lack of comedy , art style , and the personality of girls stating the author must hate girls . Kurt Hassler of Yen Press rebutted Mangacritics review and disagreed and praised the characters and the art style . Hassler 's response to the review led to Dacey modifying her review to specify it was not hatred of women , but of the characters . Hassler also highlighted a quote from a review by Julie of Manga Maniac Cafe , a personal website , which stated , " The art alone makes this title worthy of a read , with its fine lines , elegant details , and overall attractiveness … the vision revealed inside this book is gorgeous . Dramatic and comedic scenes are played out with equal effectiveness , making the visuals a joy to behold . "
= Elizabeth Cresswell =
Elizabeth Cresswell ( c . 1625 – c . 1698 ) , also known as Mother Creswell and Madam Cresswell of Clerkenwell , was one of the most successful prostitutes and brothel keepers of the English seventeenth century . Starting with houses in Bartholomew Close , in the City of London and St Leonard 's , Shoreditch , she built a widespread network of brothels across London , supplied with girls and women from across England . Her employees included the wives of soldiers pressed into service for Charles II and gentlewomen who had supported the Cavalier cause during the English Civil War and had since fallen on hard times . Her bawdy houses were favoured by King Charles and his court as well as powerful figures in government and city guilds . This position gave her a measure of immunity from prosecution and added to her profile as a caricature of iniquity and corruption .
During the Bawdy House Riots of 1668 , apprentices smashed up brothels across London , including those belonging to Cresswell . She is listed as one the addressers of the satirical Whores ' Petition , sent to Lady Castlemaine , the King 's courtesan . The letter requests help for the " sister " prostitutes who have had their livelihoods destroyed , asking that the brothels be rebuilt with money from the national tax coffers . Supporter of the prominent Whig , anti @-@ Catholic , and anti @-@ Carolean Thomas Player , Cresswell financed his political campaigns . In her final years she was attacked by both Protestants and Catholics : by Protestants for providing the royal court with whores , and by Catholics for financing Player 's political rebellion .
Cresswell occupied a rare position in seventeenth @-@ century England , as a person of common birth who rose to a position of high status as an independently wealthy , unmarried woman running a substantial business enterprise . She figures in a wide assortment of contemporary literature and songs , in ballads , poems , broadsides , novels and party pamphlets , often portrayed as a caricature of vice , a satirical figure of street commentary , sexual theatre and political bawdry .
= = Life and career = =
Elizabeth Cresswell was born in about 1625 , probably in the small village of Knockholt in Kent , England . Her middle @-@ class Protestant family were influential , with strong connections to the powerful Percival family , favoured by King Charles I. By July 1658 Cresswell is recorded as a bawd " without rival in her wickedness " , running a brothel in Bartholomew Close , a small street off Little Britain in the City of London . That month she was brought to trial in Hicks Hall , where constable John Marshall gave evidence that " Elizabeth Cresswell living in Bartholomew Close was found with divers Gentlemen and Women in her House at divers times " . Marshall notes that some of the women were " sent to Bridewell " , a notorious London prison . She subsequently attempted to bribe the police to avoid publicity for the court case . She was living two miles to the northeast of Bartholomew Close in St Leonard 's , Shoreditch , by October 1658 , when a mass of angry locals gathered at Westminster Court to give evidence against her and the prostitutes she ran from her " house " . They stated that she :
... did entertain divers loose Persons , Men and Women suspected to have committed bawrdy ... the said Elizabeth having lately taken a House ... for which she paid £ 100 for a Fine and a Rent of £ 40 per annum , whereunto many Persons well @-@ habited have resorted by Day as by Nyght ... continued Drinking , Ranting , Dancing , Revelling , Swearing ... demeaning themselves as well on the Lord 's Day and Fast Days . Witnesses told of seeing men and women going into rooms , ' the Woman having stript to her Bodice and Petticoat going into a room where they have shut the Casement and locked the Door ... some Company drunk about a dozen bottles of wine and further that divers Women suspected of Lightness have ... did surreptitiously slip in at a back gate whereby much infamy is brought upon the Place .
The amassed neighbours told of further infamies such as when whores " in the habit of a Gentlewoman began to propose a Health to the Privy Member of a Gentleman ... and afterwards drank a Toast to her own Private Parts " . They complained that , such was the proliferation of bawds in the area around the house that the daughters of local families were assumed to be prostitutes by the men visiting the brothel . For her iniquities , Cresswell was " sett to Hard Labour " in prison .
= = = Success = = =
By 1660 , like her fellow Londoner Damaris Page , Mother Cresswell was regarded as one of the great figures of the London scene , with a talent for self @-@ promotion . She declared she had " Beauties of all Complexions , from the cole @-@ black clyng @-@ fast to the golden lock 'd insatiate , from the sleepy ey 'd Slug to the lewd Fricatrix " . She had a network of agents across the country who found her pretty young girls . Among her brothels , she owned one in Lincoln 's Inn Fields by Whetstone Park where she sold " strong waters and fresh @-@ faced wenches to all who had guineas to buy them with . " Her headquarters were in a brothel on Back Alley off Moor Lane , near Cripplegate , where Moorgate station stands today . She also ran an office in Millbank to organise whores for local noblemen and owned both a mansion in Clerkenwell and a " House of Assignation " where women old and young could discreetly meet their lovers . She took on a cohort of Cavalier gentlewomen from formerly high circles of society who had supported the parliamentarian uprising , their standing destroyed by the civil war . This network of women worked the alleys close to the Gresham Royal Exchange in the city , and so were known as the " Countesses of the Exchange " or " side @-@ pillows " .
= = = The Bawdy House Riots and the Whores ' Petition = = =
King Charles II patronised Cresswell 's establishments , as he did those of Madam Damaris Page ; he declared Cresswell 's to be " a Sound organisation " . She became as well known as the politicians of her time , largely shielded from legal proceedings by her extensive London network of clients across the court , the guilds and government . Her increasing immunity from prosecution furthered her stature as a hate figure , particularly with the many thousands of London apprentices who could not afford her bawds , and bound by the terms of their contracts , were forbidden to marry . The houses of Cresswell and Page were a target for the 1668 Bawdy House Riots that swept London . Starting on Shrove Tuesday , the rioting lasted for five days , as young apprentices burnt and smashed the royally supported brothels . To some , the brothels symbolised Charles 's continental style court : licentious and awash with unaffordable debauchery . The apprentices attacked her " cathouse " in Moorfields , assaulting the women , tearing up the bedding , looting the property and destroying the building .
Following the riot , Page and Cresswell are listed as the addressers of The Whores ' Petition , sent to Lady Castlemaine , the King 's lover , notorious for her own wild promiscuity . Some historians , such as Linnane , infer an active role of the addressers Page and Cresswell in the writing of the document . Others such as Mowry and Turner suggest it is an organ of political ventriloquism on behalf of anonymous , radical dissenters . In an act of brazen public satire , the two brothel owners request that the aristocrat act on the behalf of her " sisters " and repay the madams for the rebuilding of their brothels , funded by the national tax coffers . They address Castlemaine as a prostitute herself and list the sites of the brothels where her fellows struggle . It is addressed as :
The Poor Whores ' Petition to the most splendid , illustrious , serene and eminent Lady of Pleasure the Countess of Castlemayne & c : The humble petition of the undone company of poore distressed whores , bawds , pimps , and panders .... Signed by us , Madam Cresswell and Damaris Page , in the behalf of our sisters and fellow sufferers ( in this day of our calamity ) in Dog and Bitch Yard , Lukenor ’ s Lane , Saffron Hill , Moorfields , Chiswell Street , Rosemary Lane , Nightingale Lane , Ratcliffe Highway , Well Close , East Smithfield etc .
Given her great experience in whoring , Lady Castlemaine would , they argued , be able to sympathise deeply with prostitutes across the city . " Should your Eminency but once fall into these Rough hands " , they wrote , " you may expect no more Favour than they have shewn unto us poor Inferiour Whores " . Diarist Samuel Pepys noted that Castlemaine was " horribly vexed " by the petition . The letter itself was so finely tuned to the political dynamics of the day that though the printer was arrested , the court censor writes that " I can fasten nothing on The Poor Whore 's Petition that a jury will take notice of . "
The Petition caused a flurry of broadside satires , poems and ballads on the subject through the following year . The historian James Turner identifies this event as an example of a new carnivalisation of sexuality in Restoration England , where genuine political attack , satire , street commentary and bawdy theatre came together . Two years after the riots , a mob gathered once more and again swore they would raze Cresswell 's cathouse to the ground , though protection from the local beadles prevented the attack .
= = = Political affiliation = = =
Cresswell never married . She was widely considered to be the lover of City Chamberlain Sir Thomas Player , nicknamed Sir Thomas Cresswell . He was a prominent Whig , an anti @-@ Catholic , and an anti @-@ Carolean , who gave large banquets for his political affiliates at Cresswell 's house in Camberwell . These were said often to turn into orgies . On one occasion Cresswell provisioned such a party with 300 prostitutes ; the story of the night was promptly turned into a local ballad . Cresswell bankrolled Player 's career during this period , which gave her leverage in the political and financial underworld but also made her fierce enemies . Player 's support for the anti @-@ Catholic rebel Titus Oates and the avowedly Protestant claimant to the throne the Duke of Monmouth proved to be his ruin . Cresswell attempted to distance herself from any political affiliation , but was ultimately attacked by Protestants for providing the royal court with whores and by Catholics for financing Player . In 1681 she was brought to trial and convicted for " over thirty years of bawdry " ; during the proceedings many of her own prostitutes testified against her . Her brothel at Moorfields was taken from her , but her businesses continued as usual .
= = = Last years = = =
Creswell 's health deteriorated towards the end of her life , probably because of tuberculosis . She appears ill and careworn in the portrait of her engraved by Marcellus Laroon , which now hangs in London 's National Portrait Gallery . Cresswell was incarcerated in Bridewell Prison and she died there . Differing sources place the year of her death at some point around 1698 . In her will she requested " a Decent Buryall in the Parish Church of Nockholt in the County of Kent accordynge to the Manner of the Church of England " .
Cresswell was not buried at Knockholt and was possibly interred in the Bridewell graveyard . Several accounts claim that in her will she left £ 10 for a sermon to be read that said nothing ill of her . After a long search , a young clergyman prepared to perform the funeral rites was found . Following a lengthy sermon on social morality , he intoned : " By the will of the deceased it is expected that I should mention her and say nothing but what was well of her . All I shall say of her , therefore , is this – she was born well , lived well , and died well ; for she was born with the name of Cresswell , lived at Clerkenwell , and died in Bridewell . "
= = In contemporary media = =
Cresswell was in a rare position for many reasons . Although she was of common birth , a woman and unmarried , she rose to a position of high status , running a large business enterprise . By mid @-@ life she was an independently wealthy woman , connected across England to rich and powerful men in government and the court . Her network of services were in high demand , counter to the religious and social morals of the day .
Cresswell 's success was fed by a talent and zest for self @-@ promotion ; she openly advertised her bawdy businesses , which helped to build her own profile . She was regularly referenced in party pamphlets , street literature and ballads , and may have been one of the inspirations for the eponymous heroine of Daniel Defoe 's satire Moll Flanders . Richard Head and Francis Kirkman , authors who frequented bawdy houses , wrote up and circulated graphic accounts of their encounters with " the old matron " and " her girls " in The English Rogue ( 1665 ) . She is mentioned often in Nathanael Thompson 's Collection of 180 Loyal Songs ( 1685 and 1694 ) , the Rochester satires and Poems on State Affairs ( 1697 – 1707 ) .
Cresswell is satirised in Thomas Otway 's Venice Preserv 'd as the figure providing Sir Thomas Player with unending quantities of young flesh and in the anonymous pamphlet A Letter from the Lady Cresswell to Madam C. [ Cellier ] the midwife ( London , 1680 ) . The Whore 's Rhetorick ( 1683 ) was an anonymous translation of Ferrante Pallavicino 's La Retorica della puttane ( 1642 ) . Set out like a traditional text book on the ancient art of rhetoric , the adaptation featured a caricature of Cresswell as a philosopher teaching her lifetime 's worth of sexual tricks and wiles to Dorethea , the fallen daughter of a ruined royalist . In this satirical parody , the madam advises her young student : " You must cloath your discourse with a meek , grave , and pious aspect , to make your sophistry pass for sincere and real " . She recommends researching the nature of the client :
[ THE Whore ] will find it much to her advantage , to enquire particularly into the state and quality of all her Suitors affairs , to hinder any disappointment or surprize : for if she has well informed her self of their busy hours , and when the necessities of their vocation , or the impulse of pleasure , do oblige their attendance ; it will be easy to appoint times of meeting , as may give general satisfaction , and enable her to observe her particular engagements .
" In the sentiment of my Rhetorick " , she lectures " there is no music ought to sound more charmingly in a Whores Ears as the sweet melody created by the clashing of Gold in her own purse . "
= Panama Creature =
The " Panama Creature " ( also variously referred to as the " Panama Monster " , " Panama ET " " Cerro Azul Monster " , " Blue Stream Monster " or " Blue Hill Horror " ) refers to a creature photographed near the town of Cerro Azul , Panama , in September 2009 . After the creature was discovered and reputedly killed by a group of teenagers , photographs of the corpse were given to Telemetro , a Panamanian television station . The story and pictures circulated , and comparisons to the Montauk Monster were made . There was speculation about the identity of the creature , with suggestions including a hairless sloth , an alien species and a creature new to science . A biopsy performed by the National Environmental Authority of Panama on the remains a few days after the creature 's discovery concluded that the corpse was in fact that of a male brown @-@ throated sloth . The odd appearance had been caused by underwater decomposition , which had resulted in hair loss . Once identified , the corpse was buried .
= = Events = =
A group of four or five teenagers aged between 14 and 16 claim to have been playing near a cave in Cerro Azul , Panama when the creature emerged . They say that it approached them , and , fearing for their safety , they attacked the creature with sticks and rocks , killing it . They claim that they then threw its corpse into a pool of water before leaving the area . They later returned and took photographs of the creature 's corpse , before sending the pictures to Telemetro , a Panamanian television station . Virginia Wheeler , writing for The Sun , claimed that the discovery " sparked fear and confusion " in the town . According to some sources , subsequent photographs were taken of the creature after it had further decomposed ; however , doubts have been expressed about whether the later photos were of the same specimen . A few days after the photographs were taken , one of the teenagers gave a different account in an interview with Telemetro Reporta , saying " I was in the river and I felt something grabbing my legs ... We took it out of the water and started throwing rocks and sticks at it . We had never seen anything like that . " The photographs show a pale creature that is mostly hairless , with a rubbery body . It has " revolting features " ; a snub @-@ nose and long arms . Writers for the Huffington Post said that while the head is clearly animal , the torso is " strange " , while the limbs are reminiscent of thin human arms . Writers for WBALTV.com compared it to both a " small , portly " version of the alien in E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial and The Lord of the Rings 's Gollum 's " long @-@ lost cousin " .
= = Speculation = =
The story and the photographs circulated the Internet , including various cryptozoology blogs , with a great amount of speculation about possible explanations . A video showing the original photographs , as well as some footage of the further decomposed corpse , became very popular on the web , being one of the most viewed videos over the course of a day . In addition to its prevalence on the Internet , the story was covered on television and radio . Comparisons were drawn to the Montauk Monster found in Montauk , New York in June 2008 . A popular theory was that the Panama Creature was a sloth ( perhaps an albino ) that had somehow became hairless ; proponents of the hypothesis cited the hooked claw visible in one of the photographs . Science author Darren Naish , writing for ScienceBlogs , supported the sloth hypothesis , but had a " difficult time " explaining the creature 's hairlessness . The sloth theory was generally considered most credible ; in 1996 , similar photographs were taken of a creature found on the coast between Panama and Costa Rica that was later confirmed to be a sloth that had started to decay . Further Internet speculation led to some proposing that it was in fact a dolphin or a pit bull terrier , an example of a species previously unknown to science , or some sort of genetic mutation . Some Panamanian zoologists said that it appeared to be a fetus of some kind . In addition to naturalistic explanations , Billy Booth of About.com reported that " there has been speculation that it is alien , and thereby the connection to UFOs , undersea bases , the whole ball of wax " .
= = Necropsy = =
The creature 's corpse was recovered four days after the encounter , and a biopsy was performed by the National Environmental Authority of Panama ( ANAM ) . The biopsy concluded that the corpse was in fact a male brown @-@ throated sloth , a species common in the area . André Sena Maia , a veterinarian who works at Niterói Zoo , Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , explained that " most people know how a dead animal looks like in a dry environment " , and claimed that " the body must have got stuck under the water , and the movement of the currents gave the false impression that it was alive . " A necropsy revealed that severe trauma had been inflicted on the body of the sloth , and Melquiades Ramos , a specialist from the ANAM Department of Protected Areas , estimated that the body had been in the water for " about two days " prior to discovery . The hairlessness was probably caused by the fact it was submerged in water , which can lead to acceleration of fur loss , resulting in smooth skin . A post @-@ mortem bloating further contributed to the unusual appearance of the corpse . After the sloth was identified , its body was buried by ANAM staff .
= Cato June =
Cato Nnamdi June ( born November 18 , 1979 ) is a former American football linebacker and high @-@ school football coach . He was selected by the Indianapolis Colts of the National Football League ( NFL ) in the sixth round of the 2003 NFL Draft . A 2006 Pro Bowl choice , June was a member of the Super Bowl XLI champion Colts that defeated the Chicago Bears . During the Super Bowl championship season , June was the Colts ' leading tackler . In addition to his tenure with the Colts , he played in the NFL for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers . Before becoming a professional , he played college football at Michigan and was an outstanding athlete in high school football , basketball , track and field and baseball at Anacostia High School in Washington , D.C. As a senior , he was widely regarded to be the best high school football player in the District of Columbia .
He led Anacostia to the District of Columbia Interscholastic Athletic Association ( DCIAA ) football championship title as a sophomore and in two subsequent championship games . He was city champion in the triple jump as a junior . As a senior , he earned all @-@ league recognition in basketball and earned numerous honors in football , including District of Columbia Player of the year awards from Gatorade , USA Today and The Washington Post as well as a Parade All @-@ American . He was also co @-@ class president , salutatorian and a member of the National Honor Society .
He was widely recruited for his all @-@ around abilities as an athlete , scholar and leader . He attracted dozens of scholarship offers but chose the University of Michigan . He was a member of the defending national champions ' recruiting class , which was considered to be the best in the country . He became a starter towards the end of his redshirt freshman year , but missed the entire next season due to injury . He returned as a fourth @-@ year junior starter . He continued starting as a safety until an injury slowed him down late in his fifth @-@ year senior season . Despite senior season injuries , he was named as an honorable mention All @-@ Big Ten Conference player and was chosen to play in the Senior Bowl .
June spent a year on special teams before becoming a starter during the 2004 NFL season . During the 2005 NFL season , he began the year with a record @-@ setting rate of interceptions for a linebacker to help his team start out 13 – 0 and head to the 2005 – 06 NFL playoffs . He was a Pro Bowler that year and finished seventh in the NFL in tackles the next as the Colts won Super Bowl XLI . After four seasons with the Colts , he signed with the Buccaneers where he became the first person to displace 11 @-@ time Pro Bowler Derrick Brooks from the lineup . After two seasons with the Buccaneers , he signed with the Houston Texans but broke his forearm during 2009 training camp and was released before the regular season . He signed with the Bears in the middle of the season only to be released after 2 weeks . Since retiring from the NFL , he has become a football coach at his high school alma mater .
= = Early years = =
June was raised in the Great Plains of Oklahoma . As a high school freshman , June attended Muskogee High School in Muskogee , Oklahoma , where he was a veritable " Okie from Muskogee " . According to a Washington Post article , he envisioned himself eventually playing football for either Oklahoma or Oklahoma State . His high school football team had a large following with regular attendance of 8 @,@ 000 . When June was a sophomore , he and Marjani Dele , his mother , moved to the northwest section of Washington , D.C. in 1995 . Following the move , she enrolled him in a summer college prep program , where he met Troy Stewart , son of Anacostia head coach Willie Stewart . Troy , an assistant coach at Anacostia , and his father recruited June to Anacostia High School . That season he played cornerback , wide receiver , and kickoff returner . On Thanksgiving Day , Anacostia won the DCIAA championship game , known as the Turkey Bowl , by a 40 – 31 score over Dunbar High School . In the game , June intercepted a pass late in the first half and returned it 92 yards for a touchdown to enable his team to take an 8 – 7 lead . That season he earned a selection to The Washington Post 's 1995 All @-@ Met Football team as a defensive back . The following spring , he played shortstop and pitcher for the school baseball team .
Prior to winning the city championship , Anacostia had played football on a barren field that was described by The Washington Post as " rugged prairie known by players across the city as the ' dust bowl ' " . In 1996 , Mayor of Washington , D.C. , Marion Barry , helped the team acquire new topsoil and 500 rolls of Brute Bermuda sod worth about $ 60 @,@ 000 ( $ 90 @,@ 528 today ) . As a junior , June , who wore # 1 , rushed for 90 yards and scored two touchdowns in the DCIAA semi @-@ final game . In the championship game , June fumbled on the 1 @-@ yard line in the fourth quarter , leaving the door open for Cardozo Senior High School to score a touchdown in the waning seconds to secure a victory . During his junior year , he was part of the basketball team that successfully defended the Washington D.C. city high school basketball championship .
As a senior , he was a preseason USA Today honorable mention All @-@ American and preseason SuperPrep All @-@ American as a 6 @-@ foot @-@ 1 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 85 m ) , 190 @-@ pound ( 86 kg ) defensive back . During the season the football team would deal with the adversity of a D.C. school crisis , the slaying of a player and the death of an assistant coach . That season he switched from defensive back to linebacker at times . By mid @-@ season , he was being mentioned across the country as the nation 's best player . As a senior , he rushed for 121 yards and scored two touchdowns in the DCIAA semi @-@ final game . Prior to the championship game , no one had caught a touchdown against him and he had not fumbled the football . During the championship game , June scored the touchdown that gave Anacostia its only lead at 8 – 6 . However , Howard D. Woodson High School and senior quarterback Byron Leftwich avenged its only regular season loss ( which came 28 – 20 at the hands of Anacostia ) by a 26 – 22 margin .
At the end of the season , he was a 1997 All @-@ Met selection by The Washington Post and described as both the top DCIAA defensive back and as a running back who scored 18 two @-@ point conversions and returned three kickoffs for touchdowns . He was selected as The Washington Post All @-@ Met Defensive Player of the Year and USA Today District of Columbia Player of the Year and Second @-@ team All @-@ USA . During the season he did not yield a touchdown all season and collecting five interceptions ( two for touchdowns ) , 84 solo tackles , 39 assists in addition to his offensive statistics , which included 889 yards and 12 touchdowns . He was named the only Parade All @-@ American from Metropolitan Washington , and he was selected as a Gatorade player of the year for the District of Columbia . June was also honored by The Pigskin Club of Washington , D.C. June played under coach Willie Stewart who coached Anacostia to seven consecutive appearances in the DCIAA championship game , including three in which June participated and the 1995 victory in which June was MVP .
As a senior , he was a member of the National Honor Society , co @-@ class president and a candidate to be valedictorian with a 3 @.@ 8 grade point average . In addition to football , he played on the baseball , basketball and track and field teams . In track , he ran the 100 meters in 10 @.@ 5 seconds and 200 meters in 21 @.@ 6 seconds . He was city champion in the triple jump as a junior . He was a starting small forward on the three @-@ time DCIAA championship basketball team . He received second @-@ team All @-@ conference honors his senior year . By the eve of the DCIAA Championship game held on Thanksgiving Day ( November 27 , 1997 ) , he had 35 scholarship offers . Before his senior season his dream school for its combination of athletics and academics was the University of North Carolina . He was recruited by top football programs such as Syracuse , and Miami and his early list of top five programs was Michigan , Ohio State , Florida , North Carolina and Penn State . Later , he replaced Penn State with Miami on his five school visitation list . He visited Ohio State in mid @-@ December as they prepared for the 1998 Sugar Bowl . He visited Florida in mid @-@ January 1998 . June 's final decision was a choice between Florida and Michigan and he chose Michigan on January 13 , 1998 , although there were reports that he had signed with Notre Dame .
He was part of the nation 's number one recruiting class for the undefeated defending national champion Wolverines . The team recruited numerous top 50 @-@ rated players on both offense : Justin Fargas , Marquise Walker , David Terrell and Drew Henson , and defense : Victor Hobson , Dave Armstrong , June , Bennie Joppru , and Larry Foote . The All @-@ Met Offensive Player of the Year , Walter Cross , was also a member of this recruiting class . The class included a total of six Parade All @-@ Americans : Fargas , Henson , Walker , Terrell , June and Hayden Epstein . Before matriculating to Michigan he participated in the July 1998 D.C. Coaches Association All @-@ Star game as well as the Baltimore @-@ Washington Beltway Classic . As a high schooler with aspirations of making a mark in the NFL and who kept a Deion Sanders poster in his bedroom , he left his mark by writing " Big Time 1 " on things whenever the opportunity arose . June graduated as salutatorian .
= = College career = =
June played college football at the University of Michigan , where he switched from cornerback to play safety and wear the # 2 jersey that had previously been worn by 1997 Heisman Trophy winner , Charles Woodson . As a defensive back at Michigan , June 's head coach , Lloyd Carr , was the former coach for the position . He redshirted as a freshman during the 1998 season for the 1998 Wolverines . During his 1999 season as a redshirt freshmen for the 1999 Wolverines , he intercepted a pass in his second game , which he returned for 29 yards to the 16 @-@ yard line . That season he played all twelve games and started the final four games at free safety . As the season progressed , he became involved in several big plays . He recovered a fumble on October 23 against Illinois . In the following game against Indiana on October 30 , he blocked a punt and recovered the football , which led to a touchdown on the following play . He earned his first start on November 6 against Northwestern and sacked the quarterback to take the Wildcats out of field goal range . On November 13 against Penn State , he forced a fumble near midfield , which led to a Michigan scoring drive . Although he had earned a starting position , his pass defense coverage had not yet earned respect . In his best performance of the season , before a record @-@ setting crowd of 111 @,@ 575 at Michigan Stadium , he recorded a team @-@ high 10 ( 7 solo ) of his 27 tackles in a 24 – 17 victory in the rivalry game against Ohio State on November 20 , 1999 . June also recovered a fumble to set up a scoring drive for the final Michigan touchdown . The season ended in an overtime victory against Alabama in the 2000 Orange Bowl .
During the summer before his 2000 season as a redshirt sophomore for the 2000 Wolverines when he was expected to challenge for the starting strong safety position , he suffered a season @-@ ending anterior cruciate ligament injury in his right knee that required reconstructive surgery . He spent the season in rehabilitation with two other teammates who had knee injuries and was unable to run for six months . His absence at the safety position caused Fargas to switch from running back to safety that season . Before returning to football , he was involved in a public altercation in spring 2001 . During the altercation , a Michigan teammate was identified as having punched someone in the face , and June was charged with failing to obey an officer 's order for refusing to leave the scene .
The 2001 Michigan Wolverines football team lost several key offensive components from the previous season when Anthony Thomas and David Terrell joined the Chicago Bears of the NFL and Drew Henson was drafted by the New York Yankees of Major League Baseball . The 2001 team lost a total of nine starters for the 2001 season but returned eight defensive starters , and June was a welcome addition to a lineup . In the second game of the season , June was called for a questionable roughing the passer penalty against Washington that allowed the Huskies to score a field goal to reduce the Wolverines ' lead to 23 – 12 in the fourth quarter . A few weeks later , he had a career @-@ high two sacks in a 45 – 20 victory against Illinois on September 29 . The following week , on October 6 , he had an interception in a shutout of Penn State . June had been starting at free safety , but the Penn State game marked his first start at strong safety because of an injury to Julius Curry . On October 13 , he led the team in tackles with seven , including a sack , against Purdue in a game that left the team as the only Big Ten team with an undefeated conference record . In the next game , his fourth quarter interception led to a comeback victory against Iowa to stay unbeaten in conference . In the following game on November 3 against Michigan State , Michigan 's conference record fell to 4 – 1 as June left the game with another injury to his right knee . June started all but one game and finished the season fourth on the team in tackles .
In his senior season for the 2002 Wolverines , one of June 's notable performances was his individual effort to stop a bootleg play against Notre Dame on September 14 , which forced a change of possession to give Michigan the ball with just over two minutes remaining . | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
quirky and sometimes confusing " leveling system and praises for the graphics , also applauded the supposed decrease in difficulty of the game , which in the reviewers ' opinion eliminated the necessity to abuse the leveling system in order to progress in the game as the player had to do in the original game .
= Heroes of Mana =
Heroes of Mana , originally released in Japan as Seiken Densetsu : Heroes of Mana , is a 2007 real @-@ time strategy game for the Nintendo DS . It was developed by Brownie Brown and Square Enix and published by Square Enix . It is the ninth game of the Mana series and the fourth entry in the World of Mana subseries , following the release of Dawn of Mana three months prior . Set in a high fantasy universe , Heroes of Mana follows a young soldier , Roget , as he journeys to defend several nations from the ruthless aggression of his own country in a series of battles .
While it contains some small role @-@ playing elements , Heroes of Mana diverges from the prior action role @-@ playing game titles of the series to instead be a real @-@ time strategy game . Composed of a series of strategic battles , the player gathers resources , constructs buildings and units , and fights enemy forces to achieve objectives on fixed isometric grid maps . The Nintendo DS 's second screen displays a map of the ongoing battle , and buildings and units are constructed inside of the player 's airship and dropped onto the map by the flying base . Players can fight several dozen required and optional battles in the single @-@ player game , as well as local multiplayer matches .
Heroes of Mana was produced by series creator Koichi Ishii and directed by Takeo Oin . The story was written by Masato Kato , and the music was composed by Yoko Shimomura . The game was not a commercial success , selling around 180 @,@ 000 copies worldwide by the end of 2007 , less than contemporary Mana games . While critics generally praised the graphics , they were dismissive of the plot , mixed on the actual gameplay and sharply negative on what they saw as poor artificial intelligence and pathfinding inhibiting actual play .
= = Gameplay = =
Like previous games in the Mana series , Heroes of Mana features a top @-@ down perspective , in which the player characters navigate the terrain and fight off hostile creatures and enemies . Unlike prior games in the series , which are typically action role @-@ playing games , Heroes is a real @-@ time strategy game ( RTS ) , in which the player controls up to 25 units in battles on fixed maps . Units are controlled via the Nintendo DS touch screen , selected by tapping on them and sent to destinations or to attack by tapping on their target . The game world is divided into an isometric grid , with one unit allowed per space . The Nintendo DS 's second screen shows a map of the current mission , including which parts of the map can currently be seen by the player 's units and which parts are covered by fog of war . Individual units and enemies are shown on the map in the visible areas .
Some of the units available to the player are characters in the game 's storyline , while the rest are monsters which can be summoned by the player . Resources , divided into berries and minerals , are gathered from resource nodes by Rabite units . Minerals are used to create buildings , while berries are used to create units from those buildings . Both buildings and units are built inside of the player 's airship , and units are then dropped onto the battlefield by the movable ship . The game features some role @-@ playing elements ; characters during the course of the game learn new skills over time , and can be given equipment to increase their attack and defense . New equipment is obtained through completing story and bonus missions and finding hidden treasure . During the course of the game 's story the player also acquires new summons and heroes . Missions can have different ending conditions , such as destroying an enemy carrier or defeating all enemies in the area . There are over 20 missions in the game 's story , as well as dozens of bonus missions which become available as the player advances through the game which do not advance the plot but can give the player more items and summons .
Heroes of Mana features a local multiplayer option , where players can battle against each other using the progress they have made in the single @-@ player game . There is no multiplayer support on the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection service , though players can use it to access the Wi @-@ Fi Heroes Ranking system to download additional maps , missions , and items .
= = Plot = =
Heroes of Mana opens with a reconnaissance mission by a group of soldiers from Pedda into the beastman kingdom of Ferolia . The group , including the soldier Roget and his captain Yerchael , are on their airship , the Nightswan , when they are shot down by Ferolian ships . After crash @-@ landing in a forest and getting separated , Roget and Yurchael fight their way back to the rest of the group through the Ferolian army before running into the Peddan military . The Peddans claim not to know about the group and attack them ; after fleeing Roget and Yurchael discover that Pedda is invading Ferolia , and attacking peaceful villages as they do . Unable to support the invasion , the group rebels against Pedda and joins forces with the Ferolians .
They soon learn that the king of Pedda and Roget 's childhood friend , Inath , has been driven mad and is launching Operation Psi with the aim of taking over the world . Roget and Yerchael journey to the other nations in order to help stop the Peddan army . They join forces with the rulers and warriors of several countries , including the defeated Amazons of Laurent , the rebels of Nevarla , which has allied itself with Pedda , and the warriors of Valsena and Altena . As they fight the Peddan army , they discover that Inath is installing Black Mirrors in the conquered kingdoms , which are corrupting those around them . Roget and Yurchael are joined in their quest by the elemental spirits , which are concerned about the mirrors . After confronting Roget 's twin brother , the Mirage Bishop , they discover that Inath and the Mirage Bishop have been corrupted by the ancient witch Anise , who is planting the mirrors in order to summon a dark energy for her own power .
Roget and Yerchael join forces with Belgar , the Oracle of Shadows from the holy city of Wendel , who discovers that Anise is hoping to use the dark energy from the mirrors to turn herself into a goddess . Roget and his allies journey to the Mirage Castle to confront Anise , only for her to finish pulling the dark energy from the mirrors before they can stop her . The dark energy kills Inath and the Mirage Bishop , and Anise combines her form with a possessed Peddan general to create the Goddess of Doom . The allied forces fight and defeat the Goddess , ending the threat from Pedda , and return to their home countries .
= = Development = =
In 2003 , Square Enix began a drive to begin developing " polymorphic content " , a marketing and sales strategy to " [ provide ] well @-@ known properties on several platforms , allowing exposure of the products to as wide an audience as possible " . The first of these was the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , and Square Enix intended to have campaigns for other series whereby multiple games in different genres would be developed simultaneously . In early 2005 , Square Enix announced a " World of Mana " project , the application of this " polymorphic content " idea to the Mana franchise , which would include several games across different genres and platforms . These games , as with the rest of the series , would not be direct sequels or prequels to one another , even if appearing so at first glance , but would instead share thematic connections . The fourth release in this project and the ninth release in the Mana series was announced in September 2006 as Heroes of Mana , the second Nintendo DS game in the World of Mana series and the first real @-@ time strategy game in the series . It was first announced in Famitsu magazine and subsequently featured at the Tokyo Game Show .
Heroes of Mana was produced by series creator Koichi Ishii , directed by Takeo Oin , and written by Masato Kato . Ishii had previously produced or directed all of the previous Mana games , while Kato also wrote the stories for Children of Mana ( 2006 ) and Dawn of Mana ( 2006 ) . The game was developed by Brownie Brown , who previously helped develop Sword of Mana ( 2003 ) . Ishii created the overall design , and Brownie Brown worked directly with him to implement it . As the series creator , Ishii felt it was important to be directly involved in all stages of development . Heroes of Mana was created as an RTS game to complement the other titles in the World of Mana project , which all offer a spin on the original Seiken Densetsu formula . Ishii stated that it was also to help expose Japanese gamers to real @-@ time strategy games , a genre that is relatively obscure in Japan , while simultaneously satisfying players abroad with an RTS for an unconventional console , as most real @-@ time strategy games are released for personal computers . To match this mission , the game was designed for more casual players than the typical fan of the traditionally role @-@ playing game series . The Nintendo DS was chosen as the platform partially due to the system 's multiplayer potential as well as giving the sensation of touching the game . The team found developing an RTS for the Nintendo DS to be difficult , and had to start development over at one point . Although prior to the World of Mana project Ishii has said that the games in the series are only thematically connected , Heroes is explicitly set as a prequel to Seiken Densetsu 3 ( 1995 ) , depicting battles between the nations present in that game . It is set one generation prior to Seiken Densetsu 3 , with some characters noted as the parents of characters in the other game .
= = = Music = = =
The score for Heroes of Mana was composed by Yoko Shimomura , who had previously composed the music for Legend of Mana in 1999 . The musical style of the soundtrack is primarily orchestral , with the addition of a strong piano and drums that sometimes verge on a more tribal rhythm . The album Seiken Densetsu : Heroes of Mana Original Soundtrack collects 49 tracks from the game on 2 discs and is nearly two and a half hours long . It was published by Square Enix on April 18 , 2007 . Three of the game 's tracks were released as part of Drammatica : The Very Best Works of Yoko Shimomura , a 2008 arranged album highlighting the composer 's work : " To the Heroes of Old ~ Opening Theme from Heroes of Mana ~ " , " The Way the Heart Is " ( as " Tango Appassionata " ) , and " The Tale Told by the Wind ~ Ending Theme from Heroes of Mana ~ " . Shimomura carefully chose the songs to be included on the album based on their apparent popularity among fans and how suitable they are for orchestra .
= = Reception = =
Heroes of Mana sold over 98 @,@ 500 copies in Japan by the end of 2007 . It sold 30 @,@ 000 copies in North America and 50 @,@ 000 in Europe as of November 2007 , a few weeks after release in North America . Initial sales were lower than those for Children of Mana , the other Nintendo DS title in the series released one year earlier . Koichi Ishii attributed this to the overall lack of experience and popularity of the RTS genre in Japan .
Upon its release , Heroes of Mana received generally poor to middling reviews over a wide range , with numerical scores that range from 35 to 85 out of 100 . Reviewers praised Dawn of Mana 's graphics and visual style ; IGN 's Bozon praised the " classic character art " and " hand @-@ painted backdrops " , GameSpot 's Kevin VanOrd noted the colorful graphics and " overflowing " animations , and Eurogamer 's Simon Parkin said that the " fantastic presentation and artwork " " sugar @-@ coated " the game . Patrick Gann of RPGFan , on the other hand , said that besides the cinematics and character portraits the graphics were not impressive , with poor sprites and animation . The plot was not as highly received ; while Bozon called it a " pretty involving piece of Mana mythos " , VanOrd said only that it was not " particularly engaging , but it 's pleasant enough " , while Parkin called the story " lingering intrusions " and Gann found it well @-@ written , but too linear and cliched . The reviewer for GamePro said that " the overall story doesn 't grip players " and that there were too many characters too get attached to any of them . Gann called out the music as beautiful , though it was not mentioned by other reviewers .
The gameplay received very mixed reviews , with the artificial intelligence universally derided and other gameplay elements garnering a range of opinions . Bozon said that " the A.I. can be a real pain , as characters often take extremely odd routes to destinations or show command issues when engaging enemies " , Joe Juba of Game Informer called the pathfinding " laughably terrible " , a criticism echoed by Jeremy Parish of 1UP.com , and Parkin called it " an unmitigated disaster " . VanOrd termed it " the worst , most broken system of unit pathfinding ever devised " , and Gann felt it was so bad that it showed that the developers " had no idea what they were doing " in making an RTS . Bozon felt that the overall real @-@ time strategy gameplay , however , was deep , if a bit slow , as did VanOrd . Parkin felt that the gameplay was " easy and intuitive " , though slow , while Parish felt that the limitations of the Nintendo DS 's small screens made the game too streamlined for an RTS game . Juba and the GamePro reviewer felt that the restrictions necessary to fit an RTS on a system the size of the DS made the game too simple and easy . The Japanese Famitsu review , however , felt that the game worked well as an RTS for the Nintendo DS , and was well @-@ suited to the console . Both Bozon and Parish felt that the local multiplayer was better than the single @-@ player game , though Bozon felt that the lack of online multiplayer was stifling and VanOrd felt that the tie between the multiplayer game and the player 's single @-@ player progress imbalanced any game where both players had not fully completed the storyline .
= Adventure Time ( pilot ) =
" Adventure Time " is an animated short created by Pendleton Ward , as well as the pilot to the Cartoon Network series of the same name . The short follows the adventures of Pen ( voiced by Zack Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In this episode , Pen and Jake have to rescue Princess Bubblegum ( voiced by Paige Moss ) from the antagonistic Ice King ( voiced by John Kassir ) .
" Adventure Time " first aired as a stand @-@ alone short on Nicktoons Network in January 2007 , after which it subsequently went viral on the internet ; as of April 2008 , the pilot has had over 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 views . It was then re @-@ aired as part of Nicktoons Network 's Random ! Cartoons series showcase on December 7 , 2008 , subsequently leading to the creation of the animated series . It was nominated for an Annie Award for Best Animated Short Subject . The short and the later @-@ produced television series share elements , but the two differ slightly in setting , conception and continuity , especially in regard to the post @-@ apocalyptic setting , which is only featured in the television series .
= = Plot = =
The short focused on a boy named Pen and a dog named Jake as they learn from the Rainicorn that the Ice King has kidnapped Princess Bubblegum , in the hope of marrying her . Declaring that it 's " Adventure Time " , Pen and Jake set off to the Ice King 's mountain lair . Pen and the Ice King fight while Jake remains outside flirting with Lady Rainicorn , ignoring the battle . Just when Pen seems to be gaining the upper hand , the Ice King uses his " frozen lightning bolts " to freeze Pen in a block of ice . For unexplained reasons , this transports Pen 's mind back in time , and to Mars , where he has a short motivational conversation with Abraham Lincoln . After being told to believe in himself , Pen 's mind is returned to the present , where he breaks out of the ice , just in time to see the Ice King fly away with Princess Bubblegum . Chasing after him using Jake 's extendable legs , Pen rescues the princess from the Ice King 's grasp . Jake pushes the magical crown off the Ice King 's head , thereby removing the King 's source of power . The Ice King then plummets off screen , yelling a long list of complex threats of things he will do when he returns . The story closes with Princess Bubblegum giving Pen a kiss ; he enjoys it , but is also greatly embarrassed by the act . He attempts to leave , but Jake claims that they have nowhere else to go and that there are no adventures that need them . However , some nearby ninjas are stealing an old man 's diamonds , and they both run off in pursuit .
= = Characters = =
Pen ( voiced by Zack Shada ) – One of the two main protagonists of the short . According to Ward , he is " a little boy " who is " just hanging out " . For the television series , he was renamed to Finn ; the character would also go on to be voiced by Zack 's younger brother Jeremy Shada .
Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) – The other main protagonists of the short . Jake is Pen 's " pal " , according to Ward . DiMaggio would voice the character in both the short and the later series .
Princess Bubblegum ( voiced by Paige Moss ) – Princess Bubblegum is the damsel in distress . Voiced by Moss in the short , Bubblegum would later be voiced by Hynden Walch in the series .
Rainicorn ( voiced by Dee Bradley Baker ) – Rainicorn would later be renamed " Lady Rainicorn " for the series , and would be voiced by Korean storyboard artist Niki Yang , rather than Dee Bradley Baker .
Ice King ( voiced by John Kassir ) – The main antagonist of the short ; Ward later called him a " nutbar " in an interview . Kassir voiced the character in the short , but Tom Kenny would later voice the Ice King in the series .
= = Production = =
" Adventure Time " was created by Pendleton Ward . The short 's style was influenced by his time at California Institute of the Arts ( CalArts ) . " Adventure Time " was Ward 's first job in animation after he graduated from CalArts . Ward had been contacted by Eric Homan , the vice president of Development at Frederator Studios after Homan saw one of Wards films at a CalArts animation screening called " The Producer 's Show " . Homan told Ward that he should consider pitching an idea to the Frederator incubator series Random ! Cartoons . Ward spent approximately one to two weeks storyboarding the outline for " Adventure Time " . He described the process as " exciting " because he was " jumping into it not knowing whether [ he ] would sink or swim . "
During the initial storyboard pitch to Frederator Studios , Ward brought a guitar and played the episode 's theme song . Frederator 's CEO Fred Seibert was initially disinclined to make the short , feeling it was too much of a " student film " and without much commercial appeal . Longtime colleagues , development executive Homan and production executive Kevin Kolde , convinced him otherwise , arguing that Seibert had actually laughed in the presentation , something that he did not often do . Frederator approved the pitch , and " Adventure Time " soon went into production .
Ward hired several of his recently graduated CalArts friends to work on the short with him . Neil Graf was tasked with coloring , Julian Narino was the background designer , and Adam Muto drew the props . Graf and Narino later got jobs with other series and studios — King of the Hill and Laika studio , respectively — but Muto continued working with Ward and currently serves as Adventure Time 's co @-@ executive producer and showrunner . The finished short ran for seven minutes , and production wrapped up in the spring of 2006 .
= = Release and reception = =
" Adventure Time " first aired as a stand @-@ alone short on Nicktoons network on January 11 , 2007 , and it was re @-@ aired as part of Frederator Studios ' Random ! Cartoons on December 7 , 2008 . In between airings , it leaked onto the internet and went viral . According to Frederator Studios producer and founder Fred Seibert the short , " between all of its distribution points , " had been viewed almost 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 times by April 2008 . The feature was later nominated for an Annie Award for Best Animated Short Subject , although it did not win .
After its release and success , Frederator Studios then pitched an Adventure Time series to Nicktoons , but the network passed on it twice . The studio then approached Cartoon Network . The network said they would be willing to produce the series if Ward could prove that " the seven @-@ minute short made for Nick wasn ’ t a one @-@ hit wonder " . Ward quickly retooled the concept of the pilot ; he wanted a potential series to be " fully realized " , rather than possess the " pre @-@ school vibe " that the original pilot had . Initially , Ward submitted a rough storyboard that featured Finn and an " oblivious " Princess Bubblegum going on a spaghetti @-@ supper date . However , the network was not happy with this story , and specifically asked for an episode that contained the same things that had " made the short so special , like the crazy opening dance , the ' Abe Lincoln moment , ' funny catchwords , and the awkward princess / kiss moment at the end . Ward then created an early storyboard for the episode " The Enchiridion ! " , which was his attempt to emulate the style of the original short . Eventually , Cartoon Network approved the first season in September 2008 , and " The Enchiridion ! " became the first episode to enter into production .
= Ohlone people =
Ohlone people , named Costanoan by early Spanish colonists ( the Spanish word costa means " coast " ) , are a Native American people of the central California coast . When Spanish explorers and missionaries arrived in the late 18th century , the Ohlone inhabited the area along the coast from San Francisco Bay through Monterey Bay to the lower Salinas Valley . At that time they spoke a variety of languages , the Ohlone languages , belonging to the Costanoan sub @-@ family of the Utian language family , which itself belongs to the proposed Penutian language phylum . The term " Ohlone " has been used in place of " Costanoan " since the 1970s by some descendant groups and by most ethnographers , historians , and writers of popular literature . In pre @-@ colonial times , the Ohlone lived in more than 50 distinct landholding groups , and did not view themselves as a distinct group . They lived by hunting , fishing , and gathering , in the typical ethnographic California pattern . The members of these various bands interacted freely with one another as they built friendships and marriages , traded tools and other necessities , and partook in cultural practices . The Ohlone people practiced the Kuksu religion . Before the Gold Rush , the northern California region was one of the most densely populated regions north of Mexico . However , in the years 1769 to 1833 , the Spanish missions in California had an effect on Ohlone culture . The Ohlone population declined steeply during this period .
The Ohlone living today belong to one or another of a number of geographically distinct groups , most , but not all , in their original home territory . The Muwekma Ohlone Tribe has members from around the San Francisco Bay Area , and is composed of descendants of the Ohlones / Costanoans from the San Jose , Santa Clara , and San Francisco missions . The Ohlone / Costanoan Esselen Nation , consisting of descendants of intermarried Rumsen Costanoan and Esselen speakers of Mission San Carlos Borromeo , are centered at Monterey . The Amah @-@ Mutsun Tribe are descendants of Mutsun Costanoan speakers of Mission San Juan Bautista , inland from Monterey Bay . Most members of another group of Rumsien language , descendants from Mission San Carlos , the Costanoan Rumsien Carmel Tribe of Pomona / Chino , now live in southern California . These groups , and others with smaller memberships ( see groups listed under the heading Present Day below ) are separately petitioning the federal government for tribal recognition .
= = Culture = =
The Ohlone inhabited fixed village locations , moving temporarily to gather seasonal foodstuffs like acorns and berries . The Ohlone people lived in Northern California from the northern tip of the San Francisco Peninsula down to Big Sur in the south , and from the Pacific Ocean in the west to the Diablo Range in the east . Their vast region included the San Francisco Peninsula , Santa Clara Valley , Santa Cruz Mountains , Monterey Bay area , as well as present @-@ day Alameda County , Contra Costa County and the Salinas Valley . Prior to Spanish contact , the Ohlone formed a complex association of approximately 50 different " nations or tribes " with about 50 to 500 members each , with an average of 200 . Over 50 distinct Ohlone tribes and villages have been recorded . The Ohlone villages interacted through trade , intermarriage and ceremonial events , as well as some internecine conflict . Cultural arts included basket @-@ weaving skills , seasonal ceremonial dancing events , female tattoos , ear and nose piercings , and other ornamentation .
The Ohlone subsisted mainly as hunter @-@ gatherers and in some ways harvesters . " A rough husbandry of the land was practiced , mainly by annually setting of fires to burn @-@ off the old growth in order to get a better yield of seeds – or so the Ohlone told early explorers in San Mateo County . " Their staple diet consisted of crushed acorns , nuts , grass seeds , and berries , although other vegetation , hunted and trapped game , fish and seafood ( including mussels and abalone from the San Francisco Bay and Pacific Ocean ) , were also important to their diet . These food sources were abundant in earlier times and maintained by careful work , and through active management of all the natural resources at hand . Animals in their mild climate included the grizzly bear , elk ( Cervus elaphus ) , pronghorn , and deer . The streams held salmon , perch , and stickleback . Birds included plentiful ducks , geese , quail , great horned owls , red @-@ shafted flickers , downy woodpeckers , goldfinches , and yellow @-@ billed magpies . Waterfowl were the most important birds in the people 's diet , which were captured with nets and decoys . The Chochenyo traditional narratives refer to ducks as food , and Juan Crespí observed in his journal that geese were stuffed and dried " to use as decoys in hunting others " .
Along the ocean shore and bays , there were also otters , whales , and at one time thousands of sea lions . In fact , there were so many sea lions that according to Crespi it " looked like a pavement " to the incoming Spanish .
In general , along the bayshore and valleys , the Ohlone constructed dome @-@ shaped houses of woven or bundled mats of tules , 6 to 20 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 to 6 m ) in diameter . In hills where redwood trees were accessible , they built conical houses from redwood bark attached to a frame of wood . Redwood houses were remembered in Monterey . One of the main village buildings , the sweat lodge was low into the ground , its walls made of earth and roof of earth and brush . They built boats of tule to navigate on the bays propelled by double @-@ bladed paddles .
Generally , men did not wear clothing in warm weather . In cold weather , they might don animal skin capes or feather capes . Women commonly wore deerskin aprons , tule skirts , or shredded bark skirts . On cool days , they also wore animal skin capes . Both wore ornamentation of necklaces , shell beads and abalone pendants , and bone wood earrings with shells and beads . The ornamentation often indicated status within their community .
= = Religion = =
= = = Ohlone as ethnographers to connect with their past = = =
It is imperative as researchers to be sensitive to limitations in historical knowledge , and careful not to place the spiritual and religious beliefs of all Ohlone people into a single unified worldview . Due to the displacement of Indian people in the Missions between 1769 @-@ 1833 , cultural groups are working as ethnographers to discover for themselves their ancestral history , and what that information tells about them as a cultural group . Therefore , this section about the Ohlone religious and spiritual beliefs and practices is a lot less about the specific details about their cosmologies , considering that the religion is different depending on the band one is referring to , but a lot more of a general overview of shared components of their worldview as native people of central California .
The pre @-@ contact Ohlone practiced Kuksu . They believed that spiritual doctors could heal and prevent illness , and they had a " probable belief in bear shamans " . Their spiritual beliefs were not recorded in detail by missionaries . However , some of the villages probably learned and practiced Kuksu , a form of shamanism shared by many Central and Northern California tribes ( although there is some question whether the Ohlone people learned Kuksu from other tribes while at the missions ) . Kuksu included elaborate acting and dancing ceremonies in traditional costume , an annual mourning ceremony , puberty rites of passage , intervention with the spirit world and an all @-@ male society that met in subterranean dance rooms .
Kuksu was shared with other indigenous ethnic groups of Central California , such as their neighbors the Miwok and Esselen , also Maidu , Pomo , and northernmost Yokuts . However Kroeber observed less " specialized cosmogony " in the Ohlone , which he termed one of the " southern Kuksu @-@ dancing groups " , in comparison to the Maidu and groups in the Sacramento Valley ; he noted " if , as seems probable , the southerly Kuksu tribes ( the Miwok , Costanoans , Esselen , and northernmost Yokuts ) had no real society in connection with their Kuksu ceremonies . "
The conditions upon which the Ohlone joined the Spanish missions are subject to debate . Some have argued that they were forced to convert to Catholicism , while others have insisted that forced baptism was not recognized by the Catholic Church . All who have looked into the matter agree , however , that baptized Indians who tried to leave mission communities were forced to return . The first conversions to Catholicism were at Mission San Carlos Borromeo , alias Carmel , in 1771 . In the San Francisco Bay area the first baptisms occurred at Mission San Francisco in 1777 . Many first @-@ generation Mission Era conversions to Catholicism were debatably incomplete and " external " .
= = = Spirituality and healing = = =
It is apparent that the pre @-@ contact Ohlone had distinguished medicine persons among their tribe . Some of these people healed through the use of herbs , and some were shamans who were believed to heal through their ability to contact the spirit world . Some shamans typically engaged in more ritualistic healing in the form of dancing , ceremony , and singing . Some shamans were also believed to be able to tell and influence the future , therefore they were equally able to bring about fortune and misfortune among the community .
= = = Indian Canyon : prayer houses / sweat lodges for ceremony and purification = = =
Additionally , some Ohlone bands built prayer houses , also called sweat lodges , for ceremonial and spiritual purification purposes . These lodges were built near stream banks because water was believed to be capable of great healing . Men and women would gather in the sweat lodges to " cleanse , purify , and empower themselves " for a task like hunting and spirit dancing . Today , there is a place located in Hollister called Indian Canyon , where a traditional sweat lodge , or Tupentak , has been built for the same ceremonial purposes . Along with the development of the sweat lodge in the early 1990s , the construction of an upen- tah @-@ ruk , or round house / assembly house , was underway as well . These areas are meant to provide a gathering place for tribal meetings , traditional dances and ceremonies , and education activities Indian Canyon is an important place because it is open to all Native American groups in the United States and around the world as a place to hold traditional native practices without federal restrictions . Indian Canyon is also home to many Ohlone people , specifically of the Matsun band , and serves as an educational , cultural , and spiritual environment for all visitors . Indian Canyon allows Natives to reclaim their heritage and implement their ancestral beliefs and practices into their lives .
= = = Sacred narratives and mythology = = =
The storytelling of sacred narratives has been an important component of Ohlone indigenous culture for hundreds and thousands of years , and continues to be of importance today . The narratives often teach specific moral or spiritual lessons , and are illustrative of the cultural spiritual and religious beliefs of the tribe . Because not all the Ohlone bands shared a unified identity , and therefore have varying religious and spiritual beliefs , the stories are unique to the tribe . Today , sacred narratives are still an important part of the Ohlone culture . Sadly , only a minimal number of sacred stories have survived Spanish colonization during the 1700s and 1800s due to ethnographic efforts in the Missions . Many Ohlone bands refer to anthropologic records to reconstruct their sacred narratives because some Ohlone people living in the missions acted as " professional consultants " for anthropologic research , and therefore told their past stories . The problem with this type of recording is that the stories are not always complete due to translation differences where meaning can be easily misunderstood .
Therefore , many Ohlone bands today feel responsible for re @-@ adopting these narratives and discussing them with cultural representatives and other Ohlone people to decide what their meanings are . This process is important because the Ohlone can further piece together a cultural identity of their past ancestors , and ultimately for themselves as well . Additionally , through knowing sacred narratives and sharing them with the public through live performances or storytelling , the Ohlone people are able to create an awareness that their cultural group is not extinct , but actually surviving and wanting recognition .
Ohlone folklore and legend centered around the Californian culture heroes of the Coyote trickster spirit , as well as Eagle and Hummingbird ( and in the Chochenyo region , a falcon @-@ like being named Kaknu ) . Coyote spirit was clever , wily , lustful , greedy , and irresponsible . He often competed with Hummingbird , who despite his small size regularly got the better of him .
Ohlone mythology creation stories mention that the world was covered entirely in water , apart from a single peak Pico Blanco near Big Sur ( or Mount Diablo in the northern Ohlone 's version ) on which Coyote , Hummingbird , and Eagle stood . Humans were the descendants of Coyote .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ Columbian era = = =
The predominant theory regarding the settlement of the Americas date the original migrations from Asia to around 20 @,@ 000 years ago across the Bering Strait land bridge , but one anthropologist claims that the Ohlone and some other northern California tribes descend from Siberians who arrived in California by sea around 3 @,@ 000 years ago .
Some archeologists and linguists think that these people migrated from the San Joaquin @-@ Sacramento River system and arrived into the San Francisco and Monterey Bay Areas in about the 6th century CE , displacing or assimilating earlier Hokan @-@ speaking populations of which the Esselen in the south represent a remnant . Datings of ancient shell mounds in Newark and Emeryville suggest the villages at those locations were established about 4000 BCE .
Through shell mound dating , scholars noted three periods of ancient Bay Area history , as described by F.M. Stanger in La Peninsula : " Careful study of artifacts found in central California mounds has resulted in the discovery of three distinguishable epochs or cultural ' horizons ' in their history . In terms of our time @-@ counting system , the first or ' Early Horizon ' extends from about 4000 BCE to 1000 BCE in the Bay Area and to about 2000 BCE in the Central Valley . The second or Middle Horizon was from these dates to 700 CE , while the third or Late Horizon was from 700 CE to the coming of the Spaniards in the 1770s . "
= = = Mission era ( 1769 – 1833 ) = = =
The arrival of missionaries and Spanish explorers in the mid @-@ 1700s had a negative impact on the Ohlone people who inhabited Northern California . The Ohlone territory consisted of the northern tip of the San Francisco Peninsula down to Big Sur in the south . There were more than fifty Ohlone landholding groups prior to the arrival of the Spanish Missionaries . The Ohlone were able to thrive in this area by hunting , fishing , and gathering , in the typical pattern found in California coastal tribes . Each of the Ohlone villages interacted with each other through trade , intermarriage , and ceremonial events , as well as through occasional conflict .
The Ohlone culture was relatively stable until the first Spanish soldiers and missionaries arrived with the double @-@ purpose of Christianizing the Native Americans by building a series of missions and of expanding Spanish territorial claims . The Rumsien were the first Ohlone people to be encountered and documented in Spanish records when , in 1602 , explorer Sebastian Vizcaíno reached and named the area that is now Monterey in December of that year . Despite Vizcaíno 's positive reports , nothing further happened for more than 160 years . It was not until 1769 that the next Spanish expedition arrived in Monterey , led by Gaspar de Portolà . This time , the military expedition was accompanied by Franciscan missionaries , whose purpose was to establish a chain of missions to bring Christianity to the native people . Under the leadership of Father Junípero Serra , the missions introduced Spanish religion and culture to the Ohlone .
Spanish mission culture soon disrupted and undermined the Ohlone social structures and way of life . Under Father Serra 's leadership , the Spanish Franciscans erected seven missions inside the Ohlone region and brought most of the Ohlone into these missions to live and work . The missions erected within the Ohlone region were : Mission San Carlos Borroméo de Carmelo ( founded in 1770 ) , Mission San Francisco de Asís ( founded in 1776 ) , Mission Santa Clara de Asís ( founded in 1777 ) , Mission Santa Cruz ( founded in 1791 ) , Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad ( founded in 1791 ) , Mission San José ( founded in 1797 ) , and Mission San Juan Bautista ( founded in 1797 ) . The Ohlone who went to live at the missions were called Mission Indians , and also neophytes . They were blended with other Native American ethnicities such as the Coast Miwok transported from the North Bay into the Mission San Francisco and Mission San José .
Spanish military presence was established at two Presidios , the Presidio of Monterey , and the Presidio of San Francisco , and mission outposts , such as San Pedro y San Pablo Asistencia founded in 1786 . The Spanish soldiers traditionally escorted the Franciscans on missionary outreach daytrips but declined to camp overnight . For the first twenty years the missions accepted a few converts at a time , slowly gaining population . Between November 1794 and May 1795 , a large wave of Bay Area Native Americans were baptized and moved into Mission Santa Clara and Mission San Francisco , including 360 people to Mission Santa Clara and the entire Huichun village populations of the East Bay to Mission San Francisco . In March 1795 , this migration was followed almost immediately by the worst @-@ seen epidemic , as well as food shortages , resulting in alarming statistics of death and escapes from the missions . In pursuing the runaways , the Franciscans sent neophytes first and ( as a last resort ) soldiers to go round up the runaway " Christians " from their relatives , and bring them back to the missions . By running to tribes outside of the missions , escapees and those sent to bring them back to the mission spread illness outside of the missions .
Indians did not thrive when the missions expanded both their populations and operations in their geographical areas . " A total of 81 @,@ 000 Indians were baptized and 60 @,@ 000 deaths were recorded " . The cause of death varied , but most were the result of European diseases such as smallpox , measles , and diphtheria against which the Indians had no natural immunity . Other causes were a drastic diet change from hunter and gatherer fare to a diet high in carbohydrates and low in vegetables and animal protein , harsh lifestyle changes , and unsanitary living conditions .
= = = = Land and property disputes = = = =
Under Spanish rule , the intent for the future of the mission properties is difficult to ascertain . Property disputes arose over who owned the mission ( and adjacent ) lands , between the Spanish crown , the Catholic Church , the Natives and the Spanish settlers of San Jose : There were " heated debates " between " the Spanish State and ecclesiastical bureaucracies " over the government authority of the missions . Setting the precedent in an interesting petition to the Governor in 1782 , the Franciscan priests claimed the " Missions Indians " owned both land and cattle , and they represented the Natives in a petition against the San Jose settlers . The fathers mentioned the " Indians ' crops " were being damaged by the San Jose settlers ' livestock and also mentioned settlers " getting mixed up with the livestock belonging to the Indians from the mission . " They also stated the Mission Indians had property and rights to defend it : " Indians are at liberty to slaughter such ( San Jose pueblo ) livestock as trespass unto their lands . " " By law " , the mission property was to pass to the Mission Indians after a period of about ten years , when they would become Spanish citizens . In the interim period , the Franciscans were mission administrators who held the land in trust for the Natives .
= = = Secularization = = =
In 1834 , the Mexican government ordered all Californian missions to be secularized and all mission land and property ( administered by the Franciscans ) turned over to the government for redistribution . At this point , the Ohlone were supposed to receive land grants and property rights , but few did and most of the mission lands went to the secular administrators . In the end , even attempts by mission leaders to restore native lands were in vain . Before this time , 73 Spanish land grants had already been deeded in all of Alta California , but with the new régime most lands were turned into Mexican @-@ owned rancherias . The Ohlone became the laborers and vaqueros ( cowboys ) of Mexican @-@ owned rancherias .
= = = Survival = = =
The Ohlone eventually regathered in multi @-@ ethnic rancherias , along with other Mission Indians from families that spoke the Coast Miwok , Bay Miwok , Plains Miwok , Patwin , Yokuts , and Esselen languages . Many of the Ohlone that had survived the experience at Mission San Jose went to work at Alisal Rancheria in Pleasanton , and El Molino in Niles . Communities of mission survivors also formed in Sunol , Monterey and San Juan Bautista . In the 1840s a wave of United States settlers encroached into the area , and California became annexed to the United States . The new settlers brought in new diseases to the Ohlone .
The Ohlone lost the vast majority of their population between 1780 and 1850 , because of an abysmal birth rate , high infant mortality rate , diseases and social upheaval associated with European immigration into California . By all estimates , the Ohlone were reduced to less than ten percent of their original pre @-@ mission era population . By 1852 the Ohlone population had shrunk to about 864 – 1 @,@ 000 , and was continuing to decline . By the early 1880s , the northern Ohlone were virtually extinct , and the southern Ohlone people were severely impacted and largely displaced from their communal land grant in the Carmel Valley . To call attention to the plight of the California Indians , Indian Agent , reformer , and popular novelist Helen Hunt Jackson published accounts of her travels among the Mission Indians of California in 1883 .
Considered the last fluent speaker of an Ohlone language , Rumsien @-@ speaker Isabella Meadows died in 1939 . Some of the people are attempting to revive Rumsien , Mutsun , and Chochenyo .
= = Burial practices = =
= = = Sacred sites and importance = = =
The arrival of the Spanish in the 1776 decelerated the culture , sovereignty , religion , and language of the Ohlone . Before the Spanish invasion , the Muwekma Ohlone had an estimated 500 shellmounds lining the sea and shores of the San Francisco Bay . Shellmounds are essentially Ohlone habitation sites where peopled lived and died and often buried . The mounds consist predominatly of molluscan shells , with lesser amounts mammal and fish bone , vegetal materials and other organic material deposited by the Ohlone for thousands of years . These shellmounds are the direct result of village life . Archaeologists have examined the mounds and often refer to them as " middens , " or " kitchen midden " meaning an accumulation of refuse . One theory is that the massive amount of shellfish remains represent Ohlone ritual behavior , whereas they would spend months mourning their dead and feasting on large amounts of shellfish which were disposed of ever growing the girth and height of the mound . Shellmounds were once found all over the San Francisco Bay area near marshlands , creeks , wetlands , and rivers . San Bruno Mountain is home to the nation 's largest intact shellmound . These mounds are also thought to have served a practical purpose as well , since these shellmounds were usually near waterways or the ocean , they protected the village from high tide as well as to provide high ground for line of sight navigation for watercraft on San Francisco Bay . The Emeryville Shellmound is an site standing at over 60 feet tall and 350 feet in diameter , and was believed to be occupied between 400 and 2800 years ago .
= = = Burial practices = = =
In the San Francisco region , the Ohlone burial practices changed over time with cremation being perferred before the arrival of the Spanish . Once the cremation was complete the loved ones and friends would place ornaments as well as other valuables as an offering to the dead . Ohlone believed that this would give them good fortune in the afterlife . Many of these artifacts have been found in and around the shellmounds . They often include a wide variety of shell beads and ornaments as well as frequently used everyday items such as stone and bone tools . These burials also showcase genealogies and territorial rights . The mounds were seen as a cultural statement because the villages on top were clearly visible and their sacred aura was very dominant .
= = = Present day burial and sacred sites = = =
Glen Cove
Ohlone tribes have protested in Vallejo , California and insist that Glen Cove , a sacred site for many Natives , is one of the last native village sites in the San Francisco Bay that has escaped urban development . Ohlone feel that the public land should remain undisturbed and their ancestors deserve a place where they can rest forever . The city of Vallejo is planning on turning the sacred burial ground into a park intended for families . Local tribes consider the proposed idea to be an offensive desecration of the sacred land . In order to compensate the Native people , the Vallejo Recreation District wants to place educational signs in the parking lot to respect the culturally sensitive area . Archaeologists have found pottery , animal bones , human remains , shell fragments , mortars and pestles and arrowheads at the site . Tribe members are willing to block the bulldozers when and if they roll into the sacred site .
Santa Cruz
A 6 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old grave site was found at a KB Home construction site in the city of Santa Cruz . The city of Santa Cruz as well as other builders in the area believes that more housing development and profit take precedence over natural habitats and Ohlone ancestral lands . The City shows its typical compromise @-@ politics side that prevails across the nation , and simply allows destruction . The City of Santa Cruz continues to allow this development and destruction of ancient Ohlone remains , is to claim it ( the City ) has a legal obligation to follow through on an agreement . Volunteers have picketed at the front gate of the Branciforte Creek construction site , holding signs , handing out flyers and engaging passersby .
Santa Clara
A similar situation is happening in Santa Clara , California where the Ohlone are making an effort to preserve one of the last remaining sacred sites in the area . The San Francisco 49ers plan on destroying the sacred site containing many different species of plants that had been planted by city residents . Native Ohlone have joined with the residents because the site was once home to an Ohlone village . The park is said to have been an Ohlone burial ground and contains five habitats , including wetlands and woodlands . The city has tried to bargain and says that only about 11 acres of the site would be used for the soccer complex . But residents and Natives fear that the bright lights and the amount of games per year pose a threat to the wildlife on the site .
= = = Revitalizing and reclaiming heritage = = =
The determination and passion to preserve sacred ground is largely influenced by the desire to revive and preserve the Ohlone cultural heritage . Natives today are engaging in extensive cultural research to bring back knowledge , narratives , beliefs , and practices of the post @-@ contact days with the Spanish . The Spanish eradicated and stripped the Ohlones of their cultural heritage by causing the death of ninety percent of the population , and forcing cultural assimilation with military fortification and Catholic reform . After the arrival of the Americans , many land grants were contested in court . Preserving their burial sites is a way to gain acknowledgment as a cultural group .
Site CA @-@ SCL @-@ 732- Kaphan Unix or Three Wolves Site
The Muwekma Ohlone tribe are active participants in the revival of Ohlone people across the East and South Bay . Key to their success is in their involvement in unearthing and analyzing their ancestral remains in ancient burial sites , which allows them to " recapture their history and to reconstruct the present and future of their people " . Due to Spanish colonization in the 1700s so much cultural history , knowledge , and identity was lost due to death and forced assimilation of so many natives . Only some sacred cultural narratives survive through the recording of stories told from various Ohlone elders living in the missions between 1769 @-@ 1833 . This makes analyzing pre @-@ contact Ohlone sites so difficult because so much of the symbolism and ritual are unknown . Therefore , the Muwekma see their participation in archeological projects as a way to bring tribal members together as a unified community , and as a way to reestablish the link between the Ohlone people today and their pre @-@ contact ancestors through their ability to analyze remains and be coauthors in the archeological reports . One major archeological site the Muwekma tribe actively helped excavate , is the burial site CA @-@ SCL @-@ 732 in San Jose , dating between 1500 @-@ 2700 BCE . In this burial site , excavated in 1992 , the remains of three ritually buried wolves were found among human remains . In other grave site , the skeletal remains of two more wolves were found with " braided , uncured yucca or soap root fiber cordage around their necks " . There were many other fragments of remains of animals like deer , squirrel , mountain lion , grizzly bear , fox , badger , blue goose , and elk found as well . From the excavations it is clear that the animals were ritually buried , along with beads and other ornamentations .
Although the truth may not be known about exactly what these findings mean , the Muwekma and the archeological team analyzed the ritual burial of the animal remains as a way to learn what they may tell about the Ohlone cosmology and cultural system before pre contact influence . One way the team did this was utilizing known narratives of the Ohlone , as ascribed by previous ethnographers who recorded the sacred narratives of various Ohlone elders in the missions across the Bay , well as the narratives telling of other central California cosmologies to make references about what the meaning of the possible kinship between the animals and the Ohlone in these burials were . Together the archeological team made three hypotheses : animals served as " moieties , clans , lineages , families , and so on , " animals were " dream helpers , " or personal spirit allies for individuals , and lastly , the animals were representations of " sacred deity @-@ like figures " .
= = = Indian People Organizing for Change = = =
Indian People Organizing for Change ( IPOC ) is a community @-@ based organization in the San Francisco Bay Area . Its members , including Ohlone tribal members and conservation activists , work together in order to accomplish social and environmental justice within the Bay Area American Indian community . Current projects include the preservation of Bay Area shellmounds , which are the sacred burial sites of the Ohlone Nation , whose homeland is the San Francisco Bay Area . Currently , IPOC has spread awareness throughout the community through shellmounds walks and has advocated for the preservation of sacred burial sites in the Emeryville Mall , Glen Cove Site , Hunters Point in San Francisco , just to name a few .
= = Etymology = =
Costanoan is an externally applied name ( exonym ) . The Spanish explorers and settlers referred to the native groups of this region collectively as the Costeños ( the " coastal people " ) circa 1769 . Over time , the English @-@ speaking settlers arriving later Anglicized the word Costeños into the name of Costanoans . ( The suffix " -an " is English ) . For many years , the people were called the Costanoans in English language and records .
Since the 1960s , the name of | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Holocaust , and that " Dredging up quotes from 10 , 15 , 20 years ago is really pathetic and , in a sense , rather fascist . " In an interview with the BNP deputy leader Simon Darby , Griffin claimed that the English Defence League was a " Zionist false flag operation " , and added that the organisation is " a neo @-@ con operation " . He also claimed that the EDL 's activities are an attempt to provoke civil war .
After assuming control of the party , Griffin sought to move it away from its historic identity , although on the BBC 's Newsnight on 26 June 2001 he stated that Hindus and whites had both been targeted in the " Muslim " riots of 2001 , and in the August 2001 issue of Identity ( a BNP publication ) he claimed that radical Muslim clerics wanted " ... militant Muslims to take over British cities with AK @-@ 47 rifles " . When interviewed in August 2009 for RT , he distanced himself from the present @-@ day National Front , which he claimed is " ... a group of skinheads running around with no political direction , other than that we suspect which their masters give them . " On The Politics Show on 9 March 2003 , he appeared to accept ethnic minorities who were already legally living in the country , and , on 6 March 2008 , he was again interviewed on Newsnight ; when told of a poll that demonstrated that most working @-@ class Britons were more concerned about drugs and alcohol than immigration , he linked the UK 's drug problem with Islam , specifically Pakistani immigrants . His inclusion on the programme was criticised by contributor and radio presenter Jon Gaunt , who branded the decision as " pathetic " . When asked by The Times about concerns that his recent success was presaged in Enoch Powell 's Rivers of Blood speech , Griffin replied :
The divisions are already there . They were created by that monstrous experiment : the multi @-@ cultural destruction of old Britain . There is no clash between the indigenous population and , for instance , settled West Indians , Sikhs and Hindus . There is , however , an enormous correlation between high BNP votes and nearby Islamic populations . The reason for that is nothing to do with Islamophobia ; it is issues such as the grooming of young English girls for sex by a criminal minority of the Muslim population ... I am now there to give political articulation to the concerns of the mainly indigenous population . The ethnic populations have always had Labour to speak up for them . Finally their neighbours have got someone who speaks up for them .
In a June 2009 interview with Channel 4 News , Griffin claimed that " There 's no such thing as a black Welshman " , which was criticised by Vaughan Gething , the first black president of the Welsh NUS and the Welsh TUC , and the first black candidate for the Welsh assembly . Commenting on Griffin 's claim , he said " On that basis , most white people wouldn 't qualify . It 's quite clear that Nick Griffin just doesn 't accept that black British people or black Welsh people are entitled to call themselves proper , full citizens of the country . " Griffin 's interview with Channel 4 News was in response to a decision by the Equality and Human Rights Commission to investigate the BNP 's membership criteria , which , it stated , " appeared to discriminate on the grounds of race and colour , contrary to the Race Relations Act . " He rejected claims that the BNP was " acting unlawfully " and said " ... because we are here , as it was pointed out , for specific ethnic groups — it 's nothing to do with colour , your reporter there said that we 'll only lift a finger for white people — that 's a simple lie . " In an interview with the BBC on 8 July 2009 , during a discussion on European immigration , he proposed that the EU should sink boats carrying illegal immigrants , to prevent them from entering Europe . Although the interviewer , BBC correspondent Shirin Wheeler , implied that Griffin may have wished the EU to " murder people at sea " , he quickly corrected her by saying " I didn 't say anyone should be murdered at sea — I say boats should be sunk , they can throw them a life raft and they can go back to Libya " ( a staging post for migrants from Egypt and sub @-@ Saharan Africa ) .
Following the Admiral Duncan pub bombing by former BNP member David Copeland , Griffin stated " The TV footage of dozens of ' gay ' demonstrators flaunting their perversion in front of the world 's journalists showed just why so many ordinary people find these creatures so repulsive . " The BNP states that , privately , homosexuality should be tolerated , but that it " should not be promoted or encouraged " . It opposed the introduction of civil partnerships and wishes to ban what it perceives as the promotion of homosexuality in schools and the media . A series of messages he posted in October 2012 on the social network Twitter , regarding a discrimination claim won by a gay couple , sparked widespread opprobrium . Cambridgeshire police investigated the tweets , which included the couple 's address and a suggestion that a " British Justice team " would give them " a bit of drama " , but took no further action . In 2012 , although he denied being " anti @-@ gay " , he claimed that civil partnerships undermined " the institution of marriage , and as a result of that , children will die over the next few years , because they ’ ll be brought up in homes which aren ’ t married " . In 2009 he also said that : " a lot of people find the sight of two grown men kissing in public really creepy . I understand that homosexuals don 't understand that but that 's how a lot of us [ Christians ] feel . " He also suggests that gay pride marches " [ verge ] on heterophobia which , like its twin Christianophobia , is on the rise . "
Writing for The Rune , Griffin praised the wartime Waffen SS and attacked the Royal Air Force for its bombing of Nazi Germany . At Coventry Cathedral he distributed leaflets that referred to " mass murder " during the Second World War bombing of Dresden . Although unconnected , on 9 June 2009 the Royal British Legion wrote an open letter to Griffin asking him not to wear a poppy lapel badge .
In a BBC interview on 8 June 2009 , Griffin claimed that " global warming is essentially a hoax " and that it " is being exploited by the liberal elite as a means of taxing and controlling us and the real crisis is peak oil " . He was a representative of the European Parliament at the 2009 UN Climate Change Conference , where he repeated his claim that global warming is a hoax , and called advocates of action on climate change such as Al Gore " mass murderers " by supporting biofuels , claiming that their use would lead to the " third and the greatest famine of the modern era " . A Greenpeace spokesman said , " In reality the environmental and development groups he has been disparaging have been in the forefront of concerns about biofuels . Griffin 's claims that climate change is a hoax is one of many curious things going on between his ears . "
= = Family and personal life = =
= = = Parents = = =
Griffin 's father , Edgar Griffin ( born 1921 , Brighton , East Sussex ) was previously a long @-@ standing Conservative Party member and from 1959 to 1965 a councillor for the Metropolitan Borough of St Marylebone . He also served as a councillor on Waveney District Council during the 1980s . Griffin 's mother , Jean ( née Thomas ) , whom Edgar married in 1950 , was an unsuccessful BNP candidate for Enfield North in the 1997 general election , in Chingford & Woodford Green for the 2001 general election and for London in the 1999 European elections .
= = = Personal life = = =
Griffin lives with his family in a farmhouse in Llanerfyl , near Welshpool , in Wales . He is married to Jackie Griffin , a former nurse who also acts as his assistant and a BNP administrator . He has four children , some of whom are actively involved with the party , and a sister . He was declared bankrupt in January 2014 .
= = Elections contested = =
UK Parliament elections
Welsh Assembly elections ( Additional members region ; party list )
European Parliament elections ( Multi @-@ member constituency ; party list )
= Mongalla , South Sudan =
Mongalla or Mangalla is a community in Central Equatoria state in South Sudan , on the east side of the Bahr al Jebel or White Nile river . It lies about 75 km by road northeast of Juba . The towns of Terekeka and Bor lie downstream , north of Mongalla .
During the colonial era , Mongalla was capital of Mongalla Province , which reached south to Uganda and east towards Ethiopia . On 7 December 1917 the last of the northern Sudanese troops were withdrawn from Mongalla , replaced by Equatorial troops . These southern and at least nominally Christian troops remained the only permanent garrison of the town and province until their mutiny in August 1955 . Mongalla and the surrounding province was then absorbed into Equatoria Province in 1956 . The town was taken and retaken more than once during the Second Sudanese Civil War ( 1983 – 2005 ) .
An experimental station was established to grow sugar at Mongalla in the 1950s , and there were plans to establish commercial operations . However , after independence in 1956 the Khartoum government shifted the sugar project to the north , where it is grown under much less favorable conditions with heavy irrigation . A sugar , clothing , and a weaving factory was established in Mongalla in the 1970s but operations failed to get beyond their trial phase and diminished as conflict grew in the region in the early 1980s . In April 2006 the President of Southern Sudan , Salva Kiir Mayardit , named Mongalla as one of the Nile ports to be the first to be rehabilitated .
Mongalla is an important center for gauging the flow of the Nile , with measurements taken regularly from 1905 until 1983 , and since 2004 .
= = History and politics = =
= = = Early colonial period = = =
After the final defeat of the Caliphate ( Khalifa ) by the British under General Herbert Kitchener in 1898 , the Nile up to the Uganda border became part of the Anglo @-@ Egyptian Sudan . An expedition upriver from Omdurman ( Ondurman ) arrived in December 1900 . The post that had been established at Kiro was transferred to Mongalla in April 1901 since Kiro was claimed to be in Belgian territory . During 1904 posts were established where needed in the Mongalla districts to suppress the activities of " Abyssinian brigands who infested the country " .
Until 1906 Mongalla province was part of the Upper Nile province , after which it became a separate administration . The first governor was Angus Cameron , appointed in January 1906 . A party from the Anglican Church Missionary Society ( CMS ) arrived the same month , but decided it was not suitable for a base and instead located the mission downstream at Bor . The colonial administration opposed efforts by the CMS to convert the Bari people of Mongalla . The missionaries interpreted this as due to the influence of Islam in weakening the spiritual ideals of the officials.Cameron desired to avoid friction with the Muslims who had undertaken most of the work of building and servicing the new provincial capital .
In 1910 Theodore Roosevelt visited the province . Before his arrival , Governor R.C.R. Owen informed Governor General Sir Reginald Wingate that everything would be done for the former president of the United States , but also pointed out that his troops had not even one donkey . Roosevelt 's expedition reached Mongalla at the end of February , coming from the Belgian Congo via the Lado Enclave . He was impressed by the Egyptian and Sudanese troops , but when visiting a native dance he commented on the lack of middle @-@ aged men , a result of the Mahdist wars that had ended over ten years ago . In June 1910 the British Sudanese forces took over the Lado Enclave from the Belgians , becoming part of the province of Mongalla . The Anglican and Roman Catholic missionaries requested that Sunday be retained as a sabbath at Lado , as it had been under the Belgians , rather than changed to Friday as it had in the rest of the Sudan . However , Governor Owen opposed retaining Sunday ; he felt that the more " bigoted " Muslims in the army would object to working on Friday , and noted that all recruits to the army were instructed in the Muslim religion .
A few months later , however , Owen proposed creation of an Equatorial battalion composed entirely of southerners . This force would be taught to follow English commands and the Christian faith , which would , over time , unite with Uganda and would prevent spread of the Muslim faith farther south . He was against Islam on the basis that it " may at any time break out into a wave of fanaticism " . Owen 's plan was approved by Wingate . Wingate said " ... we must remember that the bulk of the inhabitants ... are not Moslems ( Muslims ) at all , that the whole of Uganda has accepted Chritianity almost without a murmur , and that furthermore English is a very much easier language to learn than Arabic ... " .
In 1913 , the government increased restrictions on private travel and immigrants , which meant anybody arriving in Mongalla and wishing to go north from the Uganda or the Belgian Congo could be examined for sleeping sickness by a medical officer . The maximum punishment for any breach of the new regulations was a £ 10 fine or a 6 month prison sentence .
On 7 December 1917 the last of the northern Sudanese troops were withdrawn from Mongalla , replaced by Equatorial troops . These southern and at least nominally Christian troops remained the only permanent garrison of the town and province until their mutiny in August 1955 .
When Hasan Sharif , son of Khalifa Muhammad Sahif , was exiled to Mongalla in 1915 after taking place in a conspiracy in Omdurman , Governor Owen said " ... I told him he is lucky to come and see this part of Sudan for nothing , when tourists pay hundreds of pounds ... I fear he doesn 't see the joke ... " . Owen retired in 1918 . Major Cecil Stephen Northcote succeeded him as Governor of Mongala from 1918 to 1919 , then moved on to become Governor of the Nuba Mountains province .
The Sudan was very lightly administered . As late as 1919 there were just 17 British administrators in the Bahr al @-@ Ghazal and Mongalla provinces , with a combined area twice that of Britain . In the early years , British officials depended on native officials for advice and to act as interpreters . However , they had to be careful about ethnic rivalries . Thus Fadl el @-@ Mula , a Dinka who had been a police quartermaster , greatly impressed the Governor of Mongalla and was appointed assistant superintendent of the Twic Dinka in 1909 . He was credited with keeping the peace between the Dinka and the Nuer people , two groups with a history of fighting and cattle raiding . However , Fadl el @-@ Mula was so strongly biased towards the Dinka that his police were attacked by angry Nuer and he had to be removed from his post .
The Arabic language and the Muslim religion continued to be spread in South Sudan by merchants and administrators from the North , and even by British officials who preferred to speak Arabic rather than learn the local language . A rising by the Aliab Dinka in 1919 was suppressed harshly in 1920 . That year the Nuer were attacking both the Dinka and the Burun people on the border with Ethiopia . The governor of Mongalla in 1920 , V.R. Woodland , said that Mongalla at the time was " in such a muck @-@ up state he doesn 't know where to start " . Woodland called for a decision ; either South Sudan should be separated from the north and administered as a territory in the same way as Uganda , or the British should encourage development by the Arabs within the structure of the North Sudan . Nothing was done .
= = = Later colonial period ( 1920 @-@ 1956 ) = = =
The Mongalla region suffered an outbreak of cerebrospinal meningitis ( CSM ) between 1918 and 1924 , apparently introduced by Ugandan porters who had served in German East Africa during World War I. CSM caused high mortality for a six @-@ year period as it spread from one family to another . A less devastating CSM epidemic started in 1926 , causing 335 deaths in 1928 , 446 in 1929 and 335 in the first three months of 1930 before rapidly dying out . Dr. Alexander Cruikshank of the Sudan Medical Services attributed the epidemic in part to poor housing conditions . The Azande people of the western part of the province avoided the disease . They had a better diet and less crowded quarters than the Dinka and Nuer people in the centre of the province .
Airplanes began being used in the Sudan in the 1920s , with revolutionary effect on military and civilian administration . Flying was hazardous , however . On 4 July 1929 a Fokker FViib / 3m owned by the Belgian financier Albert Lowenstein crashed at Mongalla . There were no deaths , but the plane was severely damaged . A Singapore flying boat built by Short Brothers made a flight around Africa in 1929 . Starting from Benghazi , the plane flew to Aboukir Bay , then up the Nile to Mongalla , which was reached at the end of January , and onward to Entebbe on Lake Victoria .
During the 1920s the British steadily expanded control over the South Sudan . The Deputy governor of Mongalla , Major R.G.C. Brock , estimated that he had added 50 @,@ 000 Toposa and related people to the eastern half of his province , a somewhat inflated figure . By establishing strong central control , the British eroded whatever authority the traditional rulers may have had . In 1929 the British governor of Mongalla province said " the government support which can be given to the chiefs is not worth their while to have " .
In 1925 Major G.D. Gould was denied a license to prospect for gold and oil in the east of Mongalla province beyond the Didinga Hills . Travel in the Toposa country was dangerous without a large armed escort , and if the Ethiopians had got word of the survey they would have tried to occupy that part of the country . The British began to follow an " Africanization " policy . A directive issued on 25 January 1930 by the Civil Secretary of Sudan to the governors of Upper Nile , Bahr al @-@ Ghazal and Mongalla said : " The policy of the government in the southern Sudan is to build up series of self @-@ contained racial or tribal units with structures and organization based to whatever extent the requirement of equity and good government permits , upon indigenous customs , traditional usage and beliefs " .
In 1930 the capital of Equatoria ( southern Sudan ) was transferred from Mongalla to Juba , further upstream to the south . The governor of Mongalla province from 1930 until 1936 was Leonard Fielding Nalder , formerly governor of Fung province from 1927 to 1930 . In 1935 Nalder reported after a survey of his province that there was a general lack of tribal cohesion . Governor @-@ General Sir Stewart Symes at Khartoum had little interest in development of the south of Sudan and he advised the local officials that chiefs should have territorial rather than ethnic authority . In 1936 Mongalla and the Bahr al @-@ Ghazal provinces were incorporated into the Equatoria province , with headquarters at Juba , with parts of Upper Nile province detached .
= = = Civil war = = =
Sudan became independent in 1956 , after the outbreak of the First Sudanese Civil War ( 1955 – 1972 ) . After the Addis Ababa Agreement ( 1972 ) the Jieng Bor and Murle people lived in relative peace , sharing grazing areas , especially Gok Bor . In mid 1981 this harmony broke down when Murle bandits attacked Jieng Bor cattle camps in several locations around Mongalla . The police were called in by the commissioner of Mongalla , and turned against the Bor Dinka . The SPLM / A exploited this hostility to the Bor Dinka by some Equatorian tribes to gain recruits from the Dinka . Peace broke down and the civil war resumed in 1983 .
Early in 1985 the Southern Axis of the SPLA under Major Arok Thon Arok challenged government forces in Southern Upper Nile , Eastern Equatoria and Central Equatoria . The Southern Axis captured Owiny @-@ ki @-@ Bul and Mongalla without difficulty , then crossed the Nile , captured Terekeka and besieged Juba . Later in 1985 the forces of the Sudan People 's Liberation Army ( SPLA ) received a setback at the village of Gut @-@ Makur near Mongalla when they were confronted by well @-@ armed Mandari people . Although willing to fight the Sudan army , the Mandari were not willing to do so under Dinka leadership .
In March 1989 Alternate Commander Jok Reng of the SPLA Mainstream recaptured Mongalla with a relatively small force . In the last half of 1989 the SPLA consolidated in towns like Mongalla that surrounded Juba . In late 1991 , Mongalla was the scene of clashes between two arms of the SPLA . Riek Machar of the SPLM / A Nasir was pushing south towards Torit , while the SPLM / A Mainstream commander for Equatoria Kuol Manyang Juuk wanted to push Riek 's forces back to Nuerland . Due to disunity among the southerners , between 1991 and 1994 the NIR was able to recapture many places in South Sudan including Mongalla and also Ayod , Leer , Akobo , Pochalla , Pibor , Waat , Nasir , Kit , Palotaka , Yirol , Bor , Torit , Kapoeta , Parjok and Magwi . Government forces coming from Bor took Mongalla in June 1992 and then turned east toward Torit .
= = = Post @-@ civil war = = =
The Second Sudanese Civil War finally ended in January 2005 . However , Mongalla continued to suffer at the hands of the Lord 's Resistance Army . Due to the civil war , Mongalla had suffered considerable physical neglect and damage , and population loss . In April 2006 the President of Southern Sudan , Salva Kiir Mayardit , named Mongalla as one of the Nile ports to be the first to be rehabilitated . He warned that demands for reconstruction spending would be much greater than available funding , so work had to be prioritized . Clearance of the Mongalla minefield was complete in July 2009 . Mongalla is an important center for gauging the flow of the Nile , with measurements taken regularly from 1905 until 1983 . During most of the Second Sudanese Civil War ( 1983 – 2005 ) the gauging stopped , resuming in 2004 .
= = Geography and climate = =
Mongalla lies about 75 km ( 47 mi ) by road northeast of Juba on the road to Bor in the north , but nearer 50 km ( 31 mi ) as the crow flies . Mongalla is situated on the east bank of the White Nile in Central Equatoria state at an altitude of 443 metres ( 1 @,@ 455 ft ) . Rainfall is relatively low between November and February , then increasing with two peaks in June and August . Annual precipitation is about 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 40 in ) . Winds are northerly in the dry season and southerly in the rainy season . Based on observations taken between April 1903 and December 1905 , the mean temperature was 26 @.@ 4 ° C ( 79 @.@ 5 ° F ) , with mean maximum 33 @.@ 7 ° C ( 92 @.@ 6 ° F ) and mean minimum 20 @.@ 9 ° C ( 69 @.@ 7 ° F ) . Mean relative humidity was 74 % .
The river flowing past Mongalla combines seasonal torrential runoff in the rainy season with the more constant discharge from Lake Victoria , influenced by evaporation and by the damping and storage effects of Lake Albert , Lake Edward and Lake Kyoga . The Sudd , a vast area of swampland , stretches downriver from Mongalla to near the point where the Sobat River joins the White Nile just upstream from Malakal . Due to evaporation , only half the water that enters the Sudd at Mongalla emerges from the northern end of the swamps . The much smaller Badigeru Swamp lies about 32 km ( 20 mi ) to the east , separated from Mongalla by a region of open grassland . The belt along the Nile about 10 km wide and 146 km long from Mongalla to Bor is inhabited by the Mundari and Dinka peoples .
= = Economic development = =
The district commissioners initiated the development of cotton at Mongalla in the 1920s and 1930s , but the price paid for Mongalla cotton fell from 50 piastres per kantar in 1929 @-@ 30 to 18 piastres in 1931 and the industry failed to develop as planned.The " Southern Scales " , which defined the rates of pay for officials and workers in the southern provinces of Sudan , were extremely low , making it impossible for the administrators to undertake any development such as a school , hospital or economic projects . Use of money was restricted , and even in 1945 taxes were still being paid in kind .
In 1937 J.C. Myers was commissioned to undertake a botanical survey of Mongalla province , later extended to all of Equatoria . In contrast to the pessimistic view of the south taken by the Khartoum administration , he was enthusiastic about the wealth and diversity of plants . He noted that the people had adapted to cultivating non @-@ native plants such as cassava , maize , sweet potato and groundnuts . He also noted that the government was restricting commercial development of sugarcane , tobacco and coffee , which grew wild , and thus preventing economic development . In 1938 Governor Symes made a tour of Equatoria and left with " contempt intensified " . He consistently rejected schemes for development .
An experimental station was established to grow sugar at Mongalla in the 1950s , and there were plans to establish commercial operations . However , after independence in 1956 the Khartoum government shifted the sugar project to the north , where it is grown under much less favorable conditions with heavy irrigation . After the First Sudanese Civil War ended in 1972 , there were plans to revive sugar production at Mongalla , and although Mongalla Sugar Processing Factory operated on a low @-@ scale in the 1970s , it ceased production when civil war broke out again in 1983.A clothing mill also operated in the 1970s but was deactivated due to the unrest in the early 1980s . A paper mill was also planned at Mongalla , to be fed by eucalyptus species planted in a 70 @,@ 000 feddan area.Equipment was supplied from Denmark between 1975 and 1976 for use in an agro @-@ industrial complex at Mongalla . This would include a power station and pump station to support an abbatoir , poultry project , fish @-@ receiving plant and wood @-@ working factory . The equipment arrived but was not installed , and eventually rusted away . A project funded by Khartoum also established six textile @-@ manufacturing units in Sudan , one at Mongalla , and the other five factories located in the north at Ed Duiem , Kadugli , Kosti , Nyala , and Shendi . An agreement was made with a Belgian firm , SOBERI , to supply the weaving factory of 256 looms and at one point it was estimated to produce around 9 million meters of grey fabric per annum , but it failed to get past the trial phase due to lack of raw materials , capital , and transportation facilities .
= Reg Pollard ( general ) =
Lieutenant General Sir Reginald George Pollard , KCVO , KBE , CB , DSO ( 20 January 1903 – 9 March 1978 ) was a senior commander in the Australian Army , serving as Chief of the General Staff from 1960 to 1963 . Born in Bathurst , New South Wales , Pollard graduated from the Royal Military College , Duntroon , in 1924 . A regular officer , he served as adjutant / quartermaster in several battalions of the Citizens Military Forces ( CMF ) during the 1920s and 1930s . In 1938 he was posted to England to undertake staff training , which was cut short by the outbreak of the Second World War . Pollard joined the Second Australian Imperial Force in 1940 , and the following year saw action with the 7th Division in the Middle East , where he was mentioned in despatches . Promoted to colonel in 1942 , he became senior staff officer of the 7th Division in New Guinea , and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his actions . He spent much of the remainder of the war in staff and training positions in Australia .
Pollard 's early post @-@ war roles involved recruit training , land / air warfare , administration , and planning . In 1953 , he was promoted to brigadier and took command of the Australian Army Component of the British Commonwealth Forces Korea . He joined the Military Board as a major general in 1954 , and was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire the following year . In 1957 he was promoted to lieutenant general and took charge of Eastern Command in Sydney ; two years later he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath . Knighted in 1961 , as Chief of the General Staff he presided over the Army 's reorganisation as a pentropic structure , and worked towards making Duntroon a degree @-@ granting institution . In 1962 , he oversaw deployment of the first team of Australian military advisors to South Vietnam . After retiring from the military in 1963 , Pollard became Honorary Colonel of the Royal Australian Regiment ; he served as Australian Secretary to Queen Elizabeth II during the Royal Visit in 1970 and was appointed a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order the same year . He died at Wyrallah , New South Wales , in 1978 .
= = Early life = =
Reginald George Pollard was born on 20 January 1903 in Bathurst , New South Wales , the third son of Albert Edgar Pollard , an English accountant , and his Australian wife Thalia Rebecca , née McLean . Schooled in Bathurst , Reg entered the Royal Military College , Duntroon , in 1921 , and graduated with the Sword of Honour for " exemplary conduct and performance " in 1924 . Pollard and fellow graduate Frederick Scherger , winner of the King 's Medal and future air chief marshal , applied to transfer to the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) under a scheme designed to augment the RAAF 's officer corps , but only Scherger was accepted . The previous year , Pollard and Scherger had inaugurated a Duntroon tradition when they found a horse 's jawbone during a field exercise . Inspired by the Biblical tale in which Samson slays the Philistines with the jawbone of an ass , they declared their find a lucky charm and brought it back to the college as a mascot ; it became known as " Enobesra " ( reportedly because " jawbone seemed so commonplace , an arsebone sounded much more interesting and spelt backwards sounded both mysterious and respectable " ) .
Ranked lieutenant in the Permanent Military Force ( PMF ) , Pollard was appointed adjutant / quartermaster of the 17th Battalion ( Citizens Military Forces ) , headquartered at North Sydney , in July 1925 . He married Daisy Ethel Potter , a typist , at St Andrew 's Anglican Church , Strathfield , on 31 October ; The Bathurst Times reported that Daisy cut the cake with her husband 's Sword of Honour . Pollard departed for India on attachment to the British Army in September 1927 , serving with the Royal Fusiliers and the York and Lancaster Regiment . He returned to Sydney in November the following year and was posted as adjutant / quartermaster to , successively , the 18th Battalion ( CMF ) and , in September 1932 , the 44th Battalion ( CMF ) . In December 1932 , while serving with the 44th in Western Australia , he was promoted to captain . Pollard was camp commandant of the National Rifle Association of Western Australia from 1934 to 1936 . He was transferred to Army Headquarters , Melbourne , in October 1936 . His next posting , in July 1938 , was as General Staff Officer Grade 3 , Training and General Duties , at the 2nd District Base , Sydney . In November 1938 , Pollard travelled to England to attend Staff College , Camberley ; he graduated in September 1939 , the planned two @-@ year course having been curtailed owing to the outbreak of the Second World War .
= = Second World War = =
Following the declaration of war , Pollard served as Assistant Military Liaison Officer at the Australian High Commission , London ; during this posting he spent two weeks attached to the British Expeditionary Force in France . Promoted major , he joined the Second Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) in June 1940 . The provisions of the Defence Act ( 1903 ) prohibited members of the PMF ( or the CMF ) fighting outside Australian territory except as volunteers in the AIF . Pollard was appointed brigade major of the 25th Brigade , an Australian infantry formation raised in England mostly from logistics personnel to help combat a possible invasion by Nazi Germany . The brigade became part of the Australian 9th Division , and in January 1941 sailed for the Middle East ; it was transferred to the 7th Division on arrival . In March , Pollard was assigned to the 7th Division 's headquarters staff in Libya under Lieutenant General John Lavarack . On 24 April , towards the end of the campaign in Cyrenaica , Pollard led a raiding party on Giarabub , Libya , to remove Senussi civilians and destroy wells and ammunition . He took command of the 2 / 31st Battalion at the end of June 1941 , during the Syrian campaign , after the battalion 's commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel Selwyn Porter , was wounded . A cease @-@ fire on 12 July ended the campaign in Syria , and Pollard was mentioned in despatches for his service ; the award was gazetted on 30 December 1941 .
Pollard was promoted to lieutenant colonel in August 1941 , and was responsible for establishing the AIF Junior Staff School in Palestine . He was raised to temporary colonel in March 1942 and posted to the AIF Staff in Ceylon , where the 16th and 17th Brigades had been garrisoned while on their way back to Australia from the Middle East . Returning to Australia in August , Pollard was appointed General Staff Officer Grade 1 of the 6th Division ; he served on its headquarters in Papua from September until mid @-@ November 1942 , when he became Major General George Vasey 's senior staff officer at the 7th Division . Pollard received the Distinguished Service Order for his actions in operations at Gona and Sanananda , during which he " displayed unlimited energy and ascertained vital information for use in future operations " ; the award was promulgated on 21 December 1943 . At the conclusion of the Papuan campaign in January 1943 , Pollard was posted to Queensland with the 6th Division , which was undergoing training and reinforcement . He was Chief Instructor of the Senior Staff School at Duntroon from December 1943 until February 1945 , when he became Deputy Director of Military Operations at General Sir Thomas Blamey 's Allied Land Forces Headquarters , based in Melbourne .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
= = = Rise to Chief of the General Staff = = =
Pollard held command of the Army 's Recruit Training Centre at Greta , New South Wales , from February to May 1946 . He spent the next two months attached to the headquarters staff of Northern Command . In August he was posted to England to undertake a course at the Royal Air Force 's School of Air Support in Old Sarum , and following his return in February 1947 was allotted to instruct at the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ opened RAAF School of Air Support at Laverton , Victoria . It was redesignated the School of Land / Air Warfare in March 1948 and relocated to RAAF Station Williamtown , New South Wales . Pollard was appointed Director of Personnel Administration at Army Headquarters in January 1949 . One of his tasks was to prepare the ground for the reintroduction of compulsory national service ; the new scheme was enacted in 1951 and remained in force until 1959 . Pollard 's lieutenant @-@ colonelcy had been made substantive in September 1946 and his colonelcy in July 1949 . He attended the Imperial Defence College , London , throughout 1951 ; he served as aide @-@ de @-@ camp to King George VI from April that year until August 1952 , and in the same capacity for Queen Elizabeth II until April 1954 .
In January 1952 , Pollard succeeded Colonel John Wilton as Director of Military Operations and Plans at Army Headquarters , and became Chairman of the Joint Planning Committee . That August he was one of the Australian delegates joining the Minister for External Affairs , Richard Casey , for the inaugural meeting of the ANZUS Council in Honolulu ; the US and New Zealand delegations were led , respectively , by Secretary of State Dean Acheson and Minister for External Affairs Clifton Webb . Pollard also took part in planning for the atomic test at Montebello , Western Australia , in October 1952 . Promoted to temporary brigadier in March 1953 , Pollard acted as Australian military advisor to Prime Minister Robert Menzies at the Commonwealth Prime Ministers ' Conference in London that June . From July to November he served as commander of the Australian Army Component of the British Commonwealth Forces Korea ; the role was responsible for managing the turnover of Australian troops in the theatre and the upkeep of their personal records . Pollard was later appointed Deputy Adjutant General at Army Headquarters , and his rank of brigadier became substantive in December 1953 .
In September 1954 , Pollard was promoted to temporary major general and appointed Quartermaster General and Third Military Member of the Military Board . At fifty @-@ two , he was the youngest member of the Board . His promotion to major general was made substantive in December 1954 . Inspecting conditions for Australian troops deployed to Malaya in December 1955 , Pollard was quoted as saying that there were " one or two " serious complaints but that he was " amazed how few there were , considering that the average soldier complains considerably all the time " . | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
September 3 as Agnes passed to the north . Rainfall in the mainland peaked at 208 mm ( 8 @.@ 2 in ) on Chausuyama in Aichi Prefecture .
= = = China and Taiwan = = =
Though Agnes did not directly impact Taiwan , prolonged southwesterly flow associated with the typhoon brought torrential rains to the island . Flooding in southern Taiwan was considered the worst in 30 years ; 32 people were killed or left missing . More than 510 mm ( 20 in ) of rain fell in the cities of Chiayi , Tainan , Kaohsiung , and Pingtung . Flood waters , reaching depths of 2 @.@ 0 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) , inundated 238 @,@ 256 acres ( 96 @,@ 419 hectares ) of farmland and destroyed 140 homes . An estimated 3 @,@ 000 people were left homeless .
Significant water rise occurred along Yangtze estuary and Hangzhou Bay in mainland China as Agnes remained just east of the area for 36 hours and the coincidence of the spring tide . A peak storm surge of 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) was measured in the region with continuous onshore flow , the highest since 1949 ; conversely , in areas with continuous offshore flow , water levels fell by 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) . Model simulations of the event estimated that a 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) surge affected the Waigaoqiao Free Trade Zone in Shanghai . Offshore , 300 vessels sank while the resulting inland floods killed 14 people . Authorities in Shanghai mobilized 100 @,@ 000 personnel to limit the extent of the floods as 200 sections of seawall collapsed . According to local newspapers , 59 @,@ 700 acres ( 24 @,@ 100 hectares ) of farmland flooded and 4 @,@ 280 homes were damaged . Losses were estimated in the millions of dollars .
High winds downed many trees across the region and debris littered the streets of Shanghai . United States President Jimmy Carter , wrapping up an inspection of the Chinese Navy , was scheduled to take a cruise out of the Huangpu River ; however , the typhoon forced the vessel to remain at port .
= = = South Korea = = =
Between September 1 and 3 , torrential rains affected much of South Korea , with the heaviest falling well @-@ ahead of the storm itself . Regarded as the heaviest on record in the 20th century , at least 710 mm ( 28 in ) fell over a two @-@ day span in the country , resulting in tremendous flash flooding and landslides . This surpassed the previous two @-@ day record of 570 mm ( 22 @.@ 3 in ) measured in 1928 in Seoul . A record @-@ breaking 24 ‑ hour rainfall of 547 @.@ 4 mm ( 21 @.@ 55 in ) was also measured ; however , this was later greatly surpassed by Typhoon Rusa in 2002 which produced 870 @.@ 5 mm ( 34 @.@ 27 in ) during the same time span . The coastal counties of Jangheung , Haenam , and Goheung all saw approximately half of their annual precipitation , between 394 and 548 mm ( 15 @.@ 5 and 21 @.@ 6 in ) , in one day 's time . In addition to the rains , winds up to 144 km / h ( 89 mph ) were measured .
Communications with severed with towns along the southwestern coastline as roads and rail lines were washed away . Thousands of residents sought refuge by moving to higher ground . The Korean relief center reported that 762 homes were destroyed and another 11 @,@ 700 flooded due to the storm . Other reports indicated that upwards of 5 @,@ 900 homes were destroyed . More than 191 @,@ 000 acres ( 77 @,@ 300 hectares ) of farmland was washed out . Throughout South Korea , 113 people lost their lives . Most of the deaths resulted from landslides , swollen rivers , and collapsed embankments . Total damage in the country amounted to $ 134 million , with agriculture accounting for at least $ 24 million . Additionally , 28 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . The disaster relief agency Hope Bridge provided 7 @.@ 5 billion won ( $ 10 @.@ 2 million ) in aid to areas affected by the storm .
= Michael of Zahumlje =
Michael of Zahumlje , also known as Michael Višević ( Croatian / Bosnian / Serbian : Mihajlo Višević , Cyrillic : Михаило Вишевић ) or rarely as Michael Vuševukčić , was an independent Slavic ruler of Zahumlje , in present @-@ day western Herzegovina and southern Croatia , who flourished in the early part of the 10th century . A neighbour of the Kingdom of Croatia and Serbia as well as an ally of Bulgaria , he was nevertheless able to maintain independent rule throughout at least a good part of his reign .
Michael came into territorial conflict with Petar of Serbia , who attempted to expand his power westwards . To eliminate the threat , Michael warned his ally , the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon I , about the alliance between Peter and Symeon 's enemy , the Byzantine Empire . Symeon attacked Serbia and captured Peter , who later died in prison .
Michael was mentioned together with Tomislav of Croatia in Pope John X 's letter of 925 . In that same year , he participated in the first church councils in Split , something that some historians have taken as evidence of Zahumlje being a vassal of Croatia . In any case , Michael , with grand titles of the Byzantine court as anthypatos and patrician ( patrikios ) , remained ruler of Zahumlje through the 940s , while maintaining good relations with the Pope .
= = Background = =
Compiled in c . 950 , the historical work De administrando imperio , ascribed to Constantine Porphyrogenitus , notes that Michael was a son of Busebutze ( Greek : Bouseboutzis ) and that unlike many other Slavs in the Dalmatian region , his family did not descend from the " unbaptized Serbs " . According to Constantine , his family belonged to the Litziki ( Λιτζίκη ) , a unbaptized people on the River Vistula from south Poland . The region around upper Vistula was also known as a part of White Croatia ( Chrobatia ) , from where the Croats have migrated to the Roman Dalmatia invited by the Eastern Roman ( Byzantine ) Emperor Heraclius . However , H. T. Norris notes that Croats and Serbs were intermixed in those parts of Poland .
The area controlled by Michael comprised Zahumlje , later known as Hum ( what is now western Herzegovina and southern Croatia ) , as well as Travunia ( now eastern Herzegovina and southern Croatia with center at Trebinje ) and a good part of Duklja ( modern Montenegro ) . His territory therefore formed a block along the southern Dalmatian coast , from the Neretva river to Ragusa ( Dubrovnik ) , latter serving as a tributary region .
Before the annexation of Serbia in 924 , Bulgaria did not yet border on Zahumlje and a part of Croatia lay between both lands . For instance , the chronicler John the Deacon ( d . 1009 ) says that in 912 , a Venetian traveller who had just passed through Bulgaria and Croatia on his way home , next found himself in Zahumlje .
= = Alliance with Simeon I of Bulgaria = =
Michael was a close ally of Simeon I of Bulgaria , who had been mounting a number of successful campaigns against the Byzantine Empire . The traveler of John the Deacon 's account was an ambassador , son of the Venetian doge Ursus Particiacus II , who was returning from a diplomatic mission to Constantinople . When he entered Zahumlje , Michael " a prince of the Slavs " ( dux Sclavorum ) had him captured and sent as a gift to Simeon .
Simeon 's march for power posed such a great threat to the Byzantine Empire that it looked for allies in the area . Leo Rhabduchus , the strategos of Dyrrhachium , found one such ally in Serbia , Peter Gojniković , who had been subject to Bulgaria since 897 . Peter had been busy extending his power westwards , and appears to have come into territorial conflict with Michael in the process of doing so . Constantine writes that Michael , " his jealousy aroused by this " , warned Symeon of the conspiracy . Symeon attacked Serbia and captured Peter , who died in prison . Most scholars prefer to date the war on Serbia to 917 , after 20 August , when Simeon had massacred much of the invading Byzantine army at its landing place at Anchialos . In 924 , Simeon conquered Serbia and , instead of appointing a vassal to govern on his behalf , placed it under his direct authority . In effect , Simeon became a neighbour of Michael and of Croatia , which was then under King Tomislav and had good relations with Byzantium . It seems probable that Michael remained loyal to Simeon until the latter 's death in 927 .
= = Church councils in Split , Croatia = =
The sources show Michael involved in important church affairs which were conducted on Croatian territory in the mid @-@ 920s . Two church councils were convened in Split ( Latin : Spalatum ) , in 925 and 928 , which officially established or confirmed the recognition of Split as the archiepiscopal see of all Dalmatia ( rather than just the Byzantine cities ) . Another major issue of concern was the language of liturgy : since the conversion of the Slavs by Cyril and Methodius in the previous century , the Slavic church was accustomed to use Slavonic rather than Latin for its church services .
The Historia Salonitana , whose composition may have begun in the late 13th century , cites a letter of Pope John X to Tomislav , " king ( rex ) of the Croats " , in which he refers to the first council in some detail . If the letter is authentic , it shows that the council was attended not only by the bishops of Croatian and Byzantine Dalmatia , but also by Tomislav , whose territory also included the Byzantine cities of Dalmatia , and by a number of Michael 's representatives . In this letter , John describes Michael as " the most excellent leader of the Zachlumi " ( excellentissimus dux Chulmorum ) . The sources have nothing to say about the nature of the relationship between Michael and Tomislav . Some historians have taken Michael 's participation at the church council as evidence for the idea that Michael had switched allegiance to Croatia . John V. A. Fine , however , rejects this line of reasoning , saying that the events represented an important ecclesiastical affair for all Dalmatia and stood under papal authority . Moreover , Michael appears to have retained a neutral position when Croatia and Bulgaria were at war in 926 and so it may be that Michael was on good terms with the rulers of both lands at the same time .
Michael apparently sacked Siponto ( Latin : Sipontum ) , which was a Byzantine town in Apulia on 10 July 926 . It remains unknown if he did this by Tomislav 's supreme command as suggested by some historians . According to Omrčanin , Tomislav sent the Croatian navy under Michael 's leadership to drive the Saracens from that part of southern Italy and free the city . Interesting , Constantine in his De administrando imperio makes no mention of Michael 's raid , nor does he mention Church councils in Split .
= = Later years = =
Constantine remembers Michael as a prince ( archon ) of the Zachlumi , but also uses such grand titles of the Byzantine court as anthypatos and patrician ( patrikios ) to describe his political rank and status . These titles have been interpreted as reflecting a more subordinate position after Simeon 's death in 927 , when Michael lost the Bulgarian support needed for any higher recognition . Michael does not appear in the sources for events after 925 , but historian Fine thinks that his reign lasted into the 940s . Časlav , who became ruler of Serbia after Symeon 's death , may have seized some of Michael 's territory while securing his conquest of Travunia .
= Polytolypa =
Polytolypa is a monotypic genus of fungus containing the single species Polytolypa hystricis . First classified in the Onygenaceae family , as of 2008 it is considered to be in the Ajellomycetaceae , although there is still uncertainty as to its phylogenetic relationships with other similar genera . This species is only known from a single specimen derived in the laboratory from a specimen of dung of the North American porcupine , Erethizon dorsatum , collected in Ontario , Canada . Polytolypa hystricis contains bioactive compounds that have antifungal activity .
= = Taxonomy , phylogeny , and naming = =
The genus was first described in 1993 by University of Toronto botanists J.A. Scott and D.W. Malloch , who grew the fungus in moist chamber cultures of porcupine dung collected in Stoneleigh , Ontario , Canada . The generic name Polytolypa is from the Greek word poly ( πολυ ) meaning " many " , and tolype ( τολυπη ) , meaning " skein of yarn " . The specific epithet hystricis comes from the Greek hystrix ( υστριξ ) , or " porcupine " .
The genus has been classified in the Onygenaceae , a fungal family characterized by species capable of digesting human hair in vitro , and with spores that are punctate ( with minute surface punctures ) when viewed with scanning electron microscopy . However , as Scott and colleagues demonstrated using traditional laboratory tests to determine keratinolytic activity , P. hystricus is not able to digest hair . There is still uncertainty as to its phylogenetic relationships with other similar genera . Polytolypa is thought to be evolutionarily most closely related to the genera Malbranchea and Spiromastix . The grouping of Polytolypa and Spiromastix represent a sister clade to the Ajellomyces clade , based on analysis of partial nuclear LSU sequence data . However , the phylogenetics of Polytolypa are still unclear and await further study . The 10th edition of the Dictionary of the Fungi ( 2008 ) considers the genus to be in the Ajellomycetaceae family , although uncertainty with this classification is indicated in the entry ; in contrast , the online mycological database MycoBank classifies the genus in the Onygenaceae .
= = Description = =
The ascus @-@ containing reproductive structures , or ascomata , are minute , spherical bodies , typically 200 – 400 μm in diameter . They start out white , but gradually become rusty brown in maturity . The ascomata , which may be clustered together in groups or scattered about , grow in a shallow layer of " hairs " ( actually fungal mycelia ) called a tomentum . The ascomata have " appendages " composed of numerous coiled , sometimes branched helices of hyphae that are coiled 3 – 15 times .
The ascospores produced by Polytolypa are ellipsoidal , yellow to yellow @-@ orange in color , with dimensions of 2 @.@ 5 – 5 by 3 – 4 μm . Viewed with a light microscope their surfaces appear to be smooth , but under scanning electron microscopy , they are revealed to be densely marked with punctures and small , hard , sharp projections . The structures that produce the ascospores are called asci . In Polytolypa they are numerous , spherical , and measure 9 – 10 by 12 – 13 μm . Each ascus contains eight ascospores , which are released when the ascus dissolves away at maturity . The anamorph ( asexual form of the fungus ) resembles the genus Chrysosporium .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Polytolypa hystricis is known only from the dung of the North American porcupine , Erethizon dorsatum . Porcupine dens accumulate thick layers of nutrient @-@ rich dung , hair and urine that are degraded by a succession of fungi . These fungi are disseminated by arthropods ( such as insects ) or by the porcupine themselves .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Chemical analysis has shown that Polytolypa hystricis contains a unique triterpenoid chemical named polytolypin , as well two compounds known previously as metabolites from Scleroderris Canker ( Gremmeniella abietina ) . Both polytolypin and one of the previously identified compounds have " moderate " antifungal activity against the species Ascobolus furfuraceous , while polytopin alone can inhibit the growth of Candida albicans .
= 2000 Italian Grand Prix =
The 2000 Italian Grand Prix ( formally the LXXI Gran Premio Campari d 'Italia ) was a Formula One motor race held on 10 September 2000 at the Autodromo Nazionale Monza near Monza , Lombardy , Italy . It was the fourteenth race of the 2000 Formula One season and the 71st Italian Grand Prix . The 53 @-@ lap race was won by Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher after starting from pole position . Mika Häkkinen finished second in a McLaren car with Ralf Schumacher third for the Williams team .
Michael Schumacher maintained his start line advantage and withstood Häkkinen 's attempts to pass him going into the first corner . Further around the lap , a collision involving four cars prompted the deployment of the safety car and a fire marshal Paolo Gislimberti was struck by a flying wheel . When the safety car pulled into the pit lane on lap eleven , Michael Schumacher began to immediately pull clear from Häkkinen and kept the lead until his pit stop on the 39th lap . When Häkkinen made his own pit stop three laps later , Michael Schumacher regained the lead which he held to clinch his sixth victory of the 2000 season ; Häkkinen finished almost four seconds behind .
As a consequence of the race , Schumacher reduced Häkkinen 's lead in the Drivers ' Championship to two points , with David Coulthard a further 17 points back . Rubens Barrichello who was caught up in the first lap accident was mathematically ruled out of clinching the title . In the Constructors ' Championship , McLaren 's eight point advantage going into the race was reduced to four , with three races of the season remaining . Gislimberti later died in hospital and his death caused safety measures in Formula One to be reviewed .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Grand Prix was contested by eleven teams , each of two drivers . The teams , also known as constructors were , McLaren , Ferrari , Jordan , Jaguar , Williams , Benetton , Prost , Sauber , Arrows , Minardi and BAR . Tyre supplier Bridgestone brought two different tyre types to the race : two dry compounds , the medium and the hard .
Going into the race , McLaren driver Mika Häkkinen led the Drivers ' Championship with 74 points , ahead of Michael Schumacher on 68 points and David Coulthard on 61 points . Rubens Barrichello was fourth with 49 points with Ralf Schumacher fifth on 20 points . In the Constructors ' Championship McLaren were leading with 125 points , Ferrari and Williams were second and third with 117 and 30 points , respectively , while Benetton with 18 points and Jordan with 13 points contended for fourth place . Ferrari and McLaren had so far dominated the championship winning the previous thirteen races . Benetton driver Giancarlo Fisichella had gained one second place podium finish , while Ralf Schumacher , Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen had achieved third place podium finishes .
At the previous race in Belgium , the gap between Häkkinen and Michael Schumacher had extended by four points . Häkkinen started from pole position and maintained the lead until he lost control of his car at Stavelot corner on the 13th lap . He later managed to lap faster than Michael Schumacher and passed the German while both drivers were lapping BAR driver Ricardo Zonta with four laps remaining and held it to win the race . The overtaking manoeuvre was hearlded by the worldwide press and many people involved in Formula One as " the best ever manoeuvre in grand prix racing " . Michael Schumacher remained confident about his title chances : " With only six points between Mika and I and four more races to go , I am still optimistic about our chances . One win or a retirement before the end of the season can change the whole picture either way . "
Over the month of July , the Autodromo Nazionale Monza race track 's main straight was straightened and the Variante Goodyear and Seconda Variante chicanes were reconfigured by the race organisers to become a series of narrower corners with the exit away from the entry of turn one . The run @-@ off areas around the two sections of the circuit were enlargened . Some of the drivers , however , were unhappy with the modifications , though , as there were fears of a multi @-@ car accident on the first lap . Coulthard claimed that the new corner would make braking more difficult and was concerned over the amount of penalties issued to other competitors . However , Michael Schumacher believed his and other teams would be less concerned with suspension damage . Jean Alesi who was the first driver to test the new circuit , said that it would be easier for drivers to pull off the track in the event of a technical issue .
Following the Belgian Grand Prix on 27 August , the teams conducted a four @-@ day testing session at the Monza circuit and concentrated on optimising their car set @-@ ups for low downforce . Jos Verstappen set the quickest times on the first day , ahead of Pedro Diniz . Coulthard was quickest on the second day . Fisichella suffered a high speed crash going into the Ascari chicane , bringing a brief halt to testing . He visited Rome to undergo a medical examination and was diagnosed with an inflamed tendon in his right ankle , but was cleared to race having been advised to take five days of rest . Jacques Villeneuve set the quickest times on the third day as rain shortened the team 's running . Minardi 's Gastón Mazzacane suffered a high speed accident at the Ascari chicane , forcing testing to be stopped . Ralf Schumacher was fastest on the fourth and final day of testing . Michael Schumacher 's car developed a malfunction and pulled off the race track , limiting Ferrari 's testing time as the car 's power unit was changed .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Four practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — two on Friday , and two on Saturday . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted an hour . The third and final practice sessions were held on Saturday morning and lasted 45 minutes . Barrichello set the first session 's fastest time with a lap of 1 : 25 @.@ 057 , three @-@ tenths of a second ahead of Jarno Trulli . Michael Schumacher was one @-@ tenth of a second off Trulli 's pace , while Coulthard set the fourth fastest time . The two Arrows drivers were fifth and sixth fastest ; Pedro de la Rosa ahead of Jos Verstappen . Frentzen , Fisichella , Villeneuve and Alexander Wurz rounded out the top ten fastest drivers of the session . In the second practice session , Barrichello was again fastest despite not improving his time from the first session ; Michael Schumacher finished with the second fastest time . Trulli set the third fastest time , with the two McLaren drivers fourth and fifth , Häkkinen ahead of Coulthard . Eddie Irvine recorded the sixth quickest lap. de la Rosa , Diniz , Verstappen and Mika Salo completed the top ten drivers . Alesi 's Prost was afflicted by a hydraulic leak ; this restricted him to three timed laps , and he was slowest overall . Wurz suffered a similar problem and set the 18th fastest time . Mazzacane spun off and did not take any further part in the session .
The Saturday practice sessions were again held in dry and sunny conditions . Michael Schumacher set the fastest time of the third session , a 1 : 24 @.@ 262 . The Williams drivers were running quickly — Jenson Button in second and Ralf Schumacher fifth — they were separated by Coulthard and Barrichello in third and fourth . Fisichella recorded the sixth fastest lap time . Villeneuve , Häkkinen , Salo and Johnny Herbert rounded out the top ten . In the final practice session , Michael Schumacher again set the fastest time , a 1 : 23 @.@ 904 ; Barrichello set the third fastest time . They were separated by Häkkinen with teammate Coulthard clinching the fourth fastest time . The Williams drivers continued to run quickly with Ralf Schumacher fifth , ahead of Button in sixth . Fisichella , Zonta , Villeneuve and Irvine ( who suffered a rear suspension failure but regained control of his car ) completed the top ten ahead of qualifying . Mazzacane again suffered problems with his car when his engine ran out of air pressure and was forced to stop on the track while Wurz did not record any laps because of a fuel pick @-@ up issue .
Saturday 's afternoon qualifying session lasted for one hour . Each driver was limited to twelve laps , with the grid order decided by the drivers ' fastest laps . During this session , the 107 % rule was in effect , which necessitated each driver set a time within 107 % of the quickest lap to qualify for the race . The session was held in dry conditions ; the air temperature was 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) and the track temperature was 34 ° C ( 93 ° F ) . Michael Schumacher achieved his sixth pole position of the season , his second at Monza , with a time of 1 : 23 @.@ 770 . Although he was happy with his car and tyres , he said that he did not make the best of session because of making a mistake at the first chicane during his first run . Michael Schumacher was joined on the front row by Barrichello who recorded a lap time 0 @.@ 027 seconds slower and was happy to start alongside his teammate . Häkkinen qualified third , though he believed he could have set a faster time as he struggled with the handling on his car and his McLaren misfired on his final two timed laps . Villeneuve qualified fourth , nearly half a second behind Michael Schumacher , and stated that he was happy with his performance . Häkkinen 's teammate Coulthard qualified fifth and was disappointed with his starting position because he encountered traffic during the session and was blocked by Frentzen . Trulli and Frentzen set the sixth and eighth fastest times respectively for Jordan ; Trulli reported no problems while Frentzen was impeded by de la Rosa . Ralf Schumacher recorded the seventh quickest time and was disappointed in his performance . De la Rosa completed the top ten fastest qualifiers . His teammate Verstappen qualified eleventh having been forced to use two of his team 's cars when they developed hydraulic and engine problems . Button qualified twelfth and said he overheated his tyres after running insufficient amounts of downforce . Wurz , who qualified in 13th , used the session to familiarise himself with Benetton 's spare car . He was ahead of Irvine in the faster of the two Jaguar 's , who set a best time that was one @-@ tenth of a second faster than his own teammate Johnny Herbert in 18th ; both were disadvantaged at the lack of straightline speed . Salo was 15th quickest for the Sauber team , ahead of his own teammate Diniz whose car handled badly under braking . The pair were marginally quicker than Zonta who encountered gear selection problems in his race car , and switched to his team 's spare monocoque . The grid was completed by Alesi and Nick Heidfeld in the Prost 's who qualified in front of the Minardi 's of Marc Gené and Gastón Mazzacane .
= = = Race = = =
The drivers took to the track at 09 : 30 CEST ( UTC + 1 ) for a 30 @-@ minute warm @-@ up session . It took place in dry weather conditions . Zonta set the fastest time of the session , a 1 : 26 @.@ 448 , six hundredths of a second faster than Häkkinen , in second place . Michael Schumacher had the third fastest time , ahead of Coulthard in fourth and Verstappen in fifth , with Salo rounding out the top six .
The race started at 14 : 00 local time . The conditions for the race were dry with the air temperature 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) and the track temperature 34 and 37 ° C ( 93 and 99 ° F ) . Heidfeld 's car was being worked on by mechanics who managed to get to the side of the track before the formation lap begun to avoid incurring a penalty . Michael Schumacher maintained his lead going into the first corner withstanding Häkkinen 's attempts to pass . Barrichello dropped to third position . Heading into the first corner , Salo and Irvine made contact , with the Finn suffering a puncture and the Jaguar driver retired from the race . Going into the chicane , Frentzen collided with Barrichello and collected Trulli and Coulthard . Trulli 's car lost its left rear tyre which struck fire marshal Paolo Gislimberti . Behind them , de la Rosa collided with Herbert and was sent airborne . The accidents prompted the deployment of the safety car at the end of the first lap for marshals to clear up strands of carbon fibre on the circuit and the cars in the gravel trap . Both Sauber drivers , Herbert and Zonta all made pit stops for repairs . Gislimberti suffered from head and chest injuries and was given a heart massage before being taken to Monza Hospital . Salo became the fifth driver to pit on lap eight and his mechanics fitted a new engine cover and sidepods to repair handling problems . During the end of the safety car period , Button swerved to avoid teammate Ralf Schumacher and collided with the barriers on the back straight , sustaining damage to his car . He later went off at the Parabolica corner and became the race 's seventh retirement on lap eleven .
When the race restarted on lap twelve , Michael Schumacher led , while Häkkinen and Villeneuve were running second and third . Behind them were Ralf Schumacher , Fisichella , Wurz , Gene , Heidfeld , Zonta , Mazzacane , Diniz , Salo and Alesi . Michael Schumacher began to immediately pull away from Häkkinen as he set consecutive fastest laps . Further down the field , Wurz overtook Diniz and Mazzacane for tenth position . By the start of lap 13 , Michael Schumacher led Häkkinen by 2 @.@ 1 seconds . Further back , Zonta passed Heidfeld to take ninth . On lap 14 , Zonta moved up into seventh position after passing Gené and Wurz . Villeneuve became the third retirement of the race when he pulled over to the side of the track with gearbox problems on the same lap . Meanwhile , Verstappen overtook Fisichella to take fourth position . Heidfeld retired after his engine failed and spun off at Variante della Roggia chicane on lap 15 . One lap later , Ralf Schumacher lost two positions after being passed by Verstappen and Zonta . Salo passed Mazzacane to claim ninth position on lap 17 . At the start of the 19th lap , Zonta tried to pass Verstappen heading into the Variante Goodyear chicane , but Verstappen moved onto an early defensive line to prevent Zonta from moving ahead . Zonta attempted to overtake Verstappen into the Variante della Rogia chicane to take third place four laps later , but was unable to complete it as he ran wide . He managed to get ahead after exiting the chicane on the same lap .
Michael Schumacher lapped consistently in the 1 : 26 range , setting the new fastest lap of the race on lap 22 , a 1 : 26 @.@ 428 , to extend his lead over Häkkinen to 5 @.@ 4 seconds , who in turn was 9 @.@ 9 seconds in front of Zonta . Verstappen in fourth was a further 2 @.@ 9 seconds behind , but was drawing ahead of Ralf Schumacher in fifth . On lap 23 , Zonta became the first front runner to make a scheduled pit stop and emerged in eleventh position . Salo continued to move up the field when he passed Wurz for sixth on lap 25 . Three laps later , Zonta moved into ninth position after he overtook Mazzacane and Diniz . Salo made a pit stop for the second time on lap 29 and emerged in tenth place . Verstappen took his pit stop three laps later and came out in seventh position . Zonta made his third and final pit stop of the race on lap 36 and dropped to eighth position . Michael Schumacher took his pit stop on lap 39 and rejoined 13 @.@ 6 seconds behind Häkkinen , who now led the race . Three laps later , Häkkinen made a pit stop and rejoined behind Michael Schumacher with a deficit on eleven seconds . Fisichella was the final driver to make a scheduled stop on lap 44 . Fisichella 's pit stop was problematic : he stalled when he encountered a problem with his clutch system and his mechanics push @-@ started his Benetton and he rejoined in eleventh .
At the completition of lap 45 , with the scheduled pit stops completed , the race order was Michael Schumacher , Häkkinen , Ralf Schumacher , Verstappen , Wurz , Zonta , Salo , Diniz , Gené , Mazzacane , Fisichella and Alesi . Zonta went straight down the escape road near the Variante Goodyear chicane but retained sixth position . Häkkinen was able to close the gap to Michael Schumacher on lap 50 to five seconds , but it appeared that the German would be unchallenged . Michael Schumacher crossed the finish line on lap 53 to clinch his sixth victory of the season in a time of 1 ' 27 : 31 @.@ 368 , at an average speed of 130 @.@ 260 miles per hour ( 209 @.@ 633 km / h ) . Häkkinen finished in second position 3 @.@ 8 seconds behind , ahead of Ralf Schumacher in third , Verstappen in fourth , Wurz in fifth and Zonta rounding out the points scoring positions in sixth . Salo , Diniz , Gené , Mazzacane and Fisichella completed the next five positions and were one lap behind the winner , with Alesi the last of the classified finishers .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and in the subsequent press conference . Michael Schumacher broke into tears when asked if matching Ayrton Senna 's number of victories meant a lot to him . He later regained his composure and spoke about how important it was to maintain the life of the engine at the circuit . Michael Schumacher revealed that the cause of his emotion was of him thinking about Senna 's death at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix and said that he was surprised at how the media reacted to the moment which said that Schumacher " was human after all " . Häkkinen revealed that his team made modifications to his car at his pit stop which contributed to him setting the fastest lap of the race . He also admitted that he was unable to catch Michael Schumacher due to the presence of the two Minardis which cost him time . Ralf Schumacher said he was not worried from being challenged by Verstappen and Zonta during the event because of the Williams ' quick pace . He also was confident that Williams had confirmed itself as the third strongest team in Formula One .
Barrichello placed blame upon Frentzen for starting the lap one accident at the Variante della Roggia corner . He demanded that the Jordan driver be banned for ten races . He also added that his helmet was damaged from his collision with de la Rosa . Frentzen reacted by suggesting that Barrichello braked earlier which forced him to make contact with teammate Trulli . FIA Race Director Charlie Whiting defended his decision not to stop the race saying that the safety car was deployed as all cars involved were in the run @-@ off areas and that he believed stopping the race would be dangerous . However , he admitted that he was not aware about Gislimberti 's condition when making the decision . Jordan team principal Eddie Jordan believed that Whiting had made the right decision and praised the safety of the modern Formula One car for protecting drivers .
Bernie Ecclestone , the owner of Formula One 's commercial rights , called for the removal of chicanes from racing circuits labelling them " silly and unnecessary " . FIA president Max Mosley subsequently announced that safety measures would be reviewed and stated a review of the Monza track would take place . Mosley believed that no driver was responsible for causing the accident but stressed to competitors that it was their responsibility for being aware when bunched up at the start of a Grand Prix . Former driver Jacques Laffite advocated an electronic warning system for marshals and believed that a review of chicanes should have taken place .
Gislimberti was later pronounced dead at Monza Hospital . His autopsy was released two days later and determined that the cause of death was head trauma . On 15 September , he was given a funeral at the San Ulderico church , Lavis and attended by several drivers , friends and colleagues . Hours after the race , five cars involved in the accident were impounded by Italian authorities . Race stewards concluded the incident was a " racing accident " with no further action being taken . Magistrate Salvatore Bellomo opened a formal investigation into the crash and interviewed drivers . The investigating body examined all five cars which were released back to the teams on 12 September . The investigation was closed in June 2001 following a technical examination which concluded that Gislimberti was killed instantly . As a result of Gislimberti 's death , the strength of the wheel tethers were doubled to stop flying tyres being a danger to the drivers , safety officials and fans . The chassis would be strengthened and enhanced crash resistance would be tested .
As a consequence of the race , Michael Schumacher reduced Häkkinen 's advantage in the Drivers ' Championship was reduced to be two points behind . Coulthard remained in third on 61 points . Barrichello 's retirement at the Grand Prix ruled out any chance of him claiming the title and Ralf Schumacher retained fifth place on 24 points . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari 's victory allowed them to reduce McLaren 's lead to be four points behind . Williams remained in third place on 34 points . Benetton increased the gap over Jordan in fifth place to a seven @-@ point advantage , with three races of the season remaining .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Bold text indicates who still has a theoretical chance of becoming World Champion .
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= USS Indiana ( BB @-@ 1 ) =
USS Indiana ( BB @-@ 1 ) was the lead ship of her class and the first battleship in the United States Navy comparable to foreign battleships of the time . Authorized in 1890 and commissioned five years later , she was a small battleship , though with heavy armor and ordnance . The ship also pioneered the use of an intermediate battery . She was designed for coastal defense and as a result her decks were not safe from high waves on the open ocean .
Indiana served in the Spanish – American War ( 1898 ) as part of the North Atlantic Squadron . She took part in both the blockade of Santiago de Cuba and the battle of Santiago de Cuba , which occurred when the Spanish fleet attempted to break through the blockade . Although unable to join the chase of the escaping Spanish cruisers , she was partly responsible for the destruction of the Spanish destroyers Plutón and Furor . After the war she quickly became obsolete — despite several modernizations — and spent most of her time in commission as a training ship or in the reserve fleet , with her last commission during World War I as a training ship for gun crews . She was decommissioned for the third and final time in January 1919 and was shortly after reclassified Coast Battleship Number 1 so that the name Indiana could be reused . She was sunk in shallow water as a target in aerial bombing tests in 1920 and her hull was sold for scrap in 1924 .
= = Design and construction = =
Indiana was constructed from a modified version of a design drawn up by a US navy policy board in 1889 for a short @-@ range battleship . The original design was part of an ambitious naval construction plan to build 33 battleships and 167 smaller ships . The United States Congress saw the plan as an attempt to end the U.S. policy of isolationism and did not approve it , but a year later the United States House of Representatives approved funding for three coast defense battleships , which would become Indiana and her sister ships Massachusetts and Oregon . The " coast defense " designation was reflected in Indiana 's moderate endurance , relatively small displacement and low freeboard , or distance from the deck to the water , which limited seagoing capability . She was however heavily armed and armored ; Conway 's All The World 's Fighting Ships describes her design as " attempting too much on a very limited displacement . "
Construction of the ships was authorized on 30 June 1890 and the contract for Indiana — not including guns and armor — was awarded to William Cramp & Sons in Philadelphia , who offered to build it for $ 3 @,@ 020 @,@ 000 . The total cost of the ship was almost twice as high , approximately $ 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . The contract specified the ship had to be built in three years , but slow delivery of armor plates caused a two @-@ year delay . Indiana 's keel was laid down on 7 May 1891 and she was launched on 28 February 1893 , attended by around 10 @,@ 000 people , including President Benjamin Harrison , several members of his cabinet and the two senators from Indiana . During her fitting @-@ out in early March 1894 , the ship undertook a preliminary sea trial to test her speed and machinery . At this point her side armor , guns , turrets and conning tower had not yet been fitted , and her official trials would not take place until October 1895 due to the delays in armor deliveries .
= = Service history = =
= = = Early career = = =
Indiana was commissioned on 20 November 1895 under the command of Captain Robley D. Evans . After further trials , the ship joined the North Atlantic Squadron under the command of Rear Admiral Francis M. Bunce , which conducted training exercises along the East Coast of the United States . In late 1896 , both main turrets broke loose from their clamps in heavy seas . Because the turrets were not centrally balanced , they swung from side to side with the motion of the ship , until they were secured with heavy ropes . Heavier clamps were installed , but in February 1896 , while conducting fleet maneuvers with the North Atlantic squadron , the Indiana encountered more bad weather and started rolling heavily . Her new captain , Henry Clay Taylor , promptly ordered her back to port for fear the clamps would break again . This convinced the navy that bilge keels — omitted during construction because with them , the ship could not fit in most American dry docks — were necessary to reduce the rolling , and they were subsequently installed on all three ships of the Indiana @-@ class .
= = = Spanish – American War = = =
At the outbreak of the Spanish – American War in April 1898 , Indiana was at Key West with the rest of the North Atlantic Squadron , at the time commanded by Rear Admiral William T. Sampson . His squadron was ordered to the Spanish port of San Juan in an attempt to intercept and destroy Admiral Cervera 's Spanish squadron , which was en route to the Caribbean from Spain . The harbor was empty , but Indiana and the rest of the squadron bombarded it for two hours on 12 May 1898 before realizing their mistake . The squadron returned to Key West , where news arrived three weeks later that Commodore Schley 's Flying Squadron had found Cervera and was now blockading him in the port of Santiago de Cuba . Sampson reinforced Schley on 1 June and assumed overall command .
In an attempt to break the stalemate , it was decided to attack Santiago from land . A transport convoy was assembled in Key West and Indiana was sent back to lead it . The expeditionary force , under the command of Major General William Rufus Shafter , landed east of the city and attacked it on 1 July . Cervera saw that his situation was desperate and attempted to break through the blockade on 3 July 1898 , resulting in the battle of Santiago de Cuba . The cruisers New Orleans and Newark and battleship Massachusetts had left the day before to load coal in Guantanamo Bay . Admiral Sampson 's flagship , the cruiser New York , had also sailed east earlier that morning for a meeting with General Shafter , leaving Commodore Schley in command . This left the blockade weakened and unbalanced on the day of the battle , as three modern battleships ( Indiana , Oregon and Iowa ) and the armed yacht Gloucester guarded the east , while the west was only defended by the second @-@ class battleship Texas , cruiser Brooklyn and armed yacht Vixen .
Occupying the extreme eastern position of the blockade , Indiana fired at the cruisers Infanta María Teresa and Almirante Oquendo as they left the harbor , but , due to engine problems , was unable to keep up with the Spanish cruisers as they fled to the west . When the Spanish destroyers Plutón and Furor emerged , Indiana was near the harbor entrance and , together with Iowa , she supported the armed yacht Gloucester in the destruction of the lightly armored enemy ships . She was then ordered to keep up the blockade of the harbor in case more Spanish ships came out and so played no role in the chase and sinking of the two remaining Spanish cruisers , Vizcaya and Cristóbal Colón .
= = = Post Spanish – American War = = =
After the war , Indiana returned to training exercises with the North Atlantic Squadron . In May 1900 , she and Massachusetts were placed in reserve as the navy had an acute officer shortage and needed to put the new Kearsarge @-@ class and Illinois @-@ class battleships into commission . The battleships were reactivated the following month as an experiment in how quickly this could be achieved , but Indiana was placed in the reserve fleet again that winter . In March 1901 , it was decided to use her that summer for a midshipman practice cruise , and this would be her regular summer job for the next few years , while the rest of the time she would serve as a training ship . She was decommissioned on 29 December 1903 to be overhauled and modernized . The obsolete battleship received several upgrades : new Babcock & Wilcox boilers , counterweights to balance her main turrets and electric traversing mechanisms for her turrets . She was recommissioned on 9 January 1906 and manned by the former crew of her sister ship Massachusetts , including Captain Edward D. Taussig , commanding . Massachusetts had been decommissioned the day before to receive similar modernization .
During her second commission , Indiana spent most of her time laid up in the reserve fleet , occasionally participating in practice cruises . In January 1907 she helped provide relief in the aftermath of the 1907 Kingston earthquake . In 1908 , the 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) / 40 caliber guns and most of the lighter guns were removed to compensate for the counterweights added to the main battery turrets and because the ammunition supply for the guns was considered problematic . A year later , twelve 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 50 caliber single @-@ purpose guns were added midships and in the fighting tops . At the same time a cage mast was added . By 1913 it was speculated that the ship might soon be used for target practice , but instead the ship was decommissioned on 23 May 1914 . After the United States entered World War I , Indiana was commissioned for the third time and served as a training ship for gun crews near Tompkinsville , Staten Island and in the York River , and placed under the command of George Landenberger .
On 31 January 1919 she was decommissioned for the final time , and two months later she was renamed Coast Battleship Number 1 so that the name Indiana could be assigned to the newly authorized — but never completed — battleship Indiana ( BB @-@ 50 ) . The old battleship was brought to shallow waters in Chesapeake Bay near the wreck of the battleship San Marcos ( ex @-@ Texas ) . Here she was subjected to aerial bombing tests conducted by the navy . She was hit with dummy bombs from aircraft and explosive charges were set off at the positions where the bombs hit . The tests were a response to claims from Billy Mitchell — at the time assistant to the Chief of Air Service — who stated to Congress that the Air Service could sink any battleship . The conclusions drawn by the navy from the experiments conducted on Indiana were very different , as Captain William D. Leahy stated in his report : " The entire experiment pointed to the improbability of a modern battleship being either destroyed or completely put out of action by aerial bombs . " The subject remained a matter of dispute between Mitchell and the Navy and several more bombing tests were conducted with other decommissioned battleships , culminating in the sinking of SMS Ostfriesland . Indiana sank during the test and settled in the shallow water , where she remained until her wreck was sold for scrap on 19 March 1924 .
= The Host ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) =
" The Host " is the 23rd episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation and the 98th episode overall . It was originally released on May 11 , 1991 , in broadcast syndication . Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Federation starship Enterprise . It was the first episode to be directed by Marvin V. Rush , the director of photography , and was written by Michel Horvat .
In this episode , Doctor Beverly Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) falls in love with Odan ( Franc Luz ) , a Trill mediator . But after he is mortally injured , she discovers that " Odan " is actually a symbiotic creature that lives inside a humanoid host body . Commander William Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) volunteers to act as a temporary host , complicating the relationship between Crusher and Odan . The mediation proves successful , but after Odan is transferred to a new , female Trill host ( Nicole Orth @-@ Pallavicini ) , Crusher chooses not to continue the relationship .
At the time of filming , McFadden was seven months pregnant , resulting in filming techniques used to conceal her abdomen . A two part makeup appliance was designed for the Trill host , as well as the symbiont itself which was based on a caterpillar and an octopus . The Trill would subsequently return in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , although the makeup was redesigned . " The Host " received a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 3 percent during the first week of release in syndication . The ending of the episode has received a mixed reception , with Zack Handlen for the A.V. Club saying that the reaction by Crusher made " perfect sense " , while others suggested that the statement regarding Crusher 's views on homosexuality should have been confined as a character trait rather than a general statement on the opinions of the species .
= = Plot = =
Odan ( Franc Luz ) , a mediator , boards the Enterprise to negotiate a peace treaty between two hostile races . Doctor Beverly Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) is charmed by the man , and the two share a love affair during the trip . Odan refuses to use the transporter and requests that a shuttle and pilot be provided for him ; Commander William Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) honors this request . During the mission , the shuttle is attacked by a dissident faction and Odan is mortally injured . While trying to save the alien in sickbay , Dr. Crusher comes to learn that Odan is a Trill , a species which symbiotically lives within its host 's body . It is a further revealed by Lt. Commander Data ( Brent Spiner ) that the transporter would have harmed the symbiotic lifeform . Following the death of Odan 's host body , Commander Riker volunteers to allow Odan use him as a host to conduct the necessary negotiations until a new host arrives .
Odan 's presence becomes dominating over Riker , and Dr. Crusher finds herself initially confused when Odan continues to try to engage with her to continue their relationship . Dr. Crusher is puzzled and full of emotion as she later confides to Counselor Deanna Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) and wonders about the true depth of her feelings for Odan . With some effort , Odan in Riker 's body , manages to convince the delegates from the warring planets to work with him . However , Riker 's body begins to deteriorate due to the incompatibility of different biologies . The ship transporting the new host has encountered engine malfunctions . Dr. Crusher does everything she can to extend Riker 's and Odan 's chances while the Enterprise races to meet the Trill ship , and has a deeply emotional moment with Captain Picard .
The Enterprise successfully rendezvous in time to bring aboard the new host , a female ( Nicole Orth @-@ Pallavicini ) , much to Dr. Crusher 's surprise . She helps with the other Trill to transplant Odan into the new host , and both Riker and Odan fully recover . When Odan attempts to continue their relationship , Dr. Crusher is uncomfortable , knowing both that the Trill appear to have no preferences on gender orientation , and that Odan will continue to live on in any number of hosts ' bodies . Odan admits he still loves Dr. Crusher , but understands her confusion and discomfort , and promises to never forget her or their short time together . And Dr. Crusher replies that she loves Odan too ; in Odan 's new , female host body , Odan then kisses the inner wrist of her hand .
= = Production = =
= = = Direction and writing = = =
" The Host " was written by Michael Horvat and directed by Marvin V. Rush . Rush had been the director of photography for the series since the start of the third season and was the first of three members of the series ' staff to direct an episode . The filming of Gates McFadden 's scenes was complicated by the fact that she was seven months pregnant at the time , requiring different camera angles than would normally be used . Jonathan Frakes , who played Commander Riker , explained later that " they would not address the fact that the actress was pregnant " , requiring the cast and crew to hide McFadden 's stomach from the camera with furniture or by using camera angles which only showed her from her breasts upwards . Rush was not told which episode he was going to direct beforehand , other than that it was going to be a ship @-@ based episode . He later directed two episodes of Star Trek : Voyager and two of Star Trek : Enterprise .
Story editor Brannon Braga was pleased with the episode , calling it " one of the most outstanding stories we 've ever done " as it was originally suggested as a " squirmy worm " story , which was " unique " as it went on to become " the most touching love story " . Ronald D. Moore stated that it had become a Star Trek story by focusing the episode on the relationship rather than on the negotiations . Rush suggested that some viewers were disappointed with the ending , due to Crusher not accepting her lover in his new female body . He said that it was a valid point of view , and that McFadden 's lines in the final scene made it clear that it put forward a hope that homosexuality may be better accepted in the future . The subject matter was revisited in the Star Trek : Deep Space Nine episode " Rejoined " , which featured one of the earliest televised lesbian kisses .
The character of Odan would return in non @-@ canon Star Trek publications , including in the short story " First Steps " within The Lives of Dax anthology . It also made two appearances in licensed comics , first in DC Comics Star Trek : The Next Generation Annual issue four and then in Divided we Fall , a crossover between The Next Generation and Deep Space Nine published under the WildStorm imprint .
= = = Makeup and set design = = =
The makeup for the Trill host featured a separate nose and forehead pieces , as the intention was to retain the general look of a human . Air bladders were placed inside a fake abdomen to create the shot in which the symbiont appeared to move under the host 's skin . A second fake abdomen was created for the surgery scene in which the symbiont is moved into Riker , which worked by having a crew member lie under the surgery table , pulling the symbiont into the opening using a concealed string . The design of the symbiont was based on a caterpillar with an octopus for a head , which featured a further air bladder in order to give the appearance that it was pulsating and painted in fluorescent paint to glow when a black light was shone on it during that scene .
The Trill later recurred in Deep Space Nine , with multiple hosts of the Dax symbiont appearing on screen . The same makeup was initially used as in their originally appearance in The Next Generation , however after two days of filming with Terry Farrell in the prosthetics , she was sent to back to the makeup department to change it . The shuttle set was the same one which had been used previously , with parts created for different episodes since work began in the first season episode " Coming of Age " . In " The Host " , it was named Hawking for the theoretical physicist Professor Stephen Hawking . He would later guest star in the first part of the episode " Descent " at his request .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" The Host " aired in broadcast syndication during the week commencing May 12 , 1991 . It received Nielsen ratings of 11 @.@ 3 , reflecting the percentage of all households watching the episode during its timeslot . This placed it as the highest viewed syndicated show of the week , despite the ratings being near the average for the season .
James van Hise , in his book The Unauthorized Trek : The Complete Next Generation , called the introduction of the Trill an " element crucial " to Deep Space Nine , but was critical of the decision to have Crusher not be interested in Odan once he had transferred to his new female host . This " apparent homophobia " was said to have resulted in the episode being " widely criticized " by David Greven in his book Gender and Sexuality in Star Trek . Keith DeCandido , in his article for Tor.com , said it was difficult to give a fair review of the episode due to the Trill being explored in greater depth in Deep Space Nine , and the subsequent alterations made for that series compared to " The Host " . He said more generally of the episode that the romance felt rushed , and he would have liked to see the exploration of Riker 's feelings about his body being used to have sex with a friend . A further criticism was levelled at the ending , as Crusher stated that it was humans who have a problem with homosexuality rather than limiting it to be her own problem . He gave it a rating of four out of ten .
Nick Keppler , writing for Nerve.com , listed " The Host " as one of the " gayest " episodes of the franchise and described the twist at the end of the episode with the gender of Odan 's new host as " sapphic " . He criticised the reaction of Crusher at the end of the episode , saying that she would " get into bed with shifty aliens with weird ridged foreheads but for some reason draws the line at space ladies " . Zack Handlen gave the episode a rating of B + in his review for The A.V. Club , saying that the idea at the core of the episode was better than the execution . But he said that the ending made " perfect sense " as he said that love wasn 't solely spirtual but that " we fall in love with features , with shapes , with bodies , as well as with minds . " He added that Odan 's reaction was also right , as " everyone has a line , and if you love them , you won 't ask them to cross it . "
The first home media release of " The Host " was on VHS cassette , appearing on July 23 , 1996 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season four DVD box set , released in the United States on September 3 , 2002 . The fourth season was subsequently released on blu @-@ ray in the UK on July 29 , 2013 , and July 30 in the United States .
= Mercyful Fate =
Mercyful Fate is a Danish heavy metal band from Copenhagen , formed in 1981 by vocalist King Diamond and guitarist Hank Shermann . Influenced by progressive rock and hard rock , with lyrics dealing with Satan and the occult , Mercyful Fate were part of the first wave of black metal in the early to mid @-@ 1980s . Many of the bands from this movement went on to influence later black metal musicians in the 1990s , particularly in Norway . Since the band 's inception in 1981 , Mercyful Fate have released seven studio albums , two extended plays and four compilations .
After several line @-@ up changes and self @-@ made demos , Mercyful Fate released their self @-@ titled EP in 1982 , with the line @-@ up of King Diamond ( vocals ) , Hank Shermann ( guitar ) , Michael Denner ( guitar ) , Timi Hansen ( bass ) and Kim Ruzz ( drums ) . With this line @-@ up the group recorded their first two studio albums ( 1983 's Melissa and 1984 's Don 't Break the Oath ) , until 1985 when the band broke up due to musical differences . In 1993 , four out of the five members of Mercyful Fate reunited to record the album In the Shadows , which was released the same year . During the 1990s , the band released four more studio albums and went through several line @-@ up changes . Since 1999 , Mercyful Fate have been on hiatus , but have reunited on occasion during the 2000s .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and first releases ( 1981 – 1985 ) = = =
Mercyful Fate was originally formed in Copenhagen , Denmark , in 1981 , following the dissolution of the band Brats . Brats had been a punk / metal band , featuring future Mercyful Fate members , vocalist King Diamond , and guitarists Hank Shermann and Michael Denner . After two studio albums and several line @-@ up changes ( including the addition of Diamond and the departure of Denner ) , Diamond and Shermann began writing new material that was much heavier than any of Brats ' previous work . The band 's record label CBS was not pleased with the material , and demanded they stop singing in English and become more commercial . As a result , Diamond and Shermann quit the group and went on to form Mercyful Fate . After several line @-@ up changes and semi @-@ professional demo tapes , Mercyful Fate released their self @-@ titled EP in 1982 . This line @-@ up , consisting of King Diamond , Hank Shermann , bassist Timi Hansen , drummer Kim Ruzz and guitarist Michael Denner , would go on to record the group 's first two studio albums .
In July , 1983 , Mercyful Fate recorded their debut album at Easy Sound Recording , in Copenhagen , Denmark . Entitled Melissa , the album was produced by Henrik Lund and released on October 30 , 1983 on Roadrunner Records . After a number of concerts around Denmark , Mercyful Fate entered the studio in May 1984 to record their second studio album Don 't Break the Oath , which was released on September 7 , 1984 . During the album 's supporting tour , the band played the US for two months and made festival appearances in Germany . Despite winning a cult following around the world , Mercyful Fate broke up in April , 1985 , due to musical differences . Guitarist Hank Shermann wanted the band to move to a more commercial sound , to which King Diamond refused and announced his departure from Mercyful Fate , which led to the band breaking @-@ up .
= = = After disbanding ( 1985 – 1992 ) = = =
After Mercyful Fate broke up in 1985 , King Diamond , along with Michael Denner and Timi Hansen , formed the eponymous King Diamond band . Both Denner and Hansen stayed with the group until 1987 's Abigail , after which both left King Diamond . They were replaced by Mike Moon and Hal Patino , respectively , and King Diamond continued releasing albums even after Mercyful Fate had reformed . After leaving King Diamond , Michael Denner opened up a recordshop in Copenhagen , until 1988 , when he formed the band Lavina ( which would later become Zoser Mez ) , along with former bandmate Hank Shermann . Hank Shermann had formed the hard rock band Fate in 1985 , after having left Mercyful Fate . With Fate , Shermann released two albums : 1985 's Fate and 1986 's A Matter of Attitude . After leaving the band , Shermann joined @-@ up with Michael Denner to form Lavina .
During the time Mercyful Fate were disbanded , Roadrunner Records released three Mercyful Fate compilation albums . The Beginning was released on June 24 , 1987 , and featured material from the band 's 1982 self @-@ titled EP , as well as rare live and studio recordings . On May 12 , 1992 , Return of the Vampire was released , which was another compilation of rare studio recordings . On October 6 , 1992 , Roadrunner released A Dangerous Meeting ; a split @-@ release featuring material from both Mercyful Fate and King Diamond .
= = = Reunion ( 1992 – 1999 ) = = =
In 1993 , King Diamond , Hank Shermann , Michael Denner and Timi Hansen reunited to reform Mercyful Fate ( drummer Kim Ruzz was replaced by Morten Nielsen ) . The result was the album In the Shadows , which was released on June 22 , 1993 , through Metal Blade Records . The album also featured a guest appearance by Metallica drummer Lars Ulrich ( a fellow Dane ) , on the track " Return of the Vampire " . For the album 's supporting tour , Morten Nielsen was replaced by King Diamond drummer Snowy Shaw , due to a knee injury Nielsen had sustained . Bassist Timi Hansen was also replaced by Sharlee D 'Angelo , as Hansen did not want to take part in touring . On June 27 , 1994 , the band released The Bell Witch , an EP of live tracks , as well as studio recordings from In the Shadows .
On September 25 , 1994 , Mercyful Fate released the album Time , which was recorded and mixed at the Dallas Sound Lab during May – August 1994 . After the album 's release drummer Snowy Shaw was replaced by Bjarne T. Holm for the Time Tour . Holm had originally been asked to join Mercyful Fate back in 1981 , but had declined due to prior commitments . The band spent January through February 1996 recording and mixing the album Into the Unknown , which was released on August 20 , 1996 . After the album 's release , guitarist Michael Denner left the band and was replaced by Mike Wead . In October 1997 , Mercyful Fate began recording the album Dead Again at the Nomad Recording Studio in Carrollton , Texas . Dead Again was released on June 9 , 1998 . In February 1999 , Mercyful Fate began recording the album 9 , which was released on May 15 , 1999 .
= = = Recent activity ( 1999 – present ) = = =
After the supporting tour for 9 , Mercyful Fate was put on hiatus . King Diamond focused on his eponymous band , along with guitarist Mike Wead , who joined the group during the European House of God tour . Hank Shermann and Bjarne T. Holm reunited with Michael Denner to form Force of Evil , while Sharlee D 'Angelo joined the band Arch Enemy . When asked about the current state of the band in 2008 , Diamond stated that Mercyful Fate is currently " hibernating " , and that " it 's definitely not finished , at least in my book . " In August 2008 , King Diamond was asked by Metallica drummer Lars Ulrich if Mercyful Fate would be willing to participate in Activision 's Guitar Hero : Metallica video game . Ulrich requested the original masters for two of the band 's songs , so they could be used in the game . Unable to locate them , Diamond suggested to Activision the band re @-@ record the songs , and as a result , King Diamond , Hank Shermann , Michael Denner , Timi Hansen and Bjarne T. Holm reunited to re @-@ record the songs " Evil " and " Curse of the Pharaohs " . King Diamond was also made into a playable character in the game .
On December 7 , 2011 , King Diamond , Hank Shermann , Michael Denner and Timi Hansen reunited onstage at Metallica 's 30th Anniversary concert , at the Fillmore in San Francisco , California , where they , alongside Metallica , performed Metallica 's " Mercyful Fate " medley from Garage Inc .
= = Style and legacy = =
Mercyful Fate were a part of the first wave of black metal , along with other groups , such as Venom , Bathory and Hellhammer . Many of these groups helped establish the style upon which future black metal artists would later build . Unlike the other first wave bands , typical elements of Mercyful Fate 's style are influences from progressive rock , epic 1970s hard rock and traditional heavy metal . As many of the band 's songs featured lyrics about Satanism and the occult and King Diamond was among the first black metal musicians to use the now famous corpse paint , Mercyful Fate was a pioneer in developing black metal , although their musical style was not as much an influence as that of other first wave bands .
Various musicians have cited Mercyful Fate as an influence . Kerry King , the guitarist for the thrash metal band Slayer , has stated , that he and Jeff Hanneman were big fans of Mercyful Fate when Slayer recorded the album Hell Awaits , so much so that the album was very influenced by Mercyful Fate . Fellow thrash metal band Metallica recorded a medley of Mercyful Fate songs on their 1998 Garage Inc. cover album . Since then , the band has performed the song various times live with several members of Mercyful Fate .
= = Members = = | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
's grounds adjacent to the Talbot Colony was granted to the Guide Dog Association of Victoria for the building of a guide dog breeding and training centre , which opened in 1962 . The construction of the Eastern Freeway in the early 1970s also resulted in property loss for both Royal Talbot and Kew Asylum .
= = Decommissioning and redevelopment = =
In June 1943 the town clerk of the City of Kew , W. D. Birrell , produced a report on the immediate post @-@ war priorities for Kew . Birrell strongly urged the council to propose the closure of Kew Asylum , with the grounds to be subdivided and " ... laid out on modern town planning principles with some 700 to 800 homes " . According to Birrell , this would have been an ideal post @-@ war scheme as it would provide employment and much needed land for housing . Birrell 's proposal was not new ; ever since the establishment of the asylum , proposals for its closure and redevelopment had recurred every few years . Birrell 's plans did not eventuate as overcrowding at other mental hospitals throughout Victoria necessitated Kew 's continued operation .
By 1986 Willsmere Hospital 's bed numbers had been reduced to 430 , three quarters of which were for psychogeriatric patients . As a result of ongoing mental health reform , the then Labor Government of Victoria commissioned the " Willsmere Project " , the purpose of which was to plan for decommissioning the hospital and develop services and facilities in the community . Long @-@ term psychogeriatric patients were transferred to new psychogeriatric nursing homes in the suburbs , to a re @-@ opened ward of Plenty Psychiatric Hospital in Bundoora , to the refurbished Heatherton Tuberculosis Sanatorium or to other psychiatric institutions . Acutely unwell patients that would have previously been admitted to Willsmere were now sent to newly built units at Maroondah Hospital , Monash Medical Centre or Peninsula Hospital . Willsmere was finally closed in December 1988 and sold by the Government of Victoria in the late 1980s . An extensive conservation analysis was completed in 1988 that recommended the bulk of the original buildings be conserved .
The hospital complex was eventually developed by Central Equity into residential apartments . The Willsmere residential development was officially opened on 27 October 1993 by Premier Jeff Kennett .
The remaining grasslands between the Eastern Freeway and the main hospital buildings , including the site of the asylum 's cricket field were developed as the Kew Gardens residential estate . The Kew Gardens project was completed in 1995 . The buildings and grounds of the Kew Cottages ( formerly the grounds of Kew Asylum ) are currently being redeveloped as the " Main Drive " project by Walker Corporation .
One of the conditions of the development permit from the Historic Buildings Council required that a section of the building be set aside and maintained as a museum that documented the history of the site . This led to the creation of an interpretive display in a section of the old " Female Paying Patients Ward " , development of an archive and resource collection consisting of the few remaining records and artifacts left behind when Central Equity gained control of the site from A.V. Jennings . Thearchive and resource collection was created by the Australian Science Archives Project ( ASAP ) at the University of Melbourne .
= = Documented histories = =
There are few documented or published histories of Kew Asylum . The majority of information available on the asylum comes from the Kew 's official records which are now held by the Public Record Office Victoria . Some of the early documents are open ( or part open ) to the public for viewing such as admission books , case notes , registers , and medical journals . However , the majority of documents dating from 1915 onwards are closed , due to the sensitive nature of the material they contain and the possibility that first degree relatives may still be alive .
A number of photographs of Kew Asylum are kept by the Victorian Mental Health Library at Royal Melbourne Hospital . The State Library of Victoria also holds a number of early photographs of Kew . The University of Melbourne has a small number of theses on Kew – the majority of which are short in length and are architecture @-@ based . The exception to this is Cheryl Day 's unpublished PhD thesis which is an ethnographic description of the first fifty years of Kew 's existence . While the thesis was unpublished , it is available in PDF form through the University of Melbourne Library website .
Some contemporary accounts of life in Kew are available . Paul Ward Farmer wrote an essay " Three weeks in the Kew Lunatic Asylum " , describing his admission to Kew in the 1890s . Julian Thomas , an American reporter , wrote a series of articles for The Argus in 1876 – 1877 under the pseudonym of " The Vagabond " . Thomas was an attendant at Kew at the time . There are also excerpts of affidavits from patients , doctors , and attendants at Kew ( as well as other Victorian mental hospitals such as Royal Park , Mont Park and Sunbury ) detailing the terrible conditions in the asylums during the 1920s in the book A Plea for Better Treatment of the Mentally Afflicted by Hon. William G. Higgs .
= Mahoning Creek ( Susquehanna River ) =
Mahoning Creek is a tributary of the Susquehanna River in Columbia County and Montour County , in Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is approximately 10 @.@ 6 miles ( 17 @.@ 1 km ) long and flows through Madison Township in Columbia County and West Hemlock Township , Derry Township , Valley Township , Mahoning Township , and Danville in Montour County . The watershed of the creek has an area of 39 @.@ 6 square miles ( 103 km2 ) . Its tributaries include Kase Run , Mauses Creek , and Sechler Run . Mahoning Creek is designated as a Trout @-@ Stocking Fishery and a Migratory Fishery for part of its length and as a Warmwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery for the remainder .
Mahoning Creek is considered by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection to be impaired by siltation . The main rock formations in the watershed include the Trimmers Rock Formation , the Clinton Group , the Catskill Formation , the Hamilton Group , the Bloomsburg and Mifflintown Formation , the Onondaga and Old Port Formation , and the Wills Creek Formation . The main soils include the Berks @-@ Weikert @-@ Alvira series , the Chenango @-@ Pope @-@ Holly series , the Clymer @-@ Buchanan @-@ Norwich series , and the Leck Kill @-@ Meckesville @-@ Calvin series . Most of the watershed is forested or agricultural land , but there is some developed land .
There was historically a village of the Delaware tribe near the mouth of Mahoning Creek . The first people of European descent arrived in the area in the 1760s and 1770s . Various mills were constructed on it in the 1700s and 1800s . Numerous bridges have also been constructed across the creek . Part of the creek is in the Montour Ridge Landscape Corridor .
= = Course = =
Mahoning Creek begins in a valley in Madison Township , Columbia County . It flows south for a short distance before turning west @-@ southwest for several tenths of a mile , exiting Columbia County .
Upon exiting Columbia County , Mahoning Creek enters West Hemlock Township , Montour County . It flows south @-@ southwest alongside Pennsylvania Route 642 for a few miles before crossing Pennsylvania Route 642 and entering Derry Township . The creek then turns south for a few miles and enters Valley Township . In Valley Township , it continues flowing south in its valley and crosses Pennsylvania Route 642 before continuing south . The creek eventually enters a much broader valley and flows away from Pennsylvania Route 642 . After several tenths of a mile , it crosses Interstate 80 and receives Kase Run , its first named tributary , from the left . The creek then meanders west for several tenths of a mile and then turns southwest , flowing alongside Pennsylvania Route 642 again . Not far from Mausdale , Mahoning Creek crosses Pennsylvania Route 642 and Pennsylvania Route 54 and receives the tributary Mauses Creek from the right . The creek then turns southeast and begins flowing alongside Pennsylvania Route 54 into Mahoning Township and through a water gap in Montour Ridge . It enters Danville and leaves behind the water gap , turning south @-@ southwest and crossing US Route 11 . After a few tenths of a mile , the creek receives Sechler Run , its last named tributary , from the left , and turns west @-@ northwest . After several tenths of a mile , it exits Danville and enters Mahoning Township briefly before turning sharply southeast and reentering Danville . After a short distance , the creek reaches its confluence with the Susquehanna River .
Mahoning Creek joins the Susquehanna River 136 @.@ 26 miles ( 219 @.@ 29 km ) upstream of its mouth .
= = = Tributaries = = =
Mahoning Creek has three named tributaries , which are known as Kase Run , Mauses Creek , and Sechler Run . The creek also has a number of unnamed tributaries . There are a total of 92 stream miles in the watershed of the creek . 90 of these stream miles are in Montour County and the other two stream miles are in Columbia County .
The watershed of the tributary Sechler Run has an area of 7 @.@ 76 square miles ( 20 @.@ 1 km2 ) . The tributary Mauses Creek joins Mahoning Creek 3 @.@ 00 miles ( 4 @.@ 83 km ) upstream of its mouth and has a watershed area of 11 @.@ 40 square miles ( 29 @.@ 5 km2 ) . The tributary Kase Run reaches its confluence with the creek 4 @.@ 70 miles ( 7 @.@ 56 km ) upstream of its mouth . Its watershed has an area of 7 @.@ 27 square miles ( 18 @.@ 8 km2 ) .
= = Hydrology = =
The daily sediment load in Mahoning Creek is 48 @,@ 768 @.@ 3419 pounds ( 22 @,@ 120 @.@ 9478 kg ) and daily load of phosphorus is 26 @.@ 3570 pounds ( 11 @.@ 9553 kg ) . The total maximum daily loads for these substances are 22 @,@ 751 @.@ 4043 pounds ( 10 @,@ 319 @.@ 8634 kg ) and 22 @.@ 8377 pounds ( 10 @.@ 3590 kg ) , respectively .
There is significant stormwater flow and sedimentation in Mahoning Creek , as well as agricultural and urban runoff . However , the creek is less environmentally damaged than the nearby Chillisquaque Creek . Mahoning Creek is considered by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection to be impaired downstream of Kase Run , part of which is also impaired . Additionally , the tributary Mauses Creek is considered to be impaired , as are the upper reaches of the tributary Sechler Run . The cause of the impairment of Mahoning Creek is siltation and the source is agriculture and urban runoff / storm sewers . Sections of all three of its named tributaries are impaired , with the cause being siltation and the source being agriculture .
A total of 24 @,@ 960 @.@ 6159 pounds ( 11 @,@ 321 @.@ 9449 kg ) of sediment from stream banks flows through Mahoning Creek daily . A daily load of 19 @,@ 396 @.@ 7123 pounds ( 8 @,@ 798 @.@ 2007 kg ) of sediment in the creek comes from croplands , 1 @,@ 609 @.@ 6986 pounds ( 730 @.@ 1470 kg ) comes from land classified as " low @-@ intensity development " by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection , and 1 @,@ 564 @.@ 8219 pounds ( 709 @.@ 7913 kg ) per day comes from hay and pastures . 936 @.@ 9836 pounds ( 425 @.@ 0086 kg ) per day comes from forests , 147 @.@ 3425 pounds ( 66 @.@ 8334 kg ) comes from land classified as " transition " by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection , and 87 @.@ 0137 pounds ( 39 @.@ 4688 kg ) comes from unpaved roads . Turf grass contributes 48 @.@ 9315 pounds ( 22 @.@ 1950 kg ) of sediment to the creek daily and land classified as " high @-@ intensity development " by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection contributes 16 @.@ 1644 pounds ( 7 @.@ 3320 kg ) per day . 0 @.@ 0548 pounds ( 24 @.@ 9 g ) per day comes from wetlands .
15 @.@ 4946 pounds ( 7 @.@ 0282 kg ) of phosphorus from croplands flows through Mahoning Creek daily , as do 4 @.@ 9033 pounds ( 2 @.@ 2241 kg ) of phosphorus from groundwater and 3 @.@ 4425 pounds ( 1 @.@ 5615 kg ) from hay and pastures . 0 @.@ 7040 pounds ( 0 @.@ 3193 kg ) of phosphorus comes from forests , 0 @.@ 5492 pounds ( 0 @.@ 2491 kg ) comes from stream banks , 0 @.@ 5296 pounds ( 0 @.@ 2402 kg ) comes from land classified as " low @-@ intensity development " by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection , and 0 @.@ 2594 pounds ( 0 @.@ 1177 kg ) comes from land classified as " high @-@ intensity development " by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection . 0 @.@ 1677 pounds ( 76 @.@ 1 g ) of phosphorus per day comes from land classified as " transition " by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection , 0 @.@ 0776 pounds ( 35 @.@ 2 g ) comes from turf grass , 0 @.@ 0750 pounds ( 34 @.@ 0 g ) comes from septic systems , and 0 @.@ 0739 pounds ( 33 @.@ 5 g ) comes from unpaved roads . Wetlands contribute 0 @.@ 0002 pounds ( 0 @.@ 091 g ) of phosphorus to the creek daily .
On average , 39 @.@ 3 inches ( 100 cm ) of precipitation fall in the watershed of Mahoning Creek each year . The average annual runoff is 0 @.@ 23 inches ( 0 @.@ 58 cm ) .
= = Geology and geography = =
The elevation near the mouth of Mahoning Creek is 463 feet ( 141 m ) above sea level . The elevation near the source of the creek is between 1 @,@ 080 and 1 @,@ 100 feet ( 330 and 340 m ) above sea level . The highest parts of the watershed are in its eastern section . The watershed of Mahoning Creek is in the ridge and valley physiographic region 's Appalachian Mountain Section .
In the upland parts of the watershed of Mahoning Creek , 95 percent of the rock is sedimentary rock , mainly of the Trimmers Rock Formation , the Clinton Group , the Catskill Formation , the Hamilton Group , the Bloomsburg and Mifflintown Formation , the Onondaga and Old Port Formation , and the Wills Creek Formation . The Catskill Formation occurs in a large area in the northeastern part of the watershed and the Trimmers Rock Formation occurs in the rest of the northern part of the watershed and in the southernmost part of the watershed . The Hamilton Group is to the south of the northern area of the Trimmers Rock Formation and to the north of the southern area of the formation . The Onondaga and Old Port Formation occurs south of the Hamilton Group and near Sechler Run , as does the Keyser and Tonoloway Formation . The Wills Creek Formation is found in the central part of the watershed , as is the Bloomsburg and Mifflintown Formation . The Clinton Group occurs south of these formations and south of the Clinton Group is more of the aforementioned formations .
50 percent of the rock in the Mahoning Creek watershed is of the Trimmers Rock Formation , 15 percent is of the Clinton Group , and 10 percent is of the Hamilton Group . The Bloomsburg and Mifflintown Formation occupies 8 percent of the watershed . The Keyser and Tonoloway Formation , the Wills Creek Formation , and the Catskill Formation each occupy 5 percent , while the Onondaga and Old Port Formation makes up 2 percent .
The most common soil series in the watershed of Mahoning Creek is the Berks @-@ Weikert @-@ Alvira series , a shaly silt loam . Other soil series in the watershed include the Chenango @-@ Pope @-@ Holly series , the Clymer @-@ Buchanan @-@ Norwich series , and the Leck Kill @-@ Meckesville @-@ Calvin series . The Chenango @-@ Pope @-@ Holly series is found in the lower reaches of the watershed , the Leck Kill @-@ Minersville @-@ Calvin series is found in the northwestern part of it , and the Clymer @-@ Buchanan @-@ Norwich series occurs in the southwestern part of the watershed . All other parts of it are occupied by the Berks @-@ Weikert @-@ Alvira series .
The Berks @-@ Weikert @-@ Alvira makes up 90 percent of the soil in the Mahoning Creek watershed . 5 percent is of the Leck Kill @-@ Meckesville @-@ Calvin series , 3 percent is of the Clymer @-@ Buchanan @-@ Norwich , and 2 percent is of the Chenango @-@ Pope @-@ Holly series .
Mahoning Creek cuts through Montour Ridge . It has a forested floodplain in Mahoning Township . Parts of the creek experience stream bank erosion .
= = Watershed = =
The watershed of Mahoning Creek has an area of 39 @.@ 6 square miles ( 103 km2 ) . It primarily drains the central portion of Montour County and is almost entirely in Montour County . However , a small portion of the creek 's watershed lies in the neighboring Columbia County . The watershed makes up 30 percent of the area of Montour County . Mahoning Creek drains the area in the vicinity of Danville . The mouth of the creek is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Riverside . However , its source is in the quadrangle of Millville . It also passes through the quadrangle of Danville .
47 @.@ 15 percent of the watershed of Mahoning Creek consists of forested land . 36 @.@ 47 percent of the watershed is agricultural land and 16 @.@ 38 percent is developed land . Most of the developed land is classified as " low @-@ intensity development " , but some is classified as " high @-@ intensity development " . There are 7 @.@ 4 acres of wetlands in the watershed .
Much of the land near the mouth of Mahoning Creek is developed . A strip of land crossing the watershed in its central section is also developed . The southernmost part of the watershed is largely agricultural land . North of this is an area of mostly forested land and the central part of the watershed is mostly agricultural land . The northern part includes both forested and agricultural land . The fastest development in Montour County is occurring in the watershed of the creek .
Interstate 80 runs in an east @-@ west direction through the watershed of Mahoning Creek . There are also a number of township roads near the creek and its tributaries . Pennsylvania Route 54 , Pennsylvania Route 642 , and US Route 11 are in the watershed as well .
= = History and etymology = =
Mahoning Creek was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2 , 1979 . Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1192876 . The word " mahoning " is a Native American word for " at the lick " .
There used to be a village of Delaware Indians at the mouth of Mahoning Creek . One of the first buildings in Danville , a gristmill built by George Montgomery 's father , was built on Mahoning Creek . A tract of 180 acres in Danville , including an area along the creek , was once owned by the Penn family . Phillip Maus was among the first settlers in Valley Township , Montour County , having settled there in 1769 . In 1772 , Robert Curry settled on Mahoning Creek and was one of the first settlers in that part of Pennsylvania .
The first woolen mill in Danville was built on Mahoning Creek . An agricultural fair was held on the creek in February 1856 . Phillip Maus once built a sawmill on Mahoning Creek . This sawmill contributed significantly to the construction of numerous wooden buildings in the vicinity .
Numerous bridges have been constructed over Mahoning Creek . A concrete tee beam bridge with a length of 49 @.@ 9 feet ( 15 @.@ 2 m ) was constructed in 1930 and repaired in 1971 . A two @-@ span prestressed box beam or girders bridge with a length of 69 @.@ 9 feet ( 21 @.@ 3 m ) was constructed over the creek in 1955 and repaired in 1988 . Two bridge of the same type , but with one span and lengths of 44 @.@ 9 feet ( 13 @.@ 7 m ) was built across the creek in 1963 . These bridges carry Interstate 80 . A bridge of the same type was constructed over the creek in 1971 with a length of 50 @.@ 9 feet ( 15 @.@ 5 m ) and was repaired in 2008 . Three more bridges of that type were constructed in Danville in 1974 . They are 26 @.@ 9 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) , 42 @.@ 0 feet ( 12 @.@ 8 m ) , and 100 @.@ 1 feet ( 30 @.@ 5 m ) in length . Another prestressed box beam or girders bridge was constructed across the creek in 1994 with a length of 51 @.@ 8 feet ( 15 @.@ 8 m ) . In 1995 , a prestressed slab bridge with a length of 33 @.@ 1 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) was built over the creek . In the same year , a prestressed box beam or girders bridge with a length of 79 @.@ 1 feet ( 24 @.@ 1 m ) was constructed over the creek .
Mahoning Creek has a watershed association , which is known as the Mahoning Creek Watershed Association . It is one of two active watershed associations in Montour County . The association has carried out watershed assessments and water quality measurements of the creek . They have also worked on a watershed restoration plan .
= = Biology = =
Mahoning Creek is a Trout @-@ Stocked Fishery and a Migratory Fishery from its source to the Pennsylvania Route 54 bridge . From that point to its mouth , it is a Warmwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery . However , the tributaries Sechler Run , Mauses Creek , and Kase Run are Coldwater Fisheries and Migratory Fisheries , as are the unnamed tributaries of Mahoning Creek . Part of Mahoning Creek , its floodplain , and the nearby slopes are part of the Montour Ridge Landscape Corridor .
Wild trout naturally reproduce in Mahoning Creek from its headwaters downstream to the US Route 11 bridge , a distance of 9 @.@ 19 miles ( 14 @.@ 79 km ) . It is one of only two such streams in Montour County , the other being West Branch Chillisquaque Creek . In the 1820s , there were large shad , salmon and rockfish to be found in the creek 's waters . These species of fish could weigh up to 7 , 15 , and 30 pounds ( 3 @.@ 2 , 6 @.@ 8 , and 13 @.@ 6 kilograms ) , respectively .
Eight species of birds inhabit the floodplains and slopes near Mahoning Creek . These include scarlet tanagers , black @-@ throated green warblers , belted kingfishers , gray catbirds , black @-@ capped chickadees , eastern wood @-@ peewees , Louisiana waterthrushes , and wood thrushes .
Mahoning Creek lacks a riparian buffer in some places . However , the Mahoning Creek floodplain and the nearby slopes are listed as a Locally Significant site on the Montour County Natural Areas Inventory . Eastern hemlock trees inhabit the slopes and river birch , silver maple , and silky dogwood inhabit the floodplain itself . American basswood also grows in the vicinity of the creek here . Additionally , spring wildflowers grow in this area . The site has a high level of plant biodiversity . However , many trees in the area are affected by an aphid species known as the hemlock wooly adelgid .
Five species of shrubs grow in the vicinity of Mahoning Creek , its floodplain , and the nearby slopes : smooth alder , silky dogwood , gray dogwood , spicebush , and American elderberry . 11 herb species also grow in this location . These include skunk cabbage , bloodroot , sensitive fern , sedge , wood anemone , woolgrass , and others . There are also invasive plants such as multiflora rose , Japanese knotweed , and garlic mustard in the area .
= 1948 Tinker Air Force Base tornadoes =
The 1948 Tinker Air Force Base tornadoes were two tornadoes which struck Tinker Air Force Base in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma on March 20 and 25 , 1948 . Both tornadoes are estimated to have been equivalent to F3 in intensity on the modern Fujita scale of tornado intensity , which was not devised until 1971 . The March 20 tornado was the costliest tornado in Oklahoma history at the time . On March 25 , meteorologists at the base noticed the extreme similarity between the weather conditions of that day and March 20 , and later in the day issued a " tornado forecast " , which was verified when a tornado struck the base that evening . This was the first official tornado forecast , as well as the first successful tornado forecast , in recorded history .
= = March 20 tornado = =
Weather forecasting was still crude and prone to large errors in the era before weather satellites and computer modeling . Thunderstorms were not even in the forecast for the evening of March 20 . However , around 9 : 30 pm storms were reported about 20 miles ( 32 km ) to the southwest , and at 9 : 52 a tornado was sighted near Will Rogers Airport 7 miles ( 11 km ) away , along with a 92 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 148 km / h ) wind gust , moving northeast towards the base .
At 10 : 00 , the tornado reached the southwest corner of the base . Illuminated by nearly constant lightning , the tornado was highly visible as it bisected the base , tossing around planes which were parked in the open . The control tower reported a 78 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 126 km / h ) wind gust before the windows shattered , injuring several personnel with flying glass . The tornado dissipated at the northeast corner of the base .
The tornado missed most structures on the base , but the damage to expensive military aircraft was substantial . The total damage cost came to around $ 10 million , or $ 98 million in 2016 United States dollars . This was the most damaging tornado in Oklahoma up to that date .
= = Investigation and tornado forecast = =
In the aftermath of the first tornado , an official inquiry was conducted into the failure to predict the destructive tornado . Air Force investigators came to the conclusion that " due to the nature of the storm it was not forecastable given the present state of the art . " They also made recommendations that the meteorological community determine a tornado warning system for the public , as well as a protocol for protecting life and property at military bases .
Both of these investigations began almost immediately . In the days following the tornado , Tinker 's meteorologists Major Ernest J. Fawbush and Captain Robert C. Miller investigated surface and upper @-@ air weather data from this and past tornado outbreaks , hoping to be able to identify conditions which were favorable for tornadoes . By March 24 , they had compiled several possible tornado indicators , and decided it would be difficult , but possible , to identify large tornado threat areas in the future .
On the morning of March 25 , base meteorologists noticed that weather charts for the day were strikingly similar to those before the March 20 tornado . Forecasts issued by the Weather Bureau indicated that almost the same conditions would be present in the evening of March 25 as were present on March 20 . In the morning , they issued a forecast for " heavy thunderstorms " effective for 5 – 6 pm that evening . This would allow the base 's commander to alert base personnel that they may institute their brand @-@ new tornado precautions .
As the day wore on , conditions appeared more and more favorable for thunderstorms , and more and more similar to the events of March 20 . Weather radar images showed a severe squall line had formed to the west , and weather stations to the west reported cumulonimbus clouds and thunderstorms . In an afternoon meeting , under some pressure from their commanding officer , base meteorologists composed and issued the first official tornado forecast . Although they were aware of the small chance of success , they felt they had no choice , since the conditions were so similar to March 20 . Equipment which could be was moved to bomb @-@ proof shelters , and base personnel were moved to safer areas .
= = March 25th tornado = =
Although storms were relatively benign up to the point where they reached Tinker , a supercell formed just west of the base , and at around 6 pm a tornado touched down on the base for the second time in six days . This second tornado caused $ 6 million in damage , or $ 59 million in 2016 dollars . However , due to precautions enacted because of the tornado forecast , no injuries were reported , and damage totals could have been much higher .
= = Legacy = =
The tornado prediction proved to be successful , even if its precision was mostly due to chance . Before this point , the Weather Bureau had a policy against issuing tornado warnings , mainly due to fear of panic by the public , and subsequent complacency if forecasts turned out to be false alarms .
Due to lives and costs saved , Fawbush and Miller continued their tornado forecasts , which verified at quite a high rate over the next three years . At first , they kept their forecasts secret . In the spring and summer of 1949 , they issued eighteen forecasts for tornadoes within a 100 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 260 km2 ) ≈ area , and all eighteen proved successful . In the subsequent years , while not explicitly using the word " tornado " , the Weather Bureau used the pair 's forecasts to predict " severe local storms " .
The synoptic pattern which occurred on March 25 later became known as the " Miller type @-@ B " pattern and is recognized as one of the most potent severe weather setups .
= Flag of Tunisia =
The red and white flag of Tunisia , adopted as national flag in 1959 , has its origins the naval ensign of the Kingdom of Tunis adopted in 1831 by Al @-@ Husayn II ibn Mahmud . The star and crescent recalls the Ottoman flag and is therefore an indication of Tunisia 's history as a part of the Ottoman Empire . The current official design dates to 1999 .
= = History = =
= = = Previous flags = = =
Until the mid @-@ 18th century , the design and significance of maritime flags flying on ships in Tunis were unknown . However , various sources have been able to distinguish certain similarities among the flags : they were designed with a crescent @-@ oriented shape in the presence of the colors blue , green , red , and white . Thereafter , and until the early 19th century , the flag was composed of horizontal blue , red and green stripes , identifying the Ottoman regency in Tunis . This kind of flag with multiple bands and irregular contours floated on top of ships all along the coast of North Africa ; similar flags with different colors and arrangements were also used on the continent .
According to Ottfried Neubecker , the bey of Tunis also had his own flag . This flag was most likely a simple personal banner of the ruler , as it floated above the Bardo Palace , the Citadel of Tunis , on navy ships , and also in the center of the coat of arms in Tunisia . It was used at a number of public ceremonies — including at the proclamation of the Ottoman constitution on 21 March 1840 — until the abolition of the Bey monarchy on 25 July 1957 .
Believed to have been introduced by Al @-@ Husayn II ibn Mahmud , although some sources , such as Abdel @-@ Wahab , claim that it was in use three centuries earlier , the flag was rectangular in shape and divided into nine stripes , the middle one green and double the size of all other bands , while the others alternated between yellow and red . Featured in the center of the green stripe was the Zulfiqar , the legendary Islamic sword of Ali , with the blade in white and the hilt multicolored . The red and yellow stripes each contained five equidistant symbols , whose order was alternated between each stripe . These symbols were divided into two categories : one red six @-@ sided star voided with a disk of a different color in the center — either a red star and green disk or a white star and blue disk — , and a large disk voided in its lower right by a small disk of different color , with the combination being either a small red disk within a larger blue disk or a small yellow disk within a larger red disk . The first yellow stripe contains three red stars and two blue disks . The second stripe , red in color , contains three green disksand two white stars . The third stripe ( second yellow one ) is identical to the first , with the exception that the star in its center is white , while the fourth stripe ( second white one ) is identical to the second stripe .
= = = Origin of the current flag = = =
Several Muslim countries along the south coast of the Mediterranean Sea used a red flag similar to the flag of the Ottoman Empire . After the destruction of the Tunisian naval division at the Battle of Navarino on 20 October 1827 , the sovereign Husainid Dynasty leader Al @-@ Husayn II ibn Mahmud decided to create a flag to use for the fleet of Tunisia , to distinguish it from other fleets . There are some discrepancies over the date of the flag 's adoption , as the government states that it was adopted in 1831 , while other sources like Siobhan Ryan 's Ultimate Pocket Flags of the World claim that it was adopted in 1835 .
= = = French protectorate = = =
During the era of the French protectorate in Tunisia , French authorities did not change the Tunisian flag . However , according to an article in the Flag Bulletin publishing in Fall 2000 , for a short period of time during the French protectorate , the flag of France was placed in the canton ( upper left ) of the Tunisian flag . In the same vein , vexillologist Whitney Smith stated that the addition of the French flag was " modification of the unofficial Tunisian national flag , used for a few years " . He added :
Tunisia , a French protectorate , retained its national flag on land and at sea . Nevertheless , in the late 19th Century or early 20th Century an unofficial version of the flag was used with the tricolor canton . In 1925 a formal proposal was made to adopt that flag as official , but no action was taken . That flag , featured on the cover of this issue [ of the Flag Bulletin ] , does not appear to have been illustrated in any vexillological source .
Confusion arose when an issue of the French daily newspaper Le Petit Journal , published on 24 July 1904 on the occasion of the bey of Tunis 's visit to France , reproduced an illustration showing the flag used while was visiting the Hôtel de Ville , Paris . Ivan Sache of Flags of the World claimed that this flag design , which hadn 't been seen earlier , may have been inaccurate , suggesting that the journalist might not have been at the affair or he had reproduced a drawing of the wrong flag .
= = Description = =
The Tunisian flag was defined in Article 4 of the 1 June 1959 constitution under these terms : " The flag of the Republic of Tunisia is red , it has , under the conditions defined by law , in the middle , a white disk containing a five @-@ pointed star surrounded by a red crescent . "
The Organic Law No. 99 @-@ 56 of 30 June 1999 , adopted on 3 July by the Chamber of Deputies , formalized the Tunisian flag for the first time in law , clarifying Article 4 of the constitution . The flag is in the form of a red rectangle with a width equal to two @-@ thirds of its length . In the middle of the flag is a white disk whose diameter is equal to one @-@ third of the length of the rectangle and whose center is located at the intersection of the diagonals of the rectangle . A red five @-@ pointed star is located to the right of the disk , whose center is at a distance equal to one @-@ thirtieth of the length of the flag from the center of the disk .
The location of the star 's five points is determined by an imaginary disk centered on the star 's center , its diameter equal to roughly 15 % the length of the flag . The points of the star are equidistant from each other , and one of the points is located on the horizontal median of the flag to the left of the center of the imaginary disk . The star is surrounded on its left by a red crescent made by the intersection of two arcs , an outer arc whose diameter is equal to one @-@ fourth of the length of the flag , and an internal arc with a diameter equal to one @-@ fifth of the flag 's length . In addition , at the top of the flag used by the President of the Republic , the words " for the nation " ( Arabic : للوطن ) are written in gold . The three outer edges of the flag are lined with golden yellow fringe and a red ribbon , with golden fringe on the right vertical side and a white disk with a star and crescent near the fringe , is attached to the flag pole above the flag .
Article 4 of the 1959 constitution specifies the presence of a technical dossier containing a model of the flag , a guide to drawing it , which includes the proper measurements , and technical specifications of its colors .
= = Symbolism = =
For the Tunisian embassy in France , the color red represents the blood of martyrs killed during the Turkish conquest of Tunisia in 1574 . However , the Tunisians invited the Turkish to liberate them from the Spanish invaders and from what is left of the Hafside dynasty . Another interpretation is that the " red Beylical flag spread light throughout the Muslim world " . The white symbolizes peace , the disk symbolizes the radiance of the nation as the sun , while the crescent and five @-@ pointed star represent unity of all Muslims and the Five Pillars of Islam , respectively .
According to Ludvík Mucha , author of Webster 's Concise Encyclopedia of Flags & Coats of Arms , the white disk located in the center of the flag represents the sun . The red crescent and the five @-@ pointed star , two ancient symbols of Islam , were most notably used on Ottoman flag and have since appeared on many flags of Islamic countries . The crescent is , from the viewpoint of an Arabic observer , supposed to bring good luck . The color red is a symbol of resistance against Turkish supremacy . Whitney Smith states that the crescent was first emblazoned on standards and buildings in the Punic state of Carthage , located in present @-@ day Tunisia . Since appearing on the Ottoman flag , they were widely adopted by Muslim countries , and have become known as symbols of Islam , when in fact , they may be cultural symbols . Likewise , the sun is often represented with the crescent on ancient Punic artifacts and is associated with the ancient Punic religion , especially with Tanit symbol .
= = Protocol = =
The Tunisian flag is visible on all public and military buildings . The flag also floats on the seats of Tunisian ambassadors at regional and international meetings as well as at buildings housing Tunisian representatives around the world . It is deployed during commemorations and national honors in a strictly ceremonial manner . On the listed Flag Days below , the Tunisian flag is flown in public buildings , compulsory by law :
Article 129 of Penal Code of Tunisia punishes the insult either " publicly , by words , writings , gestures or any other manner " of the Tunisian flag and also foreign flags with one year imprisonment .
= = Variants = =
The colors of the flag are included in other Tunisian symbols , such as the coat of arms , which contains a crescent and star enclosed in a disk with red border . In addition , equipment belonging to the Tunisian army are visually recognized by the presence of a cockade .
Most political parties of Tunisia reflect the colors of the flag or the flag itself . Many postal stamps reflect the motifs of the flag , which radiate " with brightness " on them .
= Boston Massacre =
The Boston Massacre , known as the Incident on King Street by the British , was an incident on March 5 , 1770 , in which British Army soldiers killed five male civilians and injured six others . The incident was heavily propagandized by leading Patriots , such as Paul Revere and Samuel Adams , to fuel animosity toward the British authorities . British troops had been stationed in Boston , capital of the Province of Massachusetts Bay , since 1768 in order to protect and support crown @-@ appointed colonial officials attempting to enforce unpopular Parliamentary legislation . Amid ongoing tense relations between the population and the soldiers , a mob formed around a British sentry , who was subjected to verbal abuse and harassment . He was eventually supported by eight additional soldiers , who were subjected to verbal threats and thrown objects . They fired into the crowd , without orders , instantly killing three people and wounding others . Two more people died later of wounds sustained in the incident .
The crowd eventually dispersed after Acting Governor Thomas Hutchinson promised an inquiry , but reformed the next day , prompting the withdrawal of the troops to Castle Island . Eight soldiers , one officer , and four civilians were arrested and charged with murder . Defended by the lawyer and future American president , John Adams , six of the soldiers were acquitted , while the other two were convicted of manslaughter and given reduced sentences . The men found guilty of manslaughter were sentenced to branding on their hand . Depictions , reports , and propaganda about the event , notably the colored engraving produced by Paul Revere ( shown at right ) , further heightened tensions throughout the Thirteen Colonies .
= = Background = =
Boston , the capital of the Province of Massachusetts Bay and an important shipping town , was a major center of resistance to unpopular acts of taxation by the British Parliament in the 1760s . In 1768 , the Townshend Acts were placed upon the colonists , by which a variety of common items that were manufactured in Britain and exported to the colonies were subjected to import tariffs . Colonists objected that the Townshend Acts were a violation of the natural , charter , and constitutional rights of British subjects in the colonies . The Massachusetts House of Representatives began a campaign against the Townshend Acts by sending a petition to King George III asking for the repeal of the Townshend Revenue Act . The House also sent what became known as the Massachusetts Circular Letter to other colonial assemblies , asking them to join the resistance movement , and called for a boycott of merchants importing the affected goods .
In Great Britain , Lord Hillsborough , who had recently been appointed to the newly created office of Colonial Secretary , was alarmed by the actions of the Massachusetts House . In April 1768 he sent a letter to the colonial governors in America , instructing them to dissolve the colonial assemblies if they responded to the Massachusetts Circular Letter . He also ordered Massachusetts Governor Francis Bernard to direct the Massachusetts House to rescind the letter . The house refused to comply .
Boston 's chief customs officer , Charles Paxton , wrote to Hillsborough , asking for military support because " the Government is as much in the hands of the people as it was in the time of the Stamp Act . " Commodore Samuel Hood responded by sending the fifty @-@ gun warship HMS Romney , which arrived in Boston Harbor in May 1768 . On June 10 , 1768 , customs officials seized the Liberty , a sloop owned by leading Boston merchant John Hancock , on allegations that the ship had been involved in smuggling . Bostonians , already angry because the captain of the Romney had been impressing local sailors , began to riot . Customs officials fled to Castle William for protection .
Given the unstable state of affairs in Massachusetts , Hillsborough instructed General Thomas Gage , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , North America , to send " such Force as You shall think necessary to Boston " . On October 1 , 1768 , the first of four British Army regiments began disembarking in Boston . Two regiments were removed from Boston in 1769 , but the 14th and the 29th Regiments of Foot remained .
The Journal of Occurrences , an anonymously written series of newspaper articles , chronicled clashes between civilians and soldiers while troops were stationed in Boston , feeding tensions with its sometimes exaggerated accounts of the events . Tensions rose markedly after Christopher Seider , " a young lad about eleven Years of Age " , was killed by a customs employee on February 22 , 1770 . Seider 's death was glorified in the Boston Gazette , and his funeral was described as one of the largest of the time in Boston . The killing and subsequent propaganda inflamed tensions , with gangs of colonists looking for soldiers to harass , and soldiers also on occasion looking for confrontation .
= = Incident = =
On the evening of March 5 , Private Hugh White , a British soldier , stood on guard duty outside the Custom house on King Street , today known as State Street . A young wigmaker 's apprentice named Edward Garrick called out to a British officer , Captain @-@ Lieutenant John Goldfinch , that Goldfinch had not paid a bill due to Garrick 's master . Goldfinch had in fact settled his account and ignored the insult . Private White called out to Garrick that he should be more respectful of the officer . Garrick exchanged insults with Private White , who left his post , challenged the boy , and struck him on the side of the head with his musket . As Garrick cried in pain , one of his companions , Bartholomew Broaders , began to argue with White . This attracted a larger crowd . Henry Knox , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old bookseller ( who would later serve as a general in the revolution ) , came upon the scene and warned White , " if he fired he must die for it . "
As the evening progressed , the crowd around Private White grew larger and more boisterous . Church bells were rung , which usually signified a fire , bringing more people out . Over fifty Bostonians pressed around White , led by a mixed @-@ race runaway slave named Crispus Attucks , throwing objects at the sentry and challenging him to fire his weapon . White , who had taken up a somewhat safer position on the steps of the Custom House , sought assistance . Runners alerted the nearby barracks and Captain Thomas Preston , the officer of the watch . According to his report , Preston dispatched a non @-@ commissioned officer and six privates of the 29th Regiment of Foot , with fixed bayonets , to relieve White . The soldiers Preston sent were Corporal William Wemms , Hugh Montgomery , John Carroll , William McCauley , William Warren , and Matthew Kilroy . Accompanied by Preston , they pushed their way through the crowd . En route , Henry Knox , again trying to reduce tensions , warned Preston , " For God 's sake , take care of your men . If they fire , you must die . " Captain Preston responded " I am aware of it . " When they reached Private White on the custom house stairs , the soldiers loaded their muskets , and arrayed themselves in a semicircular formation . Preston shouted at the crowd , estimated to number between three and four hundred , to disperse .
The crowd continued to press around the soldiers , taunting them by yelling , " Fire ! " , by spitting at and throwing snowballs and other small objects at them . Richard Palmes , a local innkeeper who was carrying a cudgel ( i.e. , club ) , came up to Preston and asked if the soldiers ' weapons were loaded . Preston assured him they were , but that they would not fire unless he ordered it , and ( according to his own deposition ) that he was unlikely to do so , since he was standing in front of them . A thrown object then struck Private Montgomery , knocking him down and causing him to drop his musket . He recovered his weapon , and was thought to angrily shout " Damn you , fire ! " , then discharged it into the crowd although no command was given . Palmes swung his cudgel first at Montgomery , hitting his arm , and then at Preston . He narrowly missed Preston 's head , striking him on the arm instead .
There was a pause of uncertain length ( eyewitness estimates ranged from several seconds to two minutes ) , after which the soldiers fired into the crowd . Rather than a disciplined volley ( Preston gave no orders to fire ) , a ragged series of shots was fired , which hit eleven men . Three Americans — ropemaker Samuel Gray , mariner James Caldwell , and Crispus Attucks — died instantly . Samuel Maverick , an apprentice ivory turner of seventeen , was struck by a ricocheting musket ball at the back of the crowd , and died a few hours later , in the early morning of the next day . An Irish immigrant , Patrick Carr , died two weeks later . Christopher Monk , another apprentice , was one of those seriously wounded in the attack . Although he recovered to some extent , he was crippled and eventually died in 1780 , purportedly due to the injuries he had sustained in the attack a decade earlier .
The crowd moved away from the immediate area of the custom house , but continued to grow in nearby streets . Captain Preston immediately called out most of the 29th Regiment , which adopted defensive positions in front of the state house . Acting Governor Thomas Hutchinson was summoned to the scene , and was forced by the movement of the crowd into the council chamber of the state house . From its balcony he was able to minimally restore order , promising there would be a fair inquiry into the shootings if the crowd dispersed .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Investigation = = =
Hutchinson immediately began investigating the affair , and by morning , Preston and the eight soldiers had been arrested . In a meeting of the governor 's council held late the morning after the shootings , Boston 's selectmen asked Hutchinson to order the removal of troops from the city to Castle William on Castle Island , while a town meeting at Faneuil Hall met to discuss the affair . The governor 's council was at first opposed to ordering the troop withdrawal , with Hutchinson correctly claiming he did not have the authority to order the troops to move . Lieutenant Colonel William Dalrymple , commander of the troops , did not offer to move them . The town meeting , however , became more restive when it learned of this . Under an imminent threat of further violence , the council changed its position , and unanimously ( " under duress " , according to Hutchinson 's report ) agreed to request the troops ' removal . Secretary of State Andrew Oliver reported that , had the troops not been removed , " that they would probably be destroyed by the people — should it be called rebellion , should it incur the loss of our charter , or be the consequence what it would . " This decision left the governor without effective means to police the town . The 14th was transferred to Castle Island without incident about a week later , with the 29th following shortly after . The first four victims were buried amid great ceremony on March 8 ; Patrick Carr , the fifth and final victim , died on March 14 and was buried with them on March 17 .
On March 27 the eight soldiers , Captain Preston , and four civilians who were in the Customs House and were alleged to have fired shots , were all indicted for murder . Bostonians continued to be hostile to the troops and their dependents . General Gage , convinced the troops were doing more harm than good , ordered the 29th Regiment out of the province in May . Governor Hutchinson took advantage of the ongoing high tensions to orchestrate delays of the trials until later in the year .
= = = Propaganda battle = = =
In the days and weeks following the incident , a propaganda battle was waged between Boston 's radicals and supporters of the government . Both sides published pamphlets that told strikingly different stories , which were principally published in London in a bid to influence opinion there . The Boston Gazette 's version of events , for example , characterized the massacre as part of an ongoing scheme to " quell a Spirit of Liberty " , and harped on the negative consequences of quartering troops in the city .
A young Boston artist , Henry Pelham , half @-@ brother of the celebrated portrait painter John Singleton Copley , depicted the event . Silversmith and engraver Paul Revere closely copied Pelham 's image , and is often credited as its originator . In order to further public outrage , the engraving contained several inflammatory details . Captain Preston is shown ordering his men to fire , and a musket is seen shooting out of the window of the customs office , which is labeled " Butcher 's Hall . " Artist Christian Remick hand @-@ colored some prints . Some copies of the print show a man with two chest wounds and a somewhat darker face , matching descriptions of Attucks ; others show no victim as a person of color . The image was published in the Boston Gazette , circulating widely , and became an effective piece of anti @-@ British propaganda . The image of bright red " lobster backs " and wounded men with red blood was hung in farmhouses across New England .
Anonymous pamphlets were published describing the event from significantly different perspectives . A Short Narrative of the Horrid Massacre , published under the auspices of the Boston town meeting , was principally written by James Bowdoin , a member of the governor 's council and a vocal opponent of British colonial policy , along with Samuel Pemberton , and Joseph Warren . It described the shooting and other lesser incidents that took place in the days before as unprovoked attacks on peaceful , law @-@ abiding inhabitants , and was , according to historian Neal Langley York , probably the most influential description of the event . The account it provided was drawn from more than 90 depositions taken after the event , and it included accusations that the soldiers sent by Captain Preston had been deployed with the intention of causing harm . In the interest of minimizing impact on the jury pool , city leaders held back local distribution of the pamphlet , but sent copies to other colonies and to London , where they knew depositions collected by Governor Hutchinson were en route . A second pamphlet , Additional Observations on the Short Narrative , furthered the attack on crown officials by complaining that customs officials ( one of whom had left Boston to carry Hutchinson 's gathered depositions to London ) were abandoning their posts under the pretense that it was too dangerous for them to do their duties .
The depositions that Hutchinson collected and sent to London were eventually published in a pamphlet entitled A Fair Account of the Late Unhappy Disturbance in Boston . Drawn mainly from depositions by soldiers , its account of affairs sought to blame selfish Bostonians for denying the validity of Parliamentary laws . It also blamed the city 's hoodlums and gangs for the lawlessness preceding the event , and claimed that they set up an ambush of the soldiers . However , as it was not published until well after the first pamphlet had arrived in London , it ended up having a much smaller impact on the public debate there .
= = = Trials = = =
The government was determined to give the soldiers a fair trial so there could be no grounds for retaliation from the British and so that moderates would not be alienated from the Patriot cause . After several lawyers with Loyalist leanings refused to defend him , Preston sent a request to John Adams , pleading for him to work on the case . Adams , who was already a leading Patriot and who was contemplating a | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
of this round was the Marrakech Agreement signed in April 1994 , which established the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) . The WTO is a chartered multilateral trade organization , charged with continuing the GATT mandate to promote trade , govern trade relations , and prevent damaging trade practices or policies . It became operational in January 1995 . Compared with its GATT secretariat predecessor , the WTO features an improved mechanism for settling trade disputes since the organization is membership @-@ based and not dependent on consensus as in traditional trade negotiations . This function was designed to address prior weaknesses , whereby parties in dispute would invoke delays , obstruct negotiations , or fall back on weak enforcement . In 1997 , WTO members reached an agreement which committed to softer restrictions on commercial financial services , including banking services , securities trading , and insurance services . These commitments entered into force in March 1999 , consisting of 70 governments accounting for approximately 95 % of worldwide financial services .
= = = Financial integration and systemic crises : 1980 @-@ present = = =
Financial integration among industrialized nations grew substantially during the 1980s and 1990s , as did liberalization of their capital accounts . Integration among financial markets and banks rendered benefits such as greater productivity and the broad sharing of risk in the macroeconomy . The resulting interdependence also carried a substantive cost in terms of shared vulnerabilities and increased exposure to systemic risks . Accompanying financial integration in recent decades was a succession of deregulation , in which countries increasingly abandoned regulations over the behavior of financial intermediaries and simplified requirements of disclosure to the public and to regulatory authorities . As economies became more open , nations became increasingly exposed to external shocks . Economists have argued greater worldwide financial integration has resulted in more volatile capital flows , thereby increasing the potential for financial market turbulence . Given greater integration among nations , a systemic crisis in one can easily infect others . The 1980s and 1990s saw a wave of currency crises and sovereign defaults , including the 1987 Black Monday stock market crashes , 1992 European Monetary System crisis , 1994 Mexican peso crisis , 1997 Asian currency crisis , 1998 Russian financial crisis , and the 1998 – 2002 Argentine peso crisis . These crises differed in terms of their breadth , causes , and aggravations , among which were capital flights brought about by speculative attacks on fixed exchange rate currencies perceived to be mispriced given a nation 's fiscal policy , self @-@ fulfilling speculative attacks by investors expecting other investors to follow suit given doubts about a nation 's currency peg , lack of access to developed and functioning domestic capital markets in emerging market countries , and current account reversals during conditions of limited capital mobility and dysfunctional banking systems .
Following research of systemic crises that plagued developing countries throughout the 1990s , economists have reached a consensus that liberalization of capital flows carries important prerequisites if these countries are to observe the benefits offered by financial globalization . Such conditions include stable macroeconomic policies , healthy fiscal policy , robust bank regulations , and strong legal protection of property rights . Economists largely favor adherence to an organized sequence of encouraging foreign direct investment , liberalizing domestic equity capital , and embracing capital outflows and short @-@ term capital mobility only once the country has achieved functioning domestic capital markets and established a sound regulatory framework . An emerging market economy must develop a credible currency in the eyes of both domestic and international investors to realize benefits of globalization such as greater liquidity , greater savings at higher interest rates , and accelerated economic growth . If a country embraces unrestrained access to foreign capital markets without maintaining a credible currency , it becomes vulnerable to speculative capital flights and sudden stops , which carry serious economic and social costs .
Countries sought to improve the sustainability and transparency of the global financial system in response to crises in the 1980s and 1990s . The Basel Committee on Banking Supervision was formed in 1974 by the G @-@ 10 members ' central bank governors to facilitate cooperation on the supervision and regulation of banking practices . It is headquartered at the Bank for International Settlements in Basel , Switzerland . The committee has held several rounds of deliberation known collectively as the Basel Accords . The first of these accords , known as Basel I , took place in 1988 and emphasized credit risk and the assessment of different asset classes . Basel I was motivated by concerns over whether large multinational banks were appropriately regulated , stemming from observations during the 1980s Latin American debt crisis . Following Basel I , the committee published recommendations on new capital requirements for banks , which the G @-@ 10 nations implemented four years later . In 1999 , the G @-@ 10 established the Financial Stability Forum ( reconstituted by the G @-@ 20 in 2009 as the Financial Stability Board ) to facilitate cooperation among regulatory agencies and promote stability in the global financial system . The Forum was charged with developing and codifying twelve international standards and implementation thereof . The Basel II accord was set in 2004 and again emphasized capital requirements as a safeguard against systemic risk as well as the need for global consistency in banking regulations so as not to competitively disadvantage banks operating internationally . It was motivated by what were seen as inadequacies of the first accord such as insufficient public disclosure of banks ' risk profiles and oversight by regulatory bodies . Members were slow to implement it , with major efforts by the European Union and United States taking place as late as 2007 and 2008 . In 2010 , the Basel Committee revised the capital requirements in a set of enhancements to Basel II known as Basel III , which centered on a leverage ratio requirement aimed at restricting excessive leveraging by banks . In addition to strengthening the ratio , Basel III modified the formulas used to weight risk and compute the capital thresholds necessary to mitigate the risks of bank holdings , concluding the capital threshold should be set at 7 % of the value of a bank 's risk @-@ weighted assets .
= = = = Birth of the European Economic and Monetary Union 1992 = = = =
In February 1992 , European Union countries signed the Maastricht Treaty which outlined a three @-@ stage plan to accelerate progress toward an Economic and Monetary Union ( EMU ) . The first stage centered on liberalizing capital mobility and aligning macroeconomic policies between countries . The second stage established the European Monetary Institute which was ultimately dissolved in tandem with the establishment in 1998 of the European Central Bank ( ECB ) and European System of Central Banks . Key to the Maastricht Treaty was the outlining of convergence criteria that EU members would need to satisfy before being permitted to proceed . The third and final stage introduced a common currency for circulation known as the Euro , adopted by eleven of then @-@ fifteen members of the European Union in January 1999 . In doing so , they disaggregated their sovereignty in matters of monetary policy . These countries continued to circulate their national legal tenders , exchangeable for euros at fixed rates , until 2002 when the ECB began issuing official Euro coins and notes . As of 2011 , the EMU comprises 17 nations which have issued the Euro , and 11 non @-@ Euro states .
= = = = Global financial crisis = = = =
Following the market turbulence of the 1990s financial crises and September 11 attacks on the U.S. in 2001 , financial integration intensified among developed nations and emerging markets , with substantial growth in capital flows among banks and in the trading of financial derivatives and structured finance products . Worldwide international capital flows grew from $ 3 trillion to $ 11 trillion U.S. dollars from 2002 to 2007 , primarily in the form of short @-@ term money market instruments . The United States experienced growth in the size and complexity of firms engaged in a broad range of financial services across borders in the wake of the Gramm – Leach – Bliley Act of 1999 which repealed the Glass – Stegall Act of 1933 , ending limitations on commercial banks ' investment banking activity . Industrialized nations began relying more on foreign capital to finance domestic investment opportunities , resulting in unprecedented capital flows to advanced economies from developing countries , as reflected by global imbalances which grew to 6 % of gross world product in 2007 from 3 % in 2001 .
The global financial crisis precipitated in 2007 and 2008 shared some of the key features exhibited by the wave of international financial crises in the 1990s , including accelerated capital influxes , weak regulatory frameworks , relaxed monetary policies , herd behavior during investment bubbles , collapsing asset prices , and massive deleveraging . The systemic problems originated in the United States and other advanced nations . Similarly to the 1997 Asian crisis , the global crisis entailed broad lending by banks undertaking unproductive real estate investments as well as poor standards of corporate governance within financial intermediaries . Particularly in the United States , the crisis was characterized by growing securitization of non @-@ performing assets , large fiscal deficits , and excessive financing in the housing sector . While the real estate bubble in the U.S. triggered the financial crisis , the bubble was financed by foreign capital flowing from many different countries . As its contagious effects began infecting other nations , the crisis became a precursor for the global economic downturn now referred to as the Great Recession . In the wake of the crisis , total volume of world trade in goods and services fell 10 % from 2008 to 2009 and did not recover until 2011 , with an increased concentration in emerging market countries . The global financial crisis demonstrated the negative effects of worldwide financial integration , sparking discourse on how and whether some countries should decouple themselves from the system altogether .
= = = = Eurozone crisis = = = =
In 2009 , a newly elected government in Greece revealed the falsification of its national budget data , and that its fiscal deficit for the year was 12 @.@ 7 % of GDP as opposed to the 3 @.@ 7 % espoused by the previous administration . This news alerted markets to the fact that Greece 's deficit exceeded the eurozone 's maximum of 3 % outlined in the Economic and Monetary Union 's Stability and Growth Pact . Investors concerned about a possible sovereign default rapidly sold Greek bonds . Given Greece 's prior decision to embrace the euro as its currency , it no longer held monetary policy autonomy and could not intervene to depreciate a national currency to absorb the shock and boost competitiveness , as was the traditional solution to sudden capital flight . The crisis proved contagious when it spread to Portugal , Italy , and Spain ( together with Greece these are collectively referred to as the PIGS ) . Ratings agencies downgraded these countries ' debt instruments in 2010 which further increased the costliness of refinancing or repaying their national debts . The crisis continued to spread and soon grew into a European sovereign debt crisis which threatened economic recovery in the wake of the Great Recession . In tandem with the IMF , the European Union members assembled a € 750 billion bailout for Greece and other afflicted nations . Additionally , the ECB pledged to purchase bonds from troubled eurozone nations in an effort to mitigate the risk of a banking system panic . The crisis is recognized by economists as highlighting the depth of financial integration in Europe , contrasted with the lack of fiscal integration and political unification necessary to prevent or decisively respond to crises . During the initial waves of the crisis , the public speculated that the turmoil could result in a disintegration of the eurozone and an abandonment of the euro . German Federal Minister of Finance Wolfgang Schäuble called for the expulsion of offending countries from the eurozone . Now commonly referred to as the Eurozone crisis , it has been ongoing since 2009 and most recently began encompassing the 2012 – 13 Cypriot financial crisis .
= = Implications of globalized capital = =
= = = Balance of payments = = =
The balance of payments accounts summarize payments made to or received from foreign countries . Receipts are considered credit transactions while payments are considered debit transactions . The balance of payments is a function of three components : transactions involving export or import of goods and services form the current account , transactions involving purchase or sale of financial assets form the financial account , and transactions involving unconventional transfers of wealth form the capital account . The current account summarizes three variables : the trade balance , net factor income from abroad , and net unilateral transfers . The financial account summarizes the value of exports versus imports of assets , and the capital account summarizes the value of asset transfers received net of transfers given . The capital account also includes the official reserve account , which summarizes central banks ' purchases and sales of domestic currency , foreign exchange , gold , and SDRs for purposes of maintaining or utilizing bank reserves .
Because the balance of payments sums to zero , a current account surplus indicates a deficit in the asset accounts and vice versa . A current account surplus or deficit indicates the extent to which a country is relying on foreign capital to finance its consumption and investments , and whether it is living beyond its means . For example , assuming a capital account balance of zero ( thus no asset transfers available for financing ) , a current account deficit of £ 1 billion implies a financial account surplus ( or net asset exports ) of £ 1 billion . A net exporter of financial assets is known as a borrower , exchanging future payments for current consumption . Further , a net export of financial assets indicates growth in a country 's debt . From this perspective , the balance of payments links a nation 's income to its spending by indicating the degree to which current account imbalances are financed with domestic or foreign financial capital , which illuminates how a nation 's wealth is shaped over time . A healthy balance of payments position is important for economic growth . If countries experiencing a growth in demand have trouble sustaining a healthy balance of payments , demand can slow , leading to : unused or excess supply , discouraged foreign investment , and less attractive exports which can further reinforce a negative cycle that intensifies payments imbalances .
A country 's external wealth is measured by the value of its foreign assets net of its foreign liabilities . A current account surplus ( and corresponding financial account deficit ) indicates an increase in external wealth while a deficit indicates a decrease . Aside from current account indications of whether a country is a net buyer or net seller of assets , shifts in a nation 's external wealth are influenced by capital gains and capital losses on foreign investments . Having positive external wealth means a country is a net lender ( or creditor ) in the world economy , while negative external wealth indicates a net borrower ( or debtor ) .
= = = Unique financial risks = = =
Nations and international businesses face an array of financial risks unique to foreign investment activity . Political risk is the potential for losses from a foreign country 's political instability or otherwise unfavorable developments , which manifests in different forms . Transfer risk emphasizes uncertainties surrounding a country 's capital controls and balance of payments . Operational risk characterizes concerns over a country 's regulatory policies and their impact on normal business operations . Control risk is born from uncertainties surrounding property and decision rights in the local operation of foreign direct investments . Credit risk implies lenders may face an absent or unfavorable regulatory framework that affords little or no legal protection of foreign investments . For example , foreign governments may commit to a sovereign default or otherwise repudiate their debt obligations to international investors without any legal consequence or recourse . Governments may decide to expropriate or nationalize foreign @-@ held assets or enact contrived policy changes following an investor 's decision to acquire assets in the host country . Country risk encompasses both political risk and credit risk , and represents the potential for unanticipated developments in a host country to threaten its capacity for debt repayment and repatriation of gains from interest and dividends .
= = Participants = =
= = = Economic actors = = =
Each of the core economic functions , consumption , production , and investment , have become highly globalized in recent decades . While consumers increasingly import foreign goods or purchase domestic goods produced with foreign inputs , businesses continue to expand production internationally to meet an increasingly globalized consumption in the world economy . International financial integration among nations has afforded investors the opportunity to diversify their asset portfolios by investing abroad . Consumers , multinational corporations , individual and institutional investors , and financial intermediaries ( such as banks ) are the key economic actors within the global financial system . Central banks ( such as the European Central Bank or the U.S. Federal Reserve System ) undertake open market operations in their efforts to realize monetary policy goals . International financial institutions such as the Bretton Woods institutions , multilateral development banks and other development finance institutions provide emergency financing to countries in crisis , provide risk mitigation tools to prospective foreign investors , and assemble capital for development finance and poverty reduction initiatives . Trade organizations such as the World Trade Organization , Institute of International Finance , and the World Federation of Exchanges attempt to ease trade , facilitate trade disputes and address economic affairs , promote standards , and sponsor research and statistics publications .
= = = Regulatory bodies = = =
Explicit goals of financial regulation include countries ' pursuits of financial stability and the safeguarding of unsophisticated market players from fraudulent activity , while implicit goals include offering viable and competitive financial environments to world investors . A single nation with functioning governance , financial regulations , deposit insurance , emergency financing through discount windows , standard accounting practices , and established legal and disclosure procedures , can itself develop and grow a healthy domestic financial system . In a global context however , no central political authority exists which can extend these arrangements globally . Rather , governments have cooperated to establish a host of institutions and practices that have evolved over time and are referred to collectively as the international financial architecture . Within this architecture , regulatory authorities such as national governments and intergovernmental organizations have the capacity to influence international financial markets . National governments may employ their finance ministries , treasuries , and regulatory agencies to impose tariffs and foreign capital controls or may use their central banks to execute a desired intervention in the open markets .
Some degree of self @-@ regulation occurs whereby banks and other financial institutions attempt to operate within guidelines set and published by multilateral organizations such as the International Monetary Fund or the Bank for International Settlements ( particularly the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision and the Committee on the Global Financial System ) . Further examples of international regulatory bodies are : the Financial Stability Board ( FSB ) established to coordinate information and activities among developed countries ; the International Organization of Securities Commissions ( IOSCO ) which coordinates the regulation of financial securities ; the International Association of Insurance Supervisors ( IAIS ) which promotes consistent insurance industry supervision ; the Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering which facilitates collaboration in battling money laundering and terrorism financing ; and the International Accounting Standards Board ( IASB ) which publishes accounting and auditing standards . Public and private arrangements exist to assist and guide countries struggling with sovereign debt payments , such as the Paris Club and London Club . National securities commissions and independent financial regulators maintain oversight of their industries ' foreign exchange market activities . Two examples of supranational financial regulators in Europe are the European Banking Authority ( EBA ) which identifies systemic risks and institutional weaknesses and may overrule national regulators , and the European Shadow Financial Regulatory Committee ( ESFRC ) which reviews financial regulatory issues and publishes policy recommendations .
= = = Research organizations and other fora = = =
Research and academic institutions , professional associations , and think @-@ tanks aim to observe , model , understand , and publish recommendations to improve the transparency and effectiveness of the global financial system . For example , the independent non @-@ partisan World Economic Forum facilitates the Global Agenda Council on the Global Financial System and Global Agenda Council on the International Monetary System , which report on systemic risks and assemble policy recommendations . The Global Financial Markets Association facilitates discussion of global financial issues among members of various professional associations around the world . The Group of Thirty ( G30 ) formed in 1978 as a private , international group of consultants , researchers , and representatives committed to advancing understanding of international economics and global finance .
= = Future of the global financial system = =
The IMF has reported that the global financial system is on a path to improved financial stability , but faces a host of transitional challenges borne out by regional vulnerabilities and policy regimes . One challenge is managing the United States ' disengagement from its accommodative monetary policy . Doing so in an elegant , orderly manner could be difficult as markets adjust to reflect investors ' expectations of a new monetary regime with higher interest rates . Interest rates could rise too sharply if exacerbated by a structural decline in market liquidity from higher interest rates and greater volatility , or by structural deleveraging in short @-@ term securities and in the shadow banking system ( particularly the mortgage market and real estate investment trusts ) . Other central banks are contemplating ways to exit unconventional monetary policies employed in recent years . Some nations however , such as Japan , are attempting stimulus programs at larger scales to combat deflationary pressures . The Eurozone 's nations implemented myriad national reforms aimed at strengthening the monetary union and alleviating stress on banks and governments . Yet some European nations such as Portugal , Italy , and Spain continue to struggle with heavily leveraged corporate sectors and fragmented financial markets in which investors face pricing inefficiency and difficulty identifying quality assets . Banks operating in such environments may need stronger provisions in place to withstand corresponding market adjustments and absorb potential losses . Emerging market economies face challenges to greater stability as bond markets indicate heightened sensitivity to monetary easing from external investors flooding into domestic markets , rendering exposure to potential capital flights brought on by heavy corporate leveraging in expansionary credit environments . Policymakers in these economies are tasked with transitioning to more sustainable and balanced financial sectors while still fostering market growth so as not to provoke investor withdrawal .
The global financial crisis and Great Recession prompted renewed discourse on the architecture of the global financial system . These events called to attention financial integration , inadequacies of global governance , and the emergent systemic risks of financial globalization . Since the establishment in 1945 of a formal international monetary system with the IMF empowered as its guardian , the world has undergone extensive changes politically and economically . This has fundamentally altered the paradigm in which international financial institutions operate , increasing the complexities of the IMF and World Bank 's mandates . The lack of adherence to a formal monetary system has created a void of global constraints on national macroeconomic policies and a deficit of rule @-@ based governance of financial activities . French economist and Executive Director of the World Economic Forum 's Reinventing Bretton Woods Committee , Marc Uzan , has pointed out that some radical proposals such as a " global central bank or a world financial authority " have been deemed impractical , leading to further consideration of medium @-@ term efforts to improve transparency and disclosure , strengthen emerging market financial climates , bolster prudential regulatory environments in advanced nations , and better moderate capital account liberalization and exchange rate regime selection in emerging markets . He has also drawn attention to calls for increased participation from the private sector in the management of financial crises and the augmenting of multilateral institutions ' resources .
The Council on Foreign Relations ' assessment of global finance notes that excessive institutions with overlapping directives and limited scopes of authority , coupled with difficulty aligning national interests with international reforms , are the two key weaknesses inhibiting global financial reform . Nations do not presently enjoy a comprehensive structure for macroeconomic policy coordination , and global savings imbalances have abounded before and after the global financial crisis to the extent that the United States ' status as the steward of the world 's reserve currency was called into question . Post @-@ crisis efforts to pursue macroeconomic policies aimed at stabilizing foreign exchange markets have yet to be institutionalized . The lack of international consensus on how best to monitor and govern banking and investment activity threatens the world 's ability to prevent future global financial crises . The slow and often delayed implementation of banking regulations that meet Basel III criteria means most of the standards will not take effect until 2019 , rendering continued exposure of global finance to unregulated systemic risks . Despite Basel III and other efforts by the G20 to bolster the Financial Stability Board 's capacity to facilitate cooperation and stabilizing regulatory changes , regulation exists predominantly at the national and regional levels .
= = = Reform efforts = = =
Former World Bank Chief Economist and former Chairman of the U.S. Council of Economic Advisers Joseph E. Stiglitz referred in the late 1990s to a growing consensus that something is wrong with a system having the capacity to impose high costs on a great number of people who are hardly even participants in international financial markets , neither speculating on international investments nor borrowing in foreign currencies . He argued that foreign crises have strong worldwide repercussions due in part to the phenomenon of moral hazard , particularly when many multinational firms deliberately invest in highly risky government bonds in anticipation of a national or international bailout . Although crises can be overcome by emergency financing , employing bailouts places a heavy burden on taxpayers living in the afflicted countries , and the high costs damage standards of living . Stiglitz has advocated finding means of stabilizing short @-@ term international capital flows without adversely affecting long @-@ term foreign direct investment which usually carries new knowledge spillover and technological advancements into economies .
American economist and former Chairman of the Federal Reserve Paul Volcker has argued that the lack of global consensus on key issues threatens efforts to reform the global financial system . He has argued that quite possibly the most important issue is a unified approach to addressing failures of systemically important financial institutions , noting public taxpayers and government officials have grown disillusioned with deploying tax revenues to bail out creditors for the sake of stopping contagion and mitigating economic disaster . Volcker has expressed an array of potential coordinated measures : increased policy surveillance by the IMF and commitment from nations to adopt agreed @-@ upon best practices , mandatory consultation from multilateral bodies leading to more direct policy recommendations , stricter controls on national qualification for emergency financing facilities ( such as those offered by the IMF or by central banks ) , and improved incentive structures with financial penalties .
Governor of the Bank of England and former Governor of the Bank of Canada Mark Carney has described two approaches to global financial reform : shielding financial institutions from cyclic economic effects by strengthening banks individually , and defending economic cycles from banks by improving systemic resiliency . Strengthening financial institutions necessitates stronger capital requirements and liquidity provisions , as well as better measurement and management of risks . The G @-@ 20 agreed to new standards presented by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision at its 2009 summit in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . The standards included leverage ratio targets to supplement other capital adequacy requirements established by Basel II . Improving the resiliency of the global financial system requires protections that enable the system to withstand singular institutional and market failures . Carney has argued that policymakers have converged on the view that institutions must bear the burden of financial losses during future financial crises , and such occurrences should be well @-@ defined and pre @-@ planned . He suggested other national regulators follow Canada in establishing staged intervention procedures and require banks to commit to what he termed " living wills " which would detail plans for an orderly institutional failure .
At its 2010 summit in Seoul , South Korea , the G @-@ 20 collectively endorsed a new collection of capital adequacy and liquidity standards for banks recommended by Basel III . Andreas Dombret of the Executive Board of Deutsche Bundesbank has noted a difficulty in identifying institutions that constitute systemic importance via their size , complexity , and degree of interconnectivity within the global financial system , and that efforts should be made to identify a group of 25 to 30 indisputable globally systemic institutions . He has suggested they be held to standards higher than those mandated by Basel III , and that despite the inevitability of institutional failures , such failures should not drag with them the financial systems in which they participate . Dombret has advocated for regulatory reform that extends beyond banking regulations and has argued in favor of greater transparency through increased public disclosure and increased regulation of the shadow banking system .
President of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and Vice Chairman of the Federal Open Market Committee William C. Dudley has argued that a global financial system regulated on a largely national basis is untenable for supporting a world economy with global financial firms . In 2011 , he advocated five pathways to improving the safety and security of the global financial system : a special capital requirement for financial institutions deemed systemically important ; a level playing field which discourages exploitation of disparate regulatory environments and beggar thy neighbour policies that serve " national constituencies at the expense of global financial stability " ; superior cooperation among regional and national regulatory regimes with broader protocols for sharing information such as records for the trade of over @-@ the @-@ counter financial derivatives ; improved delineation of " the responsibilities of the home versus the host country " when banks encounter trouble ; and well @-@ defined procedures for managing emergency liquidity solutions across borders including which parties are responsible for the risk , terms , and funding of such measures .
= HMS Cardiff ( D108 ) =
HMS Cardiff was a British Type 42 destroyer and the third ship of the Royal Navy to be named in honour of the Welsh capital city of Cardiff . Construction was started by Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering in Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness , Cumbria , and completed at Swan Hunter 's Hawthorn Leslie yard in Hebburn . Cardiff was launched on 22 February 1974 .
During her career , Cardiff served in the Falklands War , where she shot down the last Argentine aircraft of the conflict and accepted the surrender of a 700 @-@ strong garrison in the settlement of Port Howard . During the 1991 Gulf War , her Lynx helicopter sank two Iraqi minesweepers . She later participated in the build @-@ up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq as part of the Royal Navy 's constant Armilla patrol ; Cardiff thwarted attempts to smuggle oil out of the country , but was not involved in the actual invasion .
Cardiff was decommissioned in July 2005 , having earned two battle honours for service in the Falklands and Gulf wars . She was sent to Turkey for scrapping despite calls by former servicemen for her to be preserved as a museum ship and local tourist attraction in Cardiff .
= = Construction = =
The Type 42 destroyers ( also known as the Sheffield class ) were made in three batches ; Cardiff was built in the first . She cost over £ 30 million , which was double her original quoted price . Her keel was laid down on 6 November 1972 , at Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering Ltd in Cumbria . The build was interrupted by a labour shortage at Vickers . To solve this problem , she was towed to Swan Hunter in Tyne and Wear and completed there .
Type 42s were designed as anti @-@ aircraft vessels primarily equipped with the Sea Dart , a surface @-@ to @-@ air missile system capable of hitting targets up to 56 kilometres ( 30 nmi ) away . Cardiff 's secondary weapon system was a 4 @.@ 5 inch Mark 8 naval gun , capable of firing 21 @-@ kilogram ( 46 lb ) shells to a range of 22 kilometres ( 12 nmi ) . After the Falklands War , in which two Type 42s were sunk by enemy aircraft , the entire class was equipped with the Phalanx close @-@ in weapon system , a Gatling cannon that fires 3 @,@ 000 rounds per minute and is designed to shoot down anti @-@ ship missiles .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Early career = = =
Cardiff was launched on 22 February 1974 by Lady Caroline Gilmore . Following fitting @-@ out and sea trials , Cardiff commissioned on 24 September 1979 under command of Captain Barry Wilson . During the next 12 months of active service she steamed over 21 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 13 @,@ 000 mi ) and undertook various duties . She returned to her place of construction , Tyne and Wear , so that the Swan Hunter crew who fitted her out could exhibit the warship to their families . In the spirit of establishing a firm association , Cardiff visited her namesake city and welcomed more than 7 @,@ 000 people on board . Her crew raised over £ 1 @,@ 000 for local charities by participating in sponsored bicycle rides and dinghy rows from Portsmouth and Newcastle upon Tyne . BBC Radio Wales based an entire programme on her and she appeared on the BBC and ITV national television channels . In November 1979 , Cardiff coordinated the search for survivors of the MV Pool Fisher , which sank off the Isle of Wight with the loss of most of her crew .
In 1980 , she attended the annual Navy Days event at Portsmouth and Portland Harbour , receiving a total of 17 @,@ 300 visitors . In October of the same year , she ventured abroad for the first time on a visit to Ghent , Belgium . She followed this with a fortnight of Sea Dart exercises on a range off Aberporth , in South Wales . Whilst in the region , the destroyer attended celebrations marking the 75th anniversary of Cardiff 's city status .
= = = Falklands War ( 1982 ) = = =
On 2 April 1982 , the disputed British overseas territory of the Falkland Islands was invaded by neighbouring Argentina . The United Kingdom , nearly 13 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 8 @,@ 000 mi ) away , assembled and dispatched a naval task force of 28 @,@ 000 troops to recapture the islands . The conflict ended that June with the surrender of the Argentine forces ; the battles fought on land , at sea , and in the air had cost the lives of some 900 British and Argentine servicemen .
Just over a month before the start of the war , Cardiff , under the command of Captain Michael Harris , had begun a six @-@ month deployment to the Persian Gulf with the Armilla Patrol . Cardiff had relieved her sister ship and class lead Sheffield of this posting , but was herself redeployed to the Falklands effort on 23 April . She sailed alone to Gibraltar and rendezvoused on 14 May with the Bristol group of British warships already heading south to the islands .
During the journey , Cardiff 's crew performed various training exercises , including defence against air attack ( involving simulation runs by friendly Harrier and Jaguar aircraft ) , nuclear , biological , and chemical weapons and Exocet anti @-@ ship missiles . All British Type 42 's involved in the war were instructed to paint two vertical black stripes down either side the middle of their ships . This would allow the Royal Navy submarines to distinguish them from the two Argentine Type 42 's . On 22 May , an Argentine reconnaissance Boeing 707 , no . TC @-@ 92 of the Argentine Air Force 's Grupo 1 , De Transporte Aereo Escuadron II ( Spanish for " 2nd Air Transport Squadron , Group 1 " ) , was fired on by Cardiff . The aircraft was detected while shadowing the Bristol group , and Cardiff was ordered to drop back and engage . The ship fired two Sea Darts at the aircraft at 11 : 40 ( local time ) from maximum range ; the first fell short and second missed due to evasive manoeuvres taken by the aircraft 's crew . After the attack , TC @-@ 92 dropped below radar level and returned to El Palomar . On 25 May , Cardiff was tasked with the recovery of four Special Air Service ( SAS ) troopers , who had parachuted from a C @-@ 130 Hercules passing over the destroyer .
The Bristol group met up with the main task force on 26 May . Cardiff 's arrival allowed the damaged Glasgow to return to the United Kingdom for repairs . Cardiff 's primary role was to form part of the anti @-@ aircraft warfare picket , protecting British ships from air attack and attempting to ambush Argentine aircraft that were re @-@ supplying Port Stanley Airport . She was also required to fire at enemy positions on the islands with her 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch gun . In one engagement she fired 277 high @-@ explosive rounds .
Shortly after arrival , she was involved in the final Exocet raid against the aircraft carrier Invincible . In the early hours of 6 June , Cardiff shot down a friendly Army Air Corps Gazelle helicopter ( no . XX377 of 656 Squadron ) , in the belief it was a low flying enemy C @-@ 130 Hercules . All four on board were killed , the factors contributing to the accident were a poor level of communication between the army and navy , and the helicopter 's " Identification Friend or Foe " transmitter had been turned off due to it interfering with other equipment . However a board of inquiry recommended that neither negligence nor blame should be attributed to any individual and that no action should be taken against any individual . The number " 205 " was later painted at the crash site ( 51 @.@ 783600 ° S 58 @.@ 467786 ° W / -51.783600 ; -58.467786 ) as a memorial , the significance being that two of the helicopter 's passengers were from 205 Signal Squadron . Approximately an hour after the shoot down , Cardiff spotted four landing craft carrying troops from the 2nd Battalion , Scots Guards . Having been told there were no other British forces in the area , Cardiff 's crew assumed they were Argentine , and fired illuminating star shells over them in preparation to attack . When the Guards saw the star shells and realised Cardiff 's intentions , the officer in charge of the landing craft , Major Ewen Southby @-@ Tailyour , moved them to shallow water in an attempt to outrun her . Cardiff , still closing on the craft , signalled to them a single word " friend " via Aldis lamp , Southby @-@ Tailyour responded with " to which side " . At this point Cardiff " left them alone " , neither attacking or assisting them , nevertheless another " blue on blue " incident was avoided .
On the morning of 13 June , two Argentine Dagger aircraft attacked Cardiff 's Lynx helicopter , no . 335 of 829 NAS , while it was searching in the Falkland Sound area . Poor weather had forced the Argentine craft to abandon their original mission of bombing Mount Longdon , and the third Dagger of their formation had suffered a mechanical failure and returned to base . The Lynx began evasive manoeuvres and dodged the attacks ; the pilot , Lieutenant Christopher Clayton , was mentioned in despatches for his efforts .
Later that day , Cardiff shot down what would prove to be the last Argentine aircraft lost during the war , with a Sea Dart missile Canberra bomber B @-@ 108 of Grupo de Bombardeo 2 ( " Bombing Group 2 " ) en route to bomb Port Harriet House . The pilot , Captain Pastrán , managed to eject but the navigator , Captain Casado , ( whose ejection seat may have been damaged by the missile ) was killed . The remains of Captain Casado were discovered in 1986 , and identified by DNA testing in September 2008 .
Argentina surrendered on 14 June , and Cardiff was required to accept the surrender of a 700 @-@ strong Argentine garrison in the settlement of Port Howard on West Falkland a day later . Members of Cardiff 's crew were used to man a captured Argentine patrol boat , renamed HMS Tiger Bay , in Stanley . Cardiff spent the rest of June acting as the Landing Area Air Warfare Controller ( LAAWC ) around San Carlos .
Over the course of the war , Cardiff fired nine Sea Dart missiles and one Mk 46 torpedo . She returned to the United Kingdom on 28 July 1982 , having left the Falklands three weeks earlier along with Exeter and Yarmouth . Captain Michael Harris handed over command on 24 August 1982 , after the annual maintenance period . Following the war , all Type 42 destroyers were fitted with Oerlikon 30 mm twin cannons port and starboard , for protection against airborne threats . These were later replaced by the Phalanx close @-@ in weapon system .
= = = Gulf War ( 1990 – 91 ) = = =
When Saddam Hussein 's Iraq invaded Kuwait on 2 August 1990 , British Secretary of State for Defence Tom King soon announced that the UK military contribution to the region was to be increased . A coalition of nations was formed , and a combined naval force entered the Persian Gulf and sailed north , neutralising the Iraqi Navy as it went , and then began conducting naval gunfire support and mine counter @-@ measure missions in preparation for the main amphibious landing force .
Having returned from the Persian Gulf in May 1990 , after only a few months in UK Cardiff sailed again , as a reinforcement to Group X @-@ Ray , Brazen , London and Gloucester who had sailed to relieve Armilla Group Whiskey , which consisted of Battleaxe , Jupiter and York . Cardiff and Gloucester were to form part of the air defence barrier along with Bunker Hill , Princeton and Worden protecting three United States aircraft carriers : Midway , Ranger and Theodore Roosevelt . Cardiff had other responsibilities , including surface surveillance and boarding operations , to maintain the security around the task force .
Royal Navy Lynxes worked in combination with US Seahawks during the Gulf War . The American helicopters lacked an effective anti @-@ ship missile , but had | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Creek ( 50 @.@ 818486 ° N 1 @.@ 130644 ° W / 50 @.@ 818486 ; -1.130644 ) alongside sister ship Newcastle , where both were heavily cannibalised to keep the remaining Type 42 Destroyers running .
On 21 November 2008 , the two ships left Portsmouth for the last time for Aliağa , Turkey under tow . Scrapping took place in the same yard which was scrapping the Tuxedo Princess , a former ferry and floating nightclub that had been berthed underneath the Tyne Bridge . Following a decommissioning ceremony at Cardiff city hall , her bell was removed and is now mounted in the north aisle of St John 's Parish Church in Cardiff . Calls were made for the conversion of the ship into a Cardiff tourist attraction by a Member of the National Assembly for Wales and former naval servicemen .
Dragon , a Type 45 destroyer , has been assigned as the current Royal Navy ship to be affiliated with the city of Cardiff .
= Immortality ( Fringe ) =
" Immortality " is the 13th episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 56th episode overall . In the episode , the Fringe Division of the parallel universe investigates a series of deaths caused by flesh @-@ eating " skelter beetles " , unleashed by a mad scientist ( Alon Abutbul ) . Abutbul , Seth Gabel , Kirk Acevedo , Philip Winchester , Ryan McDonald , and Joan Chen appeared as guest stars .
The episode was written by co @-@ executive producer David Wilcox and story editor Ethan Gross , and was directed by filmmaker Brad Anderson . " Immortality " first aired in the United States on February 11 , 2011 to an estimated 3 @.@ 7 million viewers , a 12 @.@ 5 percent decrease from the previous week . Time shifted viewing led to an addition of 64 percent to the week 's original ratings , but lead actor Joshua Jackson still expressed concern for the show 's future , urging fans to watch the series live on Fridays . Television critics viewed the episode positively , with one praising it for offering " a creepy case , a great villain , and a pertinent plot twist " .
= = Plot = =
In the parallel universe , Lincoln ( Seth Gabel ) has been promoted to head of the Fringe Division , while Fauxlivia ( Anna Torv ) welcomes back Frank ( Philip Winchester ) , her boyfriend who has been working as part of the Centers for Disease Control to deal with an outbreak in North Texas for the last several weeks . The division is alerted to a case where a man has been killed , eaten from the inside by insects . They identify the insects as " skelter beetles " , which is surprising as they had been assumed to have become extinct some ten years earlier along with sheep , the only host they can survive in . Frank is brought in to consult on the case at Lincoln 's request , and later proposes marriage to Fauxlivia , who happily accepts .
A second case occurs a few days later , another man killed by the beetles , but they find the beetles to be larger and more mature . From the second victim 's movements , they identify the likely culprit as Dr. Armand Silva ( Alon Abutbul ) , a former scientist . Dr. Silva was working on a cure for avian flu using the skelter beetle , but his research was terminated with the extinction of the sheep . Fauxlivia and Frank postulate Dr. Silva may be trying to breed the beetles in humans , who share similar biological features with sheep .
Fauxlivia and Lincoln track Dr. Silva 's location , an abandoned building , and separate . Dr. Silva locks Lincoln in a cold storage room , while Fauxlivia falls through a weakened floor and passes out . She is woken by Dr. Silva , but finds herself secured to a chair . Dr. Silva explains to Fauxlivia that he wants to see through the end of his research , needing only one more human host for a final gestation cycle to birth the queen beetle from which the beetle species , and his cure , can be sustained . Fauxlivia feels pains in her body when Dr. Silva implies the last cycle has begun , believing herself to be the host .
By then , Lincoln has broken out of the cold locker and called for backup . Frank rushes Fauxlivia to a hospital while Lincoln interrogates Dr. Silva . Dr. Silva reveals he was the last host , and implores Lincoln to remember his name as he extracts the live queen beetle from his body and dies . Meanwhile , Frank discovers Fauxlivia is pregnant ; the adrenaline had induced morning sickness symptoms . At the hospital , the fetus is found to be six weeks old . Frank realizes he was away at that time , accuses Fauxlivia of sleeping with another man , and leaves her . Fauxlivia cries to herself , realizing her child 's father is Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) from her time in the prime universe .
In a side plot , Walternate ( John Noble ) has recovered the portion of the doomsday machine that Fauxlivia has secured from the prime universe , and has discovered the formulation for Cortexiphan from his tests on Olivia , but refuses to allow it to be tested on children . When he hears of Fauxlivia 's pregnancy with his grandchild , Walternate comforts her and offers his complete support for her , believing the child to be another way to bring Peter voluntarily back to the parallel universe .
= = Production = =
" Immortality " was written by co @-@ executive producer David Wilcox and story editor Ethan Gross , and was directed by frequent Fringe collaborator Brad Anderson . Around the time the episode aired , executive producer and showrunner J.H. Wyman said of Anderson , " If we come up with this great concept and say , ' That 's going to be tricky to shoot , ' we know he 's going to transcend it because he just has that way of looking at film as a feature director where anything 's possible . " Wyman and fellow executive producer and showrunner Jeff Pinkner planned the Fauxlivia pregnancy storyline since they conceived her character ; according to them , they departed from the typical television pregnancy trope by " Fringe @-@ if [ ying ] it " and adding a science fiction element .
The episode 's premise was based on an extinct type of beetle , which caused trouble for guest actor Kirk Acevedo , as he had a fear of bugs . Pinkner commented in an interview that Acevedo " has a primal fear of bugs and had to act with a bunch of live bugs and fake bugs , all of which equally terrified him . And we didn 't know . But he was game and heroic despite . He conquered his fears , which was awesome " . Upon discovering her character Fauxlivia would be pregnant , Wyman described Anna Torv 's reaction , " She was up for it ! All our cast has such a terrific attitude . They get as excited as we do . They really embrace the ideas . She 's had a lot of challenges and she 's met them with such aplomb . She 's really terrific . She was happy ! "
In addition to Acevedo , other recurring guest actors included Seth Gabel as Lincoln Lee , Philip Winchester as Frank Stanton , and Ryan McDonald as Brandon Fayette . In his only guest starring role for the series , Alon Aboutboul appeared as the episode 's main villain , Dr. Armand Silva . Former Twin Peaks star Joan Chen made an appearance as Reiko , Walternate 's lover .
After the episode broadcast , Joshua Jackson commented in an interview with Entertainment Weekly that " apparently I ’ m [ Peter 's ] gonna be a dad . And it is like the most extreme long @-@ distance relationship , which I am pretty good at as it turns out in real life . My baby mama is in another universe . I think he has to find out , but I don ’ t know exactly how we ’ re gonna work that out yet . As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " Immortality " , with the intention of having " students learn about the influenza virus and how it spreads and impacts its host . "
= = Cultural references = =
Two allusions to the ABC show Twin Peaks were observed by journalists . The first was the presence of Joan Chen , who starred in the role of Reiko , Walternate 's mistress , and had appeared on Twin Peaks as the femme fatale Josie Packard . The second allusion is made when the second victim orders " a piece of cherry pie " at a diner , alluding to the Twin Peaks lead character Dale Cooper 's own fondness for this item . The insect Dr Silva was trying to rescue from extinction was called a " skelter beetle " , with the scientific name Mansohnium boogliosus . This is a reference to the Beatles song " Helter Skelter " , cult leader Charles Manson , who was obsessed with the song , and Vincent Bugliosi , the district attorney who prosecuted Manson . The second victim was identified as having eaten at the Abbey Road Diner , a reference to the recording studio that the Beatles used . The episode featured the song " I Want You to Want Me " by American rock band Cheap Trick and a cover of " Road To Nowhere " by French band Nouvelle Vague .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Immortality " was watched by about 3 @.@ 7 million viewers , drawing a 1 @.@ 4 / 4 ratings share on its initial broadcast , down 12 @.@ 5 percent from the previous episode 's viewership . During the first half hour , the episode placed second in its timeslot , but dropped to fourth for its second half . Its lead @-@ in , Kitchen Nightmares , also dropped 12 percent , as did all other network shows for that night . Time shifting viewing added 57 percent to the episode 's ratings for three days out , and 64 percent for a week following the first airing . This was the greatest DVR gain yet for the series in that timeslot . Despite this , Joshua Jackson urged fans to watch the series live in an interview with Entertainment Weekly a week after " Immortality " aired . He explained " I 'm a positive person in general , but we really need our Fringe fans to tune in and watch us on Fridays . We did good when we first moved , but last week we did not have a good week , ratings wise . It is going to take the people that like the show to watch the show and start the campaign and show their support if they want to see us stick around for another season . "
= = = Reviews = = =
" Immortality " generally received positive reviews from television critics . Noel Murray of The A.V. Club graded the episode an A- , explaining that " after last week ’ s semi @-@ misfire , it was reassuring to see Fringe back in good form this week , with a creepy case , a great villain , and a pertinent plot twist " . Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times ' enjoyed the " fun " scenes in the parallel universe , and stated he would not mind watching an entire show about their Fringe Division . IGN 's Ramsey Isler called the victims ' method of death in " Immortality " " one of the nastiest in recent memory , " and rated the episode 8 @.@ 5 / 10 . He concluded that he was " quite surprised by this episode . The storyline with the Dr. Silva [ sic ] and his beetles didn 't hold my interest at all , but everything else in this installment was fascinating material that expanded the mythos of the series far more than I could have imagined . " Den of Geek 's Billy Grifter wrote , " What this show is now quite good at is lulling us into a false sense of security , before pulling away the rug rather smartly . If you follow the show , like me , you probably got a slightly déjà vu feeling to the plot , as it rode the previously saddle worn concept of a scientist who has lost the perspective to realise that he 's killing people for science . "
SFScope contributor Sarah Stegall liked Frank 's final conversation concerning Fauxlivia 's pregnancy , praising the plot twist 's potential to " make for some interesting drama , perhaps even allowing the show to get past the inevitable mawkishness of most pregnancy stories . " However , there was some negative fan feedback concerning the pregnancy storyline . In reaction to this , Jeff Pinkner commented , " Our interpretation of it is that people desperately want to see Olivia and Peter together . And that Fauxlivia having a baby makes Olivia ’ s life that much harder and people are angry because of that . Anything that makes Olivia ’ s life harder , people seem to be angry at . Olivia is a hero , she will conquer all . She ’ ll deal . " After " Immortality " aired , Joshua Jackson expressed sympathy for fans of the Olivia @-@ Peter relationship , commenting that they " have been taken for quite a ride . He [ Peter ] wants to be with her [ Olivia ] , and in his mind it was her . But in her mind , he should have been able to tell the difference . "
= Renewable energy in Russia =
Renewable energy in Russia mainly consists of hydroelectric energy . The country is the fifth largest producer of renewable energy in the world , although it is 56th when hydroelectric energy is not taken into account . Some 179 TWh of Russia 's energy production comes from renewable energy sources , out of a total economically feasible potential of 1823 TWh . 16 % of Russia 's electricity is generated from hydropower , and less than 1 % is generated from all other renewable energy sources combined . Roughly 68 % of Russia 's electricity is generated from thermal power and 16 % from nuclear power .
While most of the large hydropower plants in Russia date from the Soviet era , the abundance of fossil fuels in the Soviet Union and the Russian Federation has resulted in little need for the development of other renewable energy sources . There are currently plans to develop all types of renewable energy , which is strongly encouraged by the Russian government . Russian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev has called for renewable energy to have a larger share of Russia 's energy output , and has taken steps to promote the development of renewable energy in Russia since 2008 .
= = History = =
Most sources of renewable energy are new to Russia and have experienced development in recent years . However , hydroelectric power has a long history in Russia , dating back to the Soviet era . The rapid expansion of hydroelectric power in the Soviet Union began in 1930 , when the total installed capacity equaled 600 MWh . The Soviet Union built its first windmill in 1941 , which had a capacity of 100 kW . By the time the Soviet Union collapsed in 1990 , it had a total installed capacity of 65 GWh . The largest dams that Russia currently has , including the Sayano – Shushenskaya Dam , were built in the 1950s and 1960s . From the 1970s to 2000 , the Soviet Union and Russia focused mainly on " traditional " power sources : thermal- , hydro- and nuclear power . However , in 1986 , the Soviet government announced new energy goals , which included further hydroelectric plant construction as well as the start of small @-@ scale solar and wind use for electricity production . Overall , Soviet energy policy focused on nuclear and thermal power , although renewable energy was not completely neglected . The dissolution of the Soviet Union prevented those goals from being fulfilled .
The construction of the large dams prominent in Soviet times largely ended in the 1990s with the creation of the Russian Federation . In addition , due to the post @-@ Soviet recession , much of the country 's infrastructure , including dams , fell into disrepair . Use of oil and gas for energy took priority in Russia and renewable energy was ignored . This policy lasted until 2008 , when Medvedev announced reforms to Russia 's energy policies in an attempt to focus more on renewable energy . Since then , there has been rapid development of new renewable energy sources .
= = Current status = =
Russia is one of the world 's largest producers of energy , most of which it obtains from oil , natural gas and coal . The country 's focus on those resources for production and export , which constitute 80 % of foreign trade earnings , means it has paid little attention to renewable energy . Out of the 203 GW of electric generation capacity that Russia has , 44 GW comes from hydroelectricity , 307 MW from geothermal , 15 MW from wind and negligible amounts from other renewable sources . In 2009 , the Russian energy industry generated a total 992 TWh of electricity , 176 TWh of which was produced by hydroelectric power stations . Some of Russia 's hydroelectric power plants are outdated and are in need of additional investment , as shown by the accident at the Sayano @-@ Shushenskaya HPP in 2009 .
President Dmitry Medvedev announced in May 2010 that the Russian government would strongly consider purchasing electricity generated from renewable energy sources in an attempt to encourage development of renewable energy . The government has plans for 4 @.@ 5 % of Russia 's energy output to come from non @-@ hydroelectric renewable energy sources . Additionally , in November 2010 , the government approved a US $ 300 billion program to make factories and buildings more energy efficient ; it also announced plans to construct eight energy @-@ efficient lamp production plants , promote recycling and support the construction of a hybrid car plant . Medvedev announced in late 2009 that he wanted to cut Russian energy consumption by 40 % by 2020 . At the moment , development is slowed by low investment , economic instability , low public demand and low tariffs on heat and electricity . Subsidies for natural gas are another obstacle to renewable energy development .
= = Hydropower = =
Hydropower is the most used form of renewable energy in Russia , and there is large potential in Russia for more use of hydropower . Russia has 102 hydropower plants with capacities of over 100 MW , making it fifth in the world for hydropower production . It is also second in the world for hydro potential , yet only 20 % of this potential is developed . Russia is home to 9 % of the world 's hydro resources , mostly in Siberia and the country 's far east . At the end of 2005 , the generating capacity from hydroelectric sources in Russia was 45 @,@ 700 MW , and an additional 5 @,@ 648 MW was under construction . The World Energy Council believes that Russia has much potential for using its hydro resources , with a theoretical potential of about 2 @,@ 295 TWh / yr , with 852 TWh being economically feasible .
The largest dams in Russia are the Sayano @-@ Shushenskaya Dam , which has an installed capacity of 6 @,@ 400 MW ; the Krasnoyarsk Dam ( 6 @,@ 000 MW ) ; the Bratsk Dam ( 4 @,@ 500 MW ) ; the Ust @-@ Ilimsk Dam ( 4 @,@ 320 MW ) and the Zeya Dam ( 1 @,@ 330 MW ) . Some of the most recent dam projects are the Bureya Dam ( 2010 MW ) and the Irganai Dam ( 800 MW ) . The Boguchany Dam ( 1920 MW ) , Zelenchuk Dam ( 320 MW ) , Zaramag Dam ( 352 MW ) and Nizhne @-@ Chereksky ( 60 MW ) are currently under construction . RusHydro is the largest hydroelectric company in Russia and the second largest hydroelectric producer in the world . In October 2010 , China Yangtze Power , the largest hydropower corporation in China , and EuroSibEnergo , a Russian energy company , signed a cooperation agreement to expand hydroelectric energy production in Russia and export energy to China 's northern territories . The West Siberian Generating Company has plans to start construction of eight mini @-@ hydroelectric power plants in the Altai region before 2015 .
On 17 August 2009 , there was an explosion at the Sayano @-@ Shushenskaya hydroelectric power plant , which killed 75 plant workers and injured 13 . The Federal Service for Ecological , Technological , and Nuclear Supervision 's investigation concluded that poor management and technical flaws were responsible . The explosion was caused by a 29 @-@ year @-@ old turbine that experienced an uncontrolled and excessive vibration . Since then , officials from RusHydro , the operator of the plant , have called for better oversight and safety at hydroelectric plants .
= = Geothermal energy = =
Geothermal energy is the second most used form of renewable energy in Russia but represents less than 1 % of the total energy production . The first geothermal power plant in Russia was built at Pauzhetka , Kamchatka , in 1966 , with a capacity of 5 MW . The total geothermal installed capacity in 2005 was 79 MW , with 50 MW coming from a plant at Verkhne @-@ Mutnovsky . Russia is currently developing a 100 MW plant at Mutnovsky and a 50 MW plant in Kaliningrad . Most geothermal resources are currently used for heating settlements in the North Caucasus and Kamchatka . Half of the geothermal production is used to heat homes and industrial buildings , one third is used to heat greenhouses and 13 % is used for industrial processes .
In October 2010 , Sergei Shmatko , Russia 's energy minister , stated that Russia and Iceland would work together to develop Kamchatka 's geothermal energy sources . Russia is also investigating foreign investment possibilities for developing geothermal energy in the Kuril Islands .
= = Solar energy = =
Solar energy is virtually nonexistent in Russia , despite its large potential in the country . The first Russian solar plant was opened in Belgorod Oblast in November 2010 . Russia has a total theoretical potential of 2 @,@ 213 TWh / yr for solar energy , with an economically feasible amount of 101 TWh . The southern parts of Russia , especially the North Caucasus , have the greatest potential for solar energy . Russia plans to set up an overall solar capacity of 150 MW by 2020 .
Plans for the construction of a new solar plant on the Black Sea have been announced and the plant is expected to begin operations by 2012 . This plant , which will have a capacity of 12 @.@ 3 MW , is being built by Rusnano and Renova . Solar Wind LLC and Rusnano are building a plant that will produce double @-@ sided solar panels , which will be able to collect solar energy from both sides . Construction is expected to finish in early 2011 and the plant will have an annual manufacturing capacity of 30 MW . Nitol Solar is the largest Russian company in the area of scientific development and manufacture of products used to generate solar energy . Russia and India are currently discussing the possibility of a joint venture to produce silicon wafers for the creation of photovoltaic cells .
An auction in 2013 awarded contracts for 399 MW of solar , and one in 2014 an additional 505 MW . A third auction in 2015 awarded 280 MW of solar .
In 2015 , the Russian Solar Energy Association predicted that cumulative solar power capacity in the country would rise to 1 @,@ 500 MW by 2020 .
= = Wind energy = =
Russia has a long history of small @-@ scale wind energy use but has never developed large @-@ scale commercial wind energy production . Most of its current wind production is located in agricultural areas with low population densities where connection to the main energy grid is difficult . Russia is estimated to have a total potential of 80 @,@ 000 TWh / yr for wind energy , 6 @,@ 218 TWh / yr of which is economically feasible . Most of this potential is found in the southern steppes and the seacoasts of Russia , although in many of these areas the population density is less than 1 person per square km . This low population density means that there is little existing electricity infrastructure currently in place , which hinders development of these resources . In 2006 , Russia had a total installed wind capacity of 15 MW . Current Russian wind energy projects have a combined capacity of over 1 @,@ 700 MW . The Russian Wind Energy Association predicts that if Russia achieves its goal of having 4 @.@ 5 % of its energy come from renewable sources by 2020 , the country will have a total wind capacity of 7 GW .
In 2010 , plans for the construction of a wind power plant in Yeisk , on the Sea of Azov , were announced . It is expected to initially have a capacity of 50 MW , which will become 100 MW a year later . German engineering company Siemens announced in July 2010 , following a visit to Russia by Chancellor Angela Merkel , that it would build wind power plants in Russia . By 2015 , the company hopes to install 1 @,@ 250 MW of capacity in Russia .
= = Tidal energy = =
Russia has many tidal energy resources at its disposal , although they are currently underdeveloped as well . The Kola Bay and Sea of Okhotsk alone could produce 100 GW with tidal power stations , and the national energy potential from tidal energy can compete with current total energy production . The currently active Kislaya Guba Tidal Power Station is the largest tidal power facility in Russia and has the fourth largest capacity ( 1 @.@ 7 MW ) among the world 's tidal power plants .
Plans for constructing an 800 MW tidal power plant in the Barents Sea were announced in 2008 . Possible long @-@ term projects include the Penzhin Tidal Power Plant , which could become the largest power station in the world , with an installed capacity of up to 87 GW and an annual production of 200 TWh .
= = Biofuel = =
Russia 's biofuel industry is new , but it has been developing rapidly in recent years . Russia is one of the largest grain producers , has a well @-@ developed ethyl alcohol industry and has increasing rapeseed ( often used to create biodiesel ) production rates . The Russian government declared in 2008 that it would play an active role in developing the biofuel industry by building 30 new biofuel plants and providing tax breaks and subsidized interest rates to biofuel energy projects . Although these plans were delayed , on 13 September 2010 , Medvedev announced that construction would begin in early 2011 . Biobutanol , the biofuel produced by these plants , would be produced from timber by @-@ products , such as woodchips and sawdust .
Lada , a Russian car manufacturer , produced its first biofuel @-@ powered automobile in November 2010 . Deputy Transportation Minister Valery Okulov stated that Russian companies are currently developing helicopters that run on biofuel . Russia hopes to export biofuel to the European Union ; the country 's Biotechnology Corporation estimates that Russia is capable of exporting 40 million tons of biofuel annually .
= = Biomass = =
Biomass is already used in some parts of Russia to provide a total of 1 % , or 9 Twh / year , of Russia 's total energy . However , due to Russia 's vast forest and peat reserves , it has a total biomass technical potential of 431 Twh / year , of which 285 Twh / year is economically feasible . Most of this potential is found in northwestern Russia , which has a developed pulp and paper industry that can provide wood @-@ based waste to use as biomass energy .
Use of peat for energy production was prominent during the Soviet Union , with the peak occurring in 1965 and declining from that point . In 1929 , over 40 % of the Soviet Union 's electric energy came from peat , which dropped to 1 % by 1980 . Currently , Russia is responsible for 17 % of the world 's peat production , and 20 % of the peat that it produces , 1 @.@ 5 million tons , is used for energy purposes . Shatura Power Station in Moscow Oblast and Kirov Power Station in Kirov Oblast are the two largest peat power stations in the world .
= Somebody to Love ( 30 Rock ) =
" Somebody to Love " is the sixth episode of the second season of 30 Rock , and the twenty @-@ seventh episode overall . It was written by Kay Cannon and the series ' creator , Tina Fey , and was directed by Beth McCarthy . The episode first aired on November 15 , 2007 on the NBC network in the United States . Guest stars in this episode include Hamza Ahmed , Fred Armisen , Kevin Brown , Chris Caniglia , Grizz Chapman , Matthieu Cornillon , Michael Devine , Edie Falco , John Lutz , Maulik Pancholy , Christianne Tisdale and Kristen Wiig .
The episode focuses on Jack Donaghy 's ( Alec Baldwin ) first meeting with Celeste " C.C. " Cunningham ( Edie Falco ) ; Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) believes that her new neighbor , Raheem Haddad ( Fred Armisen ) , is a terrorist ; and Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) accidentally loses a pair of Jack 's trousers .
= = Plot = =
At a party in honor of Robert Novak , which is being thrown by John McCain and Jack Bauer , Jack Donaghy meets C.C. , the Democratic congresswoman for Vermont . After the party , Jack and C.C. go back to Jack 's apartment and have sex together . The following morning , Jack discovers that C.C. is suing the Sheinhardt Wig Company , the fictional subsidiary of General Electric ( GE ) and owner of NBC , the company that Jack works for . This is because the company is allegedly leaking Auburn Fantasy Dye Number 260 into the Chicktaugua River , causing the children of Chickataugua to turn orange . After discovering that Jack works for GE , C.C. leaves and goes to work at Bill Clinton 's office in Harlem . Jack and Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) , follow her there and Jack and C.C. decide to carry on their relationship in secret . Liz is worried when she smells maple syrup in her apartment and Jack tells her that it could be the chemical agent Northrax . She suspects that her new neighbour , Raheem ( Fred Armisen ) , is a terrorist because he has maps in his apartment and she has seen him and his brother , Hakeem ( Hamza Ahmed ) , on an agility course in the park . Liz is shocked to discover that the pair are auditioning for The Amazing Race and , in fact , not terrorists .
After bringing Jack 's suit back from the dry cleaners , Kenneth discovers that he has lost the suit 's trousers . Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) , James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) and Josh Girard ( Lonny Ross ) pay him to complete various dares so that he can pay for a new pair of trousers .
= = Production = =
Fred Armisen and Kristen Wiig , who play Raheem and Candace Van der Shark in the episode , have both appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Tina Fey was the head writer on Saturday Night Live from 1999 until 2006 . Various other cast members of Saturday Night Live have appeared on 30 Rock , including Rachel Dratch , Will Forte , Jason Sudeikis , Molly Shannon and Chris Parnell . Tina Fey and Tracy Morgan have both been part of the main cast of Saturday Night Live . Alec Baldwin has also hosted Saturday Night Live fifteen times , the highest amount of episodes of any host of the series .
This episode was the second episode , after " Greenzo " , to air since the start of the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike , which began on November 5 , 2007 and ended on February 12 , 2008 , 100 days later . This episode was the first to contain reference to the strike . The reference occurs when C.C. is being interviewed on MSNBC and the news crawl below reads " News crawl affected by writers strike . Using repeat text from previous season . " This episode was filmed in early October , 2007 . This was the ninth episode written by Tina Fey and the second written by Kay Cannon . It was the third episode directed by Beth McCarthy .
= = Reception = =
" Somebody to Love " brought in an average of 6 @.@ 4 million viewers . The episode also achieved a 3 @.@ 2 / 8 in the key 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic , the highest result in that demographic since the episode " SeinfeldVision " aired on October 4 , 2007 . The 3 @.@ 2 refers to 3 @.@ 2 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the U.S. , and the 8 refers to 8 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast in the U.S .. 30 Rock ranked in first place in the male 18 – 34 demographic , for its 8 : 30 p.m – 9 : 00 pm timeslot .
Robert Canning of IGN thought that the episode " was 30 Rock ’ s best episode of the season [ so far ] , if not the best episode ever from this young series . " Canning also said that " this was just a fantastic , funny episode of 30 Rock . It was also an episode that once again proved the character of Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) , who was completely absent from this half @-@ hour , simply isn 't necessary when you 've got Tracy Jordan talking to a pigeon on a trash can . " Canning rated this episode " 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 . " Matt Webb Mitovich of TV Guide wrote that " it 's not surprising that – in my opinion , at least – it fell juuuuuuust [ sic ] a bit short . It 's almost as if the funniest parts of the Edie Falco story were played by [ Kristen ] Wiig in the Lifetime movie . " He thought that " the ' Liz suspects the neighbor is a terrorist ' story played out rather well . " Jeff Labrecque of Entertainment Weekly wrote that " Overall , [ this was ] another splendid [ episode ] . My only beef was with the Verizon bit . 30 Rock normally does a splendid job of balancing the corporate elements of television , often utilizing it for comic fodder . But the winking cell phone banter lacked subtlety , and it seemed to me like the show was trying to have its cake and eat it , too . "
Beth McCarthy , the director of this episode , was nominated for the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Comedy Series .
= Gibanica =
Gibanica ( Serbian Cyrillic : Гибаница , [ ˈɡibanit ͡ sa ] ) is a traditional pastry dish from Serbia popular all over the Balkans . It is usually made with white cheese and eggs . Recipes can range from sweet to savoury , and from simple to festive and elaborate multi @-@ layered cakes .
A derivative of the Serbian verb gibati , meaning " to fold ; sway , swing , rock " , the pastry was mentioned in Serbian linguist Vuk Stefanović Karadžić 's Serbian dictionary in 1818 . It is traditionally served for breakfast with kefir or plain yogurt . Other than in the Balkans , Gibanica can be found worldwide in restaurants serving Serbian cuisine . It is one of the most popular and recognizable pastry dishes from the Balkans , whether served on festive occasions , or as a comforting family snack . In Serbia , the dish is often consumed at traditional events such as Christmas , Easter and Slava .
= = Etymology = =
In the vocabulary of the Yugoslav Academy , as well as in the etymological dictionary of Slavic languages , the word gibanica is a derivative of the Serbian verb gíbati / ги ́ бати , which means " to fold ; sway , swing , rock " . There are also word derivatives like the Serbo @-@ Croatian word gibaničar / гибаничар ( one who makes gibanica , one who loves to eat gibanica , and one who always imposes as a guest and at someone else 's expense . )
= = History = =
The word gibanica was first mentioned in the Balkans in the 17th century as a last name , or nickname . The Serbian word gìbanica / гѝбаница was included in the Serbian dictionary , written in 1818 by Serbian philologist and linguist Vuk Stefanović Karadžić . Karadžić traveled widely in the Balkans and recorded interesting facts relating to Serbian tradition and customs . He explained that gibanica " is a pie with soft cheese between the dough mixed with kaymak , milk and eggs . "
During the Second World War , while hiding from Nazi German forces in the forests of Yugoslavia , Serbian Chetniks made the so @-@ called Chetniks Gibanica from ingredients that they had received from peasants . When the commander of the Yugoslav Partisans , Josip Broz Tito , and Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović met at Ravna Gora in 1941 , Gibanica and potato under sač with kaymak were served specifically for them .
In 2007 , the Gibanica officially became an export brand of Serbia . At the Brand Fair in Belgrade , the food industry " Alexandria " presented a half @-@ baked and frozen gibanica for the international market .
= = Preparation = =
The original recipe for Gibanica included traditionally homemade phyllo dough and cow 's milk cheese . Homemade cheese can be feta or sirene . The pie is usually made as " Gužvara " ( Crumpled pie ) , so the phyllo dough in the middle is crumpled and filled . Besides cheese , the fill contains eggs , milk , kaymak , lard , salt and water . Also , stuffing may include spinach , meat , nettle , potato and onion . In order to speed up preparation , phyllo dough from a store can be used and sunflower oil or olive oil can be used instead of lard .
Gibanica is a round @-@ shaped pastry with crispy golden @-@ brown crust . The inside is multi @-@ layered , and includes crumpled dough with small pieces of cheese between each layer . Gibanica can be served hot in the morning and is commonly accompanied by yogurt .
= = = Variants = = =
Many varieties of Gibanica and related dishes can be found throughout the Balkans ; different gibanica are known as part of the national cuisines of Bosnia and Herzegovina , Croatia , the Republic of Macedonia , Serbia , Slovenia , and Friuli @-@ Venezia Giulia ( Italy , where it is called ghibanizza ) , Greece , and Bulgaria , where it is usually called Banitsa .
From the basic recipe , many local specialties have evolved . Prekmurska gibanica , for example , is a " fancy " multi @-@ layered cake from Prekmurje in Slovenia , served as a dessert course on festive occasions . Međimurska gibanica , from the neighbouring Međimurje region of Croatia , is a closely related but simpler and less " formal " dish consisting of four layers of fillings ( prepared fresh cheese ( quark ) , poppyseed , apple and walnut ) . Another gibanica variety , called Prleška gibanica , is known from Prlekija to the west of the Mur River .
The basic concept of Gibanica , a cake or pie involving a combination of pastry with cheese in differentiated layers often combined with layers of various other fillings , is common in the cuisines of the Balkans , Anatolia , and the Eastern Mediterranean . For example , a similar dish known as Shabiyat ( Sh 'abiyat , Shaabiyat ) is part of the cuisine of Syria and Lebanon . Gibanica can also be considered to resemble a type of cheese strudel , with which it likely shares a common ancestry in the pastry dishes of the region , and the cuisines of the Byzantine and Ottoman empires .
= = In culture = =
Gibanica is one of the most popular and recognizable pastry dishes from the Balkans , whether served on festive occasions , or as a comforting family snack . In Serbia , the dish is often consumed at traditional events such as Christmas , Easter and Slava . According to the Serbian media , the largest Gibanica ever made was in the town of Mionica in 2007 . It weighed over 1 @,@ 000 kg , and was applied for inclusion in the Guinness Book of Records . 330 kg of phyllo dough , 330 kg of cheese , 3 @,@ 300 eggs , 30 l. of oil , 110 l. of mineral water , 50 kg of lard and 500 packets of baking powder went into its creation . In Serbia , as well as in neighboring countries , there are festivals dedicated to pies . One of them , called the Gibanica festival or Days of Banitsa , is held each year in Bela Palanka . It first took place in 2005 .
= = Nutritional information = =
= Bill Russell =
William Felton " Bill " Russell ( born February 12 , 1934 ) is an American retired professional basketball player . Russell played center for the Boston Celtics of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) from 1956 to 1969 . A five @-@ time NBA Most Valuable Player and a twelve @-@ time All @-@ Star , he was the centerpiece of the Celtics dynasty , winning eleven NBA championships during his thirteen @-@ year career . Along with Henri Richard of the National Hockey League 's Montreal Canadiens , Russell holds the record for the most championships won by an athlete in a North American sports league . Before his professional career , Russell led the University of San Francisco to two consecutive NCAA championships ( 1955 , 1956 ) . He also won a gold medal at the 1956 Summer Olympics as captain of the U.S. national basketball team .
Russell is widely considered one of the best players in NBA history . He was listed as between 6 ft 9 in ( 2 @.@ 06 m ) and 6 ft 10 in ( 2 @.@ 08 m ) , and his shot @-@ blocking and man @-@ to @-@ man defense were major reasons for the Celtics ' success . He also inspired his teammates to elevate their own defensive play . Russell was equally notable for his rebounding abilities . He led the NBA in rebounds four times , had a dozen consecutive seasons of 1 @,@ 000 or more rebounds , and remains second all @-@ time in both total rebounds and rebounds per game . He is one of just two NBA players ( the other being prominent rival Wilt Chamberlain ) to have grabbed more than 50 rebounds in a game . Though never the focal point of the Celtics ' offense , Russell also scored 14 @,@ 522 career points and provided effective passing .
Playing in the wake of pioneers like Earl Lloyd , Chuck Cooper , and Sweetwater Clifton , Russell was the first African American player to achieve superstar status in the NBA . He also served a three @-@ season ( 1966 – 69 ) stint as player @-@ coach for the Celtics , becoming the first African American NBA coach . For his accomplishments in the Civil Rights Movement on and off the court , Barack Obama awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2011 .
Russell is one of only seven players in history to win an NCAA Championship , an NBA Championship , and an Olympic Gold Medal . He was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame and the National Collegiate Basketball Hall of Fame . He was selected into the NBA 25th Anniversary Team in 1971 and the NBA 35th Anniversary Team in 1980 , and named as one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996 , one of only four players to receive all three honors . In 2007 , he was enshrined in the FIBA Hall of Fame . In 2009 , the NBA announced that the NBA Finals Most Valuable Player trophy would be named the Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award in honor of Russell .
= = Early years = =
Bill Russell was born to Charles Russell and Katie Russell in West Monroe , Louisiana . Like almost all southern towns and cities of that time , West Monroe was a highly segregated place , and the Russells often struggled with racism in their daily lives . Once , Russell 's father was refused service at a gas station until the staff had taken care of all the white customers . When his father attempted to leave and find a different station , the attendant stuck a shotgun in his face and threatened to kill him if he didn 't stay and wait his turn . At another time , Russell 's mother was walking outside in a fancy dress when a policeman accosted her . He told her to go home and remove the dress , which he described as " white woman 's clothing " . Because large numbers of blacks were moving to the West during World War II to look for work there , Russell 's father moved the family out of Louisiana when Russell was eight years old and settled them in Oakland , California . While there the family fell into poverty , and Russell spent his childhood living in a series of public housing projects .
Charles Russell is described as a " stern , hard man " who was initially a janitor in a paper factory ( a typical low paid , intellectually unchallenging " Negro Job " , as sports journalist John Taylor commented ) , but later became a trucker when World War II broke out . Being closer to his mother Katie than to his father , Russell received a major emotional blow when she suddenly died when he was 12 . His father gave up his trucking job and became a steel worker to be closer to his semi @-@ orphaned children . Russell has stated that his father became his childhood hero , later followed up by Minneapolis Lakers superstar George " Mr. Basketball " Mikan , who he met when he was in high school .
In his early years , Russell struggled to develop his skills as a basketball player . Although Russell was a good runner and jumper and had large hands , he simply did not understand the game and was cut from the team in junior high school . As a freshman at McClymonds High School in Oakland , California , Russell was almost cut again . However , coach George Powles saw Russell 's raw athletic potential and encouraged him to work on his fundamentals . Since Russell 's previous experiences with white authority figures were often negative , he was delighted to receive warm words from his white coach . He worked hard and used the benefits of a growth spurt to become a decent basketball player , but it was not until his junior and senior years that he began to excel , winning back to back high school state championships . Russell soon became noted for his unusual style of defense . He later recalled , " To play good defense ... it was told back then that you had to stay flatfooted at all times to react quickly . When I started to jump to make defensive plays and to block shots , I was initially corrected , but I stuck with it , and it paid off . "
One of Russell 's high school basketball teammates was future Baseball Hall @-@ of @-@ Famer Frank Robinson .
= = College career = =
Russell was ignored by college recruiters and did not receive a single letter of interest until recruiter Hal DeJulio from the University of San Francisco ( USF ) watched him in a high school game . DeJulio was not impressed by Russell 's meager scoring and " atrocious fundamentals " , but sensed that the young center had an extraordinary instinct for the game , especially in the clutch . When DeJulio offered Russell a scholarship , the latter eagerly accepted . Sports journalist John Taylor described it as a watershed in Russell 's life , because Russell realized that basketball was his one chance to escape poverty and racism ; as a consequence , Russell swore to make the best of it .
At USF , Russell became the new starting center for coach Phil Woolpert . Woolpert emphasized defense and deliberate half @-@ court play , concepts that favored defensive standout Russell . Woolpert 's choices of how to deploy his players were unaffected by issues of skin color . In 1954 , he became the first coach of a major college basketball squad to start three African American players : Russell , K. C. Jones and Hal Perry . In his USF years , Russell used his relative lack of bulk to develop a unique style of defense : instead of purely guarding the opposing center , he used his quickness and speed to play help defense against opposing forwards and aggressively challenge their shots . Combining the stature and shot @-@ blocking skills of a center with the foot speed of a guard , Russell became the centerpiece of a USF team that soon became a force in college basketball . After USF kept Holy Cross star Tom Heinsohn scoreless in an entire half , Sports Illustrated wrote , " If [ Russell ] ever learns to hit the basket , they 're going to have to rewrite the rules . "
However , the games were often difficult for the USF squad . Russell and his African American teammates became targets of racist jeers , particularly on the road . In one notable incident , hotels in Oklahoma City refused to admit Russell and his black teammates while they were in town for the 1954 All @-@ College Tournament . In protest , the whole team decided to camp out in a closed college dorm , which was later called an important bonding experience for the group . Decades later , Russell explained that his experiences hardened him against abuse of all kinds . " I never permitted myself to be a victim , " he said .
Racism also shaped his lifelong paradigm as a team player . " At that time , " he has said , " it was never acceptable that a black player was the best . That did not happen ... My junior year in college , I had what I thought was the one of the best college seasons ever . We won 28 out of 29 games . We won the National Championship . I was the [ Most Valuable Player ] at the Final Four . I was first team All American . I averaged over 20 points and over 20 rebounds , and I was the only guy in college blocking shots . So after the season was over , they had a Northern California banquet , and they picked another center as Player of the Year in Northern California . Well , that let me know that if I were to accept these as the final judges of my career I would die a bitter old man . " So he made a conscious decision , he said , to put the team first and foremost , and not worry about individual achievements .
On the hardwood , his experiences were far more pleasant . Russell led USF to NCAA championships in 1955 and 1956 , including a string of 55 consecutive victories . He became known for his strong defense and shot @-@ blocking skills , once denying 13 shots in a game . UCLA coach John Wooden called Russell " the greatest defensive man I 've ever seen " . During his college career , Russell averaged 20 @.@ 7 points per game and 20 @.@ 3 rebounds per game . Besides basketball , Russell represented USF in track and field events . He competed in the 440 yards ( 400 m ) race , which he could complete in 49 @.@ 6 seconds . He also participated in the high jump ; Track & Field News ranked him as the seventh @-@ best high jumper in the world in 1956 . That year , Russell won high jump titles at the Central California AAU meet , the Pacific AAU meet , and the West Coast Relays . One of his highest jumps occurred at the West Coast Relays , where he achieved a mark of 6 feet 9 1 ⁄ 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 064 m ) .
After his years at USF , the Harlem Globetrotters invited Russell to join their exhibition basketball squad . Russell , who was sensitive to any racial prejudice , was enraged by the fact that owner Abe Saperstein would only discuss the matter with Woolpert . While Saperstein spoke to Woolpert in a meeting , Globetrotters assistant coach Harry Hanna tried to entertain Russell with jokes . The USF center was livid after this snub and declined the offer : he reasoned that if Saperstein was too smart to speak with him , then he was too smart to play for Saperstein . Instead , Russell made himself eligible for the 1956 NBA draft .
= = 1956 NBA draft = =
In the 1956 NBA draft , Boston Celtics coach Red Auerbach had set his sights on Russell , thinking his defensive toughness and rebounding prowess were the missing pieces the Celtics needed . In retrospect , Auerbach 's thoughts were unorthodox . In that period , centers and forwards were defined by their offensive output , and their ability to play defense was secondary .
However , Boston 's chances of getting Russell seemed slim . Because the Celtics had finished second in the previous season and the worst teams had the highest draft picks , the Celtics had slipped too low in the draft order to pick Russell . In addition , Auerbach had already used his territorial pick to acquire talented forward Tom Heinsohn . But Auerbach knew that the Rochester Royals , who owned the first draft pick , already had a skilled rebounder in Maurice Stokes , were looking for an outside shooting guard and were unwilling to pay Russell the $ 25 @,@ 000 signing bonus he requested . The St. Louis Hawks , who owned the second pick , drafted Russell , but were vying for Celtics center Ed Macauley , a six @-@ time All @-@ Star who had roots in St. Louis . Auerbach agreed to trade Macauley , who had previously asked to be traded to St. Louis in order to be with his sick son , if the Hawks gave up Russell . The owner of St Louis called Auerbach later and demanded more in the trade . Not only did he want Macauley , who was the Celtics premier player at the time , he wanted Cliff Hagan , who had been serving in the military for three years and had not yet played for the Celtics . After much debate , Auerbach agreed to give up Hagan , and the Hawks made the trade .
During that same draft , Boston also drafted guard K. C. Jones , Russell 's former USF teammate . Thus , in one night , the Celtics managed to draft three future Hall of Famers : Russell , Jones and Heinsohn . The Russell draft @-@ day trade was later called one of the most important trades in the history of North American sports .
= = 1956 Olympics = =
Before his NBA rookie year , Russell was the captain of the U.S. national basketball team that competed at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne , Australia . Avery Brundage , head of the International Olympic Committee , argued that Russell had already signed a professional contract and thus was no longer an amateur , but Russell prevailed . He had the option to skip the tournament and play a full season for the Celtics , but he was determined to play in the Olympics . He later commented that he would have participated in the high jump if he had been snubbed by the basketball team . Under coach Gerald Tucker , Russell helped the national team win the gold medal in Melbourne , defeating the Soviet Union 89 – 55 in the final game . The United States dominated the tournament , winning by an average of 53 @.@ 5 points per game . Russell led the team in scoring , averaging 14 @.@ 1 points per game for the competition . His Celtics teammate K. C. Jones joined him on the Olympic squad and contributed 10 @.@ 9 points per game .
= = Professional career = =
= = = 1956 – 59 = = =
Russell could not join the Celtics for the 1956 – 57 season until December , due to his Olympic commitment . After rejoining the Celtics , Russell played 48 games , averaging 14 @.@ 7 points per game and a league @-@ high 19 @.@ 6 rebounds per game . During this season , the Celtics featured five future Hall @-@ of @-@ Famers : center Russell , forwards Heinsohn and Frank Ramsey , and guards Bill Sharman and Bob Cousy . ( K. C. Jones did not play for the Celtics until 1958 because of military service . )
Russell 's first Celtics game came on December 22 , 1956 , against the St. Louis Hawks , led by star forward Bob Pettit , who held several all @-@ time scoring records . Auerbach assigned Russell to shut down St. Louis 's main scorer , and the rookie impressed the Boston crowd with his man @-@ to @-@ man defense and shot @-@ blocking . In previous years , the Celtics had been a high @-@ scoring team , but lacked the defensive presence needed to close out tight games . However , with the added defensive presence of Russell , the Celtics had laid the foundation for a dynasty . The team utilized a strong defensive approach to the game , forcing opposing teams to commit many turnovers , which led to many easy fast break points . Russell was an elite help defender who allowed the Celtics to play the so @-@ called " Hey , Bill " defense : whenever a Celtic requested additional defensive help , he would shout " Hey , Bill ! " Russell was so quick that he could run over for a quick double team and make it back in time if the opponents tried to find the open man . He also became famous for his shot @-@ blocking skills : pundits called his blocks " Wilsonburgers " , referring to the Wilson NBA basketballs he " shoved back into the faces of opposing shooters " . This skill also allowed the other Celtics to play their men aggressively : if they were beaten , they knew that Russell was guarding the basket . This approach allowed the Celtics to finish with a 44 – 28 regular season record , the team 's second @-@ best record since beginning play in the 1946 – 47 season , and guaranteed a post @-@ season appearance .
However , Russell also received negative attention . Constantly provoked by New York Knicks center Ray Felix during a game , he complained to coach Auerbach . The latter told him to take matters into his own hands , so after the next provocation , Russell punched Felix unconscious , paid a $ 25 fine and was no longer a target of cheap fouls . With his teammates , Russell had a cordial relationship , with the notable exception of fellow rookie and old rival Heinsohn . Heinsohn felt that Russell resented him because the former was named the 1957 NBA Rookie of the Year : many people thought that Russell was more important , but Russell also had only played half the season . Russell also ignored Heinsohn 's plea to give his cousin an autograph , and openly said to Heinsohn that he deserved half of his $ 300 Rookie of the Year check . The relationship between the two rookies remained reserved . On the other hand , despite their different ethnic backgrounds and lack of common off @-@ court interests , his relationship with Celtics point guard and fan favorite Bob Cousy was amicable .
In Game 1 of the Eastern Division Finals , the Celtics met the Syracuse Nationals , who were led by Dolph Schayes . In Russell 's first NBA playoff game , he finished with 16 points and 31 rebounds , along with a reported 7 blocks . ( At the time , blocks were not yet an officially registered statistic . ) After the Celtics ' 108 – 89 victory , Schayes quipped , " How much does that guy make a year ? It would be to our advantage if we paid him off for five years to get away from us in the rest of this series . " The Celtics swept the Nationals in three games to earn the franchise 's first appearance in the NBA Finals .
In the NBA Finals , the Celtics met the St. Louis Hawks , who were again led by Bob Pettit , as well as former Celtic Ed Macauley . The teams split the first six games , and the tension was so high that , in Game 3 , Celtics coach Auerbach | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
punched his colleague Ben Kerner and received a $ 300 fine . In the highly competitive Game 7 , Russell tried his best to slow down Pettit , but it was Heinsohn who scored 37 points and kept the Celtics alive . However , Russell contributed by completing the famous " Coleman Play " . Here , Russell ran down Hawks guard Jack Coleman , who had received an outlet pass at midcourt , and blocked his shot despite the fact that Russell had been standing at his own baseline when the ball was thrown to Coleman . The block preserved Boston 's slim 103 – 102 lead with 40 @-@ odd seconds left to play in regulation , saving the game for the Celtics . In the second overtime , both teams were in serious foul trouble : Heinsohn had fouled out , and the Hawks were so depleted that they had only 7 players left . With the Celtics leading 125 – 123 with one second left , the Hawks had the ball at their own baseline . Reserve guard Alex Hannum threw a long alley oop pass to Pettit , and Pettit 's tip @-@ in rolled indecisively on the rim for several seconds before rolling out again . The Celtics won , earning their first NBA Championship .
Energized by their championship , the Celtics won 14 straight games to start the 1957 – 58 season , and they kept rolling . Russell averaged 16 @.@ 6 points per game and a league @-@ record average of 22 @.@ 7 rebounds per game . An interesting phenomenon began that year : Russell was voted the NBA Most Valuable Player , but only named to the All @-@ NBA Second Team . This would occur repeatedly throughout his career . The NBA reasoned that other centers were better all @-@ round players than Russell , but no player was more valuable to his team . The Celtics won 49 games and easily made the first berth in the 1958 NBA Playoffs , and made the 1958 NBA Finals against their familiar rivals , the St. Louis Hawks . The teams split the first two games , but then Russell went down with a foot injury in Game 3 and only returned for Game 6 . The Celtics surprisingly won Game 4 , but the Hawks prevailed in Games 5 and 6 , with Pettit scoring 50 points in the deciding Game 6 .
In the following 1958 – 59 season , Russell continued his strong play , averaging 16 @.@ 7 points per game and 23 @.@ 0 rebounds per game in the regular season . The Celtics broke a league record by winning 52 games , and Russell 's strong performance once again helped lead the Celtics through the post @-@ season , as they returned to the NBA Finals . In the 1959 NBA Finals , the Celtics recaptured the NBA title , sweeping the Minneapolis Lakers 4 – 0 . Lakers head coach John Kundla praised Russell , stating , " We don 't fear the Celtics without Bill Russell . Take him out and we can beat them ... He 's the guy who whipped us psychologically . "
= = = 1959 – 66 = = =
In the 1959 – 60 season , the NBA witnessed the debut of legendary 7 ft 1 in ( 2 @.@ 16 m ) Philadelphia Warriors center Wilt Chamberlain , who averaged a record 37 @.@ 6 points per game in his rookie year . On November 7 , 1959 , Russell 's Celtics hosted Chamberlain 's Warriors , and pundits called the matchup between the best offensive and best defensive center " The Big Collision " and " Battle of the Titans " . Both men awed onlookers with " nakedly awesome athleticism " , and while Chamberlain outscored Russell 30 to 22 , the Celtics won 115 – 106 , and the match was called a " new beginning of basketball " . The matchup between Russell and Chamberlain became one of basketball 's greatest rivalries . In that season , Russell 's Celtics won a record 59 regular season games ( including a then @-@ record tying 17 game win streak ) and met Chamberlain 's Warriors in the Eastern Division Finals . Chamberlain outscored Russell by 81 points in the series , but the Celtics walked off with a 4 – 2 series win . In the 1960 Finals , the Celtics outlasted the Hawks 4 – 3 and won their third championship in four years . Russell grabbed an NBA Finals @-@ record 40 rebounds in Game 2 , and added 22 points and 35 rebounds in the deciding Game 7 , a 122 – 103 victory for Boston .
In the 1960 – 61 season , Russell averaged 16 @.@ 9 points and 23 @.@ 9 rebounds per game , leading his team to a regular season mark of 57 – 22 . The Celtics earned another post @-@ season appearance , where they defeated the Syracuse Nationals 4 – 1 in the Eastern Division Finals . The Celtics made good use of the fact that the Los Angeles Lakers had exhausted St. Louis in a long seven @-@ game Western Conference Finals , and the Celtics convincingly won in five games .
The following season , Russell scored a career @-@ high 18 @.@ 9 points per game , accompanied by 23 @.@ 6 rebounds per game . While his rival Chamberlain had a record @-@ breaking season of 50 @.@ 4 points per game and a 100 @-@ point game , the Celtics became the first team to win 60 games in a season , and Russell was voted as the NBA 's Most Valuable Player . In the post @-@ season , the Celtics met the Philadelphia Warriors of Chamberlain , and Russell did his best to slow down the 50 @-@ points @-@ per @-@ game scoring Warriors center . In the pivotal Game 7 , Russell managed to hold Chamberlain to only 22 points ( 28 below his season average ) while scoring 19 himself . The game was tied with two seconds left when Sam Jones sank a clutch shot that won the Celtics the series . In the 1962 NBA Finals , the Celtics met the Los Angeles Lakers of star forward Elgin Baylor and star guard Jerry West . The teams split the first six games , and Game 7 was tied one second before the end of regular time when Lakers guard Rod Hundley faked a shot and instead passed out to Frank Selvy , who missed an open eight @-@ foot last @-@ second shot that would have won L.A. the title . Though the game was tied , Russell had the daunting task of defending against Baylor with little frontline help , as the three best Celtics forwards , Loscutoff , Heinsohn and Tom Sanders , had fouled out . In overtime , Baylor fouled out the fourth forward , Frank Ramsey , so Russell was completely robbed of his usual four @-@ men wing rotation . But Russell and little @-@ used fifth forward Gene Guarilia successfully pressured Baylor into missed shots . Russell finished with a clutch performance , scoring 30 points and tying his own NBA Finals record with 40 rebounds in a 110 – 107 overtime win .
The Celtics lost playmaker Bob Cousy to retirement after the 1962 – 63 season , but they drafted John Havlicek . Once again , the Celtics were powered by Russell , who averaged 16 @.@ 8 points and 23 @.@ 6 rebounds per game , won his fourth regular @-@ season MVP title , and earned MVP honors at the 1963 NBA All @-@ Star Game following his 19 @-@ point , 24 @-@ rebound performance for the East . The Celtics reached the 1963 NBA Finals , where they again defeated the Los Angeles Lakers , this time in six games .
In the following 1963 – 64 season , the Celtics posted a league @-@ best 58 – 22 record in the regular season . Russell scored 15 @.@ 0 ppg and grabbed a career @-@ high 24 @.@ 7 rebounds per game , leading the NBA in rebounds for the first time since Chamberlain entered the league . Boston defeated the Cincinnati Royals 4 – 1 to earn another NBA Finals appearance , and then won against Chamberlain 's newly relocated San Francisco Warriors 4 – 1 . It was their sixth consecutive and seventh title in Russell 's eighth year , a streak unreached in any U.S. professional sports league . Russell later called the Celtics ' defense the best of all time .
Russell again excelled during the 1964 – 65 season . The Celtics won a league @-@ record 62 games , and Russell averaged 14 @.@ 1 points and 24 @.@ 1 rebounds per game , winning his second consecutive rebounding title and his fifth MVP award . In the 1965 NBA Playoffs , the Celtics played the Eastern Division Finals against the Philadelphia 76ers , who had recently traded for Wilt Chamberlain . Russell held Chamberlain to a pair of field goals in the first three quarters of Game 3 . In Game 5 , Russell contributed 28 rebounds , 10 blocks , seven assists and six steals . However , that playoff series ended in a dramatic Game 7 . Five seconds before the end , the Sixers were trailing 110 – 109 , but Russell turned over the ball . However , when the Sixers ' Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame guard Hal Greer inbounded , John Havlicek stole the ball , causing Celtics commentator Johnny Most to scream : " Havlicek stole the ball ! It 's all over ! Johnny Havlicek stole the ball ! " After the Division Finals , the Celtics had an easier time in the NBA Finals , winning 4 – 1 against the Los Angeles Lakers of Jerry West and Elgin Baylor .
In the following 1965 – 66 season , the Celtics won their eighth consecutive title . Russell 's team again beat Chamberlain 's Philadelphia 76ers 4 games to 1 in the Division Finals , proceeding to win the NBA Finals in a tight seven @-@ game showdown against the Los Angeles Lakers , with Russell scoring 25 points and grabbing 32 rebounds in a 95 – 93 win in the deciding seventh game . During the season , Russell contributed 12 @.@ 9 points and 22 @.@ 8 rebounds per game . This was the first time in seven years that he failed to average at least 23 rebounds a game .
= = = 1966 – 69 = = =
Before the 1966 – 67 season , Celtics coach Red Auerbach retired . Initially , he had wanted his old player Frank Ramsey as coach , but Ramsey was too occupied running his three lucrative nursing homes . His second choice Bob Cousy declined , stating he did not want to coach his former teammates , and the third choice Tom Heinsohn also said no , because he did not think he could handle the often surly Russell . However , Heinsohn proposed Russell himself as a player @-@ coach , and when Auerbach asked his center , he said yes . Russell thus became the first African American head coach in NBA history , and commented to journalists : " I wasn 't offered the job because I am a Negro , I was offered it because Red figured I could do it . " The Celtics ' championship streak ended that season at eight , however , as Wilt Chamberlain 's Philadelphia 76ers won a record @-@ breaking 68 regular season games and overcame the Celtics 4 – 1 in the Eastern Finals . The Sixers simply outpaced the Celtics , shredding the famous Boston defense by scoring 140 points in the clinching Game 5 win . Russell acknowledged his first real loss in his career ( he had been injured in 1958 when the Celtics lost the NBA Finals ) by visiting Chamberlain in the locker room , shaking his hand and saying , " Great " . However , the game still ended on a high note for Russell . After the loss , he led his grandfather through the Celtics locker rooms , and the two saw white Celtics player John Havlicek taking a shower next to his black teammate Sam Jones and discussing the game . Suddenly , Russell Sr. broke down crying . Asked by his grandson what was wrong , his grandfather replied how proud he was of him , being coach of an organization in which blacks and whites coexisted in harmony .
In Russell 's penultimate season , the 1967 – 68 season , his numbers slowly declined , but at age 34 , he still tallied 12 @.@ 5 points per game and 18 @.@ 6 rebounds per game ( the latter good for the third highest average in the league ) . In the Eastern Division Finals , the 76ers had the better record than the Celtics and were slightly favored . But then , national tragedy struck as Martin Luther King was assassinated on April 4 , 1968 . With eight of the ten starting players on Sixers and Celtics being African American , both teams were in deep shock , and there were calls to cancel the series . In a game called as " unreal " and " devoid of emotion " , the Sixers lost 127 – 118 on April 5 . In Game 2 , Philadelphia evened the series with a 115 – 106 win , and in Games 3 and 4 , the Sixers won , with Chamberlain suspiciously often defended by Celtics backup center Wayne Embry , causing the press to speculate Russell was worn down . Prior to Game 5 , the Celtics seemed dead : no NBA team had ever come back from a 3 – 1 deficit . However , the Celtics rallied back , winning Game 5 122 – 104 and Game 6 114 – 106 , powered by a spirited Havlicek and helped by a terrible Sixers shooting slump . In Game 7 , 15 @,@ 202 stunned Philadelphia fans witnessed a historic 100 – 96 defeat , making it the first time in NBA history a team lost a series after leading 3 – 1 . Russell limited Chamberlain to only two shot attempts in the second half . Despite this , the Celtics were leading only 97 – 95 with 34 seconds left when Russell closed out the game with several consecutive clutch plays . He made a free throw , blocked a shot by Sixers player Chet Walker , grabbed a rebound off a miss by Sixers player Hal Greer , and finally passed the ball to teammate Sam Jones , who scored to clinch the win . Boston then beat the Los Angeles Lakers 4 – 2 in the NBA Finals , giving Russell his tenth title in 12 years . For his efforts Russell was named Sports Illustrated 's Sportsman of the Year . After losing for the fifth straight time against Russell and his Celtics , Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame Lakers guard Jerry West stated , " If I had a choice of any basketball player in the league , my No.1 choice has to be Bill Russell . Bill Russell never ceases to amaze me . "
However , in the 1968 – 69 season , Russell seemed to reach a breaking point . Shocked by the murder of Robert F. Kennedy , disillusioned by the Vietnam War , and weary from his increasingly stale ( and later divorced ) marriage to his wife Rose , he was convinced that the U.S. was a corrupt nation and that he was wasting his time playing something as superficial as basketball . He was 15 pounds overweight , skipped mandatory NBA coach meetings and was generally lacking energy : after a New York Knicks game , he complained of intense pain and was diagnosed with acute exhaustion . Russell pulled himself together and put up 9 @.@ 9 points and 19 @.@ 3 rebounds per game , but the aging Celtics stumbled through the regular season . Their 48 – 34 record was the team 's worst since 1955 – 56 , and they entered the playoffs as only the fourth @-@ seeded team in the East . In the playoffs , however , Russell and his Celtics achieved upsets over the Philadelphia 76ers and New York Knicks to earn a meeting with the Los Angeles Lakers in the NBA Finals . L.A. now featured new recruit Wilt Chamberlain next to perennial stars Baylor and West , and were heavily favored . In the first two games , Russell ordered not to double @-@ team West , who used the freedom to score 53 and 41 points in the Game 1 and 2 Laker wins . Russell then ordered to double @-@ team West , and Boston won Game 3 . In Game 4 , the Celtics were trailing by one point with seven seconds left and the Lakers having the ball , but then Baylor stepped out of bounds , and in the last play , Sam Jones used a triple screen by Bailey Howell , Larry Siegfried and Havlicek and hit a buzzer beater which equalized the series . The teams split the next two games , so it all came down to Game 7 in L.A. , where Lakers owner Jack Kent Cooke angered and motivated the Celtics by putting " proceedings of Lakers victory ceremony " on the game leaflets . Russell used a copy as extra motivation and told his team to play a running game , because in that case , not the better , but the more determined team was going to win .
The Celtics were ahead by nine points with five minutes remaining ; in addition , West was heavily limping after a Game 5 thigh injury and Chamberlain had left the game with an injured leg . West then hit one basket after the other and cut the lead to one , and Chamberlain asked to return to the game . However , Lakers coach Bill van Breda Kolff kept Chamberlain on the bench until the end of the game , saying later that he wanted to stay with the lineup responsible for the comeback . The Celtics held on for a 108 – 106 victory , and Russell claimed his eleventh championship in 13 years . At age 35 , Russell contributed 21 rebounds in his last NBA game . After the game , Russell went over to the distraught West ( who had scored 42 points and was named the only NBA Finals MVP in history from the losing team ) , clasped his hand and tried to soothe him . Days later , 30 @,@ 000 enthusiastic Celtics fans cheered their returning heroes , but Russell was not there : the man who said he owed the public nothing ended his career and cut all ties to the Celtics . It came as so surprising that even Red Auerbach was blindsided , and as a consequence , he made the " mistake " of drafting guard Jo Jo White instead of a center . Although White became a standout Celtics player , the Celtics lacked an All @-@ Star center , went just 34 – 48 in the next season and failed to make the playoffs for the first time since 1950 . In Boston , both fans and journalists felt betrayed , because Russell left the Celtics without a coach and a center and sold his retirement story for $ 10 @,@ 000 to Sports Illustrated . Russell was accused of selling out the future of the franchise for a month of his salary .
= = = NBA statistics = = =
= = = = Regular season = = = =
= = = = Playoffs = = = =
= = = Post @-@ player career = = =
Russell 's No. 6 jersey was retired by the Celtics on March 12 , 1972 , Besides the Celtics , Russell also wore number 6 at the University of San Francisco and for the 1956 USA Olympic Team .
He was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1975 . Russell , who had a difficult relationship with the media , was not present at either event . After retiring as a player , Russell had stints as head coach of the Seattle SuperSonics ( 1973 to 1977 ) and Sacramento Kings ( 1987 to 1988 ) . His time as a coach was lackluster ; although he led the struggling SuperSonics into the playoffs for the first time in franchise history , Russell 's defensive , team @-@ oriented Celtics mindset did not mesh well with the team , and he left in 1977 with a 162 – 166 record . Russell 's stint with the Kings was considerably shorter , his last assignment ending when the Kings went 17 – 41 to begin the 1987 – 88 season .
In addition , Russell ran into financial trouble . He had invested $ 250 @,@ 000 into a rubber plantation in Liberia , where he had wanted to spend his retirement , but it went bankrupt . The same fate awaited his Boston restaurant called " Slade 's " , after which he had to default on a $ 90 @,@ 000 government loan to purchase the outlet . The IRS discovered that Russell owed $ 34 @,@ 430 in tax money and put a lien on his house .
Russell became a vegetarian , took up golf and worked as a color commentator , but he was uncomfortable as a broadcaster . He later said , " The most successful television is done in eight @-@ second thoughts , and the things I know about basketball , motivation , and people go deeper than that . " On November 3 , 1979 , Russell hosted Saturday Night Live , in which he appeared in several sports @-@ related sketches . Russell also wrote books , usually written as a joint project with a professional writer , including 1979 's Second Wind .
After spending about a decade living as a recluse on Mercer Island near Seattle , Russell rose to prominence again at the turn of the millennium . Russell 's Rules was published in 2001 , and in January 2006 , he convinced Miami Heat superstar center Shaquille O 'Neal to bury the hatchet with fellow NBA superstar and former Los Angeles Lakers teammate Kobe Bryant , with whom O 'Neal had a bitter public feud . Later that year , on November 17 , 2006 , the two @-@ time NCAA winner Russell was recognized for his impact on college basketball as a member of the founding class of the National Collegiate Basketball Hall of Fame . He was one of five , along with John Wooden , Oscar Robertson , Dean Smith and Dr. James Naismith , selected to represent the inaugural class . On May 20 , 2007 , Russell was awarded an honorary doctorate by Suffolk University , where he served as its commencement speaker , and Russell received an honorary degree from Harvard University on June 7 , 2007 . On June 18 , 2007 , Russell was inducted as a member of the founding class of the FIBA Hall of Fame . Russell was also honored during the 2009 NBA All @-@ Star Weekend in Phoenix .
On February 14 , 2009 , NBA Commissioner David Stern announced that the NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award would be renamed the " Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award " in honor of the 11 @-@ time NBA champion . The following day , during halftime of the All @-@ Star game , Celtics captains Paul Pierce , Kevin Garnett , and Ray Allen presented Russell a surprise birthday cake for his 75th birthday . Russell attended the final game of the Finals that year to present his newly christened namesake award to its winner , Kobe Bryant . Russell was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2011 .
= = Head coaching record = =
= = Accomplishments and legacy = =
Russell is one of the most successful and decorated athletes in North American sports history . His awards and achievements include 11 NBA championships as a player with the Boston Celtics in 13 seasons ( including two NBA championships as player / head coach ) , and he is credited with having raised defensive play in the NBA to a new level . By winning the 1956 NCAA Championship with USF and the 1957 NBA title with the Celtics , Russell became the first of only four players in basketball history to win an NCAA championship and an NBA Championship back @-@ to @-@ back ( the others being Henry Bibby , Magic Johnson , and Billy Thompson ) . He also won two state championships in high school . In the interim , Russell collected an Olympic gold medal in 1956 . His stint as coach of the Celtics was also of historical significance , as he became the first black head coach in major U.S. professional sports when he succeeded Red Auerbach .
In his first NBA full season ( 1957 – 58 ) , Russell became the first player in NBA history to average more than 20 rebounds per game for an entire season , a feat he accomplished 10 times in his 13 seasons . Russell 's 51 rebounds in a single game is the second @-@ highest performance ever , only trailing Chamberlain 's all @-@ time record of 55 . He still holds the NBA record for rebounds in one half with 32 ( vs. Philadelphia , on November 16 , 1957 ) . Career @-@ wise in rebounds , Russell ranks second only to Wilt Chamberlain in regular season total ( 21 @,@ 620 ) and average per game ( 22 @.@ 5 ) , and he led the NBA in average rebounds per game four times . Russell is the all @-@ time playoff leader in total ( 4 @,@ 104 ) and average ( 24 @.@ 9 ) rebounds per game , he grabbed 40 rebounds in three separate playoff games ( twice in the NBA Finals ) , and he never failed to average at least 20 rebounds per game in any of his 13 post @-@ season campaigns . Russell also had seven regular season games with 40 or more rebounds , the NBA Finals record for highest rebound per game average ( 29 @.@ 5 rpg , 1959 ) and by a rookie ( 22 @.@ 9 rpg , 1957 ) . In addition , Russell holds the NBA Finals single @-@ game record for most rebounds ( 40 , March 29 , 1960 , vs. St. Louis , and April 18 , 1962 , vs. Los Angeles ) , most rebounds in a quarter ( 19 , April 18 , 1962 vs. Los Angeles ) , and most consecutive games with 20 or more rebounds ( 15 from April 9 , 1960 – April 16 , 1963 ) . He also had 51 in one game , 49 in two others , and twelve straight seasons of 1 @,@ 000 or more rebounds . Russell was known as one of the most clutch players in the NBA . He played in 11 deciding games ( 10 times in Game 7s , once in a Game 5 ) , and ended with a flawless 11 – 0 record . In these eleven games , Russell averaged 18 points and 29 @.@ 45 rebounds .
On the hardwood , he was considered the consummate defensive center , noted for his unmatched defensive intensity , his stellar basketball IQ and his sheer will to win . Russell excelled at playing man @-@ to @-@ man defense , blocking shots , and grabbing defensive and offensive rebounds . He also could score with putbacks and made mid @-@ air outlet passes to point guard Bob Cousy for easy fast break points . He also was known as a fine passer and pick @-@ setter , featured a decent left @-@ handed hook shot and finished strong on alley oops . However , on offense , Russell 's output was limited . His NBA career personal averages show him to be an average scorer ( 15 @.@ 1 points career average ) , a poor free throw shooter ( 56 @.@ 1 % ) , and average overall shooter from the field ( 44 % , not exceptional for a center ) . In his 13 years , he averaged a relatively low 13 @.@ 4 field goals attempted ( normally , top scorers average 20 and more ) , illustrating that he was never the focal point of the Celtics offense , instead focusing on his tremendous defense .
In his career , Russell won five regular season MVP awards ( 1959 , 1961 – 63 , 1965 ) — tied with Michael Jordan for second all @-@ time behind Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar 's six awards . He was selected three times to the All @-@ NBA First Teams ( 1959 , 1963 , 1965 ) and eight Second Teams ( 1958 , 1960 – 62 , 1964 , 1966 – 68 ) , and was a twelve @-@ time NBA All @-@ Star ( 1958 – 1969 ) . Russell was elected to one NBA All @-@ Defensive First Team . This took place during his last season ( 1969 ) , and was the first season the NBA All @-@ Defensive Teams were selected . In 1970 , The Sporting News named Russell the " Athlete of the Decade " . Russell is universally seen as one of the best NBA players ever , and was declared " Greatest Player in the History of the NBA " by the Professional Basketball Writers Association of America in 1980 . For his achievements , Russell was named " Sportsman of the Year " by Sports Illustrated in 1968 . He also made all three NBA Anniversary Teams : the NBA 25th Anniversary All @-@ Time Team ( 1970 ) , the NBA 35th Anniversary All @-@ Time Team ( 1980 ) and the NBA 50th Anniversary All @-@ Time Team ( 1996 ) . Russell ranked # 18 on ESPN 's 50 Greatest Athletes of the 20th Century in 1999 . In 2009 , SLAM Magazine named Russell the # 3 player of all time behind Michael Jordan and Wilt Chamberlain . Former NBA player and head coach , Don Nelson , described Bill Russell in a quote that says , " There are two types of superstars . One makes himself look good at the expense of the other guys on the floor . But there 's another type who makes the players around him look better than they are , and that 's the type Russell was . "
On Saturday , February 14 , 2009 , during the 2009 NBA All @-@ Star Weekend in Phoenix , NBA Commissioner David Stern announced that the NBA Finals MVP Award would be named after Bill Russell . Russell was named as a 2010 recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom .
= = Personal life = =
Russell was married to his college sweetheart Rose Swisher from 1956 to 1973 . They had three children , namely daughter Karen Russell , the television pundit and lawyer , and sons William Jr. and Jacob . However , the couple grew emotionally distant and divorced . In 1977 , he married Dorothy Anstett , Miss USA of 1968 , but they divorced in 1980 . The relationship was shrouded in controversy because Didi was white . In 1996 , Russell married his third wife , Marilyn Nault ; their marriage lasted until her death in January 2009 . He has been a resident of Mercer Island , Washington for over four decades . His older brother was the noted playwright Charlie L. Russell .
In 1959 , Bill Russell became the first NBA player to visit Africa . Russell is a member of Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity , having been initiated into its Gamma Alpha chapter while a student at University of San Francisco . On October 16 , 2013 , Russell was arrested for bringing a loaded .38 @-@ caliber Smith & Wesson handgun to the Seattle – Tacoma International Airport .
According to a Thursday evening , July 17 , 2014 Associated Press ( AP ) news story , it was stated that , : " Boston Celtics officials say NBA Hall of Famer Bill Russell is doing OK after collapsing during a speaking engagement near Lake Tahoe . Team spokesman Brian Olive says the 80 @-@ year @-@ old Russell felt faint after the Thursday morning fall at the Hyatt Regency resort in Incline Village , Nevada , but was planning on returning home to Seattle this evening . ... "
= = Earnings = =
During his career , Russell was one of the first big earners in NBA basketball . His 1956 rookie contract was worth $ 24 @,@ 000 , only fractionally smaller than the $ 25 @,@ 000 of top earner Bob Cousy . In contrast to other Celtics , who had to work in the offseason to maintain their standard of living ( Heinsohn sold insurance , Gene Guarilia was a professional guitar player , Cousy ran a basketball camp , and Auerbach invested in plastics and a Chinese restaurant ) , Russell never had to work part @-@ time . When Wilt Chamberlain became the first NBA player to earn $ 100 @,@ 000 in salary in 1965 , Russell went to Auerbach and demanded a $ 100 @,@ 001 salary , which he promptly received .
= = Personality = =
Russell was driven by " a neurotic need to win " , as his teammate Heinsohn observed . He was so tense before every game that he regularly threw up in the locker rooms ; it happened so frequently that his fellow Celtics were more worried when it did not happen . He was also known for his natural authority . When he became player @-@ coach in 1966 , Russell bluntly said to his teammates that " he intended to cut all personal ties to other players " , and seamlessly made the transition from their peer to their superior .
To teammates and friends , Russell was open and amicable , but was extremely distrusting and cold towards anyone else . Journalists were often treated to the " Russell Glower " , described as an " icily contemptuous stare accompanied by a long silence " . Russell was also notorious for his refusal to give autographs or even acknowledge the Celtics fans , so far that he was called " the most selfish , surly and uncooperative athlete " by one pundit .
= = Russell – Chamberlain Relations = =
For most of his career , Russell was close friends with his perennial opponent Wilt Chamberlain . Chamberlain often invited Russell over for Thanksgiving dinner , and at Russell 's place , conversation mostly concerned Russell 's electric trains . However , the close relationship ended after Game 7 of the 1969 NBA Finals , during which Chamberlain injured his knee with six minutes left and left the game . During a conversation with students , a reporter — unknown to Russell — heard Russell describe Chamberlain as a malingerer and accuse him of " copping out " of the game when it seemed that the Lakers would lose . Chamberlain was livid with Russell and saw him as a backstabber . Chamberlain 's knee was injured so badly that he could not play the entire offseason and he ruptured it the next season . The two men did not talk to each other for over 20 years until Russell met with Chamberlain personally and apologized . When Chamberlain died in 1999 , Chamberlain 's nephew said that Russell was the second person he was told to call . At Chamberlain 's eulogy , Russell stated that he did not consider them to be rivals , but rather to have a competition , and that the pair would " be friends through eternity . "
= = Racist abuse , controversy , and relationship with Boston fans = =
Russell 's life was marked by an uphill battle against racism and controversial actions and statements in response to perceived racism . As a child , the young Russell witnessed how his parents were victims of racial abuse , and the family eventually moved into government housing projects to escape the daily torrent of bigotry . When he later became a standout amateur basketball player at USF , Russell recalled how he and his few fellow black colleagues were jeered by white students . Even after he became a star on the Boston Celtics , Russell was the victim of racial abuse . When the NBA All @-@ Stars toured the U.S. in the 1958 offseason , white hotel owners in segregated North Carolina denied rooms to Russell and his black teammates , causing him to later write in his memoir Go Up for Glory , " It stood out , a wall which understanding cannot penetrate . You are a Negro . You are less . It covered every area . A living , smarting , hurting , smelling , greasy substance which covered you . A morass to fight from . " Before the 1961 – 62 season , Russell 's team was scheduled to play in an exhibition game in Lexington , Kentucky , when Russell and his black teammates were refused service at a local restaurant . He and the other black teammates refused to play in the exhibition game and flew home , drawing a great deal of controversy and publicity .
As a consequence , Russell was extremely sensitive to all racial prejudice : according to Taylor , he often perceived insults even if others did not . He was active in the Black Power movement and supported Muhammad Ali 's decision to refuse to be drafted . He was often called " Felton X " , presumably in the tradition of the Nation of Islam 's practice of replacing a European slave name with an " X " , and even purchased land in Liberia . Russell 's public statements became increasingly militant , so far that he was quoted in a 1963 Sports Illustrated interview with the words : " I dislike most white people because they are people ... I like most blacks because I am black " . However , when his white Celtics teammate Frank Ramsey asked whether he hated him , Russell claimed to be misquoted , but few believed it . According to Taylor , Russell overlooked the fact that his career was only made possible by the white people who were proven anti @-@ racists , namely his white high school coach George Powles ( the person who encouraged him to play basketball ) , his white college coach Phil Woolpert ( who integrated USF basketball ) , white Celtics coach Red Auerbach ( who is regarded as an anti @-@ racist pioneer and made him the first black NBA coach ) , and white Celtics owner Walter A. Brown , who gave him a high $ 24 @,@ 000 rookie contract , just $ 1 @,@ 000 shy of the top earning veteran Bob Cousy .
As a result of repeated racial bigotry , Russell refused to respond to fan acclaim or friendship from his neighbors , thinking it was insincere and hypocritical . This attitude contributed to his legendary bad rapport with fans and journalists . He alienated Celtics fans by saying , " You owe the public the same it owes you , nothing ! I refuse to smile and be nice to the kiddies . " This supported the opinion of many white fans that Russell ( who was the highest @-@ paid Celtic ) was egotistical , paranoid and hypocritical . The already hostile atmosphere between Russell and Boston hit its apex when vandals broke into his house , covered the walls with racist graffiti , damaged his trophies and defecated in the beds . In response , Russell described Boston as a " flea market of racism " . In King Of The Court by Aram Goudsouzian , he was quoted saying , " From my very first year I thought of myself as playing for the Celtics , not for Boston . The fans could do or think whatever they wanted . " After his retirement , he described the Boston press as corrupt and racist ; in response , Boston sports journalist Larry Claflin claimed that Russell himself was the real racist .
The FBI maintained a file on Russell ; this lends credibility to his observations that racism was an active force against him . The FBI described Russell in his file as " an arrogant Negro who won 't sign autographs for white children " . This clearly denotes a hostile attitude , and gives insight into the nature of Russell 's public persona , which was often perceived by the mostly @-@ white media as overly harsh .
Russell refused to attend the ceremony when his # 6 jersey was retired in 1972 , or his induction into the Hall of Fame in 1975 . While Russell still has sore feelings towards the city , there has been something of a reconciliation ; and he has even visited the city regularly in recent years , something he never did in the years immediately after his retirement . When Russell originally retired , he demanded that his jersey be retired in an empty Boston Garden . In 1995 , the Celtics left Boston Garden and entered the FleetCenter , now the TD Garden , and as the main festive act , the Boston organization wanted to re @-@ retire Russell 's jersey in front of a sellout audience . Perennially wary of what he long perceived as the racist city of Boston , Russell decided to make amends and gave his approval . On May 6 , 1999 , the Celtics re @-@ retired Russell 's jersey in a ceremony attended by his on @-@ court rival ( and friend ) Chamberlain , along with Celtics legend Larry Bird and Hall of Famer Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar . The crowd gave Russell a prolonged standing ovation , which brought tears to his eyes . He thanked Chamberlain for taking him to the limit and " making [ him ] a better player " and the crowd for " allowing [ him ] to be a part of their lives . " In December 2008 , the We Are Boston Leadership Award was presented to Russell .
= = Statue honoring Russell = =
In 2012 , the city and the Celtics announced that a statue honoring Russell would be placed on Boston 's City Hall Plaza . The design features a statue of Russell in game action with 11 plinths representing the 11 championships he helped the team win . The plinths will feature a key word and a related quote to illustrate Russell 's multiple accomplishments . The Bill Russell Legacy Foundation , established by the Boston Celtics Shamrock Foundation , funded the project .
The Bill Russell Legacy Project artwork by Ann Hirsch of Somerville , Massachusetts , in collaboration with Pressley Associates Landscape Architects of Boston , was unveiled on November 1 , 2013 , with Russell in attendance .
= = Selected publications = =
Russell , Bill ; McSweeny , William ( 1966 ) . Go Up for Glory . Coward @-@ McCann .
Russell , Bill ; Branch , Taylor ( 1979 ) . Second Wind . Ballantine Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 50385 @-@ 1 .
Russell , Bill ; Hilburg , Alan ; Faulkner , David ( 2001 ) . Russell Rules . New American Library . ISBN 0 @-@ 525 @-@ 94598 @-@ 9 .
Russell , Bill ; Steinberg , Alan ( 2009 ) . Red and Me : My Coach , My Lifelong Friend . Harper . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 176614 @-@ 5 .
= Flower Drum Song =
Flower Drum Song was the eighth musical by the team of Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II . It was based on the 1957 novel , The Flower Drum Song , by Chinese @-@ American author C. Y. Lee . The piece opened in 1958 on Broadway and was afterwards presented in the West End and on tour . It was subsequently made into a 1961 musical film .
After their extraordinary early successes , beginning with Oklahoma ! in 1943 , Rodgers and Hammerstein had written two musicals in the 1950s that did not do well and sought a new hit to revive their fortunes . Lee 's novel focuses on a father , Wang Chi @-@ yang , a wealthy refugee from China , who clings to traditional values in San Francisco 's Chinatown . Rodgers and Hammerstein shifted the focus of the musical to his son , Wang Ta , who is torn between his Chinese roots and assimilation into American culture . The team hired Gene Kelly to make his debut as a stage director with the musical and scoured the country for a suitable Asian – or at least , plausibly Asian @-@ looking – cast . The musical , much more light @-@ hearted than Lee 's novel , was profitable on Broadway and was followed by a national tour .
After the release of the 1961 film version , the musical was rarely produced , as it presented casting issues and fears that Asian @-@ Americans would take offense at how they are portrayed . When it was put on the stage , lines and songs that might be offensive were often cut . The piece did not return to Broadway until 2002 , when a version with a plot by playwright David Henry Hwang ( but retaining most of the original songs ) was presented after a successful Los Angeles run . Hwang 's story retains the Chinatown setting and the inter @-@ generational and immigrant themes , and emphasizes the romantic relationships . It received mostly poor reviews in New York and closed after six months but had a short tour and has since been produced regionally .
= = Background = =
= = = Novel = = =
C.Y. Lee fled war @-@ torn China in the 1940s and came to the United States , where he attended Yale University 's playwriting program , graduating in 1947 with an M.F.A. degree . By the 1950s , he was barely making a living writing short stories and working as a Chinese teacher , translator and journalist for San Francisco Chinatown newspapers . He had hoped to break into playwriting , but instead wrote a novel about Chinatown , The Flower Drum Song ( originally titled Grant Avenue ) . Lee initially had no success selling his novel , but his agent submitted it to the publishing house of Farrar , Straus and Cudahy . The firm sent the manuscript to an elderly reader for evaluation . The reader was found dead in bed , the manuscript beside him with the words " Read this " scrawled on it . The publishing house did so , and bought Lee 's novel , which became a bestseller in 1957 .
Lee 's novel centers on Wang Chi @-@ yang , a 63 @-@ year @-@ old man who fled China to avoid the communists . The wealthy refugee lives in a house in Chinatown with his two sons . His sister @-@ in @-@ law , Madam Tang , who takes citizenship classes , is a regular visitor and urges Wang to adopt Western ways . While his sons and sister @-@ in @-@ law are integrating into American culture , Wang stubbornly resists assimilation and speaks only two words of English , " Yes " and " No " . Wang also has a severe cough , which he does not wish to have cured , feeling that it gives him authority in his household . Wang 's elder son , Wang Ta , woos Linda Tung , but on learning that she has many men in her life , drops her ; he later learns she is a nightclub dancer . Linda 's friend , seamstress Helen Chao , who has been unable to find a man despite the shortage of eligible women in Chinatown , gets Ta drunk and seduces him . On awakening in her bed , he agrees to an affair , but eventually abandons her , and she commits suicide .
Impatient at Ta 's inability to find a wife , Wang arranges for a picture bride for his son . However , before the picture bride arrives , Ta meets a young woman , May Li , who with her father has recently come to San Francisco . The two support themselves by singing depressing flower drum songs on the street . Ta invites the two into the Wang household , with his father 's approval , and he and May Li fall in love . He vows to marry her after she is falsely accused by the household servants of stealing a clock , though his father forbids it . Wang struggles to understand the conflicts that have torn his household apart ; his hostility toward assimilation is isolating him from his family . In the end , taking his son 's advice , Wang decides not to go to the herbalist to seek a remedy for his cough , but walks to a Chinese @-@ run Western clinic , symbolizing that he is beginning to accept American culture .
= = = Genesis of the musical = = =
Rodgers and Hammerstein , despite extraordinary early successes , such as Oklahoma ! , Carousel and South Pacific , had suffered back @-@ to @-@ back Broadway flops in the mid @-@ 1950s with Me and Juliet and Pipe Dream . While Oklahoma ! had broken new ground in 1943 , any new project in the late 1950s would have to compete with modern musicals and techniques , like the brutal realism in West Side Story , and with other Broadway musical hits such as The Music Man , My Fair Lady and The Pajama Game . Rodgers and Hammerstein had made it their rule to begin work on their next musical as soon as the last opened on Broadway , but by the start of 1957 , six months after Pipe Dream closed , the pair had no new stage musical in prospect . They had , however , been working since 1956 on the popular television version of Cinderella , which was broadcast on CBS on March 31 , 1957 . Rodgers was still recovering from an operation for cancer in a tooth socket , and he was drinking heavily and suffering from depression . In June 1957 , Rodgers checked himself into Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic , and he remained there for twelve weeks . According to his daughters , Mary and Linda , this did not put a stop to his drinking .
Hammerstein , meanwhile , was in Los Angeles at the filming of South Pacific . While at the commissary , he met longtime friend , Joe Fields , who mentioned that he was negotiating for the rights to The Flower Drum Song . Intrigued by the title , Hammerstein asked for a copy of the novel , and decided that it had potential as a musical – the lyricist described it as " sort of a Chinese Life with Father " . Hammerstein consulted with Rodgers , and they agreed to make it their next work , to be written and produced in association with Fields . Hammerstein began work in mid @-@ 1958 . In July , however , he fell ill and was hospitalized for a month . This forced him to hurry his writing , as the production team had hoped to have the show in rehearsal by the start of September ; this was postponed by two weeks . In interviews , however , Hammerstein pointed out that he had , when necessary , written songs for previous shows while in rehearsals for them .
The musical retained Lee 's " central theme – a theme coursing through much 20th @-@ century American literature : the conflict between Old World immigrants and their New World offspring " . Hammerstein and Fields shifted the focus of the story , however , from the elder Wang , who is central to Lee 's novel , to his son Ta . They also removed the darker elements of Lee 's work , including Helen Chao 's suicide after her desperate fling with Ta , added the festive nightclub subplot and emphasized the romantic elements of the story . According to David Lewis in his book about the musical , " Mr. Hammerstein and his colleagues were evidently in no mood to write a musical drama or even to invest their comedic approach with dramatic counterpoint of the sort that Jud Fry had given Oklahoma ! ... [ They ] took the safest commercial route by following the eldest son 's search for love – the most popular theme at the time with Broadway audiences . " Lewis notes that Chao 's role , though diminished in the musical , nevertheless gives it some of its darkest moments , and she serves much the same purpose as Jud Fry : to be , in Hammerstein 's words , " the bass fiddle that gives body to the orchestration of the story " . Though the new story was less artistically adventurous than the earlier Rodgers and Hammerstein hits , it was innovative , even daring in its treatment of Asian @-@ Americans , " an ethnic group that had long been harshly caricatured and marginalized in our mainstream pop culture . "
= = = 1958 plot = = =
Act I : Wang Ta , a young Chinese @-@ American man living in his father 's house in San Francisco 's Chinatown , discusses the problems of finding a wife with his aunt , Madam Liang ( " You Are Beautiful " ) before hurrying off on a blind date . Nightclub owner Sammy Fong arrives with an offer for Ta 's immigrant father , Master Wang , a very old @-@ fashioned Chinatown elder . Sammy 's picture bride has just arrived from China , illegally , but the shy Mei Li is clearly the wrong girl for Sammy , who already has an assertive girlfriend , a characteristic he likes . Sammy offers to sign the contract over to the Wang family : this would free Sammy from the contract and arrange a suitable wife for Ta . Sammy has taken the liberty of bringing the girl and her father with him ; Wang is charmed ( " A Hundred Million Miracles " ) and invites them to live in his home on the understanding that if the proposed marriage falls through , Fong will still be bound to marry Mei Li .
Ta 's blind date proves to be the thoroughly Americanized Linda Low , who we will learn is Sammy Fong 's girlfriend and a stripper at his club . On the date with Ta ( " I Enjoy Being a Girl " ) , Linda lies to Ta about her career and family . Ta , knowing that Chinese @-@ Americans with college degrees find it hard to get a job befitting their education , plans to go to law school , postponing the likely career struggle by three years . The impetuous Ta asks Linda to marry him . She agrees , but she needs family consent and lies , saying that she has a brother who will approve the marriage . Ta returns home and meets Mei Li , who is immediately attracted to him ( " I Am Going to Like It Here " ) , though Ta is unimpressed | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
ada , in her afterword to the published script , blamed " the sluggish economy , post @-@ September 11 jitters , the New York Times ' mixed review , and unusually bitter winter weather " for the unexpectedly short run . Lee also felt that the influential Times review had hurt the show 's acceptance , but commented that Hwang added some dialogue to Act II after the Los Angeles run that Lee felt slowed the show down . The closing was followed by a national tour that garnered mixed reviews , although Hwang stated that it was well received in every city except New York .
Subsequent productions have favored the Hwang script , although the older version remains available for license and has received occasional revivals , including a 2006 staged concert as part of Ian Marshall Fisher 's Lost Musicals series . A review in London 's The Times compared this production with " the much grander production of Show Boat currently docked at the Albert Hall " and judged that " Flower Drum Song makes the more stimulating experience . "
= = = = 2002 plot = = = =
Prologue : In 1960 , Wu Mei @-@ li , a performer in Chinese opera , flees China with a flower drum after her father dies in prison for defying the Communists ( " A Hundred Million Miracles " ) .
Act I : On arrival in the United States , Mei @-@ li goes to the Golden Pearl Theatre in San Francisco 's Chinatown , where little @-@ attended Chinese opera is presented by her father 's old friend Wang Chi @-@ yang and Wang 's foster brother Chin . One night a week , Wang 's son Ta turns the theater into a nightclub , starring the very assimilated Linda Low , a Chinese @-@ American stripper from Seattle . Linda 's constant companion is a gay costume designer , Harvard ( so named by his success @-@ obsessed Chinese parents ) . The nightclub is profitable ; the Chinese opera is not . Mei @-@ li joins the opera company ( " I Am Going to Like It Here " ) and is soon attracted to the indifferent Ta , who favors Linda . Mei @-@ li is fascinated by Linda , who urges her to adopt the American lifestyle ( " I Enjoy Being a Girl " ) . Linda is soon signed by talent agent Rita Liang , who pushes Wang to turn the theater into a club full @-@ time ( " Grant Avenue " ) , and he reluctantly opens Club Chop Suey .
Ta slowly is becoming attracted to Mei @-@ li , who now serves as a waitress , but he has competition from fortune cookie factory worker Chao , whom Mei @-@ li met on the slow journey from China , and who is rapidly becoming discontented with America . Wang is also unhappy , despite the club 's success , and it is no consolation the crowd is having a good time – after all , in the old country , no crowd ever came to his theater expecting to enjoy themselves . Outraged at Harvard 's poor acting skills , Wang takes the stage in his place , his stage instincts take over ( " Gliding Through My Memories " ) , and he is soon an enthusiastic supporter of the change , taking the stage name Sammy Fong . Linda advises Mei @-@ li to put on one of her old stripper dresses to attract Ta , but the stratagem backfires , since Ta is attracted to Mei @-@ li because of her wholesomeness . Ta and Mei @-@ li quarrel ; she takes her flower drum and leaves Club Chop Suey .
Act II : Several months pass , and Club Chop Suey has become even flashier ( " Chop Suey " ) . Ta can not forget Mei @-@ li , and his uncle Chin ( a janitor under the new regime ) advises Ta to pursue her ( " My Best Love " ) . He finds her in a fortune cookie factory working alongside Chao . Mei @-@ li tells Ta that she and Chao have decided to return to China together , or at least to Hong Kong , then administered by the British . Meanwhile , Wang now finds himself attracted to Madam Liang , and the two have dinner together , though they decide not to marry ( " Don 't Marry Me " ) . They marry anyway .
Linda announces that she is leaving for Los Angeles , as Wang 's " Sammy Fong " act has effectively taken over the show , and she has received a better offer . Ta intercepts Mei @-@ li at the docks and persuades her to remain in America ; Ta leaves Club Chop Suey and the two become street performers as Chao departs for Hong Kong . Harvard announces his intention to return home and attempt a reconciliation with his disappointed parents . Despite his irritation at Ta , Wang allows him to marry Mei @-@ li at the club ( which now features Ta 's Chinese opera one day a week ) , as the company celebrates how Chinese and American cultures have converged to create this happy moment ( Finale : " A Hundred Million Miracles " ) .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Original productions = = =
Of the seven major New York newspaper drama reviewers , five gave the show very positive reviews . For example , New York Journal American critic John McClain stated , " Flower Drum Song is a big fat Rodgers and Hammerstein hit , and nothing written here will have the slightest effect on the proceeds . " The New York Daily Mirror termed it , " Another notable work by the outstanding craftsmen of our musical theatre ... a lovely show , an outstanding one in theme and treatment . " Less enthusiastic , however , was the longtime New York Times critic , Brooks Atkinson , who repeatedly described it as merely " pleasant " . UPI 's drama critic , Jack Gaver , scored it as " well north of Me and Juliet and Pipe Dream " but " well south " of Oklahoma ! , Carousel , South Pacific and even the team 's first flop , Allegro . Ward Morehouse applauded Suzuki for having " a brassy voice and the assurance of a younger Ethel Merman " and termed the production " an excellent Broadway show " though " [ p ] erhaps it doesn 't belong in the same world ... as The King and I and Carousel . " Critic Kenneth Tynan , in The New Yorker magazine , alluded to the show The World of Suzie Wong in dismissing Flower Drum Song with the spoonerism , " a world of woozy song " .
When the national tour of the show visited the city of its setting , most San Francisco reviewers gave the show very positive reviews , though the Oakland Tribune critic described the musical as one " which has little by way of witty dialogue , outstanding songs or vigorous choreography " . Nevertheless , she called the touring production superior to the Broadway one .
= = = 2002 revival = = =
Michael Phillips of the Los Angeles Times called the show " wholly revised and gleefully self @-@ aware ... a few tons short of a mega @-@ musical – no fake helicopters here , no power ballads saccharine enough to stop Communism in its tracks . " The Hollywood Reporter thought the revival was , " while not perfect , an exhilarating accomplishment " . Variety called it " a bold theatrical operation , an artistic success " .
Critics reviewing the New York production generally gave it poor reviews . Ben Brantley of The New York Times applauded the creative team 's " honorable intentions " in bringing back a work thought to be " terminally out @-@ of @-@ date " , but felt both the new Mei @-@ li and the show in general lacked personality . Howard Kissel of the New York Daily News termed it " an entertaining , albeit vulgar revival " , and Clive Barnes of the New York Post found it no more memorable than the earlier version . The review in Talkin ' Broadway is scathing , criticizing Hwang 's use of the songs and characters , and the orchestrations , and commenting : " Hwang 's book lacks much of the charm , warmth , and wit of the original , and never takes the high road where the low road will do . ... Hwang felt it necessary to reduce the original , uniquely colorful story into just another backstager with a love triangle and lame jokes . " Michael Kuchwara commented about Harvard in his lukewarm review for Associated Press : " Then there 's Linda Low 's gay confidante , Harvard . Talk about stereotypes . If you are going to perpetuate one at least give him better jokes . " On the other hand , both USA Today and Time magazine gave it positive reviews . The CurtainUp review was mostly positive and observed that Hwang and Longbottom " were able to keep numbers like ' Chop Suey ' and milk it for its razzle @-@ dazzle fun while using its condescending stereotyping as a springboard to satirize attitudes towards Asians . " Brantley disagreed , writing , " because the show 's satiric point of view is so muddled , there 's no verve in such numbers , no joy in the performing of them . "
In 2006 , David Lewis compared the original script to Hwang 's version :
History never completely goes away . Hwang 's champions are unlikely to fade away , either , in rhetorical defeat . Dick and Oscar and Joe mined C. Y. Lee 's novel for the generational conflict and for the three women who substantiated Ta 's honorable search for love . Those themes , like it or not , still resonate today .
= = Music and recordings = =
Rodgers and Hammerstein sought to give the new work an Eastern flavor , without using existing oriental music . According to Ben Brantley in his review of the 2002 Broadway revival , the use by Rodgers " of repetitive Eastern musical structures gives the numbers a sing @-@ song catchiness that , for better or worse , exerts a sticky hold on the memory . " The most oriental @-@ sounding song in the work is " A Hundred Million Miracles " , which provides the eight @-@ note drumbeat which is the musical signature of the work from overture to curtain . Hammerstein wrote Mei Li 's first act song , " I Am Going to Like It Here " , in a Malaysian poetic form called pantoum in which the second and fourth lines of each stanza become the first and third lines of the next . One critic thought that the 2001 version 's orchestrations " boast more Asian accents and a jazzier edge than the original " , but another felt that they " pale in comparison " to Bennett 's typically lilting sound .
As with many of Rodgers and Hammerstein 's musicals , the work features a ballet at the start of the second act , choreographed in the original production by Carol Haney . The ballet dramatizes the confused romantic longings of Wang Ta towards the women in his life , and ends as he awakens in Helen Chao 's bed . Thomas Hischak , in his The Rodgers and Hammerstein Encyclopedia , notes that the ballets in Oklahoma ! and Carousel ( choreographed by Agnes de Mille ) broke new ground in illustrating facets of the characters beyond what is learned in songs and dialogue , but describes the ballet in Flower Drum Song as " pleasant but not memorable " . Although Hischak describes Rodgers as " the greatest waltz composer America has ever seen " , Flower Drum Song was the first Rodgers and Hammerstein musical not to feature one .
Several of the characters are given " I am " songs that introduce them to the audience , allowing the character to express his dreams or desires and for onlookers to establish empathy with the character . Linda Low , for example , expresses her self @-@ confidence with " I Enjoy Being a Girl " ; we learn Mei Li 's hopes with the quieter " I Am Going to Like It Here " . Although not a formal musical number , the brief " You Be the Rock , I 'll Be the Roll " , sung and danced by Linda and by Wang San , Ta 's Americanized teenage brother , was described by Lewis as " virtually the first self @-@ consciously rock and roll ditty ever sung " in a Broadway musical . Patrick Adiarte , who originated the role of Wang San , however , saw it as " corny stuff ... put in there to get a laugh " . Helen Chao 's sad " Love , Look Away " is described by Lewis as " arguably the most tautly crafted blues song Dick and Oscar ever wrote " .
Having decided that record companies were profiting more from the sales of their cast albums than they were , Rodgers and Hammerstein formed their own record company to produce the cast recording for the original production of Flower Drum Song . The album sold a relatively modest 300 @,@ 000 copies , compared with sales of over a million copies for Rodgers and Hammerstein 's next and final musical , The Sound of Music . Still , it was certified as a gold record for having at least a million dollars in sales , and it spent 67 weeks in the U.S. Top 40 , three of them at number 1 , and also did well in the UK when the show opened there in 1960 . The original cast album is relatively complete , even including parts of the Wedding Parade , though it does not include the ballet .
In 1960 , the London cast recording was released . According to Hischak , the individual performers do not sing as well as the New York cast ; the London recording 's strong points are the nightclub numbers . The 1961 album from the film uses a larger orchestra and , according to Hischak , has a fuller sound than the Broadway recording . It features dubbing by the opera singer Marilyn Horne ( " Love , Look Away " ) and band singer B. J. Baker ( for Linda Low 's songs ) . A cast album for Hwang 's revision was released in 2002 featuring strong performances from Lea Salonga as Mei @-@ li and Jose Llana as Wang Ta . This was nominated for a Grammy , though it did not win . Hischak notes that it is unfair to compare the later version with its earlier predecessors , as Hwang 's version " has some of the dark corners and richness of a musical play " .
= = Musical numbers ( original version ) = =
The 2002 revival restored " My Best Love " , a song that was cut from the original production , which is sung by Chin . " The Other Generation " was cut from the revival .
= = Cast = =
The principal casts of major productions of the musical ( and of the film ) have been as follows :
* Linda Low 's singing voice was dubbed by B. J. Baker , and Chao 's " Love , Look Away " was dubbed by Marilyn Horne .
Dashes indicate roles cut from 2002 production . The 2002 production also featured Alvin Ing as Chin , Allen Liu as Harvard and Hoon Lee as Chao .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = = Original Broadway production = = =
= = = 2002 Broadway revival = = =
= The Best of George Harrison =
The Best of George Harrison is a 1976 compilation album by English musician George Harrison , released following the expiration of his EMI @-@ affiliated Apple Records contract . Uniquely among all of the four Beatles ' solo releases ( apart from live albums ) , it mixes a selection of the artist 's Beatles @-@ era songs on one side , with later hits recorded under his own name on the other .
The song selection caused some controversy , since it underplayed Harrison 's solo achievements during the 1970 – 75 period , for much of which he had been viewed as the most successful ex @-@ Beatle , artistically and commercially . Music critics have also noted the compilation 's failure to provide a faithful picture of Harrison 's contribution to the Beatles ' work , due to the omission of any of his Indian music compositions . In a calculated move by EMI and its American subsidiary , Capitol Records , the compilation was issued during the same month as Harrison 's debut on his Warner @-@ distributed Dark Horse label , Thirty Three & 1 / 3 .
The Best of George Harrison peaked at number 31 on the US Billboard 200 chart and was certified gold by the RIAA in February 1977 , but the album failed to place on Britain 's top 60 chart . It is the first of three hits @-@ oriented Harrison compilation albums , and was followed by Best of Dark Horse 1976 – 1989 and the posthumously released Let It Roll : Songs by George Harrison . The album was issued on CD in 1987 featuring the cover artwork from the original British release , rather than the design created in @-@ house by Capitol and used in the majority of territories internationally in 1976 . The compilation has yet to be remastered since this 1987 release .
= = Background = =
Ray Coleman of Melody Maker observed in December 1976 that it was " somehow ironic " that EMI , having made " millions of pounds " from the Beatles ' recordings , should put out The Best of George Harrison within days of George Harrison 's debut release on Warner Bros.-distributed Dark Horse Records . The compilation was instigated by EMI 's US counterpart , Capitol Records , a company with which Harrison had grown disaffected since August 1971 , due to what author Alan Clayson describes as its " avaricious dithering " over the release of the Concert for Bangladesh album . In a final effort to force Capitol to distribute that live album at cost price , to generate much @-@ needed funds for the refugees from East Pakistan , Harrison had gone public with the issue and embarrassed the label .
On 26 January 1976 , all the former Beatles ' contracts with EMI / Capitol expired , and only Paul McCartney had chosen to re @-@ sign with Capitol . The two record companies were now free to license releases featuring songs from the band 's back catalogue and the individual members ' solo work ( except for McCartney 's ) , without the need for artist 's approval . Following EMI 's reissue of the entire Beatles UK singles catalogue in February that year , Capitol 's first venture under the new arrangement was to release a double album compilation , Rock ' n ' Roll Music , along with accompanying singles . Issued in June 1976 , Rock ' n ' Roll Music contained 28 previously released tracks from throughout the Beatles ' career . John Lennon and Ringo Starr both expressed dissatisfaction with the compilation 's running order , the reversion to a pre @-@ 1967 royalty rate for the band , and what Starr termed Capitol 's " craphouse " packaging . After the record company had promised " the largest selling campaign in the history of the music business " , the album was a commercial success .
Late in 1975 , EMI / Capitol had issued greatest @-@ hits collections on the Apple Records imprint for Lennon and Starr – Shaved Fish and Blast from Your Past , respectively . Since Lennon and Starr were still nominally Apple artists , they each had input into the content and packaging of their solo compilation , and Lennon , in particular , was active in promoting his album . Shaved Fish and Blast from Your Past sold reasonably well , in America , but their sales failed to match record @-@ company expectations . For Harrison , there had been long delays between releases following the international success of his All Things Must Pass triple album in 1970 – 71 , due first to his commitment to the Bangladesh humanitarian aid project and later to his production work for Dark Horse Records acts Splinter and Ravi Shankar . Harrison issued his final studio album for Apple in the autumn of 1975 , Extra Texture ( Read All About It ) . As a result , by the time that Capitol came to prepare a compilation of his solo work the following year , he had effectively surrendered all artistic control over its content .
In the second half of 1976 , thanks to the success of both Rock ' n ' Roll Music and McCartney 's world tour with his band Wings , the public 's nostalgia for the Beatles was at a peak . Examples of this heightened interest included the increasingly generous offers from rival promoters Bill Sargent and Sid Bernstein for a one @-@ off Beatles reunion concert ; 20th Century Fox 's musical documentary All This and World War II , for which , as with the 1974 stage play John , Paul , George , Ringo … and Bert , Harrison would refuse permission for any of his songs to appear ; and Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel having a top @-@ ten hit in the UK with a cover of Harrison 's composition " Here Comes the Sun " . The planned Harrison greatest @-@ hits compilation then became an experiment by Capitol whereby Beatles tracks were mixed with solo hits on the one album . Harrison immediately disavowed the venture , he being the least attached to the band 's legacy of all the former Beatles .
= = Song selection = =
To fill one side of the LP , Capitol selected Harrison @-@ written songs that had been released by the Beatles between 1965 and 1970 . A risk @-@ free approach prevailed , commentators have noted , both with the unimaginative album title and with the predictable selection of songs . Nowhere was Indian music represented , a musical genre with which Harrison was synonymous via his long association with Ravi Shankar , and which various authors , and Shankar himself , credit Harrison with introducing to Western popular music . In this way , what McCartney has termed Harrison 's " landmark " Indian compositions , " Within You , Without You " and " The Inner Light " , were overlooked while " Taxman " received its second album release in six months ( having been issued on Rock ' n ' Roll Music ) . " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " , " Here Comes the Sun " and " Something " were also among the tracks selected , even though they had all appeared on the 1973 Beatles compilation 1967 – 1970 .
Side two was made up of Harrison 's biggest solo hits : " My Sweet Lord " and " What Is Life " from All Things Must Pass ( 1970 ) , " Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " from Living in the Material World ( 1973 ) , the title track from Dark Horse ( 1974 ) , and " You " from Extra Texture ( 1975 ) . The sixth solo song was the non @-@ album single " Bangla Desh " , released in 1971 .
Aside from the financial benefits of repackaging Beatles @-@ era songs , part of the reason for Capitol reducing Harrison 's mostly successful solo years thus far to six album tracks was due to the " lackluster " commercial fate of the Lennon and Starr compilations , author Nicholas Schaffner wrote in 1977 . Another factor was Harrison 's tendency to limit his single releases to a minimum : he had been reluctant to issue any single from All Things Must Pass originally , and the scheduled second single from Material World , " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " – a " certain # 1 " , in biographer Simon Leng 's opinion – was cancelled altogether . In addition , authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter write , a potentially offensive reference to the Catholic Church in " Awaiting on You All " , from All Things Must Pass , prevented that song from " being the hit single it could have been otherwise " . The big @-@ hits requirement was not applied to the Beatles selections , only one of which , " Something " , had been issued as the A @-@ side of a single .
In November 1976 , while promoting his new album , Thirty Three & 1 / 3 , Harrison claimed that Capitol had ignored his suggested track list and alternative title for the collection . He compared the format unfavourably with the Starr and Lennon compilations , saying that " a lot of good songs " from his solo career could have appeared , rather than " digging into Beatles records " .
Among the notable omissions from The Best of George Harrison , in author Robert Rodriguez 's opinion , were " Isn 't It a Pity " – one half of the double A @-@ side single with " My Sweet Lord " , and a number 1 hit in Canada in its own right – and " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " , which charted just inside the top 40 in the main markets of America and Britain but was a top ten hit in Europe . In comparison , Shaved Fish had contained " Happy Xmas ( War Is Over ) " , " Mother " and " Woman Is the Nigger of the World " , singles which , on the US Billboard Hot 100 , respectively : did not chart at all ; peaked at number 43 ; and reached number 57 . On Blast from Your Past , the non @-@ album B @-@ side " Early 1970 " was included , as were " I 'm the Greatest " ( an album track never released as a single ) and " Beaucoups of Blues " , which peaked at number 87 in the United States . On those terms , Harrison had the popular 1971 B @-@ sides " Apple Scruffs " and " Deep Blue " ; " Ding Dong " , which peaked at number 36 on Billboard ; and highly regarded album tracks such as " All Things Must Pass " , " Beware of Darkness " and " Living in the Material World " . Commentators have remarked also on the brevity of Starr 's album , at just 30 minutes in length , whereas Capitol felt the need to achieve a running time of 45 minutes for the Harrison compilation .
= = Album artwork = =
The North American and British versions of the album were released with different covers . In the United States and Canada , the front and back cover had small black @-@ and @-@ white pictures of Harrison against an image of the cosmos ; Roy Kohara of Capitol was responsible for art design , as he had been for Extra Texture and the Lennon and Starr compilations , while the illustrations were the work of Michael Bryan . Rodriguez describes this choice of sleeve as " bizarre " and notes the use of an outdated , " rather dour @-@ looking " image of Harrison .
The UK edition contained Bob Cato 's colour photo of Harrison sitting in front of an antique car , with art direction for the package being credited to Cream designs . The international CD release of the album uses the latter cover . The inner sleeve of the original LP in Britain contained a picture by Michael Putland , showing Harrison on a wintry beach in Cannes , where he was attending the Midem music @-@ industry trade fair in January 1976 . A third front @-@ cover option came with MFP 's budget reissue during the 1980s , which reproduced Harrison 's 1968 White Album portrait .
= = Release = =
Capitol Records released The Best of George Harrison on 8 November 1976 in America , with the catalogue number Capitol DT 11578 . The UK issue , as PAS 10011 on EMI 's Parlophone label , followed on 20 November . Among Beatles @-@ related releases at the time , the compilation 's arrival coincided not only with that of Thirty Three & 1 / 3 , but also with McCartney 's Wings over America triple live album ; in addition , EMI belatedly issued the Beatles ' 1967 Capitol release Magical Mystery Tour in December 1976 , after that album had long proved a popular import in Britain . Writing in the NME in November , Bob Woffinden commented that sales of Thirty Three & 1 / 3 were sure to be " adversely affected by the almost simultaneous release – next week in fact – of [ The Best of George Harrison ] " . According to author Peter Doggett , this calculated scheduling by Capitol / EMI meant that Harrison " would remain a staunch opponent " of the record companies in the concurrent litigation between Apple and its former manager , Allen Klein .
In the US , with Harrison actively promoting Thirty Three & 1 / 3 and enjoying some of his best reviews in years , the compilation reached number 31 on the Billboard 200 . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on 15 February 1977 , for sales of over 500 @,@ 000 units . Like Starr 's 1975 compilation , The Best of George Harrison failed to place on the UK 's Top 60 Albums Chart . EMI , in an attempt to capitalise on recent publicity from the ruling on Bright Tunes ' plagiarism suit against Harrison , reissued " My Sweet Lord " ( backed with " What Is Life " ) as a single on 25 December 1976 .
= = = CD release and demand following Harrison 's death = = =
Together with All Things Must Pass , The Best of George Harrison was among the first of Harrison 's albums to be issued on compact disc , in 1987 . According to Madinger and Easter , the UK edition of the CD was sonically superior to the US issue , due to the application of No @-@ Noise processing on the remasters for the American market .
Following Harrison 's death in November 2001 – and with little of his back catalogue readily available apart from the recently issued All Things Must Pass : 30th Anniversary Edition – the compilation became highly sought @-@ after by fans of the artist . In America , it peaked at number 9 on Billboard 's Top Pop Catalog listings , on 29 December 2001 , and number 15 on the magazine 's Top Internet Albums . It also belatedly placed on the UK Albums Chart , at number 100 , in January 2002 .
Despite the 2009 compilation Let It Roll : Songs by George Harrison and the 2005 reissue of the Concert for Bangladesh live album , The Best of George Harrison remained the only CD release featuring pop 's first @-@ ever charity single , " Bangla Desh " , until 2014 . In September that year , the song appeared as a bonus track on the Apple Years 1968 – 75 reissue of Living in the Material World .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
On release , Billboard 's reviewer welcomed the compilation , writing : " Harrison 's remarkable emergence to full artistic recognition after starting off as the most anonymous Beatle is documented right on this album of memorably beautiful hits . " In Melody Maker , on the same page as his mixed review of Wings over America ( which featured live versions of five of McCartney 's Beatles @-@ era songs ) , Ray Coleman provided another favourable assessment : " [ Harrison is ] a highly individual artist who always keeps creative musical company ; it 's a good album , essential for Harrison students who may not have all the records ... "
Writing in Swank magazine , Michael Gross recognised Capitol Records ' " slick marketing ploy " but admired the music , the " final treat " being the availability of " Bangla Desh " for the first time on an album . In a review subtitled " All I Want for Christmas is No. 11578 " ( referring to the Capitol catalogue number ) , Larry Rohter of The Washington Post described the collection as " an absolute delight " .
Although the album was generally well received , its content drew criticism from fans , who felt the overall effect diminished the significance of Harrison 's solo career . In the 1977 edition of their book The Beatles : An Illustrated Record , Roy Carr and Tony Tyler summed up the implication : " George 's ' Best Of ' . Half Beatle , half Harisongs . But will there be a Volume II ? " Nicholas Schaffner observed a couple of minor positives on this " half @-@ baked " collection : " The Best of George Harrison does confirm that George 's big production numbers from All Things Must Pass more than hold their own alongside the seven featured Beatles tunes ... And the album is undeniably better looking than Rock ' n ' Roll Music . " Bob Woffinden similarly found that Harrison 's solo recordings matched the standard of the Beatles ' tracks while noting that " Capitol 's half @-@ and @-@ half arrangement ... made it look as though he was the only one of the four [ former Beatles ] with insufficient clout to warrant a ' Greatest Hits ' comprised entirely of his own work . "
= = = Retrospective assessment and legacy = = =
Reviewing the compilation for AllMusic in 2001 , Bruce Eder described it as " a good but routine collection " , while three years later Mac Randall wrote in The Rolling Stone Album Guide : " The Best of George Harrison takes half its contents from Beatles albums , which is a little insulting . " In his April 2004 article on Harrison 's solo releases , for Blender magazine , Paul Du Noyer said of the compilation : " Hard to fault so far as it goes and a good place to get the fine 1971 single ' Bangla Desh ' . "
Although compromises to the hits @-@ only formula had been permitted on the Lennon and Starr albums , AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine comments on the controversial choice of tracks : " But all this is down to a matter of timing and circumstance : Harrison needed to have a hits collection out in 1976 , he didn 't have enough big hits to fill out 13 tracks ( even if he certainly had enough great album tracks to do so ) , and so the Fabs were brought in to fill in the cracks . " Erelwine adds that " The result might be a little underwhelming in retrospect , but it 's undeniably entertaining . "
Writing for Rough Guides in 2006 , Chris Ingham said Harrison was " rightly annoyed " with his former record company . Ingham added that , with the " excellent Volume II " ( Best of Dark Horse 1976 – 1989 ) no longer in print , The Best of George Harrison was therefore the artist 's only available compilation album and " hardly a satisfying one @-@ stop sampler " . Reviewing Let It Roll for the music website Popdose , in 2009 , Jon Cummings wrote that " the compilation gods have never been kind to [ Harrison ] " and described the 1976 album as " downright insulting " . In her role as compiler of Let It Roll , Harrison 's widow Olivia said of The Best of George Harrison : " That album always bothered me ... I just thought that is really not fair and I think we have to put something in that place , and that 's really what this [ 2009 compilation ] is . "
Harrison biographer Elliot Huntley is scathing in his opinion of The Best of George Harrison , writing : " Had EMI [ and Capitol ] forgotten the great songs on All Things Must Pass ? " The inclusion of Beatles material was a " completely unnecessary public humiliation " for Harrison , Huntley continues , giving the impression that Starr and Lennon 's solo careers up to the end of 1975 had been more successful than his – " when , in reality , the opposite was the case " . In his book Fab Four FAQ 2 @.@ 0 , Robert Rodriguez likewise bemoans EMI / Capitol 's attempt to humiliate Harrison with a compilation that failed to reflect his standing as the most accomplished ex @-@ Beatle during 1970 – 73 . Rodriguez describes the company 's efforts to " effectively sabotag [ e ] " Harrison 's Thirty Three & 1 / 3 chart run as " a final touch worthy of Allen Klein " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by George Harrison .
Side one
All tracks performed by the Beatles and produced by George Martin , except track 6 , which was produced by Phil Spector .
" Something " – 3 : 01
" If I Needed Someone " – 2 : 22
" Here Comes the Sun " – 3 : 05
" Taxman " – 2 : 37
" Think for Yourself " – 2 : 18
" For You Blue " – 2 : 31
" While My Guitar Gently Weeps " – 4 : 45
Side two
All tracks performed by George Harrison and produced either by himself or with Phil Spector .
" My Sweet Lord " – 4 : 38
" Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " – 3 : 35
" You " – 3 : 41
" Bangla Desh " – 3 : 57
" Dark Horse " – 3 : 53
" What Is Life " – 4 : 17
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Chart positions = = =
= Sulphur Creek ( California ) =
Sulphur Creek is a 4 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) tributary of Aliso Creek in Orange County in the U.S. state of California . Draining about 6 square miles ( 16 km2 ) of mostly residential land in the southern San Joaquin Hills , it is Aliso Creek 's largest tributary .
Geologically the Sulphur Creek watershed was once part of a large and shallow sea that covered most of southern California . As the San Joaquin Hills rose and river sediments were deposited , land gradually emerged to form the present @-@ day Orange County coast . Sulphur Creek is located in a crumpled , hilly area in the southern part of this range , formed differently from the continuous mountain chain to the north . Historically , being south of Aliso Creek , the Sulphur Creek watershed was part of the territory of the semi @-@ nomadic Acjachemen Indian group , conquered by Spanish conquistadors in the 17th and 18th centuries and renamed the Juaneño by them .
During the 19th century , the watershed became part of a rancho . In 1966 , the creek was dammed to form Laguna Niguel Lake , while the surrounding hills were leveled as residential communities were constructed in the area following the ' 60s and ' 70s . The creek 's basin eventually became part of the cities of Laguna Hills , Laguna Niguel , and a small portion in San Juan Capistrano . Increasing urban runoff in the 1960s caused most of the flow in the creek to be unnatural . The creek has since been channelized along most of its length to prevent floods from inundating the roads and houses that now line much of its banks .
The Sulphur Creek watershed includes parts of Laguna Niguel Regional Park and Aliso and Wood Canyons Regional Park . Despite its heavy pollution and increasing population of exotic species , for much of its length the creek is a riparian corridor .
= = Course = =
The creek begins as a storm culvert exiting into daylight downstream of a shopping center near the intersection of Crown Valley Parkway and Greenfield Drive . It then flows generally south through a concrete storm channel , then diverted into another culvert that takes it underneath a small access road . For the next few miles , the creek parallels Crown Valley Parkway as it winds west and south through a valley almost entirely filled by residential development . The creek flows through a concrete channel and three more culverts before regaining its natural riverbed . At the third of these four culverts , the creek enters Sulphur Creek Park , which follows the Sulphur Creek riparian corridor to where it turns west @-@ northwest into Crown Valley Park , just upstream of Laguna Niguel Regional Park . Here , it receives two small tributaries ( Niguel Storm Drain and an unnamed creek flowing from a spring on the hillside ) on the left bank . The creek then enters a box @-@ cut concrete channel that takes it to Sulphur Creek Reservoir , a 44 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 18 km2 ) lake about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) long , formed by a dam at its north end . At the lake , another small unnamed tributary , from a filled @-@ in canyon on the east side , joins Sulphur Creek .
The creek then exits the dam from the concrete spillway on the east side , flowing into a small valley inside Laguna Niguel Regional Park . About 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) downstream from Sulphur Creek Reservoir , it receives the water of a large storm drain on the right bank . This storm drain is responsible for much of the pollution problems in the Sulphur Creek watershed . It then flows past a small mountain on the north , known as Kite Hill , and is diverted into a large culvert underneath Alicia Parkway that drains it to a small canyon . The creek then flows into Aliso Creek , just outside the boundary of Aliso and Wood Canyons Regional Park .
= = Geology = =
About ten million years ago , much of western and southern Orange County and most of coastal Southern California was part of a warm and shallow sea . This sea receded over time , leaving a large and flat coastal plain . Over 1 @.@ 22 million years ago , the uplift of the San Joaquin Hills began along a blind thrust fault that stretches north into the Los Angeles Basin , eventually rising to an average of 500 to 700 feet ( 150 to 210 m ) above sea level , with the highest peaks topping out at about 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) . Rising at about 0 @.@ 6 to 0 @.@ 8 feet ( 0 @.@ 18 to 0 @.@ 24 m ) per one thousand years , a series of marine terraces formed along with the hills ' uplift . This uplift changed the course of Sulphur Creek to run north to Aliso Creek , instead of flowing south to Salt Creek ( see Watershed ) .
River sediments helped to create the broad and flat terrain and river valleys between the San Joaquin Hills and the much higher Santa Ana Mountains to the east . Sulphur Creek 's watershed is located in a southern area of the San Joaquin Hills where many smaller hills have formed in a wider area instead of a single , tall , narrow mountain chain . These lower hills are composed primarily of sedimentary rocks and date from the Miocene period . The oldest rocks in this area are referred to as the Vaqueros Formation , while the younger are named the Monterey Formation . This hilly area is drained by Sulphur Creek to the northwest , Salt Creek to the south , small and unnamed coastal canyons to the southwest , and small tributaries of Trabuco and Oso Creeks to the east . This area is located northwest of the San Juan Creek valley , southeast of the Aliso Creek valley , and west of the Oso Creek drainage .
= = Watershed = =
The Sulphur Creek subwatershed covers about 17 percent of the entire Aliso Creek watershed , encompassing about 6 square miles ( 16 km2 ) in the southwesternmost corner of the 35 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 91 km2 ) Aliso Creek basin . Primarily residential , it is bordered on the north by the Aliso Hills Channel drainage area ( tributary to Aliso Creek ) , on the south and southwest by the basin of Salt Creek , and to the west by the Oso Creek watershed , a tributary basin of the Trabuco Creek watershed . Most of the basin of Sulphur Creek is hilly , but not very mountainous , although the creek has been largely changed by human occupation . Several canyons that originally drained into the creek have been filled in with material excavated from the surrounding mountain @-@ tops , creating smoother terrain . Many present @-@ day storm drains still follow the original course of these canyons . About 30 percent of the creek 's course has been inundated by the Sulphur Creek Reservoir , formed in the 1950s by a large dam across a broad north @-@ trending valley .
The Sulphur Creek watershed has had a long history of water pollution , which can be attributed to residential development . While no raw sewage flows into the creek , the creek is contaminated by large quantities of urban runoff from impervious paved surfaces that collects toxins before pouring untreated into the creek . There are over four large storm drain outlets that pour directly into Sulphur Creek . Such untreated runoff has caused E. coli and Enterovirus to increasingly harm the creek and its remaining biodiversity . Channelization is also another factor , and standing water in the Sulphur Creek Reservoir has suffered eutrophication . The primary source of bacteria contamination is the largest tributary of Sulphur Creek , now mostly underground . The channel joins the creek not too far from its mouth . It has been proved that 87 percent of the Sulphur Creek mainstem is severely degraded .
= = History = =
Located to the southwest of Aliso Creek , Sulphur Creek historically lay in the territory of the Acjachemen Indian group , whose main population center was actually farther south , at the confluence of San Juan and Trabuco creeks . A nearby village , Niguili , was located near the mouth of Aliso Creek likely near the confluence of Aliso and Sulphur Creeks . Present @-@ day Laguna Niguel takes its name from this settlement . The Acjachemen were renamed the Juaneño by Spanish priests in the 18th century , who established a mission at the present @-@ day location of San Juan Capistrano . Following the Spanish arrival , most Juaneño clustered around the mission in the south . Like many other once widespread Juaneño villages , Niguili was likely abandoned soon after , and there is no trace of it remaining .
From 1842 to the 1960s , the entire land area was known as Rancho Niguel , a Mexican land grant originally belonging to Juan Avila . Eventually , after passing through several ownerships , the ranch was purchased in 1881 by Lewis Moulton and Jean Pierre Daguerre , who expanded it to 21 @,@ 000 acres ( 85 km2 ) . By the 1960s , the City of Laguna Niguel bought a large portion of the ranch from the Moulton family ; it was later donated to the county for recreational use . Resultantly , the upper and lower sections of the creek are now under county ownership , and the Sulphur Creek Reservoir is managed by the Orange County Flood Control District .
In the 1950s , a large dam , about 485 feet ( 148 m ) long and 42 feet ( 13 m ) high , was raised across lower Sulphur Creek by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to create Sulphur Creek Reservoir ( otherwise known as Laguna Niguel Lake ) . This flooded 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) and 44 acres ( 0 @.@ 18 km2 ) of the original course of the creek , creating a 520 acre foot ( 640 @,@ 000 m3 ) impoundment . This lake was annually stocked with fish , and by the 1960s , residential communities began to rise on the hills west of the main ( southward @-@ flowing ) segment of the creek , while increasingly contaminated urban runoff began to contribute to the creek 's flow . These hills originally consisted of high , narrow ridges dissected by steep but shallow and short canyons but were leveled to make way for buildings . In 1973 the 236 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 96 km2 ) Laguna Niguel Regional Park was established in the lower third of the creek course , covering the extent of the creek from the head of Sulphur Creek Reservoir to where the creek crosses Alicia Parkway through a large culvert . In 1990 the final reach of the creek became part of Aliso and Wood Canyons Regional Park .
= = Wildlife and flora = =
Historically , the Sulphur Creek watershed was mostly hilly terrain consisting of chaparral and coastal sage scrub , with native riparian vegetation , likely consisting of live oak , sycamores , and alders ( the namesake of Aliso Creek ; Aliso is the Spanish translation of Alder ) and other small trees , lined the small and seasonally flowing creek . Fish were likely nonexistent in the historic Sulphur Creek watershed - although Aliso Creek was perennial , steelhead trout were found to not have inhabited Aliso Creek even during flow periods , despite claims of some residents . ( See Wildlife of Aliso Creek for a detailed explanation on the absence of steelhead . )
With the introduction of non @-@ native species , predominantly giant reed , castor bean and tobacco tree , native plant species in the watershed began to die out . As giant reed is not suitable habitat for many species , areas infested by giant reed are biologically dead in comparison with unaffected areas . It can grow extremely fast , removing too much water from the creek , and during flood events , many parts of the giant reed can wash downstream and re @-@ establish themselves as a new colony , increasing the problem . Along with increasing concentrations of nutrients from fertilizer and other substances contained in runoff , algal blooms began to hurt the water quality of the creek , especially above Sulphur Creek Reservoir . The historically seasonal creek was replaced with a constant flow of polluted water from several large storm drains and many smaller ones . Fish thrived for a limited time in Sulphur Creek between the introduction of perennial flows and the devastating floods at the end of the 20th century . These floods wiped out many of the remaining riparian areas lining waterways in the watershed . Despite the massive environmental degradation in the Sulphur Creek watershed , it is not biologically dead , yet and still supports some native species . Work is under way in the watershed to remove non @-@ native species and restore native riparian vegetation .
Aliso and Wood Canyons Regional Park , which is located at the lower extreme of Sulphur Creek , supports far more native species than the Sulphur Creek watershed ( see Wildlife of Aliso Creek for detail ) .
= = Recreation = =
Sulphur Creek Reservoir is the primary recreational facility in the watershed and is said to be one of the largest fisheries of Southern Orange County . The lake is annually stocked with bluegill , catfish , and bass . Aside from the reservoir , there is no body of water in the watershed that is navigable . There are several other parks in the watershed ; these are Crown Valley Park , Sulphur Creek Park , and others . A paved trail follows Sulphur Creek from near the terminus of Crown Valley Park to near its mouth at Alicia Parkway .
= = Etymology = =
The Geographic Names Information System lists " Arroyo Salada " ( Spanish : Salt Canyon ) as a variant name . Cañada Salada , translated to " Valley of Salt " or " Salt Canyon " ( Durham 's Place Names of the Greater Los Angeles Area , 2001 ) is another name for the lower section of the creek . These names , dating to Spanish times , imply that the creek was naturally salty or briny . As Salt Creek to the south bears a name of similar meaning , and that the " Arroyo Salada " Storm Channel occupies the lower section of the prehistoric Sulphur Creek watershed , there is further proof by salt concentrations that the two watersheds were once linked ( see Watershed ) .
= Romania in the Middle Ages =
The Middle Ages in Romania began with the withdrawal of the Mongols , the last of the migrating populations to invade the territory of modern Romania , after their attack of 1241 – 1242 . It came to an end with the reign of Michael the Brave ( 1593 – 1601 ) who managed , for a short time in 1600 , to rule Wallachia , Moldavia and Transylvania , the three principalities whose territories were to be united some three centuries later to form Romania .
Over most of this period , Banat , Crişana , Maramureş and Transylvania – now regions in Romania to the west of the Carpathian Mountains – were part of the Kingdom of Hungary . They were divided into several types of administrative units , such as " counties " and " seats " . The heads of the Transylvanian counties or " counts " were subordinated to a special royal official called voivode , but the province was seldom treated as a single unit , since the Székely and Saxon seats were administered separately . In the kingdom , Romanian peasants , being Orthodox , were exempt from the tithe , an ecclesiastical tax payable by all Roman Catholic commoners . However , Romanian noblemen slowly lost the ability to participate in political life , as the 14th @-@ century monarchs pursued a zealous pro @-@ Catholic policy . Their position became even worse after 1437 when the so @-@ called " Union of Three Nations " , an alliance of the Hungarian noblemen , the Székelys , and the Saxons , was formed in order to crush the Bobâlna peasant uprising .
Wallachia , the first independent medieval state between the Carpathians and the lower Danube was created when Basarab I ( c . 1310 – 1352 ) terminated the suzerainty of the king of Hungary with his victory in the battle of Posada in 1330 . The independence of Moldavia , to the east of the Carpathians , was achieved by Bogdan I ( 1359 – 1365 ) , a nobleman from Maramureş , who led a revolt against the former ruler who was appointed by the Hungarian monarch . The independence of the two principalities , however , was rarely secure , and vassalage to multiple states became an important aspect of their diplomacy . Although Wallachia paid tribute to the Ottoman Empire from 1417 , and Moldavia from 1456 , their two medieval monarchs , Mircea the Old of Wallachia ( 1386 – 1418 ) and Stephen the Great of Moldavia ( 1457 – 1504 ) conducted successful military operations against the Ottoman Turks . The two principalities ' trade with other parts of Europe began to decrease after the last decades of the 15th century . Before this the sale of hides , grain , honey , and wax to the Holy Roman Empire , Venice and Poland , and the import of silk , weapons and other manufactured goods from these areas had been widespread , but by the end of the 16th century the Ottoman Empire became the main market for Romanian products .
Transylvania , together with the neighboring counties , gained the status of an autonomous state under Ottoman suzerainty after the central territories of the Kingdom of Hungary had been annexed by the Ottomans in 1541 . The fall of the kingdom also deprived Wallachia and Moldavia of their main ally in the struggle against the Ottoman Empire . In 1594 Michael the Brave of Wallachia joined an anti @-@ Ottoman alliance initiated by Pope Clement VIII . After a series of victory over the Ottomans , he turned against Transylvania and Moldavia where pro @-@ Polish and pro @-@ Ottoman princes were reigning . He invaded and occupied Transylvania in 1599 , and Moldavia in 1600 . Although the union of the three countries collapsed in four months , it served as an ideal for later generations working for the unification of the lands that now form Romania .
= = Background = =
At the end of the 8th century the establishment of the Khazar Khaganate north of the Caucasus Mountains created an obstacle in the path of nomadic people moving westward . In the following period , the local population of the Carpathian – Danubian area profited from the peaceful political climate and a unitary material culture , called " Dridu " , that developed in the region . Finds from the Dridu settlements , such as coulters and sickles , confirm the role of agriculture in their economy .
In the 9th century centrifugal movements commenced in the Khazar Kaghanate . One of the subject peoples , the Hungarians left its dominion and settled in the region between the rivers Don and Dniester . They abandoned the steppes and crossed the Carpathians around 896 . According to the 13th @-@ century Gesta Hungarorum ( " Deeds of the Hungarians " ) , at the time of the Hungarian invasion Transylvania was inhabited by Romanians and Slavs and ruled by Gelou , " a certain Romanian " , while Crişana was inhabited by several peoples , among them Székelys . Whether the author of the Gesta had any knowledge of the real conditions of the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries remains debated by historians .
In 953 the gyula , the second leader in rank of the Hungarian tribal federation , converted to Christianity in Constantinople . Around that time , according to the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII , the Hungarians controlled the region on the border of modern Romania and Hungary along the rivers Timiş , Mureş , Criş , Tisa and Toutis . In 1003 , as the Annals of Hildesheim narrates , Stephen I , the first crowned monarch of Hungary ( c . 1000 – 1038 ) " led an army against his maternal uncle , King Gyula " , and occupied Gyula 's country .
Stephen I granted privileges to the Roman Catholic Church , for example by ordering the general imposition of the tithe upon the population . Burials in most local pre @-@ Christian cemeteries , for example at Hunedoara , only ceased around 1100 . Stephen I also divided his kingdom , including the territories of modern Romania he had occupied , into counties , that is administrative units around royal fortresses , each administered by a royal official called count . In time the voivode , a higher royal official first attested in 1176 , became the principal of all the counts in Transylvania . In contrast with Transylvania , the counts in modern Banat and Crişana remained in direct contact with the king who appointed and replaced them at will .
From the end of the 9th century the Pechenegs controlled the territories to the east and south of the Carpathians . According to the Eymund 's saga , they fought together with the Blökkumen ( " Romanians " ) in the Kievan Rus ' in the 1010s . The Pechenegs were swept aside from their territories by the Cumans between 1064 and 1078 . A late variant of the oldest Turkish chronicle , the Oghuz @-@ name relates that the Cumans defeated many nations , including the Ulâq ( " Romanians " ) . Some of the Pechenegs fled into the Kingdom of Hungary where they were employed to guard the border districts , for instance in Transylvania .
The 11th @-@ century settlements in Transylvania are characterized by small huts with ceramic assemblages marked by clay cauldrons . The increasing number of coin finds suggests that the province experienced economic growth in the late 11th century . The first document pertaining to the province is a royal charter of 1075 referring to taxes on salt levied at Turda . The earliest precious metal mine in medieval Transylvania , the silver mine at Rodna was first mentioned in 1235 .
In the 12th and 13th centuries hospites ( " guest settlers " ) arrived in Transylvania from Germany and from the French @-@ speaking regions on the river Rhine who in time became collectively known as " Saxons " . In 1224 Andrew II of Hungary ( 1205 – 1235 ) granted special liberties to the Saxons who had settled in southern Transylvania . For instance , they were authorized to choose their local leaders ; only the head of the entire community , the count of Sibiu , was appointed by the king . They were also granted the right to use " the forest of the Romanians and the Pechenegs " . The first references to viniculture in Transylvania are connected to the vineyards of the hospites of Cricău , Ighiu , and Romos .
As a result of the Saxon immigration , the Székelys – Hungarian @-@ speaking free warriors cultivating communal lands – were transferred to the southeast of the province . From the 13th century they were governed independently from the voivode by a royal official , the count of the Székelys . Besides the Saxons , the Cistercians became the agents of expansion in Transylvania . When their abbey at Cârţa was established in the early 13th century , Andrew II ordered that the strip of land running up to the mountains between the rivers Olt , Cârţişoara and Arpaş be transferred from the Romanians to the new monastery .
Following the defeat of the Cumans by the Mongols on the river Kalka in 1223 , some chieftains of the western Cuman tribes accepted the authority of the king of Hungary . Their conversion led to the creation of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Cumania to the east of the Carpathians . However , the Orthodox Romanian population of the territory received the sacraments from " some pseudo @-@ bishops of the Greek rite " , according to a papal bull of 1234 . In 1233 Oltenia was organized into a military frontier zone of the Kingdom of Hungary , called the Banate of Severin .
The expansion across the Carpathians was stopped by the invasion of the Mongols that lasted from March 31 , 1241 to April , 1242 . It was a major watershed in the medieval history of the region : although the number of casualties is disputed , even the most prudent estimates do not go below 15 percent of the total population .
= = High Middle Ages ( 1242 – 1396 ) = =
= = = Outer @-@ Carpathian regions = = =
After the withdrawal from the Kingdom of Hungary , the Mongol forces halted at Sarai ( now Russia ) on the Volga River where their leader , Batu Khan set up his own capital . Henceforth , the steppes between the rivers Dnieper and Danube were under the influence of the Mongols of the Volga , known as the Golden Horde . From the 1260s , a relative of Batu , Nogai Khan settled at Isaccea on the Lower Danube and became the absolute master of the neighboring regions . He made himself independent of the Golden Horde around 1280 , but was killed in a battle in 1299 .
By the middle of the 14th century , the westernmost Mongol territories had become subject to frequent Polish and Hungarian military offensives . Grand Prince Olgierd of Lithuania penetrated farther into the territories controlled by the Golden Horde than any European army had hitherto done . He won a major victory over the united Mongol troops on the Dnieper near the Black Sea in 1363 .
= = = Intra @-@ Carpathian regions = = =
Having been raided twice by the Mongols within a single year , Transylvania felt the consequences of the invasion of 1241 – 1242 for more than two decades . The administrative centers of the province , such as Alba Iulia and Cetatea de Baltă , had been destroyed . Due to the severe depopulation , a process of organized colonization commenced that lasted for several decades . For example , a new wave of colonization resulted in the establishment of the Saxon seats of Sighişoara and Mediaş ; and the lord of Ilia received , in 1292 , royal permission to settle Romanians in the lands he owned .
Since only castles built of stone and walled towns had been able to resist Mongol attacks , following the withdrawal of the Mongols the kings encouraged both the landowners and the townspeople to build stone fortifications . New stone fortresses were built , for example , at Codlea , Rimetea , and Unguraş . The process of urbanization was characterized by the predominance of the Saxon towns : out of the eight towns in Transylvania , only Alba Iulia and Dej were situated in the counties . A charter referring to inns , bakeries , and bathhouses in Rodna proves the city @-@ like way of life of its inhabitants . Salt was still the most important item of trade in this period , but trading with oxen , maidservants , and wine is also documented in royal charters .
In 1257 , Béla IV of Hungary ( 1235 – 1270 ) appointed his eldest son , the future Stephen V ( 1270 – 1272 ) to govern the kingdom 's territories to the east of the Danube . Here the younger king ceded a significant part of his royal domains to noblemen . The first years of the reign of Ladislaus IV of Hungary ( 1272 – 1290 ) , were characterized by civil wars throughout the entire kingdom . In Transylvania , the Saxons engaged in a local conflict with the bishop , took Alba Iulia and set fire to the cathedral . The series of wars continued in 1285 with a second Mongol invasion . During its initial stage , the Székelys , the Romanians and the Saxons successfully blocked the Mongols ' access and later organized a series of ambushes provoking panic among the retreating invaders .
By that time , the Romanians ' military role had expanded from their original task of defending the kingdom 's frontiers . They participated in several military campaigns , for example against Bohemia in 1260 and against Austria in 1291 . Their economic role became also recognized , since their pastoral activities connected to cloth production of the Saxon settlements . To the monarchs , they paid a special tax in sheep , called the " fiftieth " . Andrew III of Hungary ( 1290 – 1301 ) even ordered , in 1293 , that all the Romanians who had been settled without royal permission on noble domains be returned to the royal estate of Armeni .
In the last decades of the 13th century , congregatio generalis ( " general assembly " ) convoked by the monarchs or their representatives became an important organ of court system . For instance , the general assembly convoked in 1279 by Ladislaus IV for seven counties – among them Bihor , Crasna , Sătmar , and Zărand in the territory what is now Romania – ended with sentencing a despotic person to death . The first charter referring to a general assembly of the Transylvanian counties was recorded in 1288 . A general assembly of the Transylvanian nobles , Saxons , Székelys and Romanians was convoked personally by the monarch in 1291 .
When Andrew III died in 1301 , the entire kingdom was in the hands of a dozen powerful noblemen . Among them , Roland Borsa ruled Crişana , Theodore of Vejteh gained the upper hand in the Banat , and Ladislaus Kán governed Transylvania . The latter 's authority was also recognized by the Saxons and the Székelys . He even assumed royal prerogatives , such as taking over lands lacking rightful owners . After 1310 , he acknowledged Charles I of Hungary ( 1301 – 1342 ) as his sovereign , but in fact continued to rule independently . The king who transferred his residence to Timişoara in 1315 could only strengthen his authority after a long series of confrontations . For instance , Ciceu , the last stronghold of Ladislaus Kán 's sons surrendered in 1321 .
After the king 's victory , one of his loyal adherents , Thomas Szécsényi was appointed voivode who suppressed a Saxon revolt in 1324 . At that time , the autonomous Saxon province was divided into seats , each administered by a judge appointed by the king . In appreciation of the Transylvanian noblemen 's services in the crushing of the revolt , Charles I exempted them from the taxes they had so far paid to the voivodes .
In this period , one of the major incentives for the growth of Transylvanian towns was the trade with Wallachia and Moldavia . For instance , Braşov was granted a staple right in 1369 with respect to the trade in cloth from Poland or Germany . Thereafter , foreign merchants had to sell their most sought @-@ after merchandise , broadcloth to the tradesmen of Braşov who resold it in Wallachia in exchange for animals , cotton , wax and honey .
In the 14th century , the name " district " was generalized for the forms of territorial organizations of the Romanians , but only few of them , for instance their district in Bereg County ( now in Hungary and Ukraine ) , achieved official recognition . Maramureş , where Romanians were first mentioned in 1326 , was the only district that transformed , around 1380 , into a county . Louis I of Hungary ( 1342 – 1382 ) issued a royal decree in 1366 which prescribed firm judicial measures against " the malefactors of any nation , especially Romanians " .
Louis I 's decree also regulated the legal status of the cneazes , the Romanians ' local leaders , by establishing a distinction between cneazes " brought to " their lands by royal writ whose testimony in court weighed like that of nobles ( " noble cneazes " ) , and others whose evidence counted for less ( " commoner cneazes " ) . This distinction , however , did not mean real nobility and grant them exemption from royal taxes , even for the noble cneazes . Their status corresponded to that of the Hungarian " conditional nobles " whose nobility depended on the specified military services they were to render .
According to a royal decree of 1428 , Louis I had also ordered that only Catholics be granted land in the Sebeş district of Timiş county . As a result of official pressure , many Romanian noblemen converted to Catholicism . For example , the members of the powerful Drágffy family turned Catholic in the 15th century . The Ottomans raided Transylvania for the first time in 1394 . Sigismund I of Hungary ( 1387 – 1437 ) organized a crusade against them , but the battle of Nicopolis ( now Nikopol , Bulgaria ) ended in disaster for the Christian forces in 1396 .
= = = Establishment of Wallachia = = =
According to a charter issued by Béla IV of Hungary for the Knights Hospitallers in 1247 , at that time at least four polities existed in the area to the south of the Carpathians . Two of them , the cnezats of John and Farcaş were granted to the knights , but the lands ruled by Litovoi and Seneslau were left " to the O | Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
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