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Prints, Drawings, and Photographs
The Museum of the City of New York's Prints, Drawings,
and Photographs Collection documents the built
environment of the city and its changing cultural,
political, and social landscape from its earliest days to
the present. Over half a million views of the city and its
people provide a rich visual resource.
- Some of New York's earliest photographic views, including waxed-paper negatives by Victor Prevost and rare landscape daguerreotypes.
- Works by such noted photographers as Berenice Abbott, Jacob Riis, and Jessie Tarbox Beals.
- More than 22,000 original prints taken by the Byron Co. in New York between 1890 and 1942.
- The photographic archives of the Gottscho-Schleisner firm, LOOK Magazine, Irving Underhill, Charles Von Urban, and the Wurts Brothers, as well as photographic work commissioned by the renowned architectural firm of McKim, Mead and White.
- The Harry T. Peters Collection, including the most complete set of hand-colored Currier and Ives prints in existence.
- Reginald Marsh's watercolor mural studies for the U.S. Customs House at Bowling Green; work produced by city printmakers under the Federal Art Project; and thousands of topographical engravings and hand-colored lithographs.
- Drawings ranging from 18th-century pastel portraits to 19th-century architectural drawings by A.J. Davis; political cartoons from the 1920s and 1930s by Rollin Kirby and John Cassel; architectural renderings by Hughson Hawley; drawings by Rea Irvin; and the archives of the Planning Board of the 1939 New York World's Fair.
Costumes and Textiles
The Museum of the City of New York's Costume and Textile
Collection preserves over 25,000 garments and accessories
dating from the late 17th century to the present, the vast
majority with a documented history linking them to the
New Yorkers who wore them as well as the context of
their wearing. The collection captures the history not
only of changing fashion tastes but also of the evolving
culture and social mores of the city.
- A legendary collection of clothing worn by fashionable New York women bearing the label Worth/Paris, founded by legendary couturier Charles Frederick Worth.
- Peerless "boutique/highlight" collections of clothing, accessories and memorabilia that document New York's epic social events including the October 12, 1860 "Ball in Honor of His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales" that took place at the Academy of Music at 14th Street and Irving Place, the Vanderbilt Ball held March 26, 1883, as well as Truman Capote's Black and White Ball, held November 28, 1966 at the Hotel Plaza.
- Significant holdings of 20th-century works by New York designers, including Claire McCardell, Mainbocher, Vera Maxwell, Norman Norell, and Valentina.
- Items identified with city personalities, including John Jay's velvet frock coat, Al Smith's trademark derby, the uniform of department store legend Buster the Doorman of Henri Bendel, and a desert-toned camouflage uniform issued to a female New York City National Guard member who served in Operation Desert Storm.
- Fashion accessories including fans, stockings, shoes and boots, gloves, parasols, hats and headdresses, and purses as well as costume jewelry.
- A chronological reference archive of primary source materials directly related to the history of fashion trends and the fashion industry in New York City. Included are photographs, clippings from periodicals, vintage store and mail-order catalogues, and bound fashion publications.
- More than 5,000 theatrical costumes and accessories.
Manuscripts and Ephemera
The Manuscripts and Ephemera Collection augments
and complements other elements of the Museum
collections, spanning the mid-17th century to the
present day, but is particularly strong in late 19th-
and early 20th-century items. Materials include family
and personal papers, corporate papers, documents,
ephemera, postcards, and maps; and address a wide
variety of topics including land ownership, commerce,
civic engagement, social life, politics, and entertainment.
- Papers of the Livingston, Delancey, Jay, Munro, Riker, and Tower Families, Samuel Latham Mitchill, and Alfred E. Smith.
- Documents related to real estate, apprenticeships, bills and invoices, and citizenship.
- Ephemera related to public events such as bridge openings and statue dedication ceremonies, special dinner events, cultural activities such as museum exhibitions, advertising, public health, nightlife, and clubs and societies.
- Postcards presenting vivid images of all five boroughs.
- Maps documenting the changing landscape of the city over 300 years, featuring works such as a 19th-century facsimile of Adrian Block’s 1614 map of Niew Neiderlandt, Thomas H. Poppleton’s 1817 Plan of New York, and Plan of the City of New York, In North America: Surveyed in the Years 1766 & 1767, as surveyed by Bernard Ratzer.
Decorative Arts and Furniture
The Museum of the City of New York holds one
of the most significant collections of New York
furniture, ranging from the early-18th through
the late-19th centuries.
- Iconic works by leading New York makers and designers, representing the leaders of American design from the nascent years of nationhood to the onset of World War I, including John Henry Belter and Company (active 1844- 1866), Herter Brothers (active 1865-1907), Charles Honoré Lannuier (active 1779-1819), Leon Marcotte & Company (active 1849-1880), Joseph Meeks & Sons (active 1829-1859), Duncan Phyfe (active 1792-1847), Pottier & Stymus Manufacturing Company (active 1859-1918), and Alexander Roux (active 1836-80).
- Leading examples of New York silver from the late 17th through the first half of the 20th centuries. Expertly catalogued and beautifully illustrated, the two- volume publication, Elegant Plate: Three Centuries of Precious Metals in New York City documents the evolution of New York silver production and presents stellar examples from the Museum’s collection.
- Chinese export porcelain commissioned by New Yorkers as well as Staffordshire china produced for the New York market, along with stoneware vessels from the Crolius Pottery of lower Manhattan.
Paintings and Sculpture
The Museum of the City of New York's Paintings and Sculpture
Collection includes a vast array of works ranging from portraits
to seascapes, allegories to city scenes by some of this country’s
pivotal artists beginning in the 17th century and running
through the 20th century. The collection spans portraiture
celebrating New York’s roots to edgy work of the graffiti artists.
- Significant works by major artists, including Fifth Avenue at 89th Street in 1868 (1868, Ralph Blakelock); Youle's Shot Tower (1844, Jasper F. Cropsey); Dance on the Battery in the Presence of Peter Stuyvesant (1838, Asher B. Durand); Rainy Late Afternoon, Union Square (1890, Childe Hassam); Samuel Rossiter Betts (1835, Henry Inman); Philip J. Hone (ca. 1825, John Wesley Jarvis); Harris Theater, New York (1940, Reginald Marsh); Henry Post (ca. 1820, Rembrandt Peale); Robert Fulton (ca. 1810, John Trumbull); and Margaret Marston Philipse (ca. 1751, John Wollaston).
- A small group of preliminary models for monuments, which are considered among the institution's major treasures. These include Robert Ball Hughes's surviving plaster study for the ill-fated Hamilton monument destroyed by the Great Fire of 1835 and Frédéric-Auguste Bartholdi's early terra-cotta model for the Statue of Liberty.
- More than 100 paintings and prints depicting scenes of New York Harbor and its watercraft. American marine painters represented include James Butterworth, Thomas Birch, Antonio Jacobsen, Gordon Grant, Edward Moran, and the Bard Brothers, whose work is featured in the Andrew Fletcher Collection depicting New York steamboats built by Fletcher, Harrison & Co. between 1859 and 1887.
The Museum of the City of New York's Theater Collection documents theatrical activity in New York City from the
late-18th century to the present day. The heart of the
Theater Collection holdings is the John Golden
Archive, which consists of approximately 40,000 folders,
organized into files on productions, personalities, and
performance spaces. The files contain a wide range of material including photographs, contracts, correspondence, playbills, manuscripts, advertising materials, reviews, obituaries, clippings, sheet music, autographs, account records, prompt books, and ephemera.
- 17,000 folders documenting Broadway and Off-Broadway productions since the 1800s.
- Original set and costume renderings by designers such as Alvin Colt, Miles White, Donald Oenslager, and Lucinda Ballard.
- Posters and window cards that document trends in theatrical advertising.
- Original scripts by Eugene O'Neill.
- A large collection of George M. Cohan’s annotated scripts and original Orchestrations.
- Personal papers of Mary Martin, Howard Dietz, Julia Marlowe, and E. H. Sothern.
- Over 3,500 caricatures, drawings, and prints.
- Popular entertainment collections on Burlesque, Circus, Minstrelsy, and Vaudeville. | <urn:uuid:573e9c5a-d381-4604-8d08-5c261f614847> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mcny.org/content/collections-descriptions | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00186-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.895773 | 2,097 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Like their cherry, apricot and peach relatives, plums are members of the rose family and form stone fruits: having a hard seed pit in their centers. The variety 'Bruce' develops fruits with a sweet but mellow flavor. Plant an additional plum tree nearby to ensure excellent pollination of flowers in very early spring. Cool, rainy weather in early spring followed by irregular late frosts can diminish flowering and fruiting on 'Bruce'. Grow it in USDA hardiness zones 6 through 8.
This hybrid plum resulted from a genetic cross between the Japanese plum (Prunus salicina) and the American native Chickasaw plum (Prunus angustifolia). As such, its proper botanical name is Prunus 'Bruce', although many list or sell this variety as Prunus salicina 'Bruce'. It was introduced into trade in 1921 by A. L. Bruce of Donelly County, Texas.
Growing to a mature size of about 15 to 20 feet, its branches and canopy are open and spreading in habit. Depending on climate, the small five-petaled white flowers begin opening in very late winter to early spring, making them prone to late frosts. The leaves are medium green and tapering ovals. The abundant numbers of fruits ripen with skins of translucent salmony orange-red with sweet yellow flesh. Harvest them in late spring; this is a very early-season plum.
Plant Bruce plum in a fertile, moist but well-draining soil in full sun, receiving at least 8 hours of direct sunlight daily. It tolerates high summer heat and humidity and many soil types. The Japanese plum lineage tends to give this variety a "self-fertile" quality, meaning its own flower numbers should result in adequate pollination by honeybees. For excellent fruit set, consider planting at least two trees within 100 feet of each other for heightened cross-pollination. Variety 'Methley' is a good companion pollinator tree. The Bruce plum needs 500 chilling hours in winter in order to flower and fruit. In some colder winter areas of USDA zone 9, this variety may be worthwhile.
If untimely spring frosts often occur in your area and threaten harming the plum's blossoms, situate the tree on a sunny hillside slope and out of cold winds, perhaps sheltered near an outbuilding or evergreen grove. Do not plant in low areas prone to settling cold air pockets. If blossoms turn black after a frost, they will not develop into fruits. Reduce use of pesticides in your overall landscape to ensure that pollinating insects are always in their highest numbers.
If fruit set is not important, Bruce plum acts as an attractive small flowering tree with a rustic appearance. The white flowers look best when contrasted from behind by a dark-colored structure or evergreen tree. The fruits ripen early and will attract birds; eat the fruits fresh, preserved in jams and jellies, or canned. | <urn:uuid:61a0adf7-abf6-453f-9516-b142e9c6cc79> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gardenguides.com/112957-bruce-plum-trees.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935071 | 607 | 2.984375 | 3 |
NCHS Health Insurance Data
NCHS Factsheet, October 2015
PDF Version (616 KB)
The National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) is the nation’s principal health statistics agency, providing data to identify and address health issues. NCHS compiles statistical information to help guide public health and health policy decisions.
Collaborating with other public and private health partners, NCHS uses a variety of data collection mechanisms to obtain accurate information from multiple sources. This process provides a broad perspective on the population’s health, influences on health, and health outcomes.
Health insurance coverage is an important determinant of access to health care and health status. Uninsured children and nonelderly adults are substantially less likely than their insured counterparts to have a usual source of health care or a recent health care visit. The major source of coverage for persons under age 65 is private employer-sponsored group health insurance. Private health insurance can also be purchased on an individual basis, but it costs more and generally provides less coverage than group insurance. Public programs such as Medicaid and the Children’s Health Insurance Program provide coverage for many low-income children and adults.
To develop policies and programs that improve health insurance coverage, it is important to obtain timely and accurate information on the number of persons who lack health insurance coverage and the number of persons with different types of coverage.
The National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) collects comprehensive data on health insurance coverage. Three estimates of lack of health insurance coverage are provided on a quarterly basis: (a) uninsured at the time of interview, (b) uninsured at least part of the year prior to interview, and (c) uninsured for more than a year at the time of interview. Data are also provided on public and private coverage for those currently insured, including data on enrollment in consumer-directed health plans. For 2014, NHIS reported state-specific health insurance estimates for all 50 states and the District of Columbia for children aged 0–17 years, persons under age 65, and adults aged 18−64.
NHIS findings in 2014 show:
- A total of 36.0 million persons of all ages (11.5%) were uninsured at the time of interview, 51.6 million (16.5%) had been uninsured for at least part of the year prior to the interview, and 26.3 million (8.4%) had been uninsured for more than a year at the time of interview.
- Among persons under age 65, 63.6% (170.4 million) were covered by private health insurance plans at the time of interview.
- Among adults aged 18–64, the percentage who were uninsured at the time of interview decreased from 20.4% in 2013 to 16.3% in 2014.
- In 2014, the percentage of persons under age 65 who were uninsured at the time of interview varied by state. For example, 2.5% were uninsured in Hawaii, whereas 21.5% were uninsured in Oklahoma and Texas.
NOTE: Data are based on household interviews of a sample of the civilian noninstitutionalized population.
SOURCE: CDC/NCHS, National Health Interview Survey, 2014, Family Core component.
NHIS data on health insurance coverage for children show:
- Among children, 5.9% of poor, 8.6% of near-poor, and 3.6% of not-poor children did not have health insurance at the time of the interview in 2014.
- The percentage of near-poor children without health insurance at the time of interview decreased from 22.8% in 1997 to 8.6% in 2014.
- The percentage of poor children without health insurance at the time of interview decreased from 22.4% in 1997 to 5.9% in 2014.
SOURCE: CDC/NCHS, National Health Interview Survey, 1997-2014.
NHIS provides estimates for exchange-based coverage, which includes private health insurance plans purchased through the Health Insurance Marketplace or state-based exchanges that were established as part of the Affordable Care Act. NHIS data from 2014 show:
- The percentage of persons under age 65 with exchange-based coverage increased from 1.4% in the first quarter of 2014 (January through March) to 2.5% in the fourth quarter of 2014 (October through December).
- In the fourth quarter of 2014, 1.3% of children aged 0–17, 2.5% of adults aged 18–29, and 3.1% of adults aged 30–64 were covered by private health insurance obtained through the Health Insurance Marketplace or state-based exchanges.
SOURCE: CDC/NCHS, National Health Interview Survey, 2014.
NHIS collects information on the health of the U.S. civilian noninstitutionalized population through personal household interviews. It measures health status and disability, selected conditions, insurance coverage, access to care, use of health services, immunizations, health behaviors, injury, and the ability to perform daily activities.
- Page last reviewed: November 6, 2015
- Page last updated: October 22, 2015
- Content source: | <urn:uuid:1ee4e626-eba4-4d26-a18b-ced5a9ff0c91> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/factsheets/factsheet_health_insurance.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961726 | 1,055 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Children's Movies May Be More Violent Than G Rating Implies
May 23, 2000 -- It's among the most violent children's movies ever released, but A Bug's Life got a G rating from the movie industry. Only Quest for Camelot has more screen time devoted to hurting, eating, or otherwise killing characters. Happily Ever After comes in third.
A new study documents the violence found in 74 children's animated, G-rated movies. Results of the researchers' two-month video-viewing marathon are published in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA).
Among parents, "there's a general sense that G-rated means it's OK," says the study's author, Fumie Yokota, MS, who is with Harvard University's School of Public Health. "What we found is that it might be providing a false sense of security about content. There's at least one act of violence in every film. We're not saying it's good or bad, but that parents may want to look into violent content before kids watch it."
Yokota and colleague Kimberly M. Thompson, ScD, viewed virtually every children's animated film ever made, dating back to 1937's Snow White. (It contains eight minutes of violence, with two fatal injuries, and four types of weapons, including poison).
Quest for Camelot, a 1998 release, has 24 minutes of violence, with three fatalities. A Bug's Life, also a 1998 release, has three fatalities and contains 18 minutes of violence overall. Happily Ever After (1990) has nearly 18 minutes of violence, with five fatalities.
The researchers define violence as "intentional acts to cause harm, to coerce, or for fun, where the aggressor makes some physical contact that has potential to inflict injury or harm." Accidents or calamities, such as earthquakes and storms, were not included in the definition.
An "incident of violence" was defined as an "uninterrupted display of a character or a group of characters engaged in an act of violence, or the result of a violent off-screen action" (for example, when a shoe thrown by a character off-screen is seen hitting the target character).
The authors admit they made subjective judgments to characterize the violence, whether it was light (or funny), dark (or sinister), neutral, or some combination of the three, they say. And since their definition of "violence" was broad, they also tried to characterize the intent of the violent act -- whether there was intent to injure, or whether it was used to defend against an attacker. | <urn:uuid:d9e2450e-aa2e-4f51-ac44-b169a89832ff> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.webmd.com/parenting/news/20000523/childrens-movies-more-violent | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00129-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96978 | 530 | 2.78125 | 3 |
It’s a common mispronunciation, but it’s also a bit of a Freudian slip: saying “zeroscape” instead of “xeriscape.” To xeriscape is to design a garden that conserves water through the use of drought-tolerant plants grouped according to water needs, water-collection systems, mulch, non-wasteful irrigation, and other rather commonsense yet once-radical gardening practices. To zeroscape — to my mind, anyway — means to spread a bunch of rocks across one’s yard, maybe plant one agave or cactus, and call it done.
In drought-prone climates like central Texas and in arid ones like Arizona, xeriscaping is a popular concept, promoted by city water utilities and conservationists and eagerly embraced by homeowners who want to save money on their water bills and do the right thing. And yet you still hear that word “zeroscape” used a good deal, hinting that many people think water conservation means essentially giving up on having a beautiful garden.
The Scottsdale Xeriscape Garden at Chaparral Park, in suburban Phoenix, is a perfect illustration of the wow factor a xeric garden can provide. My friend Noelle of AZ Plant Lady introduced me to this public demonstration garden in early April, and its design and beauty are captivating. If you’re able to visit, you really should go, especially in the spring when the garden’s at peak bloom.
It begins with an overscaled, rusty steel vessel brimming with water — a symbol of abundance in an arid climate, and a “sacred element,” as landscape architect Christine Ten Eyck, who designed this garden, has described such a gesture. On the submerged rim of the vessel is inscribed this reminder: “The frog does not drink up the pond in which he lives.”
An imposing 30-foot-high, 320-foot-long wall — the facade of a water-treatment plant — is blended into the garden with an installation of geometric steel panels, soft-textured palo verde trees and grasses, and gabion terracing.
The steel panels act as garden sculpture while distracting the eye from that big, blank wall. Bougainvillea cascades down the gabion terraced beds.
Ten Eyck loves to use gabion walls in her designs (see her Capri Lounge garden in Marfa, Texas), and gabions are taken to new heights here, framing doorways and molded into buttresses.
Xeric (dry-loving) plants are massed for effect, like these agaves. The ground was dusted with golden “confetti” from the flowering palo verde trees.
Mexican olive (Cordia boissieri) adds glowing white flowers against deep-green foliage.
Shade sails float over plaza-like gathering spaces along the trail, offering shelter from the intense desert sun. Aloes bloom in the foreground.
The gabion walls — heavy-duty, wire constructions filled with river rock — that curve throughout the park slow the flow of water when it rains, allowing precious rainwater to soak into planting beds. Ten Eyck describes the terraced garden as a “bio-sponge.”
Throughout the garden, signs illustrate how to save water in home gardens.
As you continue along the path you come to the Mesquite Bosque, spiraling concrete walls that wind to the bottom of a bowl-like space, creating a naturalistic amphitheater that also acts as a water-collection basin when it rains. Mesquite bosques, or groves, were once prevalent along streams and rivers throughout the Sonoran Desert, according to the garden’s website, and this design references that natural history.
A dead tree, or snag, is left in place to provide habitat for hawks, which in turn keep the rodent population in check.
Soft vs. hard — a tufted meadow of deer grass and rounded boulders
The terraced beds created by the gabion walls…
…hold an assortment of desert-adapted species, like ornamental grasses, agaves, brittlebush, and desert marigold.
Charismatic ocotillo, golden barrel cactus, and pink evening primrose too
Desert marigold (Baileya multiradiata)
The final and most stunning feature along the trail is heralded by the appearance of rusty orange walls marvelously constructed of stacked ledgestone and bands of round river rock.
I am in love with these walls.
They add texture and pattern to the garden, as well as structural “bones” that give the space year-round interest.
The walls lead to the main event: an environmental artwork by Lorna Jordan called Terraced Cascade, echoing the form of the human spine even as it evokes a cascade of water and collects water when the rains come.
At the bottom of the basin, metal bridges cross a dry creek.
Masses of birch-like palo blanco trees (Acacia willardiana), small grasses, agave, and desert marigold fill the terraces.
Simplicity of planting: a matrix of just a few species, repeated for impact
Sinuous retaining walls
The ledgestone stair winding downward between boulders evokes a cascading waterfall. It’s magnificent.
A broader perspective
I couldn’t get enough of it.
If you can’t get enough either, visit Noelle’s post about Scottsdale Xeriscape Garden. And if you live nearby and still need convincing that you can grow a beautiful garden that doesn’t waste water, go visit in person. You’ll see that there’s nothing “zero” about this xeriscape.
All material © 2006-2014 by Pam Penick for Digging. Unauthorized reproduction prohibited. | <urn:uuid:e151b7c2-9d1d-4cba-b94b-06eedfab400e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.penick.net/digging/?p=26684 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00138-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915272 | 1,264 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Archaeologists digging at the Plaza de la Constitucion in St. Augustine, Florida, are finding that the plaza is different than the plans authorized by the King of Spain in the late 1500's.
The location, street layout, and type of buildings are different than expected. One possible reason is a series of catastrophic events including attacks by Indians and the English.
The best find from the dig so far is a silver doublet button. While there are many written historical documents about the early years of the plaza, no map has ever been found. [photos] | <urn:uuid:82b9d164-6588-4eed-9b08-69000f102b56> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scatoday.net/node/15803 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956553 | 116 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Continuing our “basic concepts with no math” series, here’s one of the most important for quantum mechanics and statistical mechanics.
To start, imagine a billiards table. It has an assortment of billiard balls, each numbered and colored differently. You can imagine randomly knocking them around the table, sort of in analogy to gas molecules bouncing around a room. As we’ve discussed, it’s very likely that on average the balls will be distributed more or less evenly around the table. You will rarely just happen to end up with all of them on one side of the table. By pure chance it might happen, but for a larger and larger number of balls it gets less and less probable.
In any event, think about a situaiton where all but one of the billiard balls are on one side of the table. You might have the 8-ball on one side and the rest on the other. Or it might be the 3-ball on one side and the rest on the other. Or any of the various other possibilities. In every case you’re still in the overall “all but one on one side” state, but there’s a number of different ways to be in that state. And you can tell those ways apart.
Could we do this for, say, a gas of electrons banging around in an enclosure? Mathematically we can, and a page or so into the algebra of the thermodynamics we’ll recognize a problem called the Gibbs paradox. It’s going to turn out that mathematically the entropy can then be made to behave in impossible ways. And clearly entropy is such a fundamental concept that something’s got to be wrong in our math.
And there is. It turns out that you can’t tell electrons apart. They’re not labeled the “8-ball electron” and so forth. And they can’t be labeled even in theory. Every electron is as far as we know exactly identical to every other one. And that has profound consequences. There’s no longer nearly so many ways to achieve the “one electron in the right half of the container, the rest in the left” state, because it doesn’t matter which electron is on the right. The universe can’t tell them apart. When we go back and adjust our equations to take this into account, we find that now the mathematics works and the equations describe what we actually observe experimentally.
That’s just one aspect of the thermodynamics of identical particles. It has interesting and subtle consequences in quantum mechanics as well. That’s another good story, which deserves its own look later. | <urn:uuid:db674642-804c-4d1b-b17f-cd644015b5ba> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://scienceblogs.com/builtonfacts/2009/02/06/indistinguishability/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00164-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932504 | 562 | 3.484375 | 3 |
Monarchs and Leaders
Submitted by Milica on Wed, 2003-12-17 00:44
Learn British history the easy way with the BBC's "Monarchs & Leaders," an interactive website that covers the country's history from "the Angevins to the Windsors." The BBC's Monarchs and Leaders lets visitors view British history through portraits, timelines, news clips, etc. with an emphasis on how leaders affected the country's history. | <urn:uuid:e98e2ac6-2a36-4177-aea2-cd042e669404> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scatoday.net/node/1493 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00158-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.879167 | 92 | 2.890625 | 3 |
How to multiply radicals of the same root together.
How to find the cube root of a number.
How to use the rational roots theorem.
How to rationalize the denominator with a higher root.
How to find square roots of integers.
How to find additive and multiplicative inverses.
How to multiply radicals together when they are different roots.
How to simplify square roots using two different methods.
How to use DeMoivre's Theorem to compute the cube roots of a complex number.
How to solve quadratic equations using square roots.
Vocabulary of multiples and least common multiples
How to multiply matrices.
How to find the roots of a complex number quickly using four simple guidelines.
Understanding the laws of definite and multiple proportions.
Understanding squaring and square roots, including decimal approximations
How to solve equations using square roots or cube roots.
How to find the probability of multiple events. | <urn:uuid:9a31ea2e-1d89-47b4-8f54-5d41e504dfdf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.brightstorm.com/tag/root-multiplication/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00065-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.83798 | 200 | 4.03125 | 4 |
Historical fact: People stopped being human in 1913. That was the year Henry Ford put his cars on rollers and made his workers adopt the speed of the assembly line. At first, workers rebelled. They quit in droves, unable to accustom their bodies to the new pace of the age. Since then, however, the adaptation has been passed down: we've all inherited it to some degree, so that we plug right into joysticks and remotes, to repetitive motions of a hundred kinds.
-- Jeffrey Eugenides, Middlesex --
Have a great Monday! | <urn:uuid:9b86c265-38dc-405f-b8c9-2c9f00d29fa8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://bookpuddle.blogspot.com/2012/02/splash-du-jour-monday_13.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00200-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973165 | 119 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Everyone knows that brushing your teeth is important We are told from a young age that we should brush after every meal, making sure to brush all our teeth from the very front teeth to the very back molars. Over the years we are supposed to integrate other steps into the daily dental routine such as dental floss and mouthwash. But when it is the right time to teach children these steps? How old do they need to be before they are allowed to use dental floss and mouthwash as both can be dangerous for young children. To answer all your questions, we have collected information from the top dentists on how to best train your children on proper dental care skills that will last them a lifetime.
The first step of dental care that can be carried out by young children is brushing their teeth. According to a dentist out of San Francisco, the best age to begin letting your child use their own toothbrush is about the age of two. At this age, it is important for parents to show their children how to put toothpaste on the brush, and how to hold the brush. Demonstrate the correct amount of toothpaste they should be using. For children ages two to five, only a pea sized amount of children specific toothpaste should be used. It is important to note that toothpaste meant for adults have many chemicals that can be too strong for a child if they happen to ingest them. Parents can show their children how to brush by guiding their hand with the correct motions while the child holds the toothbrush. As the child gets older and more experiences with holding and controlling the toothbrush, the parent can slowly allow them to man the brush on their own.
While teaching a child to brush on their own at the age of two may seem very early, a dentist out of Colorado encourages parents to begin instilling dental care habits in their children as early as possible. She shares, “We often see parents in our office that are not worried about their children mastering brushing because they feel that keeping the child’s baby teeth in perfect condition is not that important. Unfortunately, this is not the case. Caring for baby teeth correctly is very important. The health of a child’s baby teeth can affect the health of their permanent teeth. By protecting the health of baby teeth, procedures like dental implants later in your child’s life can be avoided.”
Another step parents should take is scheduling regular dental appointments for their children. This establishes the routine of making dental visits even when there is nothing wrong with your teeth. A dentist hailing from Arizona explained that many times patients wait until they are feeling discomfort or chronic pain before they come in to see the dentist. He continues, “At this point, the patient often needs more extensive work than would have been needed if they had simply made a habit of coming in once a year or so to check on the overall condition of their teeth.” Making regular appointments for your children is especially important during the teenage years as this is when early detection of wisdom tooth development can make for the easiest of wisdom teeth removal procedures. The dentist from Arizona reaffirms, “If your child sees that you prioritize regular dental visits, they are more likely to carry this habit with them into adulthood.” | <urn:uuid:30bd3fef-b0cd-4d28-a731-45d7f46f2d69> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://thirstthemovie.org/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969675 | 662 | 3.234375 | 3 |
The family of Heman Sweatt, the plaintiff in the landmark case, Sweatt v. Painter, 339 U.S. 629 (1950), emphasized legal and social history. In Sweatt, the Court ordered the admission of the plaintiff, a black man qualified for admission to UT's Law School but denied entry on account of race, on grounds that his exclusion violated the Equal Protection Clause. (Heman Sweat can be seen on the right, on the cover of Gary Lavergne's Before Brown, noted earlier here and here).
The Sweatt family's brief begins:
Amici curiae are the daughter and nephews of Heman Marion Sweatt, who in 1946 was denied admission to The University of Texas Law School for one reason: “the fact that he is a negro.” Texas law forbade UT from considering any of his other qualities: not his intelligence, not his determination, not the grit he gained living under and fighting Jim Crow. ...
Today, UT honors the legacy of Heman Sweatt in many ways, none more important than its commit-ment to creating a genuinely diverse student body. It does so through an admissions policy that considers (to the extent allowed by the Texas Top Ten Percent Law, which depends on secondary-school segregation to increase minority enrollment) all aspects of an applicant’s character – including, in part, how that character has been shaped by race.
The Sweatt Family submits this brief to recount Heman Sweatt’s story in the context of Texas’s long and continuing history of segregation in education and to support UT’s use of a holistic admissions policy as a narrowly tailored means of fulfilling its mission to prepare students to engage and lead Texas’s diverse society.
The Sweatts' brief is available here.
Another brief, which I authored, along with my colleague, Lani Guinier, places the constitutional issues in Fisher in historical context. The brief begins:
Fisher v. Texas is unlike any affirmative action case this Court has ever confronted. For the very first time in history, the U.S. Supreme Court is asked to rule on the constitutionality of an admissions program designed to increase racial diversity at a university located in a southern state—Texas.
The history of Texas and of the University of Texas (“UT”) distinguishes the present case from DeFunis v. Odegaard, 416 U.S. 312 (1974), Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265 (1978), and Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306 (2003). The aforementioned cases all involved universities located in the North or West that lacked a history of state-mandated segregation. Fisher arises out of a profoundly different context.This brief, field on behalf of our client, the Advancement Project, can be found here. (All briefs in the case are available here). For those interested in my views on historians as amicus filers, see my earlier post, "Say Something Historical." My expertise in legal history is not the sole influence on my take on Fisher, however. I also teach and write in the areas of constitutional and education law; my views about Fisher and willingness to represent a client in the case also are informed by my work in those two areas. In fact, at the invitation of the Vanderbilt Law Review, I wrote a Supreme Court preview essay about Fisher. That essay, available here, does not mention history at all; instead, it focuses on constitutional law and education policy.
The U.S. Supreme Court will hear arguments in Fisher in its upcoming term. | <urn:uuid:1a27d07f-4a04-4885-bbd8-9dab7521970d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://legalhistoryblog.blogspot.com/2012/08/texas-is-different-amicus-briefs-in.html?m=0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00026-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952014 | 753 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Diuretic drugs are medications that help the kidneys remove excess fluid from the body, helping to lower blood pressure and decrease edema and fluid overload. They do this by stimulating the kidneys to excrete sodium (salt). Sodium molecules associate with water, so when they're eliminated by the kidneys, they take water with them. This reduces the amount of excess fluid in the blood and in the body. Heart failure often gives rise to fluid overload, and people with heart failure are commonly treated with diuretic drugs. Recent evidence suggests, however, that long-term, aggressive use of diuretics in patients with heart failure may not be prudent.
As heart failure progresses, a number of symptoms related to fluid overload can appear. Excess fluid can enter the tiny air sacs in the lungs and reduce the amount of oxygen that can enter the blood, causing shortness of breath (dyspnea). Fluid can accumulate in the lungs when a patient lies down at night and make nighttime breathing and sleeping difficult (orthopnea), or even cause the patient to wake up suddenly gasping for air (paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea). Fluid overload can also occur in the lower limbs and/or abdomen. One million people are hospitalized each year in the United States for heart failure, 90 percent of them for symptoms related to fluid overload. | <urn:uuid:cac17e67-23d6-4d2f-8333-19a50249b714> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://health.howstuffworks.com/diseases-conditions/cardiovascular/heart/diuretics-mortality-heart-failure.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00068-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.911114 | 276 | 3.734375 | 4 |
Every household in Britain should by 2020 be able to cut its energy bills and carbon footprint using "smart meters" and handheld devices to control energy use closely, the government said today.
Britain plans to replace all existing electricity and gas meters -- often clunky objects hidden away amid domestic clutter in dark understairs cupboards - with easily viewed devices that show consumers exactly how much energy they are using, including by individual appliances.
The hope is users will change their behaviour to save money.
The meters will also help homeowners sell electricity from green technologies like roof-top wind turbines back to the grid while improving energy demand forecasts and network management.
"The meters most of us have in our homes were designed for a different age, before climate change. Now we need to get smarter with our energy," Energy and Climate Change Secretary Ed Miliband said.
"Smart meters will empower all consumers to monitor their own energy use and make reductions in energy consumption and carbon emissions as a result. Smart meters will also mean the end of inaccurate bills and estimated meter readings."
The government estimates that smart meters could deliver net benefits of between 2.5 billion pounds and 3.6 billion pounds over the next 20 years.
In April the government set a 2020 target to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 34 percent compared with 1990 levels, making it the first country to bind itself to a framework for emissions reductions.
But the necessary renewable energy growth and efficiency improvements have been small.
A consultation on how to install and run smart meters across the country will run until July 24, 2009. The Energy Retail Association of Britain's biggest suppliers said the government should follow up with swift action to get the meters rolling.
"We're delighted that the Government has finally announced its commitment to enable energy companies to put smart meters in every home," Garry Felgate, Chief Executive of the ERA, said
"However, we are still waiting for more detail on the meters themselves and the timetable for the project."
The government said it would prefer energy suppliers to install and maintain the devices, while communications with them would be coordinated by a third party across Great Britain.
The other options being considered are for energy suppliers to manage all aspects including communications, or where regional franchises manage installation and operation with communications managed nationally.
British Gas, which is trialling the meters in almost 50,000 homes and businesses, backs the government's choice.
"We believe the central communications model is best for customers, as it will speed up the roll-out of the technology by almost four years," Phil Bentley, the managing director of Britain's biggest energy supplier said.
Smart meters are seen as a first step towards creating "smart grids" where consumers can adjust electricity use to benefit from cheaper energy at times of low demand, including charging electric cars, and reduce consumption at peak times.
The older meters, many installed in the 1970s, show the total amount of electricity and gas used since installation. | <urn:uuid:57070283-9a2b-4989-8328-18664574b627> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/smart-meter-revolution-will-cut-energy-cost-1682843.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00172-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95793 | 594 | 2.75 | 3 |
Details about Gerald Ford and the Challenges of The 1970s:
History has not been kind to Gerald Ford. His name evokes an image of either America's only unelected president, who abruptly pardoned his corrupt predecessor, or an accident-prone man who failed to provide skilled leadership to a country in domestic turmoil. In Gerald Ford and the Challenges of the 1970s, historian Yanek Mieczkowski reexamines Ford's two and a half years in office, showing that his presidency successfully confronted the most vexing crises of the postwar era. Surveying the state of America in the 1970s, Mieczkowski focuses on the economic challenges facing the country. He argues that Ford's understanding of the national economy was better than that of any other modern president, that Ford oversaw a dramatic reduction of inflation, and that his attempts to solve the energy crisis were based in sound economic principles. Throughout his presidency, Ford labored under the legacy of Watergate. Democrats scored landslide victories in the 1974 midterm elections, and the president engaged with a spirited opposition Congress. Within an anemic Republican Party, the right wing challenged Ford's leadership, even as pundits predicted the death of the GOP. Yet Ford reinvigorated the party and fashioned a 1976 campaign strategy against Jimmy Carter that brought him from thirty points behind to a dead heat on election day. Mieczkowski draws on numerous personal interviews with the former president, cabinet officials, and members of the Ninety-fourth Congress. In his reassessment of this underrated president, Ford emerges as a skilled executive, an effective diplomat, and a leader with a clear vision for America's future. Working to heal a divided nation, Ford unified the GOP and laid the groundwork for the Republican resurgence in subsequent decades. The first major work on the former president to appear in more than ten years, Gerald Ford and the Challenges of the 1970s combines the best of biography and economic, social, and presidential history to create an intriguing portrait of a president, his times, and his legacy.
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Rent Gerald Ford and the Challenges of The 1970s 1st edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Yanek Mieczkowski. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by University Press of Kentucky.
Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our tutors now. | <urn:uuid:a35cc524-6fe7-4c89-a362-e8e51f2d28ac> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chegg.com/textbooks/gerald-ford-and-the-challenges-of-the-1970s-1st-edition-9780813123493-0813123496 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00150-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959511 | 490 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Great Neck, Long Island
No one has yet isolated the circumstances that help a child grow whole and independent, but they were present. James Gleick
Genius: The Life and Science of Richard Feynman
Great Neck was one of the many commutervilles lining the route of the Long Island Railroad in the years following World War II. This sleepy little New York town had become famous up and down Long Island for its excellent schools. Everyone at Great Neck High School was expected to go to a four-year college; higher education was both imperative and assumed. Here David Baltimore went to school. He was one of those students whom everyone referred to as "gifted," and when his brother came through the same classes four years later, the teachers still remembered David.
In school, David had no particular direction in mind, and biology classes in the 1950s were unlikely to inspire budding scientists. David's biology class consisted entirely of memorization. He learned the parts of a fern, the pieces of a flower, how the five biological kingdoms were divided, the names of all of the classes in the animal kingdom, the organs of a frog. The course was descriptive; students were not encouraged to ask how or why, or to think about how to solve a problem. And laboratory experiments were far beyond the capacity of the high school classroom in time, resources, and knowledge. The world of research remained foreign to him.
There are no child prodigies in biology. Future physicists may play with radios or electronics, forcing electrons to flow along wire paths through light bulbs or amplifiers, but there is no comparable pastime for biologists. Nature-watching is no substitute. Simply looking at frogs is no more instructive than looking at a radio: the tinkering is the important component. Perhaps someday, when molecular biology has reached elementary and secondary schools, promising young biologists will play with molecular biology sets the way chemists and physicists play with chemistry sets and circuit boards. As it is, most young biologists do no experiments before college. Of the few who do, almost all experiment with chemistry sets, only to switch to biology in college when they learn about its experimental possibilities.
Experimentation is central to biology because, unlike the laws of physics and mathematics, the laws of biology cannot be derived from first principles. A mathematical genius sits down with a pencil and paper and derives the mathematical world. Theoretical physicists do the same; Einstein made three of his most profound discoveries before he was twenty-five without doing a single experiment. But you cannot derive the biological world from theory. Molecular biological systems have an untraceable history, stretching back through three to four billion years of evolution (scientists can find fossils of cells, but evidence of their molecular mechanics all disappeared long ago). And historical causes often completely undermine what seems logically intuitive. To illustrate this, biologists often compare the molecular biological world to a Rube Goldberg apparatus. Goldberg, a cartoonist, drew ludicrously complicated contraptions to accomplish simple tasks. For example, Rube Goldberg's Labor-Saving Potato Masher works by the following mechanism: A several-week-old hunk of cheese gets restless and moves down the incline it rests on, toward a duck. The duck is overcome by the fumes and falls over onto a see-saw, launching a spiked ball into the air. The spiked ball pops a balloon. A policeman hears the pop and thinks somebody has been shot, and so he pokes his head through the window, bumping his head on another lever, which tips over a pitcher of water. The water pours into a hopper and is forced out through a pipe, pushing an electric button, causing a motor to start cranking a music box. A Shimmy Bird starts dancing to the music, causing the platform it stands on to vibrate, which forces the potato masher to mash the potato sitting in a pot beneath the platform. Biological systems are analogous to a Rube Goldberg model: knowing the task to be performed does not allow a biologist, no matter how brilliant, to infer how that task is accomplished. Biological reality is a complex mix of historical and rational causes. Biological discoveries are made by experimenting, for which it takes training to develop the necessary skills and educated creativity.
David's introduction to experimental biology did not come from Great Neck High School; it came with a little help from his mother. He recalls having "a kind of knee-jerk reaction to premedical orientation, because that's what a successful Jewish boy did." David's younger brother, Bob, had the same reaction, and it eventually led him to become a professor of pediatrics at Yale University Medical School. Both sons held their mother in absolute respect. She was a working intellectual who had earned a master's degree in psychology from the New School for Social Research in New York during the 1940s and later became a tenured professor at Sarah Lawrence at the age of sixty-two. Even while she worked, she devoted herself to her sons' education. Early on she held David back in first grade for half a year, possibly to give him a social boost. She and her husband had moved from Queens to Great Neck when David was in the first grade because they wanted the best education for their two sons; they moved back to the city as soon as the kids went to college. She vested great faith in science and education, and, like many Jewish parents of the era, she and her husband hoped their sons would enter science or medicine. In David's junior year of high school, his mother nudged him into research by encouraging him to apply for a little-known summer research program at the Roscoe B. Jackson Memorial Laboratory in Bar Harbor, Maine. He was accepted, and in early summer his parents drove him up the coast to the remote mouse laboratory on Mount Desert Island. Jackson Lab Maine. June, 1955.
Sunlight fell through gaps in the gray clouds retreating over the north Atlantic, and sheets of light scattered across the waves, breached the shore, and brushed slowly over the rooftops of Bar Harbor. They skirted the oak- and beech-covered flanks of Cadillac Mountain in Acadia National Park and finally trickled through the lush green canopy surrounding Jackson Laboratory.
A future scientist's first exposure to experiments is of critical importance, and in David's case it was doubly so, because in those first days at Jackson Lab he met Howard Temin. As fate would have it, they would share the Nobel Prize exactly twenty years later for independently discovering reverse transcriptase, the enzyme that allows viruses such as HIV to replicate and reproduce. Jackson Lab scientists had trained Howard in the summer high school program five years earlier. Shortly thereafter, at age eighteen, he published his first scientific paper. In his Swarthmore College senior yearbook, his friends wrote: "Will be one of the future giants in experimental biology. . . could be a fine wrestler, but muscles too big for fascia." On the Swarthmore wrestling team Howard fought with a quiet ferocity, tying opponents in knots with his gangly reach, but off the mat he maintained a mild-mannered decorum. Some of his friends called him Dean Howard. He had returned to Jackson Lab for the summer of 1955 to mentor the new students and to tinker with some genetics experiments of his own.
Baltimore, four years Temin's junior and distinctly smaller, readily engaged Howard. Their first impressions must have been positive. Howard knew that anyone accepted to the program had to be bright. For David, Howard was the first twenty-year-old he had ever met who was a real scientist. Years later David would fondly recall Howard as the summer "guru." The full group photo of the 1955 Jackson Lab whiz kids shows David displaying a certain adolescent awkwardness--the mundane sort, betraying clothes bought by mother and an uncertainty about the importance of attire. Temin has no such uncertainty, standing with arms akimbo and his jaw set in scientific seriousness.
The Jackson Lab geneticists structured their summer program around a core of daily lectures and three small research projects. The lab specialized in research on mouse genetics. In addition, Jackson was, and is, the largest supplier of lab mice in America. The Jackson Lab mouse library has the broadest, most scientifically potent, and most mind-boggling collection of mammalian genetic variations ever catalogued. In 1995, Jackson was shipping out two million mice a year. Thousands of mutant strains of scurrying mice rattled cages stacked from the floor to the ceiling in long warehouse buildings: black mice, white mice, sandy mice, spotted mice, mice with big ears, mice with pink eyes, fat mice, diabetic mice, mice that caught the flu, mice that shivered when they walked, bald mice, sick mice, mice that developed grotesque tumors. All of these mice lived, bred, and died for science.
Dr. Don Bailey supervised one of David's three small research projects, showing him the vagaries of mouse caretaking--feeding, cleaning, mating--and teaching him basic mouse genetics. The gene is the basic unit of heredity. A specific version of a specific gene is called an allele. For example, there is a gene for mouse hair color. There are many different alleles of that gene, such as white, tan, brown, and black. A complete set of genes, or the molecular instructions describing a complete mouse, is known as a genome. Mice, like almost all animals, have two copies of their genome. This redundancy allows animals to reproduce sexually (combining one copy from each mate), to have greater genetic complexity, and to have a backup copy of many of their genes. With these fundamentals covered, Bailey taught Baltimore how to set up matings that might yield novel traits and patterns. The power of genetics is that it does not rely on knowing anything about the physical nature of the gene; the geneticist can study the inheritance pattern of hair color in mice, or certain cancers in humans, without any direct physical knowledge of what the gene actually is or does. The geneticist looks only at the gene's final effect. For example, using only genetics, scientists have determined that a certain gene can predispose mice to alcoholism. And in humans, using only genetics, scientists have determined that certain rare families have a predisposition for breast cancer.
For David's second project, Dr. Willys Silvers taught him techniques for examining how mouse skin pigment cells migrate through the body during the mouse's development from pup to adult. Silvers taught Baltimore the unexpected art of mouse dissection, flaying various layers of flesh with surgical precision, locating obscure muscles and tissue structures; and then he taught Baltimore how to examine tissue slices microscopically, searching for migrating pigment cells. Silvers knew the main stages of pigment cell migration, and he was attempting to determine which colors and migration patterns were dominant over others. To accomplish this, he cut patches of skin from one newborn mouse and grafted them onto another with a different skin color pattern. Months later, the mouse with the skin graft was sacrificed and sliced up like a loaf of bread to analyze what had happened to the cells in the skin graft.
Some people soon become desensitized to dropping mice in buckets of anesthetizing ice and then chopping their damp, furry heads off with razors and scissors. Others, plagued by dreams of bright-eyed mice pattering around on tiny pink feet, opt to experiment on something much less cute, something that doesn't bleed. David didn't like killing mice (even when he lived in a mouse-infested apartment years later, he threw washcloths over the mice caught in traps and waited for his roommate to throw them away), but at Jackson he managed.
Dr. Elizabeth Russell, known as Tibby around the lab, led Baltimore through his third project, examining blood cell formation. The cell is to biologists what the atom is to physicists. Though the specifics are lost in the haze of memory, David most likely bled a variety of mice--slicing off the tips of their tails to collect a few drops, or sliding a needle through the eye to extract large pools of blood--and analyzed the proportions of blood cell types present by observing them through a microscope. He had never seen cells before.
White blood cells, magnified five hundred times, floated beneath the lens like water balloons, swollen with grainy clumps of protein. Mature red blood cells appeared as swarms of dimpled discs, while rarer immature red blood cells drifted slowly, lugging their excess flying-saucer-shaped bulk. With different dyes David could identify neutrophils, basophils, and macrophages, each with specialized jobs in the immune system. David would sit at the microscope for hours, until someone reminded him that it was dinnertime. He made good progress on his projects and showed a promise for experimental science that surely did not go unnoticed by the faculty: he had patience, creativity, a meticulous lab manner, and a mind that was stuck in overdrive.
Biology fascinated David as it fascinated his new friends, including his summertime girlfriend and Howard Temin. Establishing an intellectual peer group must have been a vital part of Baltimore's positive experience with science at Jackson Lab; although studying cells and genetics can be intrinsically interesting, scientific benchwork can be as dull and repetitious as laying bricks. Tedious projects are often assigned to a summer student because no one else wants them. So, on days when perhaps David had been transferring mouse skin grafts every morning for a week or counting red blood cells through a microscope for eight hours, the other teenagers could tell him at dinner about the new techniques they had just learned, mouse strains that they had seen, and what they thought of mating and killing mice.
Of all the people David met at Jackson Lab, Howard Temin was almost certainly the most influential. When Temin died of cancer in 1994 at the age of fifty-nine, Baltimore wrote a moving reflection titled "In Memoriam: Howard Temin, the Fierce Scholar." In it, he said that at Jackson Lab "[I] venerated him for his wide knowledge and deep commitment to science." At a historic gathering of cancer biologists in 1995, Baltimore lauded Howard Temin as a scientific hero. He encouraged young scientists in the audience to emulate Temin's scientific personality, much as David had as a young man.
Temin was a link for Baltimore between the unformed teenage summer interns like himself and the older, established faculty scientists. Before, David had presumed that real scientific research was far out of his reach, if he ever thought about it at all; but now a future in science didn't seem so impossible. Through his contact with Temin, Baltimore had the chance to ask, "Do I have what it takes to compare to Howard Temin?" Temin's accomplishments and rapid success set the bar for Baltimore; and, consciously or not, Baltimore would spend years working to match the skills of his first scientific role model. Little did he know the scope of that challenge.
After his experience at Jackson, David never wanted to do anything but experimental science. "That was it," he recalls, "It was fantastic, just fantastic. For a high school student it was unbelievable."Tubas, Coppola, and the Madwoman of Chaillot
Because David was antsy to get out of Great Neck, there is no need to linger in his high school days, but there are a couple of memories worth saving from those years. The first, and more entertaining, is that David Baltimore and Francis Ford Coppola were the two-man tuba section of the Great Neck High School Marching Band--perhaps the most distinguished high school tuba section ever to oompah in America. Coppola recalled relying on Baltimore to count correctly, waiting for David to put his lips to the brass piece before doing so himself. They are friends to this day, and Baltimore occasionally visits Coppola at his vineyard in the Napa Valley.
The other notable aspect of David's high school life was his love of theater, which, as it turned out, dovetailed nicely with his political inclinations and those of his liberal mother. In his junior and senior years he led the thespian group, organizing all productions, and his favorite play was The Madwoman of Chaillot.
Written by the French diplomat and playwright Jean Giraudoux when he was the French director of propaganda during World War II, and first produced on Broadway shortly after his death in 1944, The Madwoman of Chaillot was a blunt, satirical morality play about the evils of capitalism. David loved it. His personal philosophy and his family's political sympathies meshed well with those of Giraudoux. The Madwoman of Chaillot,
who slips in and out of true lunacy, finds out about a plot of corporate villains to make millions by drilling for oil in the stately Chaillot district of Paris. With the help of the proletarian King of the Sewer Men, she convicts them in absentia of "the crime of worshipping money" and then convinces them to chase for oil down a bottomless staircase in her cellar, thereby ridding the world of greed. "They're greedy?" she remarks. "Ah, then, my friends, they're lost. If they're greedy, they're stupid." Giraudoux offers dark hyperbole about the merits of socialism and the sins of capitalism. The company president snivels: "I tell you, sir, the only safeguard of order and discipline in the modern world is a standardized worker with interchangeable parts. That would solve the entire problem of management.. . . Wherever the poor are happy, and the servants are proud, and the mad are respected, our power is at an end."
In the opposing camp, the ragpicker moans: "I remember well a time when a cabbage could sell itself just by being a cabbage. Nowadays it's no good being a cabbage--unless you have an agent and pay him a commission.. . . These days. . . every cabbage has its pimp."
David's senior year found him confused about where to go to college. He wanted to become an experimental biologist, but he wasn't in a hurry. Two factors pushed him toward the intellectual haven of Swarthmore College. The first was that Howard Temin had just graduated from Swarthmore, and he had liked it. The second was that David's mother favored Swarthmore. She knew some of the professors there from her years of studying for a psychology Ph.D. at the New School, which she never quite finished. Swarthmore was politically liberal, and David's mother and her parents had always sympathized with European socialist movements (though they never explicitly labeled themselves socialists or Communists), and that childhood influence shaped David's own liberal political philosophy. Swarthmore's academic reputation was undisputed: the Saturday Evening Post called it "the most scholarly" of American colleges and universities. For his mother, perhaps Swarthmore's most appealing quality was that it was close to home, so David could catch the train back to Great Neck for holidays. For David, the fact that his Jackson Lab girlfriend attended Swarthmore provided an extra incentive for him to take a good look at the college.
David visited Swarthmore in the spring. The entire campus is a nationally registered arboretum. When he visited, the rhododendrons were in bloom, the dogwoods were flowering, and early roses were budding. Even better, David stayed with his friends from Jackson Lab. He knew that Swarthmore wouldn't offer cutting-edge research, but it would provide an excellent liberal arts education, and he believed that trade-off was worthwhile for his undergraduate years. He enrolled at Swarthmore in the fall of 1956, planning to major in biology.
- Baltimore's birthdate is not specifically mentioned in the text. He was born on March 7, 1938, in New York Hospital in Manhattan.
- He was one of those students: Interview with Robert Baltimore, July 22, 1996.
- A Shimmy Bird starts dancing: Rube Goldberg, The Best of Rube Goldberg (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1979).
- He recalls having "a kind of knee-jerk reaction": Charlie Weiner interview with David Baltimore, May 13, 1975, MIT Archives, Recombinant DNA
- He was accepted, and in early summer: Interview with David Baltimore, March 23, 1994; interview with Robert Baltimore; Charlie Weiner interview with David Baltimore.
- Shortly thereafter, at age eighteen, he published: Theodore Ingalls, Frederick Avis, Francis Curley, and H. M. Temin, "Genetic Determinants of Hypoxia-Induced Congential Anomalies," Journal of Heredity 44 (1953): 185-193.
- "Will be one of the future giants": Halcyon, Swarthmore College yearbook, 1955.
- Months later, the mouse with the skin graft: Willys Silvers and Elizabeth Russell, "An Experimental Approach to Action of Genes at the Agouti Locus in the Mouse," Journal of Experimental Zoology 130 (1955): 199-220; Willys Silvers, "Genes and the Pigment Cells of Mammals," Science 134 (1961): 368-373.
- David didn't like killing mice: Interview with roommate Gil Harman, May 11, 1998. He and David shared an apartment in Cambridge during their first year of graduate school.
- "[I] venerated him": David Baltimore, "In Memoriam: Howard Temin, the Fierce Scholar," Cell 76 (1994): 967-968.
- He encouraged young scientists: Baltimore, "Thinking about Howard Temin," Genes and Development 9 (1995): 1303-1306.
- "That was it": Interview with David Baltimore, March 23, 1994.
- They are friends to this day: Interview with David Baltimore, January 15, 1997; interview with Keith Yamamoto, November 12, 1996.
- David loved it: Interview with David Baltimore, January 13, 1995.
- "They're greedy?": This and subsequent quotations from Jean Giraudoux, The Madwoman of Chaillot (La folle Chaillot), trans. Maurice Valency (New York: Random House, 1947), 135, 29-30, 131.
- Swarthmore's academic reputation: Saturday Evening Post, 1956, cited by Richard Walton, Swarthmore College: An Informal History (Swarthmore: Swarthmore, 1986).
- He enrolled at Swarthmore: Information on David's decision to attend Swarthmore comes from David Baltimore, "Milestones in Biological Research: Discovery of the Reverse Transcriptase," FASEB Journal 9 (1995): 1-4; Charlie Weiner interview with David Baltimore; author interview with David Baltimore, March 23, 1994. | <urn:uuid:f9cdef4f-7297-4910-99fe-9af9a253b9d1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520239043 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00105-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969929 | 4,720 | 2.53125 | 3 |
13 / The Body
|Artist / Origin||
Shigeyuki Kihara (Japanese-Samoan, b. 1975)
Period: 1900 CE - 2010 CE
|Material||Chromogenic print on “Fujicolor Professional Paper”|
|Dimensions||H: 23 5/8 in. (60 cm.), W: 31 1/2 in. (80 cm)|
|Location||The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NY|
|Credit||Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Stephanie H. Bernheim Gifts, and the artist/Photo by Sean Coyle|
|Anne D’AllevaAssociate Professor of Art History, University of Connecticut|
Rosi, Pamela Sheffield. “About the Artist: Shigeyuki Kihara.” The Contemporary Pacific 19.1 (Spring 2007): vii–vii.
“Shigeyuki Kihara: Living Photographs (October 7, 2008 – February 1, 2009).” In Special Exhibitions. The Metropolitan Museum of Art Web site. http://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2008/shigeyuki-kihara.
Tautai Contemporary Pacific Arts Trust Web site. http://www.tautai.org.
Fa’a fafine: In a Manner of a Woman, Triptych 1
In the Western world today, the dichotomy between man and woman, male and female is often taken for granted. In many parts of the world, and, in fact, during other periods in Western history, the two-sex, two-gender model was not the norm.
In Samoa, for example, there traditionally has been an accepted “third gender” category. Originally this group was comprised of biologically born men who lived as women. Today, individuals who identify as third gender, or fa’a fafine, might be gay, lesbian, transgender, or intersex.
Multimedia and performance artist Shigeyuki Kihara was born in Samoa to Samoan and Japanese parents. Kihara’s identification as a Pacific Islander as well as a third gender individual is central to her triptych series Fa’a fafine: In the Manner of a Woman. In these three pieces, Kihara poses herself in scenes based on colonial photographs of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Taken by non-native photographers for purposes that ranged from the ethnographic to the pornographic, such images helped to create and fuel many stereotypes about the people of the South Pacific Region, among which was the fantasy of the Belle Sauvage, the beautiful, primitive woman who was simultaneously innocent, eroticized, and available.
In the first of the three images in the triptych, seen here, Kihara poses as this Belle Sauvage, reclining in a grass skirt with her breasts bared to the viewer. The second image shows Kihara in the same pose, only now completely naked. In this photograph, the artist appears to be physically a woman. The final image of the series is identical but for one striking difference—the artist’s penis is revealed, her identity as a fa’a fafine uncovered. By undermining Western assumptions, many of which were adopted by Pacific Islanders during the colonial period, Kihara demands that her audience reconsider their assumptions about history, desire, gender, and the body. | <urn:uuid:ac439287-3886-4628-a2b3-b5256217be99> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://learner.org/courses/globalart/work/143/index.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00031-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925313 | 716 | 2.6875 | 3 |
October 24, 2009 - October 30, 2009
Sex ratio imbalance worsens in Vietnam
Vietnam has seen a spike in the number of male births compared with female births. If the trend continues, it could have worrying consequences, warn experts. Patralekha Chatterjee reports.
More money and easier access to technology have dramatically improved the day-to-day lives of millions of people in Asia in recent decades. But increased prosperity and new medical technologies have also led to a spurt in prenatal sex determination and selective abortion, deepening the girl deficit in countries that traditionally favour male children.
The skewed sex ratio is particularly acute and well-documented in parts of China and India. But now a new report by the UN Population Fund (UNFPA) has identified a rising imbalance in the male-to-female sex ratio at birth in Vietnam. If the rise continues over the next decades, scarcity of women could increase the pressure for them to marry young, and there might be a rising demand for sex work and an increase in trafficking, according to the report.
Experts across Asia say entrenched preference for sons in patriarchal structures and systems make it difficult to follow a purely punitive approach. They are calling for a multipronged strategy with more emphasis on the cultural aspects of population issues and measures to increase the value of daughters, enhance society's support for improving women's status, as well as the need for a social-security scheme for the elderly.
Vietnam has had an unusual rapid change in the sex ratio at birth in the past few years. Although, in 2000, the ratio was about 106 male births per 100 female births, it increased to 112 in 2008. "Currently, China reports higher sex ratio at birth than Vietnam. However, what is striking in Vietnam is the unusually rapid rise of the SRB [sex ratio at birth] recorded over the last few years. As a result, Vietnam's SRB is on par with Georgia, Pakistan, and India as a whole-though, regional sex ratio values for example in Punjab, Delhi, Haryana, or Rajasthan are much higher. If the current growth of 1 point per year since 2006 continues unabated, SRB might reach the 115 mark within 3 years in Vietnam", says Bruce Campbell, UNFPA representative in Vietnam.
One of the main factors behind the rise is the steadily increasing access to affordable sex determination and sex selection technology, which has allowed couples to pursue their desire for one or more sons. Experience reported in other nations such as China and India shows that sex ratio imbalances can spread quickly throughout countries. If this happens in Vietnam, it may become a more serious problem in the future, substantially affecting the demographic and sex structure of the population, says Campbell.
In Vietnam, ultrasound and abortion services are legal and easily accessible, but the identification of the sex of a fetus and selective abortion are illegal. The government's response to the troubling gender imbalance includes the Population Ordinance (2006) and Prime Minister Decree (2006), which prohibit all practices of antenatal fetal sex diagnosis and sex selection. There are also revised guidelines for the implementation of the decree in order to closely monitor and punish the promotion and practice of sex diagnosis and sex selection. Despite all this, parents can get hold of translations of foreign manuals and locally written guides which explain both traditional and modern methods of selecting the sex of children. The health ministry recently destroyed 30 000 books about sex selection and closed seven internet websites advertising these methods.
The situation is not too different from India. Medically-assisted sex selection is illegal in India, but the law is widely flouted. "Legislations in these matters do not pay dividends unless accompanied by action/interventions at the community level to bring about a change in attitude", says Uday Shankar Mishra, associate professor at the Centre for Development Studies in Trivandrum, southern India.
Vietnam, like India, has a daunting but not impossible task to tackle its sex ratio imbalance. A comprehensive communications strategy to encourage behaviour change is a good starting point, says Vietnamese social scientist Dang Nguyen Anh. South Korea offers an inspirational example. The country had a rapid rise in sex ratio at birth, up to 116, but managed to engineer a rapid decline over a period of about 20 years through a raft of policy reforms: government investment in social security, reinforcement of health and social insurance systems, measures to benefit families having girls. | <urn:uuid:7bf3dd57-bfc8-4841-928b-67ef859dad7c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.viet-studies.info/kinhte/Lancet_Sex_Imbalance.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00119-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944016 | 905 | 2.515625 | 3 |
'World's best' thermometer made from light
Billionth of a degree An Australian team of researchers have developed a thermometer that is several times more sensitive than the best produced so far.
The device, known as a 'nano-Kelvin thermometer', can measure temperature differences to 30 billionths of a degree, according to a report in the journal
"It's three times better than the record," says author experimental physicist, Professor Andre Luiten of the University of Adelaide.
Thermometers must not only be as precise as possible, but they must selectively measure temperature change, rather than other changes in the environment.
Luiten and colleagues have developed a new technique to do just this.
The technique involves forcing red and green light to circulate thousands of times around the edge of a disc-shaped crystal.
This resonating light is like sound in a "whispering gallery" - where you whisper near a curved wall and the sound races around the interior of the wall and you can hear it on the other side of the room.
"We're doing the exact same thing but with light racing around the disc," says Luiten.
The speed of the light in the crystal changes depending on the temperature of the disc.
"When we heat up our crystal in which the light is travelling, that changes the speed of light going around that crystal because the crystal is expanding," says Luiten.
By measuring the relative differences between the speed of the red and green light, the researchers can measure temperature changes within the disc to 30 billionths of a degree, compared to 100 billionth of a degree for previous light-based thermometers.
He says that the device is 30 times more precise than the best of the available lab temperature sensors.
Devices based on this technique could be used for other purposes, for example to sense changes in pressure or the concentrations of explosives or pollutants.
"Demonstrating very sensitive thermometers are like a stepping stone to this later phase."
As precise as it is, the system, like other precision temperature sensors cannot measure absolute temperature.
"The system has no accuracy whatsoever," says Luiten. "It only senses changes in temperature."
"Our previous claim to fame was building very accurate clocks but these clocks can't tell you what time of the day it is either. They measure changes in the duration of time, such as the length of one second," he says.
But, he says in many industrial process the actual temperature doesn't really matter.
"What matters is that you can keep the temperature at a fixed value," says Luiten. | <urn:uuid:ee00d34b-d4cc-4a64-b032-f9dca33b08ee> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2014/06/02/4017064.htm?topic=tech | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947605 | 541 | 3.4375 | 3 |
Do you think Love's Labour's Lost can be grouped with the rest of Shakespeare's comedies, even though it does not conclude with marriage? Why or why not? If not, is there another category that describes it better, or does it defy categorization entirely?
Examine the role of letters in this play. What is the effect of having one character read another character's words in the form of a letter? How does this aspect of the play make it self-conscious, like a play-within-a-play? Consider also the effect of the masque of the Nine Worthies and the Muscovite disguises of the King's party on the theatrical quality of the play.
Examine the use of rhyme in the play. What significance can you attribute to the presence or absence of rhyme in characters' lines? Why do you think nearly half the play is written in rhymed verse?
How does the play present learning and scholarship? Consider Don Armado, Sir Nathaniel, and Holofernes as parodying or mocking the scholarly tradition.
The play's plot is quite simple. Can you make an argument to show that the play is actually more concerned with language than plot?
Can you establish any correlation between the characters of Costard, Sir Nathaniel, Holofernes, Moth, and Don Armado and the roles they assume in the play of the Nine Worthies?
What does the play suggest or identify as the major differences between men and women? | <urn:uuid:5ab87dcb-ddc1-493a-9d25-c64c7cef9b2d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sparknotes.com/shakespeare/labours/study.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00192-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954824 | 307 | 3.828125 | 4 |
Effects of Body Size on Goose Behavior: Lesser Snow Goose and Ross's Goose
Body size is highly variable among geese, both at intra- and interspecific levels. Interspecific variation in several behaviors has been attributed to differences in body size in geese: incubation constancy, tendency to maintain family units, and time spent foraging. Body size has important physiological implications for birds, mostly because mass-specific metabolic rate is greater for birds of smaller mass. The Body-size Hypothesis predicts that smaller species deplete their energy reserves at relatively faster rates than do larger species.
Hypotheses and conclusions concerning effects of body size on waterfowl behavior often are based on comparisons of species that confront different climates, habitat types, and food resources, and migrate variable distances with different energetic costs. Accordingly, I controlled for such variation by comparing the behavior and physiology of lesser snow geese (hereafter snow geese) and Ross's geese, which are closely related and highly sympatric throughout the annual cycle.
I found that incubation constancies of both species averaged 99%. The defeathered ventral area was positively related to clutch volume and inversely related to prolactin levels in female Ross's geese, but not in female snow geese; moreover, prolactin levels and body condition were inversely related in Ross's geese, but not in snow geese. I documented that 5 of 5 female snow geese and 1 of 5 female Ross's geese possessed fully-developed brood patches. In winter, I documented that Ross's geese spent more time feeding than did snow geese. All these findings, except that for incubation constancy, were consistent with predictions of the Body-size Hypothesis.
Finally, I studied effects of intraspecific body size variation on goose behavior by studying movements and behavior of snow geese in southwest Louisiana. I found that both adult and juvenile snow geese from coastal marshes had larger bodies and bills than did those from rice-prairie habitats. Adult snow geese from coastal marshes spent more time feeding than did those in rice-prairies, whereas the opposite was true for juveniles. I conclude that snow geese in southwest Louisiana segregate into coastal marsh and rice-prairie habitats by body morphometrics, but move too frequently between the 2 habitats to be considered separate populations.
Advisor:Alan D. Afton; David C. Blouin; Dominique G. Homberger; Michael J. Chamberlain; William G. Henk; Kevin M. Kleinow
School:Louisiana State University in Shreveport
School Location:USA - Louisiana
Source Type:Master's Thesis
Keywords:renewable natural resources
Date of Publication:09/06/2005 | <urn:uuid:f53518a6-6eb9-4ae4-ab41-10f33a05a67e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.openthesis.org/documents/Effects-Body-Size-Goose-Behavior-526828.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00039-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942286 | 574 | 3.359375 | 3 |
Teaching Resources for History and Social Science Education Majors
The web offers an outstanding variety of resources for teachers of all levels to help create an engaging classroom experience. The faculty of the department have highlighted some of their favorite resources on this page to share with students and alumni. Please feel free to contact us if you have found a resource that you think will benefit your fellow students and colleagues.
CRFC (Constitutional Rights Foundation Chicago) - Provides a variety of lesson plans on U.S. history and government for classrooms from the primary to high school level.
National History Center - Streaming video of lectures, roundtables, panels, and other events held at the National History Center in Washington, DC.
National Museum of African American History and Culture - The online home of the not-yet-built museum that will be the most comprehensive repository of African American history and culture in the world. Features online exhibits, images, videos, a blog, and opportunities to get involved with projects and internships.
National Women's History Museum - The online home of the not-yet-built museum for the history of women and gender in the United States, this site features online exhibits and images.
New York Public Library - Digital Collections - Prints, photographs, maps, manuscripts, and streaming videos from the New York Public Library's extensive holdings.
Asia for Educators - Offers a variety of readings, images, and lesson plans regarding Asian art, history, and culture, as well as relationships between Asia and the western world.
European History Primary Sources - Searchable primary source documents in a variety of languages from throughout Europe. Includes materials from the prehistoric to the present day, with some non-English sources available in translation.
Fortunoff Video Archive for Holocaust Testimonies - Collection of video interviews with Holocaust survivors and witnesses.
Hanover Historical Texts Collection - A collection of primary source documents from the ancient world through the present era.
Leftovers - This blog, dedicated to a "History of the World in 1000 Cookbooks," aims to provide an actual taste of the past by recreating historical recipes.
Liberty, Equality, Fraternity - Essays, images, primary source documents, music, maps, a timeline, and a glossary on the history of the French Revolution.
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum - Information, lesson plans, images, and music relating to the destruction of the European Jews. Includes searchable genealogical resources.
Wellcome Images - Features historic scientific and medical images from the vast Wellcome Library collection.
Political Science and Philosophy
The Avalon Project - Documents in law, history, and diplomacy from the ancient world to the present day, with special collections on human rights and the military tribunal in post-WWII Germany.
The Online Library of Liberty - Free access to classic works of political philosophy and American thought of the founding era. While the focus is on liberalism, there are also materials on socialism and liberal critiques.
U.S. Congress - Access to Federal Register and all information about the US Congress.
American National Election Studies - Houses the American National Election Surveys since 1948, along with an easy to use query program that permits users to build cross-tabulations from data.
International Studies and Relations
CIA World Factbook - Contains up-to-date information on the government, economy, and history of all the world's countries, protectorates, and other political entities.
The United Nations - The portal for the United Nations, with access to reports, images and data on global issues, current and past UN resolutions, and the functions and processes of international organizations.
World Bank - Main page of the World Bank, with reports addressing the current global economy. The most important source of national-level economic data is available through the site's "Databank." World Development Indicators has a very user-friendly search engine.
Freedom House - Website for the NGO that works to promote democracy and civil liberties world-wide. The website offers access to country reports, special studies, and the Freedom in the World annual index of democracy, as well as a dataset of that index since its inception in 1973.
Polity IV Project - Site of the Polity 4 data set on Political Regime characteristics and Transitions 1800-2012, includes both the dataset and interactive charts and maps to assess current trends in regime types.
Sociological Images - Organizes contemporary images and advertisements by themes such as race, class, and gender and provides analysis that encourages people to "develop their sociological imagination."
Media and Images
Prelinger Archives - Contains thousands of films (newsreels, advertisements, Cold War propaganda, etc.) available for streaming or download.
Metropolitan Museum of Art - Offers tens of thousands of high quality images of art and archaeological items from its collection. Can search for art by time period or region.
British Library Digital Image Collection - Over 1 million images that the British Library has put in the public domain, which means that they are free to use and reproduce. The images include maps, letters, books, paintings, and other sources from the 17th-19th centuries. Great for world history lectures and projects.
The Grand Comics Database - The definitive source for information on the content and creators of specifics comic books.
Comic Book + - A searchable library of public domain comic books. | <urn:uuid:7906d65d-8093-4e7b-b690-79b191390b06> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sxu.edu/academics/colleges_schools/cas/dept/history_political_science/resources.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00126-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.889265 | 1,094 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Alexander the Great, King of Macedon
Ruled 336-323 B.C.
Tuesday, July 16, 2013
When St. John Chrysostom visited Alexandria in A.D. 400, he asked to see Alexander’s burial place, adding, “His tomb even his own people know not.” It is a question that continues to be asked now, 1,613 years later. Alexander died in the Mesopotamian capital of Babylon in 323 B.C., perhaps from poisoning, malaria, typhoid, West Nile fever, or grief over the death of his best friend, Hephaestion. For two years, Alexander’s mummified remains, housed in a golden sarcophagus, lay in state, a pawn in the game of royal succession. Finally, it was decided that Alexander would be buried in Greece at Aegae, the first capital of the Macedonian kings. But according to ancient sources, his hearse was hijacked near Damascus and the corpse taken to Egypt, first to Memphis, and, some time between 298 and 283 B.C., to Alexandria, the city he had founded and named after himself.
There, Alexander was interred in at least two tombs in different locations, the more notable of which ancient authors, such as Strabo, Plutarch, and Pausanias, identify as a mausoleum called the Soma, meaning “body” in ancient Greek. The Soma was repeatedly robbed—the golden sarcophagus was melted down and replaced with one made of glass or crystal. Even Cleopatra took gold from the tomb to pay for her war against Octavian (soon to be the emperor Augustus). There were subsequent visits to the tomb by numerous Roman emperors and then, beginning in A.D. 360, a series of events that included warfare, riots, an earthquake, and a tsunami, threatened—or perhaps destroyed—the tomb by the time of Chrysostom’s visit. From that point on, Alexander’s tomb can be considered lost. And despite centuries of relentless searching by archaeologists, authors, and amateurs, it remains so.
The first evidence of cooking pots in Japan, Indonesia’s earliest farmers, a 600-year-old Chinese coin found on a Kenyan island, and how El Niño plagued South America’s Moche people | <urn:uuid:7ede382a-796e-4c7a-977f-23261c3bfa50> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.archaeology.org/issues/100-features/lost-tombs/1089-alexander-the-great-macedon-alexandria-the-soma | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00101-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968351 | 489 | 3.65625 | 4 |
Juvenile Probation Counselor Career Guide
Juvenile probation counselors, or intake counselor, evaluate complaints filed by law enforcement agencies, parents, educators, or others in the community who allege a juvenile has committed a criminal or status (one that only a minor can be charged with) offense. Their goal is to determine whether additional court interventions are necessary or if the matter can be diverted from court. They work closely with law enforcement, social services, schools, and parents to help juveniles become successful.
Juvenile Probation Counselor Career Description, Duties, and Common Tasks
The juvenile probation counselor (JPC) evaluates complaints filed against the juvenile. The process begins with the JPC scheduling an appointment to meet with the juvenile and his/her family to gather additional information and to explain the juvenile court process. The JPC may also schedule an appointment with the complainant to discuss the process and to gather more information. The first appointment with the juvenile and his/her family is called the intake appointment. The JPC will explain the charges, diversions to court that may be available, and the court process if the case is to be forwarded to court for further interventions. If the case is referred to court, the counselor prepares the initial court report that includes a summary of the charges, information gathered at intake, and recommendations for interventions.
How to Become a Juvenile Probation Counselor: Requirements and Qualifications
Juvenile probation counselors generally work for the state and most states require a minimum of a bachelor’s degree in criminal justice, social work, psychology, education, or human services. Successful JPCs must also be familiar with community resources and how to develop a plan of action that will address the needs of the juvenile. Juvenile probation counselors must be able to work with various government and social agencies.
Juvenile Probation Counselor Job Training
Training for probation counselors generally depends on the hiring organization. However, counselors may complete on the job training with a mentor before being assigned to work alone with clients.
Other Helpful Skills and Experience
Prospective juvenile probation counselors with previous counseling experience or experience with juveniles in a correctional setting or in law enforcement may have an advantage during the hiring process. Counselors must possess sound judgment and must be able to communicate effectively both verbally and in written form.
Examples of Possible Job Titles for this Career
- Youth corrections counselor
- Youth correctional counselor
- Youth probation counselor
Career Opportunities and Employers
Probation counselors typically work for the state or local governments. Those counselors who accrue experience and/or who earn an advanced degree, such as a master’s degree, may advance to supervisory or management positions.
Juvenile Probation Counselor Salary and Outlook
The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) reports that probation officers and correctional treatment specialists earn a median salary of $48,190 per year.1 Individual salary depends on the location of the position, the types of cases processed, and education and experience levels. The BLS estimates that employment for probation officers and correctional treatment specialists will decrease by 1% during the decade from 2012-2022.1 Positions will become available due to retirements.
Frequently Asked Questions About This Career
What type of hours do probation counselors generally work?
Counselors typically work a full time schedule, although hours may be irregular, including nights, weekends, and holidays.
How old are the juveniles with whom counselors generally work?
Youths are typically 18 years or younger. However, a juvenile may be charged as an adult and proceedings may occur in the adult court system.
What is the minimum age requirement for probation counselors?
While all agencies have their own rules, counselors who work with the state generally must be at least 21 years of age.
American Counseling Association – A professional and educational resource for counselors, including correctional counselors.
American Probation and Parole Association – A professional organizataion for probation and parole officers, providing training and resources.
Correctional Educational Association – A professional development and education resource for correctional professionals.
National Partnership for Juvenile Services – A national association promoting education and professional development to those who work with juveniles in the court system.
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention – A resource for those who want to gain a deeper understanding of the juvenile justice system.
Schools Featuring Psychology, Counseling and Criminal Justice Programs
1. Bureau of Labor Statistics: http://www.bls.gov/ooh/community-and-social-service/probation-officers-and-correctional-treatment-specialists.htm
Last Edited by Charles Sipe on July, 7, 2012 | <urn:uuid:24bf927c-dbf1-4ac8-a348-43dc562911d6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.criminaljusticedegreeschools.com/criminal-justice-careers/juvenile-probation-counselor/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916087 | 965 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Shapeways Community member Bscans(aka Peter
van Lievenoogen), makes computers for electric bikes in his spare time. So what is an electric bike?
V-Fiets, makes conversion kits to turn your bicycle into an electric bike. For 439 Euro’s you can turn any regular bike into an electric bike that goes 25 KM per hour. It costs 18 cents to recharge the battery and you can travel for 40-60KM with that one charge. You can also alternate between cycling yourself and the electric motor.
This is how the conversion process works, Peter has developed a bicycle computer for these kinds of bikes. The computer keeps track of battery usage, the distance you can travel with the battery, the temperature etc. He used Shapeways to make a prototype of his electric bike computer and will use that to cast the final versions in.
Peter built and programmed the entire thing from the ground up. He still has to make the PCB and then a final production version. His story got us really excited because we want to do a lot more with mechanical parts, housings and home built things that go to final production products.
He is also working on an awesome OLED screen for his EBC. Check out the video of it below.
I think the implications of this are gigantic. Someone can now, in the comfort of his own home create technology that does not exist yet. You can compete with Sony. For most things scale will make their products cheaper but for certain niches you can compete, right now. Today. Hopefully in due time services like Shapeways will be able to bring scale to your doorstep, to your living room. | <urn:uuid:cfc92935-5dcc-4cff-abf3-9e1f0621e17d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.shapeways.com/blog/archives/207-EBC-E-Bike-Computer.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00131-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971475 | 340 | 2.65625 | 3 |
The Kad'yak is the oldest known shipwreck site in Alaska and the only Russian Era Alaska shipwreck ever discovered. It is now listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Kad'yak's discovery creates physical links between the history of Alaska, the ice trade, and the gold rush.
In April 1860, the Kad'yak set sail from Kodiak, Alaska, carrying ice to San Francisco. Shortly after leaving port, it hit a rock and filled with water, but being full of ice, drifted for four days before it sank in the shallow waters of Icon Bay on Spruce Island, Alaska.
Prior to its departure, Captain Arkhimandritov had promised to hold a service for Father Herman (later St. Herman) who had lived, died, and was buried on Spruce Island, but failed to do so. When the Kad'yak finally came to rest, it sank in front of Father Herman's chapel, with the mast forming a cross above the water.
Using information from Arkhimandritov's journal, Dr. Stevens led a team of divers who discovered its location during a two-day search, in July 2003. In July of 2004, the wreck site was surveyed by a team of archaeologists from East Carolina University and the State of Alaska.
Artifacts found to date include cannons, anchors, bronze drift pins, deck planking, chain, machinery including the anchor windlass, parts of bilge pumps and rudder hinges, and various bronze artifacts.
The visitor center is still operating with summer hours of 8am to 7:30pm. Due to the lecture, admission will be free after 7pm. | <urn:uuid:1a68aaa2-b665-4dca-9656-0a7a76a6d190> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.capitalcityweekly.com/stories/091405/community_20050914011.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00039-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96168 | 340 | 2.859375 | 3 |
(1) Learn the concept of limits. Use graphical and numerical methods
to identify situations where limits may not exist. Apply algebraic
methods to evaluate limits.
(2) Introduction to the concept of continuity using limits.
(3) Study of the derivative from the limit definition. Understand
the geometric meaning of the derivative. Interpret the derivative as
a rate of change.
(4) Learn the derivatives of basic functions, including
trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential functions.
(5) Learn the rules of differentiation, including the chain rule and
(6) Applications of the derivative in linear approximation, rates of
change, graphing functions, optimization problems, roots of
functions through Newtonís method, and LíHŰpitalís Rule.
(7) Introduction to the concept of antiderivatives. | <urn:uuid:9c463332-51c1-4c0b-b290-e75ef0b51bd9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.csub.edu/~sraczkowski/m201/math201.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00085-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.804465 | 178 | 3.8125 | 4 |
Arabic, the main unifying feature among Arabs, is a Semitic language originating in Arabia. From there it spread to a variety of distinct peoples across most of West Asia and North Africa, resulting in their acculturation as Arabs, or Arabization
Medical practitioner who is regarded as the father of medicine
Your email address:
We will not expose you real name or email address.
We're just making sure you're a real person and not a machine.
Upload a new image | <urn:uuid:34b8a948-691e-4453-900b-757a5c4a61d5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.quotes.net/addbio.php?aid=399 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00117-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.905685 | 100 | 2.640625 | 3 |
>Consider two questions:
>(1) Will an overweight individual suffer any ill health effects by diving?
>(2) Will this individual be able to perform all of the necessary skills to dive successfully?
>There is no strong body of evidence to suggest that overweight individuals have a greater risk of DCI or that they suffer more dive-related injuries that divers who are within 10 percent of their ideal body weight. Obesity by itself does not restrict diving.
>The best indicator of diving fitness is the individual's general health and level of physical fitness. Keep in mind that divers who are overweight can have a greater risk for cardiac incidents. Consider the exercise regimen - or lack of it - in an overweight individual. Diving requires a diver to lift and carry scuba equipment, swim both underwater and on the surface.
>When evaluating a candidate for scuba, a dive physician will consider these factors as well as the "reserve" factor: the increased cardiovascular and respiratory response required when a sudden need arises. In an emergency situation, unfit divers may end up in a near-drowning or fatal dive incident.
>The second question considers an individual's ability to perform self-rescue in the open water and assist a buddy. Both skills are vital to the scuba buddy system. Will your partner's physical conditioning and stamina allow him or her to provide assistance to you at the surface?
>These are good questions to ask any dive buddy. Remember, it is difficult to get a heavy person out of the water and onto the back of a boat for cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR): you can lose vital minutes. Morbidly obese individuals with no exercise tolerance can dive in a tranquil sea: it's when things go wrong or when circumstances change that they have to call upon their reserves.
>Fitness for diving depends on more than just one criterion like weight. Physical fitness and ability are major factors to consider. Other experiences in life don't always prepare a new diver for the potential physical exertion he or she can encounter underwater. For some, lacking physical fitness and endurance and being overweight may be a barrier to dive training. Also, divers who have gained weight over the years might now be considered unfit. These divers do have the advantage of experience, however. Perhaps this can help them avoid situations that can stymie new divers.
>Each individual is different, and that's the way diving fitness decisions should be made. Individuals who want to learn to dive should join introductory scuba programs through local dive stores: they could see how they handle themselves with equipment in the water. Equally important, they can get the opinion of a professional instructor who can speak realistically about the physical abilities needed for diving.
>* Past issues of Alert Diver contain other articles: "Obesity and Diving Fitness," by Hillary Viders, September/October 1998; "Are You Ready to Dive? Diving Fitness Involves More Than Just Getting Into Good Physical Condition," by Glen H. Egstrom, Ph.D., May/June 1995; "Fitness and Diving: Buddied up, they make a safer, more enjoyable pastime - and contribute to the overall quality of your life," by G. Yancey Mebane, M.D., DAN Associate Medical Director, September/October 1994. | <urn:uuid:11457acd-4121-4e9d-9880-56e13f381b72> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.diversalertnetwork.org/medical/faq/144 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00169-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951367 | 678 | 2.8125 | 3 |
This person is afraid.
- The experience of hearing an unfamiliar noise in the middle of the night is an example of afraid.
- The feeling someone gets when realizing they can't pay their mortgage is an example of afraid.
Origin of afraidMiddle English affraied, past participle of affraien, affray
- Filled with fear; frightened: afraid of ghosts; afraid to die; afraid for his life.
- Having feelings of aversion or unwillingness in regard to something: not afraid of hard work; afraid to show emotion.
- Filled with regret or concern. Used especially to soften an unpleasant statement: I'm afraid you're wrong.
Origin of afraidMiddle English affraied, past participle of affraien, to frighten, from Old French esfraier, esfreer, to disturb, of Germanic origin; see pr&imacron;- in Indo-European roots.
(comparative more afraid, superlative most afraid)
From Middle English affrayed, affraied, past participle of afraien (“to affray”), from Anglo-Norman afrayer (“to terrify, disquiet, disturb”), from Old French effreer, esfreer (“to disturb, remove the peace from”), from es- (“ex-”) + freer (“to secure, secure the peace”), from Frankish *friþu (“security, peace”), from Proto-Germanic *friþuz (“peace”), from Proto-Germanic *frijōną (“to free; to love”), from Proto-Indo-European *prāy-, *prēy- (“to like, love”). Compare also afeard. More at free, friend. | <urn:uuid:6d2b5555-ce6b-43fd-a404-b15aa6ebaddf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.yourdictionary.com/afraid | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00118-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.828917 | 404 | 3.15625 | 3 |
California is in the midst of a historic drought. 2013 was the driest year since the state began keeping records 150 years ago, and this is the third driest year in a row. We began 2014 with record-low snowpack and reservoir levels. Newspaper headlines have been stark, warning of communities using their last months of water, zero deliveries from the state water project and rivers closed to fishing. Recent rains have not changed the fundamental situation: California is facing severe, perhaps unprecedented, water shortages..
How bad is California’s drought and what are state officials likely to do about it? How will it affect agriculture, cities, homeowners, businesses and the Stanford campus? Sponsored by Water in the West, a joint program of the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment and the Bill Lane Center for the American West, this panel will feature three Stanford experts who will discuss the causes, policy implications and possible responses to the drought. Topics will include:
• The meteorological causes of the drought and the longer-term implications of climate change for water supply
• California’s historical responses to drought and how the state, communities and water managers may cope with the drought this summer
• How the drought could influence California water policy
• The implications of the drought for the Stanford community and Stanford’s plans for adapting to the drought
The panel will be moderated by Leon Szeptycki, Executive Director of Water in the West and Professor of the Practice at the Woods Institute.
Leon Szeptycki (Moderator) – Executive Director of Water in the West and Professor of the Practice at the Woods Institute. Water in the West is a Stanford program to foster interdisciplinary research and convene leaders from a broad spectrum of interests to address one of the American West’s greatest challenges. Leon is an attorney who specializes in water quality, water use and watershed restoration.
Daniel Swain– A Ph.D. candidate in Stanford’s Department of Environmental Earth System Science who coined the widely used term “Ridiculously Resilient Ridge” on his blog, weatherwest.com, to explain California’s drought. Daniel studies atmospheric processes that connect the earth’s middle latitudes to equatorial and polar regions with a particular emphasis on how these latitudinal links might be affected by broader climate change.
Barton H. “Buzz” Thompson – A leading expert in environmental and natural resources law and policy. Professor Thompson is the founding director of Stanford Law School’s Environmental and Natural Resources Law and Policy Program, Perry L. McCarty Director and Senior Fellow at the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment, and a Senior Fellow (by courtesy) at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies. He is also the chairman of the board of the Resources Legacy Fund and the Resources Legacy Fund Foundation, a California trustee for The Nature Conservancy, and a board member of both the American Farmland Trust and the Sonoran Institute.
Tom Zigterman -- Associate Director, Water Services and Civil Infrastructure, Stanford University. Tom manages the operations of Stanford’s water supplies, including domestic water, surface water, wastewater and storm drainage systems, as well as other civil infrastructure such as dams, bridges and roads. He also chairs the Water Sustainability Working Team, which is currently planning the long-term sustainable management of Stanford’s water supply and demand. | <urn:uuid:79958377-df97-4fca-9c7c-6976e993316e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://west.stanford.edu/events/california-drought-causes-context-and-response | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00091-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930884 | 694 | 2.84375 | 3 |
The cultural resources in the Monticello area represent a long and significant history of use by both Native Americans and European pioneers. A cultural resource is anything resulting from human activities. These resources include ruins, rock art, tools, trails, and sites that show evidence of human development. In Utah, this resource base stretches from the earliest known human habitation dating back at least 10,000 years to the modern developments of the 19th and 20th centuries. It is the mandate of the BLM to inventory, preserve, and interpret these important but fragile, nonrenewable resources on public lands.
Cultural resources give us information about historic and prehistoric human cultures - their geographic distribution, their time range, where the people came from, what happened to them, and what they made and did. This information is important because our present attitudes, values, ideas and material culture have been shaped largely by our past. By studying prehistory and history we can appreciate the forces that have operated to bring us where we are. Cultural resources are generally divided into three categories. These are prehistoric resources, historic resources, and traditional cultural properties.
The objectives of the BLM's cultural resources program are to discover, locate, identify, evaluate and wisely use these sites, districts, buildings, structures and objects for scientific, cultural and educational use by present and future generations.
The program includes:
Interpretation (and Public Education)
- Interpretation efforts include educating people about ways they can minimize their impact while enjoying resources, posting signs and exhibits explaining sites and culturally significant areas, staffing ranger stations with rangers and volunteers, presentations to the public, schools, and boy scouts, establishment of trails and other viewing areas including designation of walking routes through fragile sites, publication of study findings, and development of internet information resources. We suggest that you visit our Archeology
page for more information.
Protection and Stabilization - BLM actively investigates and prosecutes instances of resource vandalism and theft. Other protection and stabilization work is done on sites that are in danger of human caused deterioration or that pose a threat to public safety. Several sites in danger of natural deterioration were stabilized for visitation in the past. A recent project stabilized several more. Often sites in danger of natural deterioration are not stabilized because of the high cost.
Inventory - Inventory on 1.8 million acres is almost overwhelming. Only a small percentage of these lands have been inventoried. Because of the large amount of land and the limited public funds available, the BLM concentrates its efforts on areas with known cultural values or areas proposed for projects that are likely to disturb the ground surface and thus damage cultural sites.
Monitoring – BLM has an active monitoring program designed to identify sites needing protection work and to discover and explain trends in site condition. Old photographs of sites are retaken where possible for this purpose. A Site Steward Program operated in cooperation with the State of Utah uses volunteers to monitor numerous important sites.
Protected By Law
Prehistoric and historic cultural resources are part of every American's national heritage. But it is a heritage that is being destroyed by intentional and unintentional vandalism and looting. It has been estimated that more damage was done to ancient sites in the United States last year than in the previous 600 years.
The Congress, on behalf of the American people, has enacted many laws to protect these national treasures.
The Antiquities Act of 1906 first provided for the preservation and protection of antiquities on Federal land and established penalties for violation.
The National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 and various amendments established a program for preservation of historic properties.
The 1976 Federal Land Policy and Management Act establishes a national policy for protection and management of cultural resources.
The American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978 provides for access to and use of sacred sites and objects on Federal lands.
The 1979 Archaeological Resources Protection Act strengthens the Federal Government's legal commitment to protect these resources by establishing stiff penalties such as prison sentences and fines for those found guilty of excavating, removing, transporting, or selling these resources without a permit. An amendment in 1968 mandated Federal Land Management agencies the task of educating the public about archaeological resources.
back to Archeology... | <urn:uuid:6f8c7e38-2539-4ef8-a1fa-31c391d9d396> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.blm.gov/ut/st/en/fo/monticello/more/cultural/archaeology/archeological_program.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00130-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935269 | 843 | 3.59375 | 4 |
- Year Published: 1892
- Language: English
- Country of Origin: United States of America
- Source: Munroe, K. (1892). Canoemates: A Story of the Florida Reef and Everglades. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers.
- Flesch–Kincaid Level: 9.5
- Word Count: 1,957
Munroe, K. (1892). Chapter XXXIX: “A Black Squall and the Stranded Streamer”. Canoemates: A Story of the Florida Reef and Everglades (Lit2Go Edition). Retrieved July 01, 2016, from
Munroe, Kirk. "Chapter XXXIX: “A Black Squall and the Stranded Streamer”." Canoemates: A Story of the Florida Reef and Everglades. Lit2Go Edition. 1892. Web. <>. July 01, 2016.
Kirk Munroe, "Chapter XXXIX: “A Black Squall and the Stranded Streamer”," Canoemates: A Story of the Florida Reef and Everglades, Lit2Go Edition, (1892), accessed July 01, 2016,.
ALTHOUGH the Psyche was flying at racing speed dead before the wind, which freshened with each moment, and was rolling frightfully under her press of canvas, she was no match in running for the long dugout of which she was in pursuit. Had the latter been properly trimmed and steered, the light cedar canoe could never have caught it. As it was, Sumner saw that he was gaining, but so slowly that he could not hope to overtake it before being carried miles out to Sea. In that weather and with night coming on, this was by no means a cheerful prospect. Still he had no thought of turning back. He had entered upon this race with a full knowledge of its possible consequences, and he would either save the helpless little figure that had appealed to him so imploringly, or perish with it.
So the clutch on his deck tiller tightened, and the taut mainsheet held in the other hand was not slackened a single inch, until the hissing rush of the black squall was in his ears. Then the canoe was sharply luffed, the Sheet was dropped, the halyard cast off, and the white sail fell to the deck like a broken wing. As it was gathered in and made fast with a turn of the sheet, the squall burst on the stanch little craft and heeled it far over. It offered too little resistance to be capsized, and a minute later, steadied by the double-bladed paddle, it was once more got before the wind and was scudding under bare poles.
While doing all this, Sumner had been too busy to look after the object of his pursuit. Now he could not see it, and he almost choked with the thought that his brave effort had been made in vain, after all. No, there it was, close at hand, but no longer showing a sail or flying from him. Heeling over before the blast, its long boom had been thrust into the water, and in an instant the slender craft had been upset. Now, full of water, it floated on one side like a log. At first, Sumner failed to see its tiny occupant, and the thought that he had been drowned almost within reach was a bitter one. But no. Hurrah! There he is! With head just above the water, and chubby hands clutching at the slippery sides of his craft, the plucky little chap was still fighting for life.
As the Psyche swept alongside, steered to a nicety, Sumner reached out, and, nearly overturning his canoe by the effort, caught the little fellow by an arm. The water was pouring in over the cockpit coaming, and had the child been a pound heavier, the next instant would have seen two helplessly drifting canoes instead of one. As it was, he was hauled in and safely deposited in the inch or more of water that swashed above the cockpit floor.
With infinite self-possession the child smiled up into the face of his rescuer and lisped: “How, Summer!”
Then the boy recognized the little Ko-wik-a whose acquaintance he had made in Ul-we’s camp, and as a relief to his own overstrained; nerves, called him a littler imp, and abused him roundly for getting them into such a scrape. At the same time tears stood in his eyes, and he could have hugged the child cuddling between his knees and smiling so confidingly in his face.
Though the rescue of Ko-wik-a had been so happily accomplished, they were still in a sad plight — driving out to sea in an eggshell, with no chance of battling back against the tempest, and the darkness of night enshrouding them. With each moment the storm-lashed waves were mounting higher. All Sumner’s skill was required to prevent the canoe from broaching to and turning over. How much longer would his strength hold out? Already he felt it failing. He would soon become exhausted, and then —
Hark! What was that? The note of a steam whistle? Yes, and another, and still others, struggling back hoarsely against the wind; Then a light twinkled through the darkness, and directly other lights were outlining a huge black shape right in their track.
Sumner remembered the steamer he had seen just before parting from Worth. Could this be she? What was she doing there, apparently at anchor?
Driving under her stern, a few minutes’ hard paddling brought the canoe into the quiet calm of the towering lee. Then Sumner shouted again and again, but the voice of the ship calling for aid in her own distress drowned his cries. After a while the whistle notes ceased, and he shouted again. This time he was beard, and an answering hail came from the deck high above him, “Who is it, and where are you?”
Sumner answered, and in a few minutes a port low down in the ship’s side was flung open, and a flood of light poured from it. Two ropes were lowered, and Sumner getting the bights under the bow and stern of his canoe, it, with its occupants, was lifted to the level of the open port. Strong arms first received the little Ko-wik-a, and then helped the young canoeman aboard the steamer.
“Where is your vessel?” demanded the captain, who was among those assembled to witness this unexpected arrival.
“There,” answered Sumner, pointing to the Psyche.
“You don’t mean to say that you are navigating the ocean in that cockleshell?”
“Yes, I do; though I don’t expect I should have navigated it much longer if I hadn’t fallen in with you just as I did. How do you happen to be at anchor here, and what were you whistling for?”
“We are not at anchor. We are aground, and I was blowing the whistle in the hope of attracting some vessel or vessels, into which we could lighter our cargo. Now I suppose I shall have to throw it overboard.”
“What for?” asked Sumner. “With this offshore wind there won’t be any heavy sea, and unless you have stove a hole in her bottom she ought to float with the flood tide.”
“Flood tide! Isn’t it the top of the flood now?” exclaimed the captain.
“No; it’s the very last of the ebb, and the flood will give you a couple of feet more water.”
“Are you certain of that?”
“Then you are a trump!” cried the captain. “And I’m away out of my reckoning, somehow. Your coming just as you have has undoubtedly saved my cargo, for I should have begun heaving it overboard by this time. You see, I was hugging the coast to escape the force of the Gulf as much as possible, but was keeping a sharp lookout for the red buoy that marks the end of the reef. I can’t imagine how we missed it, unless it has gone; but we did, and when Fowey was lighted, I saw that we were too close in shore. I didn’t know that we were inside of the reef; but we struck within five minutes after I altered her course, and that was nearly half an hour ago. We don’t seem to have hit very hard, and she lies easy without making any water; but she’s here to stay, unless, as you say, the flood tide will lift her off. You are certain that this is the last of the ebb?”
“As certain as that I am standing here,” answered Sumner, who had a very distinct recollection of how the current had rushed out through the cut.
“Then let us go up into my room and have some supper. There you can tell me how you happened to be out here in such weather with a pickaninny aboard while we wait for the tide.”
How safe and comfortable the great ship seemed, after that wild race to sea in a canoe! How the captain and mates and passengers marveled at Sumner’s adventures, and what a pet they all made of little Ko-wik-a. As for that self-possessed young Indian, he accepted all the attentions lavished upon him in the most matter-of-fact manner, and with the utmost composure. He expressed no surprise at anything he saw; but his keen little eyes studied all the details of his novel surroundings, and he stored away scraps of startling information with which to astonish his young Everglade comrades for many a day.
The squall passed and the sea smoothed out its wrinkles soon after the crew of the Psyche came aboard?, and shortly before midnight the rising tide lifted the great ship gently off the reef. She was backed to a safe distance from it, and there anchored to await the coming of daylight.
Knowing what anxiety his friends and Ko-wik-a’s friends must be suffering on their account, Sumner determined to return to them at the earliest possible moment. The first signs of dawn, therefore, found the Psyche, with her crew and passenger, once more afloat. A hearty cheer followed the brave little craft as she glided away from the great ship, and in less than an hour she was paddled gently up to where the other canoes and the cruiser lay on the beach.
It had been a sad night to the inmates of that lonely camp, and most of its long hours had been spent in a fruitless watching for the return of the well-loved lad, whom most of them had such slight hopes of ever again seeing. Only Worth had faith, and declared that while he did not know how Sumner would manage it, he was confident that he would turn up again all right somehow. Towards morning their anxiety found relief in a troubled sleep, and as Sumner walked into the camp there was none to greet him or note his coming.
“Hello, in the camp!” he shouted. “Here it is almost sunrise and no breakfast ready yet!”
No surprise could be more complete or more joyful than that. Worth was the first to spring to his feet.
“He’s come hack safe and sound!” he shouted. “Oh, Sumner, I knew you would! I was sure of it, and told them so!”
“The next time I let you away from my side it will only be at the end of a long rope, you young rascal, you!” said the Lieutenant, after the extravagant joy of the first greeting had somewhat subsided.
After an unusually late and happy breakfast, they sailed through the cut and into the beautiful bay to which it led. They soon discovered the camp to which Ko-wik-a belonged, and the canoe that had rescued him had the honor of bearing him to it. He was received with a wondering joy that was none the less real for its lack of extravagant manifestation. As Ul-we took the child from Sumner’s arms, be turned his face away to hide the emotion that would be unbecoming in an Indian and a warrior. It was there, however, and the look of intense gratitude that he gave the boy was more expressive than any words that he could have uttered.
Then the Indians broke their camp, and they and the whites sailed away together to the appointed rendezvous on Cape Florida. | <urn:uuid:588b7831-0dbe-408b-997a-439621563091> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://etc.usf.edu/lit2go/152/canoemates-a-story-of-the-florida-reef-and-everglades/2721/chapter-xxxix-a-black-squall-and-the-stranded-streamer/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.984767 | 2,707 | 2.859375 | 3 |
The Samuel Comfort Family Papers (C0407), in the Manuscripts Division, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, have been recently reprocessed, and the finding aids is now online (http://findingaids.princeton.edu/collections/C0407). Most important are the papers of Samuel Comfort (1837–1933), a Union officer during the U.S. Civil War, which is well documented through his extensive correspondence with family, friends, and fellow officers. The papers include Comfort’s diary from August 1864 to May 1865, official documents, muster rolls, and photographs.
It was around this time 150 years ago at Camp Couch in Philadelphia that Union officer Samuel Comfort was solidifying the core of his all-volunteer independent cavalry unit, Company “L” of the 20th Cavalry Regiment, 181st Pennsylvania Volunteers. Comfort began recruiting (and financing) his company the previous summer, spurred on by General Robert E. Lee’s Confederate invasion of Pennsylvania.
This was Comfort’s second military stint in the Civil War. Previously, in the fall of 1861, he was selected to be a part of “Anderson Troop,” another independent Pennsylvania unit, which served as body guards to Major General D. C. [Don Carlos] Buell. After the Battle of Shiloh, April 6–7, 1862, Comfort became disabled by typhoid fever and was honorably discharged before reenlisting in June 1863. Stationed along the Shenandoah Valley, the 20th Pennsylvania Regiment took part in several key battles, including the Battle of New Market (May 15, 1864). Comfort was promoted to the rank of major in March 1865 when the 20th Regiment became involved in the pursuit of Confederate forces that led to Lee’s surrender at Appomattox Court House. Comfort was mustered out and honorably discharged from military service in July 1865.
The Samuel Comfort Family Papers also document Comfort’s time after the war as a foreign representative for Standard Oil Company, a predecessor of Exxon. It was while living abroad that Comfort’s daughter, Emma, met her husband, Harry Maule Crookshank. Descended from a distinguished military and political Scotch-Irish family, Crookshank was a decorated physician and surgeon who served as British Controller-General of the Daira Sanieh Administration in Egypt from 1897 to 1907. Previous to this appointment, Crookshank was a surgeon with the British Red Cross Society, and served in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) and the Serbo-Turkish War (1876–1878). Crookshank is documented in the Samuel Comfort Family Papers through both personal and professional correspondence, official documents, ephemera, and photographs.
Harry Frederick Comfort Crookshank, the son of Harry and Emma Comfort Crookshank, is also represented in the collection, though modestly, through a few letters and photographs. A distinguished World War I veteran, Harry was a British Conservative politician who served as Minister of Health from 1951 to 1952, Leader of the House of Commons from 1951 to 1955, and Lord Privy Seal from 1952 to 1955. Of special note is a letter from Crookshank to his family written during the Battle of the Somme (September 14, 1916) as well as a letter from Winston Churchill (December 7, 1954).
For more information about the Samuel Comfort Family Papers and about the Manuscript Division’s extensive holdings of personal papers pertaining to the Civil War, contact email@example.com
(Left) Letter from Comfort to his father about his involvement in the Battle of Appomattox Court House, April 10,1865. (Right) Samuel Comfort. | <urn:uuid:22aa9fd0-822c-4a96-83ed-963b518f8a65> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blogs.princeton.edu/manuscripts/2014/01/13/samuel-comfort-family-papers/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00106-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966848 | 783 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Mental Illness/Bio-Medical Model
Mental Illness/Bio-Medical Model
DSM and Non-DSM Orientations of Treatment
The orientation of a treating mental health professional profoundly affects the curative effects of treatment. When patients are seen as “mentally ill” by practitioners of the biomedical model, the causative factor for their illness is seen as being biologically based brain diseases that are then treated with medications. The pathology is treated and is seen as being separate from the person. On the other hand, if patients are seen as struggling with difficult life’s problems instead, their abnormal behaviors are explained as resulting from social and environmental factors that cannot be resolved by medications. These two views of patient’s have a large effect upon patient care. Traditional western treatment will largely ignore the patient and not help them sort out their life’s stresses. Symptoms will be suppressed by pharmaceuticals and patients will be seen as being in “remission”.
A different orientation is to see patients as reacting to social and environmental issues, causing them to behave in socially deviant ways that are often misunderstood by society and mental health professionals. Encouraging the patient to integrate themselves and connect to the world enhances the person to live fully as a human being. These two views are in opposition with each other.
Disadvantages of DSM
Connor (1999) describes the disadvantages of the DSM medical model approach to psychopathology for the mental health professional. Firstly, each clinician will see part of the problem, and due to the individual differences of clinicians, each will see the problems differently. Mental health professionals will disagree on the patient’s diagnosis. Secondly, patients may or may not show a variety of symptoms from those described in the DSM. They may have symptoms from one diagnosis that my also be indicative of another category. Separating these symptoms into categories is less than scientifically based activity, but relies more on the clinicians personality, talent, experience and skill level. Clinicians often lose sight of the patient as a person, focusing instead on the client’s diagnostic label rather than on the individual.
Focusing on the person’s diagnosis is not a holistic approach to treating a patient.
Laing ( 1987) brings to our awareness that as Westerners, we are split off from each other as individuals, and so are split off from the world and the cosmos, creating a “schizoid” experience. He goes on to explain that Westerners minds are afraid of their bodies, and that we are afraid of the healthiness of being connected with ourselves. He uses Buddhism as an example of a healthy, non-totalitarian state that does not divide human beings from each other, and does not turn “our souls, our world of experience, our experience of the world, our state of consciousness into a policed state” (p. 85).
Laing’s (1987) view of the DSM orientation is that “DSM III is a comprehensive compendium of thoughts, feelings, desires, of all sorts of experiences, many usual, some unusual, deemed undesirable, to be prevented or stopped in our culture, and not only in our culture, but throughout the whole human species” (p. 82). Laing (1987) uses the DSM as an example of how we pick apart symptoms serving to fragment the person and not see the whole of the human being. He also speaks to the importance of Western defensiveness of our senses so that our ability to integrate our experience is atrophied, and we have “cultured out” our human experience. He seems to be saying that the DSM further breaks us down in to symptoms that works to further separate us from ourselves and into pieces. As one system of the human body works in concert with all other systems of the body, and healing must rely on the healthy functioning of all parts of the human body, so must the mental functioning of the person include all parts of the person, not just a separate symptom. Only with a holistic view can the person heal. To use Laing’s (1987) perspective of “All man in each man, Each man in all men” (p. 84), a whole society of humankind must be healed by each part of the world being healthy.
Laing (1987) also speaks to the absurdity of the Western view that “... magical thinking, clairvoyance, telepathy, sixth sense, sensing the presence of a force or person not actually present... (as cited in DSM III, p. 189) are mental disorders, when in our Christian-based country we speak of God who cannot be seen or proven to exist, but we as a culture accept that God “speaks” to us, and “moves in mysterious ways”.
Connor (1999) explains another problem with the DSM in that using categories to describe symptoms of the patient does not get to the cause of the problem. Diagnosis is only a label and does not give examples of successful treatments. The clinician uses a consensus model that describes some of the symptoms, leaving the professional with little to go on to actually treat the person.
Consensus is not a scientific method of diagnosis, and Connor (1999) raises the question of how exact a science is the bio-medical model when treatment is based on patients subjective complaints and vague medical terms? He explains that the DSM is not sophisticated enough to describe causes of the origins of patients problems, that may be vastly different based on race, culture, age, beliefs, etc. He makes the point that patients problems are often treated with medications, but often the problems are not medically related. This is a huge problem in the medical model’s approach to mental health issues.
Since many mental health problems are caused by outside influences such as oppressive societal roles, values, political agendas, family and relationship issues, the client is usually the one given medications that will not stop such problems. The client is given a label, seen as having a “mental problem”, and the societal issues remain. The client remains with having the symptoms and nothing is solved. The client’s mental problems are not really treated, but are buried with the suppression of symptoms by the medications they are prescribed. The client may be given “talk therapy” to help cope with the ongoing outside issues that cannot be solved by the client, but will usually be ongoing. This is the cycle the client finds himself or herself in, and so we don’t have
healed clients but people termed “revolving door clients” who go round and round through the mental health system.
Defining symptoms of the person using the DSM feeds into the HMO quick fix scheme of treatment that pays the pharmaceutical interests. This system earns profits for the pharmaceutical companies and HMO’s, but not the client. Since the pharmacological approach makes a profit from the needs of the clients, a greater societal problem exists where treatment is no longer about healing the person, but about feeding into our consumerist, capitalistic society. We are then faced with a society becoming more and more ill from our societal problems, who then go into treatment by the medical model based orientation in greater numbers. This creates a societal problem where people do not usually heal, but rely on medications to help ease their symptoms.
Szasz (1979) takes a similar view with Connor (1999) in that he argues against medications used to treat “mental illness”. Szasz sees the term “mental illness” as being a misnomer, in that the mental health professionals treat mental illness with medications as if mental illnesses were diseases of the brain. Szasz points out that diseases of the brain are biologically based problems that would more appropriately be treated with medications, but that the term “mental illness” is based upon problems with how a person should live that should not be treated with medications. Such problems in people’s lives, he explains, are related to social issues involving psychosocial, ethical and legal concepts. Szasz (1979) goes on to describe that in problems of living, people deviate from the standards of social norms, and that those deviant behaviors are then treated inappropriately with medication.
Rosenhan (1973) speaks to the depersonalization and labeling of patients in psychiatric hospitals where doctors routinely ignore the patients, setting the same example for the rest of the staff. In a hospital that is to treat patients, attributing a patient’s behavior as indicative of the patient’s “mental illness” rather than the environment, perpetuates the idea that the patient will always be ill in some way. Rosenhan (1973) talks about how detrimental labels are and how patients may be seen as being in “remission”, but they will always carry the tag. The clinicians cannot have a beneficial effect upon patients that they ignore, hence, they cannot become true healers.
Studies (Rosenhan, 1979) of how graduate students were treated when under the guise of being patients have shown that patients fight depersonalization every day while hospitalized that does little to help their problems of living. Szasz’s (1979) view would concur with Rosenhan’s that working on social and environmental stresses could not be helped by the patient’s being ignored by the people who are supposed to help them.
Benefits of DSM
Klerman (1984) believes that having an official nomenclature to describe disorders where causation cannot be proved conclusively enables a working catagory for disorders that clinicians have different theories about. He acknowledges that these descriptions of disorders have “only limited evidence for their etiologies” (p. 540). Categorizing also brought forth the idea of multiple disorders so that recognition of several mental problems occurring in conjunction with each another could be accepted by the medical community.
Klerman (1984) also sees the benefits of the DSM as being a diagnostic system that many medical practitioners have accepted for its feasibility and reliability. It has drawn the medical community together to some sort of organized view of mental disorders. The DSM also includes a multiaxial system in order to “accommodate the diverse aspects of our patients’ existence” (p. 540). Klerman (1984) also felt that the DSM is an evolving tool as more information becomes apparent. The DSM is meant to serve as providing diagnostic criteria that mental health professionals can use in an effort to understand what disease a patient has in order to find an effective medication to reduce symptoms. Since the biomedical model overwhelmingly supports the view of mental illness as being a biologically-based problem, use of pharmaceuticals fulfills the medical profession’s need to find a “cure” with medication.
Orientations that focus on DSM categorizations of patient care focus on pathology as being brain-based. The patient is often depersonalized and ignored as if the pathology is the patient that must be controlled by medications. This contrasts sharply with holistic views of interaction with the whole person who is seen as working on how to live with life’s problems.
This website is about Thomas Szasz’s being presented the Rollo May award for 1998 from the American Psychological Association that was accepted in his absence by Thomas Greening, Ph.D.
Myths about Szasz’s “The Myth of Mental Illness” are critiqued with rebuttals to criticisms of Szasz’s article. An example is the following:
Criticism: Some "mentally ill" people are dangerous and commit murders. They should be identified, diagnosed, and involuntarily confined and treated to protect innocent citizens and the social order.
Rebuttal: Society should enact laws to define and control illegal behavior. This is a legal and police issue, not a psychological or psychiatric issue. In the process, the Constitution and civil rights must be respected. Using statistical prediction to identify potential violent offenders would lead to imprisoning more young, poor black men than persons labeled "schizophrenic."
Connor, M. (1999). Criticism of America’s Diagnostic Bible - The DSM. [Online]
Klerman, G., Valliant, G., Spitzer, R., & Michels, R. (1984). A debate on DSM-III. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141(4), 539 - 553.
Laing, R. D. (1978). Hatred of health. Journal of Contemplative Psychotherapy, 4, 77 - 86.
Rosenhan, D. (1975). On being sane in insane places. In Scheff (Ed.), Labeling Madness (pp. 54-75). NJ: Prentice - Hall, Inc.
Szasz, T. (1979). The myth of mental illness. In J. Fadiman & D. Kewman (Eds.), Exploring madness: Experience, theory, and research (2nd ed.) Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole. | <urn:uuid:50860dc3-9605-4549-ac76-bdcffa35f9b7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://psychawareness.tripod.com/id22.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00087-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950106 | 2,701 | 2.984375 | 3 |
Shri Yukteshwar, a yoga master from the nineteenth and early twentieth century, translates dharma as ‘mental virtue’. Others translate this Sanskrit word in other ways that can seem quite varied. A generalized definition used in Buddhism is “cosmic law and order” or “nature of being”. Dharma implies a cause and effect or lawful universe as is borne out in the laws of physics. All the definitions of ‘dharma’ contribute to the understanding of the ineffable quality of existence.
‘Mental virtue’ implies the subjective nature of dharma because no conception can occur at all without the personal subjective mind. What the Buddhists call ‘ordinary mind’ is dharma in essence. Nothing can be outside this point of view. To refine the point of view is the path of meditation or ‘mindfulness’ which is espoused in the ‘eight fold path’ of Buddhism.
The thinking mind processes concepts based on experience and original creative thought. It is a storehouse of values, attitudes and beliefs that are established in time. The contents of the mind to a large extent, determine choices, actions and reactions in our behavior. Meditation is the practice of stillness of the mind and body which produces intuitive insight to the nature of being itself.
Virtue of the mind implies honesty and truthful attitude. It also implies a lack of heaviness or a light hearted attitude. Cause and effect can be studied both in the mental and the physical realities of life. Letting go of values and attitudes that don’t conform to the honesty and truthfulness principle is the essence of refining the mental field. Establishing beneficial values and attitudes is expanding understanding of cause and effect in an intuitive way. Practice of mental virtue conforms to the universal dharma or nature of life in general.
Philosophy is the study and practice of wisdom. Dharma implies a beneficial and loving nature at the heart of the physical and mental universe that could be call ‘Spirit’ or the "Source of Existence". | <urn:uuid:07dd6161-a854-47eb-877d-4bd0deea5d18> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.examiner.com/article/what-is-dharma?cid=rss | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00101-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.904315 | 428 | 3.296875 | 3 |
What You'll Learn Here:
According to the World Health Organization and the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations, probiotics are “live microorganisms, which, when administered
in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host.”
Also referred to as friendly or good bacteria, gut flora, intestinal
flora, microflora, and direct fed microorganisms (DFM), probiotics help maintain
the natural balance of organisms (microflora) in the intestines. They are live,
microscopic living organisms – such as bacteria, viruses, and yeasts – that play
a vital role in the fermentation and digestion of carbohydrates, and aid in the
digestion of fats and proteins.
Probiotics help prevent bloating, gas, and yeast overgrowth because
they maintain intestinal acidity at a healthy pH level. They generate certain vitamins
and nutrients, support the immune system, and help prevent disease by depriving
bad bacteria of nutrients, and secreting acids that harmful bacteria can’t
Good bacteria also metabolize and recycle hormones such as estrogen, phytoestrogens,
and thyroid, which foster hormonal balance, and help minimize menopausal symptoms.
Bacteria populations that live in the gut are a combination of both good
and bad bacteria; a balance between the two is necessary for an optimal
state of health. While each person’s mix of bacteria varies, friendly bacteria
are crucial to the digestion and absorption of food and nutrients, a properly functioning
immune system that responds with balance to potential allergens, protection against
disease-causing microorganisms, and detoxification and metabolism.
Bad bacteria include those that cause disease such as Salmonella, Clostridium,
and others. They only become problematic, however, when their numbers grow large
and uncontrollable in proportion to that of good bacteria. Even yeasts
such as Candida are healthy
in small amounts.
Good bacteria include Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus bulgaricus,
Bifidobacterium bifidum, and others. They help us digest food, maintain a healthy
gut, provide us with nutrients and vitamins, and fight off bad bacteria.
Good bacteria can be taken as a
As a rule, probiotics – available in foods and dietary supplements – are bacteria
similar to those naturally found in our gastrointestinal (GI) tracts. These bacteria
are usually obtained from two groups, Lactobacillus or Bifidobacterium. There are
many different species within each group, and numerous strains within each species.
Probiotics are different from prebiotics, which are non-digestible food ingredients
that stimulate the growth and/or activity of beneficial bacteria already living
in the human the digestive system.
Symptoms of Probiotic Imbalance
When microflora become imbalanced, an incredible variety of symptoms can result.
Probiotics have been found to be helpful in easing numerous symptoms and conditions:
- Abdominal pain
- Acne, rosacea (chronic)
- ADD (attention deficit disorder)
- All allergies
- All autoimmune diseases
- Bad breath
flatulence, and gas
- Chronic fatigue syndrome
- Cold sores (herpes)
- Ear infections (chronic)
- Food allergies, such as gluten intolerance and sensitivity to sugar
- Gum disease
- Headaches, migraines
- Infant dermatitis
- Increased PMS (pre-menstrual syndrome), peri-menopause, or
- Intestinal tract inflammation (chronic enteritis)
- Irregular bowel movements
- Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
- Joint aches
- Lactose intolerance
- Learning disabilities
- Lowered immune response
- Lyme disease
- Nail problems (tinea)
- Other inflammatory conditions
- Patchy white areas on skin (vitiligo)
- Prostate inflammation
- Sinusitis (chronic)
- Stuffy nose, increased mucous
- Upper respiratory infections (chronic)
- Urinary tract infections (chronic)
- Viral infections (i.e. hepatitis, herpes, human papillomavirus [HPV])
- Yeast infections
What Causes Probiotic Imbalance?
The balancing act required to keep friendly and unfriendly bacteria
levels in check can be disrupted in various ways. Medications such as antibiotics
can kill both good and bad gut bacteria in one fell swoop. Unfriendly, disease-causing
bacteria, fungi, yeasts, and
parasites can put microflora balance into a tailspin.
Intestinal upset such as diarrhea brought on by food poisoning can lead to a decrease
in microflora. Age, illness, and stress can cause microflora imbalance. Poor diet
is one of the most serious contributors – good bacteria love fiber; bad
bacteria thrive on refined sugar and animal fat. Starvation, low-calorie dieting,
and excessive alcohol consumption can all cause a microflora disruption.
When a microflora imbalance occurs, the population of Lactobacilli (a good
bacteria) in the small intestine decreases, giving bad bacteria and yeasts
(such as Candida albicans) the opportunity to occupy the space left by the reduction
of good bacteria. The bad microflora begin to proliferate, overpopulating
the GI tract, and persisting for months and/or years.
Probiotic Treatment and Prevention: The Benefits
Understanding the importance of intestinal flora balance, many health care specialists
recommend probiotic supplementation
as a part of any daily health regimen.
Probiotics can relieve chronic constipation, and digestive and gas pain, as well
as restore beneficial bacteria in the digestive tract to healthy levels.
Research suggests that probiotic supplementation may help the body cope with conditions
- Childhood stomach and respiratory infections
- Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori)
infection (a peptic ulcer and chronic stomach inflammation-causing bacterium)
- Infectious diarrhea (especially that caused by rotavirus)1
bowel disease (IBD) (i.e. ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease)
- Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
- Lactose intolerance
- Malabsorption of trace minerals (especially for vegetarians with high phytate diets:
i.e. legumes, nuts, and whole grains)2
- Skin infections
- Tooth decay and gum disease
- Vaginal infections
Probiotics are thought to be helpful in both the prevention and treatment of some
- Childhood eczema
- Colon cancer
- Diarrhea caused by antibiotics
- Infections of the female urinary tract and bacterial vaginosis
- Pouchitis (a potential, post-surgical condition of colon removal)
Probiotics can be helpful in lowering blood pressure, reducing inflammation, shortening
the duration of intestinal infections3 caused by Clostridium difficile,
as well as reducing the recurrence rate of others conditions, such as bladder cancer.4
Specific digestive tract cells may be intricately linked to the immune system. Studies
suggest that when intestinal tract microorganisms are exposed to probiotic bacteria,
immune system functioning is boosted, which can result in the prevention of infection.
University of Turku in Finland study results presented at the 2009 European Congress
on Obesity suggest that women taking probiotics during the first trimester of pregnancy
are less likely to experience obesity. Known as adiposity, this pregnancy-associated
condition is one of the unhealthiest forms of obesity.5
And finally, Mayo Clinic researchers are investigating probiotics for decreasing
certain substances in the urine that can cause problems such as kidney stones.
The Probiotic Solution:
What to Consider When Choosing a Probiotic Brand
A normal part of the digestive system, probiotics are generally considered safe.
When choosing a probiotic, it’s important to be aware that only certain kinds of
bacteria or yeast work well in the digestive tract; the effects experienced from
ingesting one probiotic species, strain, or preparation won’t necessarily be experienced
with another. For this reason, it’s important to choose supplemental probiotics
Microflora varies within and between the intestines, genito-urinary, respiratory,
and skin populations. Lactobacillis acidophilis is the dominant strain in the small
intestine, whereas Bifidobacterium bifidum is dominant in the large intestine. Ideally,
a probiotic supplement ought to be comprised of several beneficial bacteria – such
as Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacterium bifidum.
Choose a probiotic containing strains that are non-pathogenic (harmless) to humans
(again, look for species Lactobacillis and Bifidobacterium). A product with microflora
species cultured from human strains, capable of colonizing the digestive tract and
attaching themselves to the lining of the small intestine, and able to remain within
the large intestine is desirable.
Look for a probiotic that contains a prebiotic such as FOS (fructooligosaccharides)
or inulin (polysaccharide/fructose); they help the microflora survive the acidic
upper GI tract environment. To ensure quality, purity, and safety, choose a product
that is GMP-compliant (good manufacturing practice), and certified by the National
Sanitation Foundation (NSF) International (Public Health and Safety Company).
Choosing the right probiotic may feel like a daunting task as a result of the sheer
mass of information that has been written about them. At Puristat, we’ve already
done all the research so that you don’t have to; our
35 Billion Probiotic provides you with everything you need in a probiotic…without
having to wade through a library of information to find out what that is!
Fostering Adequate Microflora through Diet
Cheese, chocolate, cider, fermented and unfermented milk, kimchi, miso, pickles,
tempeh, sauerkraut, some juices and soy beverages, soy sauce, Yakult, and yogurt
are examples of foods and drinks containing probiotics.
Since prebiotics stimulate the growth of friendly bacteria within the human
digestive system, consider eating foods that contain prebiotics such as asparagus,
bananas, garlic, leeks, oats, onions, and wheat. Some grocery store foods are enriched
with prebiotics. Consider prebiotic supplements if your probiotic does not already
contain a prebiotic.
And remember, friendly bacteria thrive on fiber; bad bacteria
adore refined sugar and animal fat. So when choosing your grocery items, stock up
on fruits, legumes, vegetables, and whole grains in order to foster the health of
your good bacteria. Foods such as garlic, ginseng, and green tea contain
polyphenols, which also help to encourage long life for good bacteria.
The digestive system is an incredibly important – and complex – part of the human
body. Many health care providers believe it is the place where health begins…and
ends. Probiotics provide an exciting new aspect to the health of the human gut.
As with all medications, the effectiveness of probiotics depends on a variety of
factors ranging from the species and strain ingested, to the age, gender, genetics,
health status, and history of each individual. Today, however, there is a mounting
body of evidence to support the effectiveness of probiotics in the treatment of
an enormous number of twenty-first century conditions. | <urn:uuid:9fb7fd51-5613-49b3-a27f-7cbaa99c8ff5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.puristat.com/bloating/Probiotics.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00147-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.870789 | 2,511 | 3.578125 | 4 |
Intellectual Property and the Internet/Internet security
Internet security is a branch of computer security specifically related to the Internet. Its objective is to establish rules and measures to use against attacks over the Internet. The Internet represents an insecure channel for exchanging information leading to a high risk of intrusion or fraud, such as phishing. Different methods have been used to protect the transfer of data, including encryption.
- 1 Types of security
- 2 Firewalls
- 3 Malicious software and antivirus
- 4 Denial-of-service attack
- 5 Browser choice
- 6 Buffer overflow attacks
- 7 References
- 8 External links
Types of security
Network layer security
TCP/IP can be made secure with the help of cryptographic methods and protocols that have been developed for securing communications on the Internet. These protocols include SSL and TLS for web traffic, PGP for email, and IPsec for the network layer security.
This protocol is designed to protect communication in a secure manner using TCP/IP. It is a set of security extensions developed by IETF, and it provides security and authentication at the IP layer by using cryptography. To protect the content, the data is transformed using encryption techniques. There are two main types of transformation that form the basis of IPsec: the Authentication Header (AH) and Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP). These two protocols provide data integrity, data origin authentication, and anti-replay service. These protocols can be used alone or in combination to provide the desired set of security services for the Internet Protocol (IP) layer.
The basic components of the IPsec security architecture are described in terms of the following functionalities:
- Security protocols for AH and ESP
- Security association for policy management and traffic processing
- Manual and automatic key management for the internet key exchange (IKE)
- Algorithms for authentication and encryption
The set of security services provided at the IP layer includes access control, data origin integrity, protection against replays, and confidentiality. The algorithm allows these sets to work independently without affecting other parts of the implementation. The IPsec implementation is operated in a host or security gateway environment giving protection to IP traffic.
Electronic mail security (E-mail)
Email messages are composed, delivered, and stored in a multiple step process, which starts with the message's composition. When the user finishes composing the message and sends it, the message is transformed into a standard format: an RFC 2822 formatted message. Afterwards, the message can be transmitted. Using a network connection, the mail client, referred to as a mail user agent (MUA), connects to a mail transfer agent (MTA) operating on the mail server. The mail client then provides the sender’s identity to the server. Next, using the mail server commands, the client sends the recipient list to the mail server. The client then supplies the message. Once the mail server receives and processes the message, several events occur: recipient server identification, connection establishment, and message transmission. Using Domain Name System (DNS) services, the sender’s mail server determines the mail server(s) for the recipient(s). Then, the server opens up a connection(s) to the recipient mail server(s) and sends the message employing a process similar to that used by the originating client, delivering the message to the recipient(s).
Pretty Good Privacy (PGP)
PGP provides confidentiality by encrypting messages to be transmitted or data files to be stored using an encryption algorithm such 3DES or CAST-128. Email messages can be protected by using cryptography in various ways, such as the following:
- Signing an email message to ensure its integrity and confirm the identity of its sender.
- Encrypting the body of an email message to ensure its confidentiality.
- Encrypting the communications between mail servers to protect the confidentiality of both the message body and message header.
The first two methods, message signing and message body encryption, are often used together; however, encrypting the transmissions between mail servers is typically used only when two organizations want to protect emails regularly sent between each other. For example, the organizations could establish a virtual private network (VPN) to encrypt the communications between their mail servers over the Internet. Unlike methods that can only encrypt a message body, a VPN can encrypt entire messages, including email header information such as senders, recipients, and subjects. In some cases, organizations may need to protect header information. However, a VPN solution alone cannot provide a message signing mechanism, nor can it provide protection for email messages along the entire route from sender to recipient.
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME)
MIME transforms non-ASCII data at the sender's site to Network Virtual Terminal (NVT) ASCII data and delivers it to client's Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) to be sent through the Internet. The server SMTP at the receiver's side receives the NVT ASCII data and delivers it to MIME to be transformed back to the original non-ASCII data.
- Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (S/MIME)
S/MIME provides a consistent means to securely send and receive MIME data. S/MIME is not only limited to email but can be used with any transport mechanism that carries MIME data, such Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
Message Authentication Code
A Message Authentication Code is a cryptography method that uses a secret key to encrypt a message. This method outputs a MAC value that can be decrypted by the receiver, using the same secret key used by the sender. The Message Authentication Code protects both a message's data integrity as well as its authenticity.
A firewall controls access between networks. It generally consists of gateways and filters which vary from one firewall to another. Firewalls also screen network traffic and are able to block traffic that is dangerous. Firewalls act as the intermediate server between SMTP and HTTP connections.
Role of firewalls in Internet security and web security
Firewalls impose restrictions on incoming and outgoing packets to and from private networks. All the traffic, whether incoming or outgoing, must pass through the firewall; only authorized traffic is allowed to pass through it. Firewalls create checkpoints between an internal private network and the public Internet, also known as choke points. Firewalls can create choke points based on IP source and TCP port number. They can also serve as the platform for IPsec. Using tunnel mode capability, firewall can be used to implement VPNs. Firewalls can also limit network exposure by hiding the internal network system and information from the public Internet.
Types of firewalls
Packet filters are one of several different types of firewalls that process network traffic on a packet-by-packet basis. Their main job is to filter traffic from a remote IP host, so a router is needed to connect the internal network to the Internet. The router is known as a screening router, which screens packets leaving and entering the network.
The circuit-level gateway is a proxy server that statically defines what traffic will be allowed. Circuit proxies always forward packets containing a given port number, provided the port number is permitted by the rules set. This gateway operates at the network level of an OSI model. The main advantage of a proxy server is its ability to provide Network Address Translation (NAT), which can hide the user's IP address from the Internet, effectively protecting all internal information from the Internet.
An application-level gateway is a proxy server operating at the TCP/IP application level. A packet is forwarded only if a connection is established using a known protocol. Application-level gateways are notable for analyzing entire messages rather than individual packets of data when the data are being sent or received.
Malicious software and antivirus
Commonly, a computer user can be tricked or forced into downloading software onto a computer that is of malicious intent. Such programs are known as malware and come in many forms, such as viruses, Trojan horses, spyware, and worms. Malicious software is sometimes used to form botnets.
Viruses are programs that can replicate their structures or effects by infecting other files or structures on a computer. The common use of a virus is to take over a computer to steal data.
A Trojan horse (commonly known as a Trojan) is a general term for malicious software that pretends to be harmless so that a user willingly allows it to be downloaded onto the computer.
The term spyware refers to programs that surreptitiously monitor activity on a computer system and report that information to others without the user's consent.
Worms are programs that can replicate themselves throughout a computer network, performing malicious tasks throughout.
A botnet is a network of "zombie" computers that have been taken over by a "bot" that performs large-scale malicious acts for the creator of the botnet.
Antivirus programs and Internet security programs are useful in protecting a computer or programmable device from malware.
Such programs are used to detect and usually eliminate viruses; however, it is now common to see security suites, containing also firewalls, anti-spyware, theft protection, and so on to more thoroughly protect users.
Traditionally, a user would pay for antivirus software; however, computer users now can, and do, download from a host of free security applications on the Internet.
A denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) or distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS attack) is an attempt to make a computer resource unavailable to its intended users. Although the means to carry out, motives for, and targets of a DoS attack may vary, it generally consists of the concerted efforts of person or persons to prevent an Internet site or service from functioning efficiently or at all, temporarily or indefinitely.
Web browser statistics tend to affect the amount a Web browser is exploited. For example, Internet Explorer 6, which used to own a majority of the Web browser market share, is considered extremely insecure because vulnerabilities were commonly exploited due to its former popularity. Now, however, browser choice is more evenly distributed (Internet Explorer at 22.9%, Firefox at 39.7%, Google Chrome at 30.5%, and so on); vulnerabilities are commonly exploited in many browsers. Apple's web browser, Safari, is the fourth most popular web browser. Although it is only 4% of the total browser usage, it too has many vulnerabilities.
Buffer overflow attacks
A buffer overflow is an attack that could be used by a cracker to get full system access through various methods by essentially cracking a computer using brute force. Most security applications and suites are incapable of adequate defense against these kinds of attacks.
- Gralla, Preston (2007). How the Internet Works. Que Pub, Indianapolis. ISBN 0789721325.
- Rhee, M. Y. (2003). Internet Security: Cryptographic Principles,Algorithms and Protocols. Chichester: Wiley. ISBN 0470852852.
- http://itcd.hq.nasa.gov/networking-vpn.html Virtual Private Network
- http://www.pvv.org/~asgaut/crypto/thesis/node6.html Network Virtual Terminal
- Rebbapragada, Narasu. All-in-one Security. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
- Larkin, Eric. Build Your Own Free Security Suite. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
- W3Schools.com. Browser Statistics. Retrieved 1 August 2011.
- Bradly, Tony. "It's Time to Finally Drop Internet Explorer 6" . Retrieved 19 November 2010.
- Messmer, Ellen and NetworkWorld. "Google Chrome Tops 'Dirty Dozen' Vulnerable Apps List". Retrieved 19 November 2010.
- Keizer, Greg. Firefox 3.5 Vulnerability Confirmed. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
- Skinner, Carrie-Ann. Opera Plugs "Severe" Browser Hole. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
- IP Authentication Header
- Encapsulating Security Payload
- Wireless Safety - Up to date info on the latest security threats, top news stories, and step by step tutorials on how to best protect yourself and family or organization.
- Broadband Reports - FAQs and forums on Internet security etc.
- PwdHash - Firefox & IE browser extensions that transparently converts a user's password into a domain-specific password.
- Internet security - by JC & Goio (security programs).
- The Internet and Data Security Guide - A to Z Glossary of terms
- Cybertelecom :: Security - surveying federal Internet security work | <urn:uuid:b3673072-149e-405a-8f4f-6256aae17dcf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Intellectual_Property_and_the_Internet/Internet_security | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00132-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.882696 | 2,614 | 3.734375 | 4 |
For the mainstream public, the Olympics can be pretty polarizing. You either love them or can’t be bothered. Of those that love the Games, they tune in for the drama and the excitement of seeing athletes win that big gold medal and have their dreams become reality. The contingent that ignores the games usually site boredom as the main reason; they tend to favor team sports such as American football, basketball, and baseball.
Taking a closer look at the Olympics, and the athletes themselves, and you may find an appreciation for the dedication and determination that each athlete possess. The fitness nerd in me loves watching athletic events and it doesn’t get any better than the Olympics. This may upset some, but when it comes to the elite athletes in the world, you can’t get more elite than Olympic Athletes. Here’s an explanation why.
In the strength training circles, proper programming is called perdiodization. This is the assembly of a training program into different stages. Unfortunately, since fitness is usually treated as a joke, most people are unfamiliar with this concept. Instead of formulating a proper training program, people like to buy a DVD from Wal-Mart and dance around their living room.That's not the consumers fault but the industry itself not educating people; or I should say not promoting educated and experienced individuals to inform the public.
But periodization is based off the work of Hans Seyle; a Canadian biologist who said that an organism goes through different stressors. In order for the organism (in this case, an Olympic Athlete) to adapt and get better, a coach has to know when to apply more stress and when to allow recovery (1). As a side note, this is why most people struggle to get in shape: they either do too little or too much.
So for an Olympic athlete, this is huge because their performance is dependent on it. Want to know the real kicker? All of that planning takes place over a 4 year program. So the coach prepares the program and 4 years later, the athlete needs to be in the best shape of their life at the exact moment of their contest. Talk about no pressure.
Coaches do this by taking their athletes through various stages of programming called macro, meso, and microcycles (2). This is to where the athlete can vary their training by focusing on building muscle, increasing strength, and enhancing power. Per our explanation of biology, this is so the athlete doesn't fry out from training and continue to see results over the course of 4 years.
A lifetime of dreaming along with 4 years of sweat, determination, and serious scientific training goes into every Olympic moment you see. So next time you hear someone say the Olympics are boring, school them up with some biology and exercise science so they can appreciate these awesome athletes.
Marc Pogorzelski, Nexus Fitness
1. Bachechle, Thomas R and Earle, Roger W. Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning. Champaign, Ill: Human Kinetics. 2000, page 514
2. Bompa, Tudor O. Haff, Gregory C. Periodization: Theory and Methodology of Training: Fifth Edition. Champaign, Ill: Human Kinetics. 2009; pp 203 | <urn:uuid:61312d5f-decd-4370-b835-8b67dda4c713> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.examiner.com/article/olympic-athletes-and-their-training?cid=rss | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00102-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954189 | 669 | 2.546875 | 3 |
"Rinpa" is a modern term that refers to a distinctive style of Japanese pictorial and applied arts that arose in the early seventeenth century and has continued through modern times. Literally meaning "school of Korin," Rinpa derives its name from Ogata Korin (1658–1716), a celebrated painter from Kyoto. It embraces art marked by a bold, graphic abbreviation of natural motifs, frequent reference to traditional court literature and poetry, the lavish use of expensive mineral and metallic pigments, incorporation of calligraphy into painting compositions, and innovative experimentation with new brush techniques.
The exhibition will feature more than one hundred brilliantly executed works of art created in Japan by the Rinpa-school artists. It will be held in two rotations, the first opening on May 26, 2012; the second on September 12, 2012. Highlighting the school's most prominent proponents, this two-part presentation will trace the development of the Rinpa aesthetic and will demonstrate how its style continued to influence artists throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Comprising more than fifty works from the Museum's own holdings supplemented by forty-five loans from public and private collections on the east coast, the exhibition will include many masters' renowned works in a variety of media—painting, textiles, lacquerware, and ceramics. | <urn:uuid:7633addb-29aa-449d-8713-76fa1a1bb6c7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.artslant.com/ny/events/show/220024-designing-nature---the-rinpa-aesthetic-in-japanese-art | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00034-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96067 | 270 | 2.953125 | 3 |
HPV Vaccine Protects Against Infection 8 Years Out
Doctors continue to urge parents to get the recommended three doses for their preteens
The CDC recommends that all kids aged 11 to 12 should get the three doses of HPV vaccine.
Ferris noted that getting all three doses is important. "The third dose is the booster dose, and that's what's going to convey long-term protection," he explained.
A survey published in the same journal issue examined the reasons more girls aren't getting vaccinated.
"Almost everybody [parents and doctors] we talked to thought getting the vaccine was a good idea," said survey author Dr. Rebecca Perkins, an assistant professor of obstetrics and gynecology at Boston University School of Medicine.
"They thought that preventing cancer is good and that all girls should get vaccinated," she said. "What was happening was a problem with timing."
Doctors weren't suggesting the vaccine for girls aged 11 to 12, Perkins said. They thought the vaccine should be given later, when girls are more likely to be sexually active, she said.
Doctors and parents were thinking more about how the virus is transmitted, rather than about the vaccine as a way to prevent cancer, she said.
"Everyone needs to focus on why we are giving the vaccine, which is to prevent HPV-associated cancers, rather than on how one gets HPV," Perkins said.
High vaccination rates were achieved when doctors looked at the HPV vaccine as a normal part of the vaccination schedule. In addition, talking about preventing cancer was a more successful approach than talking about HPV as a sexually transmitted infection, the researchers added.
Cadilla wasn't surprised by the survey findings. "We have known that we have not been doing a good job vaccinating girls and boys," she said.
Cultural prejudices about sex need to be overcome, Cadilla added. "A lot of times because HPV is a sexual disease, it will scare parents off," she said. "But you never know when your child is going to start having sex."
Cadilla advises parents to have their kids vaccinated. "You are preventing something from happening in the future," she said.
Perkins' findings were based on interviews about HPV and the vaccine with 124 parents and 37 doctors. | <urn:uuid:36be95df-9946-4cab-9fd4-95a0a5181dbd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.webmd.com/sexual-conditions/hpv-genital-warts/news/20140818/hpv-vaccine-protects-against-infection-8-years-out-study?page=2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.983386 | 464 | 2.78125 | 3 |
By Josh Balk
Foodies, locavores and flexitarians. If the twenty-first century lexicon is any evidence, food issues have reached a new peak in consumer consciousness. And when it comes to our food supply, an important concern for many Americans is the welfare of farm animals. Because of this interest in where our food comes from, how it’s produced and a desire to do less harm, we’re entering a hopeful time in the evolution of our food system.
Since World War II, the number of farm animals packed inside giant warehouses has steadily grown. Gone are the days of Old MacDonald’s farm where animals roamed relatively freely. Now, most are intensively confined, many to the point of perpetual constraint. Most farm animals never even see the light of day or feel grass beneath their feet. Among the most severe problems arising from this shift to an industrial food system is the confinement of mother pigs in gestation crates.
Gestation crates are metal cages used by the pork industry to immobilize mother pigs day and night during their four-month pregnancies. These cages are roughly the same size as the animals’ bodies and prevent them from even turning around for months on end. The pigs are transferred into another crate to give birth, re-impregnated and put back into a gestation crate. This happens pregnancy after pregnancy for their entire lives, adding up to years of virtual immobilization.
In recent months, an unlikely ally has emerged for these unfortunate pigs: the food retail industry. After working with The Humane Society of the United States, many of the largest restaurant chains, grocery stores and food manufacturers have announced policies to eliminate gestation crates from their pork supply chain. This consequential list includes food industry giants like McDonald’s, Burger King, Wendy’s, Costco, Kroger and Safeway.
How has the pork industry itself responded to these policies? Some leading pork companies, like Smithfield, Hormel and Cargill, are heading in the right direction by reducing their use of gestation crates and phasing in more humane housing systems. These actions are not only good for pigs, they’re good for business. By aligning with the policies of the largest pork buyers, these companies are creating a practical business model.
Others, most notably Tyson Foods – another top pork producer – have taken a backward approach. Rather than embracing this clear trajectory in the pork industry, Tyson continues to defend the abhorrent practice of intensively confining breeding pigs in cramped cages. It’s equivalent to defending the virtue of buying typewriters in a world that’s shifted to computers.
The company’s “the customer is always wrong” attitude does not bode well for Tyson’s future. Its stock rating has recently been lowered by Bank of America and JP Morgan. Even a first-year business school student would realize that investing in a company that refuses to comply with the wishes of its customers would be a bad decision.
Tyson’s public relations and stock market drubbing isn’t getting a helpful reprieve from the company’s trade association, the National Pork Producers Council. In defending gestation crates in a July National Journal article, NPPC’s director of communications Dave Warner callously remarked, “So our animals can’t turn around for the 2.5 years that they are in the stalls producing piglets….I don’t know who asked the sow if she wanted to turn around.” The organization’s CEO eventually apologized for the comment, but only after an uproar from the public that inundated the council with so many online complaints that its Facebook page was taken down.
When companies like Tyson refuse to listen to the largest food retailers about supply chain ethics, and when the NPPC mocks the very idea that consumers should be concerned about caging pigs to a point where these animals can’t even turn around, it’s no wonder they are losing the gestation crate argument. With the country’s largest retailers supporting a gestation crate-free future, the weeks and months ahead will truly be a test for which pork companies have the business sense to innovate with the times, and which ones will allow their stubbornness to put their own company at financial risk. | <urn:uuid:ba1f34fb-602a-4130-94f2-0278e21d758a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.triplepundit.com/2012/08/food-retailers-coming-rescue-pigs/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94547 | 882 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Swastikas and Tinsel: How the Nazis Stole Christmas
Swastika Christmas tree ornaments, "Germanic" cookies and made-up traditions: A new exhibition highlights how the Nazis tried to take Christ out of Christmas. But their attempts to hijack a festival that began with the birth of a Jewish child weren't entirely successful.
It all started innocently enough. Back in the mid-1970s, Rita Breuer began collecting old German Christmas ornaments after her husband expressed the desire for a good old-fashioned Christmas tree like his grandmother used to have. Breuer, who hails from the small town of Olpe, 60 kilometers from Cologne, scoured flea markets and raided friends' attics in the search for baubles and came to accumulate quite a collection which included not only tree ornaments, but also Advent calendars, cribs and Christmas cards.
But then something strange happened. Breuer, who was now being helped in her quest by her daughter Judith, came across more and more objects that didn't fit with the usual peaceful image of Christmas, such as World War I-era miniature soldiers, bombs and hand grenades designed to hang on the tree. The Breuers started to get interested in how Christmas had been abused for propaganda purposes over the years, most blatantly by the Nazis. Their hobby turned into a full-fledged amateur research project.
Now, more than 30 years after Rita Breuer first began collecting Christmas knickknacks, selected objects from the family collection have gone on show at the National Socialism Documentation Center in Cologne. The exhibition, which looks at the history of Christmas and propaganda from the 19th century until the present day, focuses on how the Nazis misused Christmas for their own foul purposes and tried to turn it into a "Germanic" winter solstice festival.
"Christmas was a provocation for the Nazis -- after all, the baby Jesus was a Jewish child," Judith Breuer, who helped prepare the exhibition and co-authored the accompanying book with her mother, told SPIEGEL ONLINE. "The most important celebration in the year didn't fit with their racist beliefs so they had to react, by trying to make it less Christian."
The exhibition, which includes such peculiar objects from the Breuers' massive collection as swastika-shaped cookie-cutters and Christmas tree baubles emblazoned with the Nazi symbol, shows the bizarre ways the Nazis came up with to try to take the Christ out of Christmas. They tried to persuade housewives to bake cookies in the shape of a sun wheel, a form similar to the swastika, and they attempted to replace the Christian figure of Saint Nicholas, who traditionally brings German children treats on Dec. 6, with the figure of Odin, the Norse god.
One symbol posed a particular problem for the Nazis, namely the star, which traditionally decorates Christmas trees. "Either it was a six-pointed star, which was a symbol of the Jews, or it was a five-pointed star, which represented the Soviets," Breuer says. Either way, the star had to go.
The Changing Face of Christmas
The exhibition also details how the Nazi approach to Christmas changed over the years. In the 1930s, their efforts were aimed mainly at changing the ideology of Christmas, Breuer explains. But when World War II started, the focus became more practical. The state encouraged those at home to send Christmas cards to the soldiers at the front and gave tips on how to make Christmas cookies in the face of food shortages. Then in 1944-1945, as the tide of the war turned against Germany, the Nazi apparatus tried to reinvent the festival once again as a day to commemorate the dead, in particular fallen soldiers. "By then nobody felt like celebrating," Breuer says.
However Breuer points out that, despite the Nazis' best efforts, habits among the population were not so easy to change. "People largely continued with the same traditions as before," she says.
But the legacy of the Nazi Christmas is more long-lasting than might be suspected. The Nazi-era version of the traditional Christmas carol "Es ist für uns eine Zeit angekommen" ("Unto us a time has come") is still sung in Germany today, for example. "The Nazis took out the references to Jesus and made it into a song about walking through the snow," Breuer says.
Of course the festival of Christmas has been largely secularized in much of the world over since the start of the 20th century, but the Nazi treatment was different. This had nothing to do with commercialism or growing secularism, but was based on their racist ideology and a yearning for a mythical Germanic past.
One particular sinister example of the Nazi Christmas tradition is the Julleuchter ("Yule lantern"), a kind of candlestick which can also be seen in the exhibition. Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS, had the supposedly "Germanic" lantern produced by inmates in the Dachau and Neuengamme concentration camps to give as a present to members of the SS. The same version of the Julleuchter that Himmler had made is still sold today in certain shops with a New Age bent as a traditional Christmas decoration.
And many of the myths that the Nazis invented are still circulating. "You can still read in places about how Christmas is really an ancient Germanic festival of the winter solstice," Breuer says, pointing out that there is little evidence of any such celebration.
One of the most surprising aspects of the Nazi hijacking of Christmas is the lack of reaction from the German churches at the time. "You would have expected them to protest loudly and insist that it was a Christian festival," says Breuer. "But instead they largely kept quiet, out of fear."
The exhibition "Von wegen Heilige Nacht! Weihnachten in der politischen Propaganda" ("Not Such a Holy Night: Christmas in Political Propaganda") can be seen at the National Socialism Documentation Center in Cologne until Jan. 17, 2010.
© SPIEGEL ONLINE 2009
All Rights Reserved
Reproduction only allowed with the permission of SPIEGELnet GmbH | <urn:uuid:387aeda5-df9b-4e5a-8026-c75c32e4ddc9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/swastikas-and-tinsel-how-the-nazis-stole-christmas-a-661161.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00178-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964938 | 1,286 | 2.9375 | 3 |
“In the fall and winter of 1776,” began Mr. Harmar, “the people of New Jersey experienced their full share of the miseries of civil war. During no period of the Revolutionary contest did the enemy’s troops act more cruelly or more unlike civilized men. As they marched through the Jerseys, driving our poor ‘rebel’ army before them, they committed all kinds of outrages on helpless women and old men; but this conduct was destined to recoil upon the heads of the foe. The people were roused to resist the invaders, and the militia was organised throughout the State—silently but surely. Our victories at Trenton and Princeton were received as the signals for action. As the enemy retired on Brunswick, they were followed by the exasperated farmers, and harassed terribly. But, at the time when my story commences, the red-coats were in quiet possession of New Jersey, from Burlington to New York. General Washington had come over on this side of the Delaware.
“It was late in December. The weather was bitter cold, and the enemy seldom stirred from their quarters to visit the interior of the State. This respite would have been refreshing to the harassed farmer, if the withdrawal of the regular troops had not left free play for the more desperate servants of King George, or others who pretended to be such. One of these pretenders was named Fagan. He was the leader of about twenty ruffians as free from any particle of human feeling as himself. There was no romance about the black character of Fagan; he was a perfect wretch; he robbed for gain, and murdered to conceal the robbery. The hiding-place of the band was in the pine barrens of New Jersey, and they thence received the name of ‘the pine robbers’ from the people of the country. Their violence and cruelty towards women and even children had made them the terror of all classes. The whigs charged their doings on the tories and refugees; but the robbers were against both parties. They plundered a tory in the name of the continentals, and were true to the Crown when a whig chanced to be in their power.
“Well, I’m going to tell you about one of their exploits. Not many miles from Trenton, on the road to Bordentown, was the farm-house of Nathaniel Collins, a Quaker, but who was not strict enough for his sect. He was disowned by them on account of encouraging his two sons to join the continental army, and for showing a disposition to do the same himself. He was about sixty years old at the time of which I speak, but still a large, powerful man, with the glow of health on his cheek and intelligence in his eye. Though disowned by the Quaker sect, Nathaniel Collins retained their dress, manners, and habits, and always defended them from the attacks of their enemies.
“One night, the old Quaker, his wife Hannah, cousin Rachel, and daughter Amy, were sitting up till a very late hour. They expected Nathan’s sons home from the Continental army. These sons had chosen the night to cross the river, to avoid the notice of the Hessians at Trenton. Well, the family waited till the clock struck one, but the sons did not appear, and Nathan was getting impatient. At last footsteps were heard on the road. | <urn:uuid:7dcbb4c9-d10f-4062-82ae-403d58f6beec> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bookrags.com/ebooks/11506/35.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00063-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.988223 | 713 | 2.828125 | 3 |
claw ( claws plural & 3rd person present) ( clawing present participle) ( clawed past tense & past participle )
1 n-count The claws of a bird or animal are the thin, hard, curved nails at the end of its feet.
The cat tried to cling to the edge by its claws.
2 n-count The claws of a lobster, crab, or scorpion are the two pointed parts at the end of its legs which are used for holding things.
3 verb If an animal clawsat something, it scratches or damages it with its claws.
The wolf clawed at the tree and howled the whole night. V at n
4 verb To clawat something mean to try very hard to get hold of it.
His fingers clawed at Blake's wrist... V at n
5 verb If you claw your way somewhere, you move there with great difficulty, trying desperately to find things to hold on to.
Some did manage to claw their way up iron ladders to the safety of the upper deck. V way prep/adv claw back
1 phrasal verb If someone claws back some of the money or power they had lost, they get some of it back again.
They will eventually be able to claw back all or most of the debt... V P n (not pron)
2 phrasal verb If a government claws back money, it finds a way of taking money back from people that it gave money to in another way.
The Chancellor will try to claw back £3.5 billion in next year's Budget. V P n (not pron), Also V n P
Traducción diccionario Collins Inglés Cobuild
n nail, nipper, pincer, talon, tentacle, unguis
vb dig, graze, lacerate, mangle, maul, rip, scrabble, scrape, scratch, tear
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"Collins Cobuild English Dictionary for Advanced Learners 4th edition published in 2003 © HarperCollins Publishers 1987, 1995, 2001, 2003 and Collins A-Z Thesaurus 1st edition first published in 1995 © HarperCollins Publishers 1995" | <urn:uuid:ed7026ef-d515-4a89-af8c-545f54741415> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://diccionario.reverso.net/ingles-cobuild/claw | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00136-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.837055 | 521 | 3.359375 | 3 |
Dedicated to the Preservation and Restoration of the Whole of Creation: Humans, Animals, and the Environment.
And God saw all that He had made, and behold, it was very good. And there was evening and there was morning, the sixth day" (Genesis 1:31)
(Daffodil (Narcissus) - Flower - 08a) But when we take the time to have a bee's eye view of the frilly petals around the pistil and stamens, and the delicate yellow blush that surrounds them, it's as if God is saying to us to see beyond all the violence in the world to the beauty of His creation, and not lose hope. We can make this a kinder and more gentle world, if we want to. It's in our power to do so. We can choose to do no harm to our fellow human beings, the animals, and the environment in which we all live.
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Presented here are just a few of the countless components of God's creation. Just as we cannot have human and animal life without water and plants, neither can we have lasting peace without love and compassion. It is our hope and prayer that this series will motivate people to live and act in a cruelty-free manner; that we would no longer hurt or destroy each other, the animals or our environment. | <urn:uuid:d5bfb0b9-d644-48ef-ac69-f1242e1caa03> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.all-creatures.org/pics/daffodil-flower-08a.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00015-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961917 | 294 | 2.5625 | 3 |
17th January - 22nd March 2008
This exhibition contains artifacts from the Sungai Limau Manis archaeological site as well as objects from the collection of His Royal highness the Sultan of brunei.
The Sungai Limau Manis archaeological site
The site is located approximately 22km from Bandar Seri Begawan, on the bank of Sungai Limau Manis, a tributary of the Brunei River. Kampong Limau Manis is a typical village located at Mukim Pengkalan Batu in the Brunei Muara District. To the north is the main road that links Kampong Junjungan, Kampong Limau Manis and Kuala Lurah. The site is also accessible by the river about 27km from Kota Batu and 30.5km from Terusan Kupang. The discovery has proved that this village is rich in archaeological find. Buried under the river, the largest and richest finding in the history of Brunei Darussalam archaeological records were discovered.
Rivers are a natural source used by human beings since ancient times. The continuous use of the river has left us a lot of evidence from the past but also many mysteries. the site of Sungai Limau Manis continues this trend.
Sungai Limau Manis, found in early 2002, is the most recent archaeological site of Brunei Darussalam. It is one of the most important archaeological findings since Kota Batu (1950s),Sungai Lumut (1968), Terusan Kupang (1974) and The Brunei Shipwreck (1997).
The site was discovered by chance by Syarikat Normila Sdn. Bhd. during the widening and deepening of the Limau Manis River. The findings were reported to the Archaeology Section of the brunei Museums by one of the village residences on 19th October 2002. Archaeological research began on 21st October 2002.
Through the research and rescue works conducted by the Archaeology Section, a lot of artifacts were collected such as wooden objects, Chinese coins, shells, human bones and skulls, gold, beads, stones, bronze bangles, etc. The majority of the artifacts are ceramics dated from the Song to Yuan Dynasty (10-14 century AD). A small number of Ming and Ch'ing blue and white as well as Siamese and Vietnamese ware were also found. So far, more than 50,000 ceramic shards have been collected from the Limau Manis site.
The abundant quantities of archaeological artifacts discovered in this vast area proves that the Sungai Limau Manis site was the largest settlement area in I the 1Oth-14th centuries AD (based on the dating of Chinese ceramics). The discovery of such artifacts like iron slag, crucibles, metals objects, boat remnants, wooden mortars, coins and others shows that the people practiced daily activities like fishing, collecting shells, farming, metal smiting, trading, etc. The people were pagan and practiced animism.The site declined when Kota Batu became the capital of Brunei and a major settlement area and trade centre.
Among the findings have been:
- Ceramics - 52,614 sherds
- Chinese coins - 1,047 pieces
- Beads and glass bracelets - 151 pieces
- Wooden materials - 202 pieces
- Stone objects - 125 pieces
- Metal objects - 46 pieces
- Human skulls and bones - 16 pieces
- Animal bones - 37 pieces
- Turtle shells - 22 pieces
- Crucibles - 15 pieces
- Net sinkers - 9 pieces
The archaeological evidence shows Llimau Manis, and Brunei as a whole, had trade relationships during the Song and Yuan Dynasty. The trade relations between China and Brunei, also known as Po-ni, are evident from the 9th century onwards. Apart from the findings of Song ceramics in Brunei, the periodic tributary missions during that time indicate a level of commercial activity. the Chinese were well aware that the finest quality camphor could be found in Brunei. This material was key to Brunei's importance in international trade. In 1225 Zhao Rugua, Inspector General of Foreign Trade in Fujian, wrote "Nau-tzi (camphor) comes from Po-ni... and (secondly) it also comes from the country of Pin-su (the Baros region of north Sumatra)". He also described the position of brunei as the most important in the Eastern Ocean and stated that Brunei served as an entrepot for regional trade.
Observations made at Limau Manis River show that the chinese junks could not enter the river due to the river's narrowness. it is believed a junk could drop anchor at the river mouth of Limau Manis and carry out trade through retail boats. The retail boats would draw up alongside the Chinese junks and load/unload trade goods. The the retail bats would transport the goods upriver to the Limau Manis site. This theory is supported by the discovery of boat remnants which were made in southeast Asia. The remnants used wooden dowels, boat technology typical of southeast Asia. | <urn:uuid:3ff6f16e-2b2e-4485-995e-1add8018fd63> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.soas.ac.uk/gallery/brunei/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959662 | 1,074 | 2.75 | 3 |
Reporting Molly Daly
Philadelphia’s historic sites aren’t all located in the the heart of the city — a number of significant sites, as well as some impressive houses, are in Northwest Philadelphia, in Germantown.
Germantown wasn’t always in Philadelphia. It was settled in 1683 as a separate town by a group of German families and was incorporated into the city in 1854. Today, Germantown is urbanized, but in its first few centuries, it was, for many, a haven from the city. Dennis Pickeral is president of Historic Germantown, a consortium of 15 historic sites.
“You think about places like a Stenton, our house here, or Cliveden — or even the Deshler-Morris house, what the Park Service calls the Germantown White House, where Washington moved to during the Yellow Fever epidemic — all of these were summer homes,” says Pickeral. “Then you also have the people who lived in the village of Germantown, who lived here full-time.”
Pickeral says Historic Germantown is notable for a number of reasons. “It’s one of America’s most historic neighborhoods. It’s home to America’s longest National Historic district. Seven of its member sites are National Historic Landmarks. If you come out to Germantown, you can touch on just about every aspect and salient point of American history, from the colonial period up through the 20th century. The sites are all very diverse. You have sites like Stenton, which is very early. You have places like Cliveden, which was the site of the only Revolutionary War battle fought within the current city boundaries. We have the city’s only Victorian house museum. We have the home to America’s first paper mill. We have an Underground Railroad museum, the Johnson House. It’s just an incredibly diverse group of sites, and they all tell different and unique stories.”
The 20th century site, the Aces museum, was used as an unofficial USO for African American soldiers during World War II. It interprets the stories of minority veterans.
“The sites aren’t very far flung,” says Pickeral. “They’re all very close together, just really a couple mile radius of one another. Many of them are located up and down Germantown Avenue, so you can take the 23 bus, the historic way it was done to travel up and down Germantown Avenue, which, in and of itself is a historic road — it started out as a native American trading trail called ‘The Great Road.’ So all of these places are pretty close together, and you can see them pretty easily.”
Although the sites may be open different days and hours, Historic Germantown offers opportunities and programs that can make visiting easy and cost-effective. That’s where the Historic Germantown Passport comes in.
“You can buy that for $15 for individuals, and that gets you into all the sites for a year. It’s a great deal — it’s basically a dollar a site,” Pickeral says.
A family passport costs just $25. For more information e-mail firstname.lastname@example.org.
The most striking thing about Germatown is its lived-in vibe.
“People who come here really get a sense of authenticity in a way you don’t necessarily at historic sites,” says Pickeral. “Sometimes, it feels a little fabricated or contrived. It doesn’t feel that way here. We have a brand that we developed called ‘Historic Germantown — Freedom’s Backyard.’ And I think that really rings true, you really do feel like you’re in someone’s backyard. You feel like you’re in a kind of an urban village in Germantown, which is very different from many historic sites. It’s a place where the past really does meet the present. And you get that sense that history and modern life are really intertwined here.”
The best place to start planning your visit to Historic Germantown is the website, freedomsbackyard.com. There, you’ll find information about each of the sites, as well as a list of programs and special events. – Molly Daly
There are a number of historic houses to visit in Germantown; a complete list can be found on the website. Each property has its own hours, so check their websites or call ahead. Here’s a sampling:
Stenton is an impressive 1730 Georgian plantation house built by James Logan, a scholar and statesman who served as William Penn’s secretary; he was later elected mayor of Philadelphia, served as a justice of the colony, and, for two years, as Pennsylvania’s acting governor. Logan was also a naturalist who tutored John Bartram in botany and mentored Ben Franklin. And if that weren’t enough, the neighborhood in which Stenton is located is named for Logan.
Stenton stayed in the family until 1899, when the Colonial Dames of America took it over; it opened as a museum the following year. The furnishings are pieces from the Logan family — and the tables are set with a wonderful collection of reconstructed china and glassware discovered during archaeological digs on the property.
Open Tuesday through Saturday 1-4pm
$5 adults; $4 students/seniors
Children under 6 free
4601 North 18th Street
Philadelphia, PA 19140
The Ebenezer Maxwell Mansion Victorian House Museum and Garden
The Ebenezer Maxwell Mansion is the city’s only Victorian house museum. It’s easy to imagine 19th century heroines clad in capes sweeping from room to room, or a mustache-twirling villain lurking behind the stone outhouse. In reality, it was a family home — the stone villa was built in 1859 by Ebenezer Maxwell, a cloth merchant who worked in Center City. It’s lavishly furnished from floor to ceiling in what’s best described as Victorian Eclectic fashion, with faux finished fireplaces, Scalamandre wallpaper, gilt mirrors and machine made carpets — and that’s just the parlor! You haven’t truly experienced Victorian style until you’ve seen the Maxwell mansion, not to mention its lovely gardens.
Open for private tours Thursday, Friday, and Saturday Noon-4pm
$6 per person
200 West Tulpehocken Street
Philadelphia, PA 19144
Wyck Historic House, Garden and Farm
Of all of the historic Germantown houses I visited, Wyck is by far the most homey. Nine generations of the Wistar-Haines family lived there, and the furnishings and collections reflect their Quaker sensibilities, not to mention their reluctance to discard any object that might still be useful. The collection includes a chair once owned by Ben Franklin, children’s furniture, toys, natural history specimens, Native American artifacts and a staggering array of commode chairs. The oldest surviving part of the house dates to the early 1700s; in 1824, it was renovated by the renowned architect William Strickland. Wyck offers garden enthusiasts a major treat: its rose garden, dating back to the 1820s, is the oldest in the United States still growing in its original plan, and the heirloom roses make for a visual and olfactory feast in the spring. In season, Wyck’s fruits and vegetables, as well as its own honey, are offered in the Friday farmer’s market.
House open 1-4pm for guided tours April 1st to December 15th Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday
Garden open Monday through Saturday 10am-4pm
$5; $4 seniors
6026 Germantown Avenue
Philadelphia, PA 19144
A picture of Cliveden should be in the dictionary next to the word “stately.” This late-Georgian mansion was built as a summer house in 1767 by Benjamin Chew, a colonial Supreme Court Justice, and it stayed in the family for seven generations. On October 4, 1777, the Battle of Germantown was fought on Cliveden’s grounds. The British, who had occupied the house, managed to fight off an assault by Washington’s army — a remarkable feat, considering the Redcoats were armed only with muskets and bayonets, and vastly outnumbered by the Rebel troops. Evidence of cannon fire is still visible on the house’s exterior, and inside, in a first-floor study. The battle is re-enacted on the grounds every year.
Most of Cliveden’s elegant furnishings are original, and several lovely sculptures grace the grounds.
Thursday through Sunday 12-4pm
Admission $10 adults; free for members of the National Trust for Historic Preservation
6401 Germantown Avenue
Philadelphia, Pa 19144
There are some terrific eateries on or just off Germantown Avenue, in Germantown, Mount Airy, and Chestnut Hill.
The Rib Crib
The Rib Crib is a Germantown favorite, dishing up ribs and sides for take-out only.
6333 Germantown Ave
Philadelphia, PA 19144
Geechee Girl Rice Cafe
Geechee Girl’s varied and seasonally-changing menu showcases the influences of South Carolina’s and Georgia’s low country.
Open for dinner Tuesday-Sunday starting at 5:30pm
Brunch on Sunday 11-2:30pm
6825 Germantown Ave
Philadelphia, PA 19119
Trolley Car Diner
Classic diner fare can be found here, including breakfast all day, along with eclectic choices like bison burgers, paninis, Philly favorites, and vegetarian choices.
7619 Germantown Avenue
Philadelphia, PA 19119
McNally’s is a friendly neighborhood bar that’s famous for its signature sandwich, the Schmitter (trademarked, no less), an artful melding of the cheesesteak with grilled salami, tomato, grilled onions and special sauce on a kaiser roll.
8634 Germantown Avenue
Philadelphia PA 19118 | <urn:uuid:b8a335da-ae43-478e-92c0-614d51ae0f5a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://philadelphia.cbslocal.com/top-lists/guide-to-historic-germantown/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952683 | 2,188 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Ask A Scientist
Why do warm things get cold and cold things get warm when left out?
Asked by: Adam Striley
School: Owego Apalachin Middle School
Answer from Stanley N. Salthe
Visiting scientist, Binghamton University
Research Area: Natural philosophy
Interests/hobbies: Woodland gardening, nature walks, all of the arts
Ph D: Columbia University
Family: Wife Barbara, two children Becky and Eric
We find that ‘warm things get cooler and cold things get warmer.’ Things do not naturally go from one extreme to the other. For example, if you added ice cubes to a chamber cup of boiled water, after a while everything in the chamber would be the same temperature. Nature eliminates extremes. Yet extremes are around us all the time! This is so because energy heats places up. The sun heats up what it shines on because its light is radiant energy. Rain is cool because water vapor in the air was cooled by losing heat to adjacent colder air. As the vapor gets cool enough, water droplets precipitate from it, forming rain. Warm and cool air are brought into contact by motions of air masses driven by energy flows between warmer and cooler regions. All activity, from winds and storms to plants and animals is powered by energy flows. If temperature was uniform all over the earth, nothing could happen. The spinning of the earth prevents this, so that some locations cool off while sunlight heats others.
When warm things cool off, they lose energy, which gets dissipated. But heat is only one kind of energy gradient. There is also energy holding matter together, in chemical bonds. So any material thing, including you, is an energy gradient. Energy gradients of importance to us are foods and fuels. We and our machines use these to power our activities. Foods represent renewable energy for us because they can be produced in farms and ranches. Fuels like coal, oil and gas are non-renewable. Solar energy and energies in winds and tides might be able to become renewable energies for our machines if we could develop technology to where it takes less energy to harness these energies than the amount we obtain from them.
All energy gradients will spontaneously get dissipated, as when hot things cool. They can be maintained only by adding energy to them. When you eat, you are supplying your body with energy for growth and maintenance. You might ask ‘Why do all energy gradients tend to dissipate?’ This is a profound question. It seems to be because our universe is very far from thermodynamic equilibrium, a condition where all matter would be divided into separate atoms scattered uniformly throughout. That’s the state the universe is tending to reach, and energy dissipation serves that tendency. | <urn:uuid:5e7b2861-1ef1-49fa-b440-600e0a73e07a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.binghamton.edu/mpr/ask-a-scientist/entry.html?id=214 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00200-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937848 | 566 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Pineapple plants, part of the bromeliad family, are low-growing tropical plants characterized by spiny leaves. The fruit of the plant grows on top of the leaves. Pineapple plants can only survive in humid, temperate conditions. Their biennial growing habit means they do not flower until the second year. This flower is what becomes the fruit. Pineapples are easy to grow. All you need to start planting, is a pineapple and a sunny garden location.
Till garden soil with a rototiller or rake 6 to 8 inches deep, working until the soil is a workable consistency.
Remove weeds and rocks from the soil by sorting through it by hand.
Till 2 to 3 inches of compost into the top of the soil.
Rake the garden area level, smoothing the soil by dragging a rake back and forth across the soil until it appears even.
Water the soil well until it appears saturated.
Purchase a ripe pineapple from a grocer or farmer's market.
Place the pineapple on its side on a cutting board. Use a knife to cut off the leafy top part of the pineapple, along with an inch of the fruit.
Dig a hole in the garden area with a shovel deep enough to just cover the fruit attached to the pineapple leaves.
Place the pineapple in the hole and cover with soil, leaving the pineapple leaves exposed.
Water the soil surrounding the plant until it is saturated. Water the plant daily, excluding days that it rains. | <urn:uuid:e5bf67fd-4a41-4aa2-ae1e-627fcddbd9d5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gardenguides.com/92760-plant-pineapple.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00168-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941282 | 307 | 3.625 | 4 |
Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the brain and spinal cord that leads to various degrees of disability. The cause of MS is not yet known, however, there is strong evidence indicating that both an inherited susceptibility and environmental factors play an important role in its aetiology.
Tasmania has Australia’s highest prevalence of MS: 75 out of every 100,000 people are affected. At the Menzies Centre for Population Health Research in Hobart, The Tasmanian MS Research Program investigates the factors, both environmental and genetic, that might contribute to the development of MS.
The Environmental MS Study suggests that MS may be caused by an immune disturbance following viral infection and that the timing of childhood infections may be important.
The Genetic Research Program into MS has completed a genome scan for MS susceptibility genes, and is now organising this data for genetic analysis.
More information about the research into multiple sclerosis can be found on the Menzies Centre web site: http://www.menzies.utas.edu.au; and at the MS Society of Tasmania web site:http://www.msaustralia.org.au/tas. | <urn:uuid:517c42e4-173f-427e-8eb2-3946b0d0a282> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Previousproducts/190CADCB6A19ACFBCA25710E00756321?opendocument | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923145 | 241 | 2.953125 | 3 |
We can't get a good sleep until we are relaxed. A few things must happen before we get there. We need to feel secure and safe. Any kind of tension, such as abuse, parents arguing, financial problems, trouble with the neighbors, or problems with school or friends, will make it harder for any child to go to sleep.
We also need to feel secure and safe in the bed. Some children with sensory integration difficulties, such as problems with touch sensitivity, body position sense (proprioception), or gravitational insecurity may find lying down on a high bed difficult. Such children may be helped by having heavy blankets that help them to feel more grounded.
When we get into bed it's time to forget about the day's business, shut out environmental distractions, and slow our heart rate and metabolism. As our bodies start to drift, so do our brains. During the day, brain waves might run at 14 Hertz (cycles per second) or more. When they start to slow down, they first go into an "alpha" rhythm (about 10 Hz), and then gradually go into the deep sleep rhythm, called "delta", about 4-7 Hz.
Setting up the environment in the right way can go a long way toward helping us relax. So will keeping to a regular routine. The body gets used to it and knows when it's time to slow down and get ready to sleep. Here are a few ideas:
Soak in a warm tub and drink some warm milk. The bath relaxes our bodies, allowing the metabolism to slow down. It doesn't have to stay active and generate heat. Muscles relax when they are warm. The warm milk contains Tryptophan. This is an amino acid which acts as a natural sedative. Stay away from caffeinated drinks like Coke, tea or coffee. Don't engage in activities which will wind you up or frustrate you. Keep the kids away from the frustrations of homework or the activity of the Gameboy.
A nice bedtime story is very calming. It focuses away from daily anxieties and provides special child-parent time. Feeling loved and valued lets the child feel more safe and secure. If you wish, you might play a taped story after you read to him. Pick a soothing story and turn out the lights so he can listen with his eyes closed.
Soft, relaxing music is good. We can't close our ears against the noises from our environment. These can easily wake us up and heighten our stress. Especially disturbing are barking dogs, howling foxes or heavy lorries driving by. At least we can modify the sounds. Make the room as quiet as you can by using heavy curtains, double glazed windows, and close all the doors.
Secondly, we can introduce sounds that help to shut out the wrong noises, and that also help us to relax. White noise, such as that produced by a fan or a humidifier does help to drown out the lorries and the barking dogs. So does a radio playing quietly in the background. Unfortunately, these sounds in themselves tend to be arousing and stressful rather than relaxing. This is to do with two factors: pitch and beat. High frequencies sounds are energising, whilst low frequencies are relaxing. White noise is fairly high frequency, as is most music played on the radio - especially if played through a cheaper system with a poor bass response. Also, most popular music has a fast beat. Disco music is the most obvious example of this. No doubt at times you have found yourself tapping or nodding in time with the beat of some catchy music. This is called "entrainment", and describe the fact that our bodies like to align themselves with the rhythms around us. Our heart rates do the same - in general, as you listen to fast music or a fast beat (such as with rap music), your heart rate will speed up; when you listen to slow music, it slows down.
For sleep, we need to listen to low pitched sounds with a slow rhythm. We should try for a beat of 50 to 60 Hz, the rate or our resting hearts. Where do we find these sounds? Some classical music and some nature sounds qualify. I recommend recordings made specially for relaxation. Some of the best are made by Steven Halpern. The Sound Health Series CDs, called "Relax" and "De-Stress" are great. Play them quietly as background noise to drown out the dogs and to create a peaceful environment in the child's bedroom. If he wakes often during the night, consider playing continuous-play CD.
Our bodies are also greatly affected by light and colour. Supermarkets and football teams are well aware of this. The stores use blue/green tinted bulbs in their produce sections to make the vegetables appear greener and fresher. They use red tinged lights at the meat counters. They use these techniques subtly but effectively. They also are particular when designing product packaging, so that you will be stimulated to buy. They keep the lights bright and the "muzak" playing. They do this so you will feel happy and right at home, causing you to stay longer and spend more. Think about this in relation to some of the dingier shops, and you will understand their strategy. Sometimes football clubs will paint the home team changing rooms in red, to spur the players to action; and the visiting team's room blue, which is calming.
We've learned how sensitive we are to frequencies, rhythms and sounds. Our bodies also react to colour and light. Supermarkets use this to their advantage by lighting the vegetable sections with blue/ green tinged bulbs. The vegetables appear greener and fresher. Note the use of red tinted lights at the meat counter. It's a subtle but effective technique. Packaging is also carefully planned as to colour and design, with the motive of making it appealing enough to buy. The rest of the store is brightly lit and has music playing. Do you feel comfortable and happy? This is the goal, so if you feel these things they have been successful. The more time you spend in this environment, the more money you will spend. Think about some dark and dreary shops that you've seen. You didn't feel so enthusiastic did you? Using the same principles, football clubs paint the changing rooms in psychologically chosen colours. The home team changes in a red room to arouse them into action, while the away team has a blue room to relax and quiet them into lethargy.
Think about the colour spectrum. Blue is meant for us to feel serene, green harmonious and peaceful, while pink signals warmth and feeling cozy. These quiet colours are perfect for bedrooms. Be careful with the blues and greens however, as they can also feel cold. Using yellows, reds and other lively colours in a bedroom, isn't a good idea. Even though the effects are subtle, they may get our blood flowing and keep us from sleep. These effects are usually subconscious but that doesn't make them any less real.
Be sure to consider lighting when you design a bedroom. Bright, blue or cold lights tend to wake us up. An example of these are the fluorescents. That's because they imitate the early morning sun. At twilight the sky has the warm colours of orange and red. The most relaxing lights for nighttime come from low wattage bulbs, candles, oil lamps or a nice fire. If you add these lights to pink furniture, soft and slow music, the waves on the beach you get the picture.
How do we get around not putting a candle, oil light or open fire in a child's bedroom? One way is to use electric bulbs that flicker. There are also fiber optic lamps available that create a low level light, changing from one colour to another. The slow, gentle changes are relaxing, assuming that they aren't too bright. Some children like to sleep in a completely dark room. This is when the thick curtains will come in handy to screen out late night and early morning summer sun.
Since it's pretty unlikely that a parent would wish to put candles or oil lamps in a child's room, there are other options to consider. You can find fiber optic lamps that are very relaxing, even if they don't flicker as low as 7 Hz. They do, however, change colour slowly and the level of light is very low. The changing colours and soft light are so calming that they should be very helpful in getting your child off to sleep. Also available are lights that flicker so as to resemble a small flame. There are some children who prefer to sleep in a totally darkened room. If this is the case in your family, consider the heavy curtains that block twilight and early morning sun.
We often close our windows in winter and leave the heat on. This cuts down on outside noises, but also keeps out fresh air. The heat dries out the air as well, in turn drying out our nasal passages. When we have stuffy noses and air, we will usually sleep poorly. Even opening the window a crack will help.
Not having some fresh air to breathe at night can be interrupting to sleep. Think about opening a window, even if it's just a tiny bit. Too many people close all the windows and leave the heat running at night. Not only does it get close and too warm, lack of humidity dries out nasal passages. When we are uncomfortable, especially when it comes to breathing, we tend to sleep poorly and awaken often.
Waking during the night. It is normal to wake or almost wake several times during the night. The trick is to get back to sleep again. All of the above will increase the chances of this. Along with this it is important not to reinforce a behaviour pattern of waking up during the night by giving it a lot of attention. Infants and young children especially will often cry or make other noises when they wake. Do not immediately rush in to comfort them - this will only wake them up more, and reinforce the pattern of waking in the night. If you leave them alone, most will gradually settle and go back to sleep by themselves. Initially this may take some time, as they are used to getting your attention, but gradually, if you stay firm, this period of time will get shorter.
Of course these are a million other ways to help your child to sleep. Feel free to experiment to find what works for you.
But what about yourself? As a parent, how ofter to you wish you could just catch up on some sleep? How often do you feel worn out, tired and exhausted? Or wish you could just catch a few zzz's before the kids get home? Most likely, you are still believing in some 19th Century myths about sleep. Take a look at this website to discover some amazing facts about sleep that could seriously transform your life. May you have peaceful nights and pleasant dreams. | <urn:uuid:4fad16e4-4b65-46c5-b35f-8a5a1e6022a5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.worldwidehealth.com/health-article-Helping-Your-Child-Sleep.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967684 | 2,232 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Actually, it's more like the Windows (CP/M, rather) way of doing things is inflexible.
In DOS and Windows (including the Windows NT line which has spawned e.g. Windows NT 3.x, Windows 2000, Windows XP and Windows 8), until fairly recently there was a one-to-one mapping between disk partitions and file systems. (This was changed by the introduction of volume mount points in Windows 2000, although that remains a rarely used feature perhaps outside of specialized situations.)
Unix-like systems make a clear distinction between the storage device which holds a file system, the file system itself, and the mount point at which that file system is accessible. This is part of the underlying design, and each piece serves an important role.
In Windows, normally the file system on a partition is accessed through that partition's assigned drive letter (for example,
E:). In *nix, a file system is normally accessed through a directory path (for example,
/export/home possibly relative to the current directory).
The latter is more flexible because in a path, there are no encoded assumptions about the underlying storage. Running out of space on one partition? Just move a large file system that currently exists on that partition to another, update the mount table (in Linux /etc/fstab, might be different on other *nixes) to point the relevant directory to a new physical device, and call it a day. Or split a file system into two by moving a large directory to a file system on a new storage device, and again just update the mount table. Switching to a SAN-based storage architecture rather than per-host storage? Same thing. As far as the users are concerned, this can be done without apparent disruption to anything else aside possibly from the short period of time during which the actual moving of data occurs. Particularly before volume mount points, the same could not be done easily in a Microsoft-centered environment.
When you create a directory
/isos you are creating a directory within the root file system, and the storage of what goes into that directory thus must be supported by the root file system. If you later realize that this storage is inadequate, you can take steps to mitigate or rectify that situation without needing to logically move files around, by creating a separate file system and instead mount that on
/isos and moving the files into the root directory of that file system, making them visible under
/isos when that file system is mounted there.
Keep in mind that Unix was designed as a multi-user system, whereas Windows (and many of the underlying design choices of Windows) traces its lineage back to essentially strictly single-user systems. While this sort of flexibility is likely not needed on a single-user system, it does help greatly in a multi-user setting. (No need for the administrator to pin a notice at the entrance to the terminal room saying "okay everyone, what was previously on D:, except for D:\STUFF, is now on Q:, except for what was in D:\GAMES which is now under R:\WASTE and D:\MATH is now under E:\ALGEBRA, oh and I hope I didn't forget anything"; just shuffle the files around, but keep the logical directories the same.) | <urn:uuid:1cf4bdf0-8517-4eaa-8260-3cf697ec23b0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://superuser.com/questions/685873/unix-vs-windows-filesystem-why-does-unix-assign-a-finite-space-for-each-directo | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00113-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955237 | 681 | 2.875 | 3 |
Printed circuit boards are electronic boards that have copper tracks. The boards are made of glass fabricated plastic. The copper acts as the wire which connects the components. Holes are drilled so that the components will be properly placed. They are also soldered for a stronger hold. The top side of the PCB is the component side and the lower side is the track side. Once the components are placed and soldered, the circuit will already run. Now, printed circuit boards have their own advantages and disadvantages. However, it is still one of the most convenient boards to use.
Disadvantages of Printed Circuit Boards
There are four disadvantages of using PCBs. Since bread boards are also a type of electronic board, it would be easier to compare it to PCBs.
1. You need different designs for different circuits.
Unlike the bread board, PCBs are fixed. Once you have designed it for a specific circuit, you cannot use it for another kind of circuit.
2. Updating is not Possible
Once you have printed it, you cannot add parts. You should reprint the design over again. This is actually a hassle when you just need to add one component to test a specific circuit.
3. When Damaged, It is hard to repair
Once it gets damaged, for example a short circuit or overheating, it would be hard or impossible to fix it. Compared to the bread board, you can just remove the components and replace the damaged parts.
4. Etching of PCBs are sometimes harmful to the environment
There are chemicals used in etching that is harmful for the environment. If you are a environment friendly advocate, PCBs would be the least kind of board you may want to choose.
Advantages of Printed Circuit Boards
The disadvantages of PCBs are actually minor and not a big deal. There are actually more advantages than disadvantages. Here are those.
1. Short Circuit and Wrong Wiring is Minimal
Because the copper tracks are embedded on the board, there is a lower chance that there would be short circuits or wrong wiring. Plus, this circuit is already been designed on a computer which means it has been tested for errors. There are applications wherein you can design your boards test it before you print it.
2. No need to inspect it
As it was said on the previous point, since it is designed on the computer, you do not need further inspection. You will not have to worry about broken circuits. There is a bigger possibility that it will work than manually making the board. Printed circuits are very easy to use.
3. Components are Fixed
This makes the circuit board simple. No more complex wires attached all over the board. No more loose components. Everything is fixed and the components are easy to identify. Also, the maintenance of the components are easier because of the simplicity of its look.
4. Ideal for Reproduction
If you will be using a number of circuit boards of the same design, PCBs have a larger advantage. Uniformity of the design is a plus because it is printed from the computer. Every board will be exactly the same as the previous. In manually attaching the components without a guide like the PCBs, it would be hard to create something identical.
5. Cheaper with Mass Production
If you are going to reproduce one design, PCBs are cheaper. You just need to print your design and etch it in a piece of copper board. Plus, it is easy to create. You can create multiple boards at a time. So, if you are wandering about what kind of board to use, PCBs have the cheapest, easiest and fastest manufacturing compared to other boards. | <urn:uuid:47ccaa4c-22d6-4089-807c-e2e37b4af681> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://theswirling.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00053-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957033 | 749 | 3.65625 | 4 |
One early summer evening, my friend Ron and I decided to shoot our muzzleloading rifles in the remnants of an old gravel pit located in the desert near my home. At the time, such activity was still legal in that area, and we wanted to take advantage of the somewhat cooler temperatures that come with the setting sun. What we didn’t count on was running into someone else who wanted to take advantage of the cooler temperatures as well.
As I organized powder and ball, Ron grabbed our target and began walking toward an earthen bank that would serve as our backstop. When he was about halfway there, Ron suddenly stopped and shouted something about the funny sounding crickets we have in these parts. That made my ears perk up and I listened closer. What Ron heard was a rattle the rattle.
The cricket turned out to be a rattlesnake whose course of travel lay directly in Ron’s path. Fearing for his safety, the snake rattled his tail as a warning that Ron was getting too close for comfort. Heavy scales above its eyes that somewhat resemble horns helped us identify the snake as a sidewinder, one of four rattlesnake species that are native to Southern Nevada. The other three are the speckled, Mohave and western diamondback rattlesnakes. Each one is venomous and can pose a danger to you or your pets.
The likelihood of crossing paths with a rattlesnake varies with everything from location to daytime temperature. For example, the pleasant temperatures we experience this time of year make the desert a more hospitable place to be than it will be in July, when temperatures push beyond the 110-degree mark. Therefore, more people will be recreating in the outdoors now than will be during the hot summer months. Likewise, snakes will be more active during the daylight hours now than they will be a couple of months from now. A similar situation exists in the fall when daytime temperatures begin to cool.
Recognizing that rattlesnakes come with living in the desert, and learning to identify them are the first steps toward making your outdoor experience a safe one. Another step is learning to be observant and to take some simple precautions when out and about.
Keep in mind that not every snake is a venomous snake. Rattlesnakes have a broad head that resembles a triangle, and their body is very thick in the middle but tapers just behind the head and at the tail. Of course a rattle on the tail end can be a dead giveaway, if a snake has them. Nonvenomous species are characterized by a narrow head, slender body and a pointed tail.
When hiking in the desert, look ahead and watch where you place your hands and feet. This is especially true in rocky or brushy areas and very important for rock climbers. When stepping over a rock, log or other obstacle, look on the other side before you take that step. If you walk with children or with a dog, keep an eye on them. If they suddenly get curious about something on the ground, take a closer look; snakes have a way of attracting their attention.
Snakes do frequent the shoreline at area reservoirs and other bodies of water, so boaters need to take similar precautions when stepping from their vessel onto the shoreline.
Keep in mind too that when you feel hot and think about finding a shady place out of the sun, so do snakes. Look before you sit in the shade of a rock or tree. A snake might already be there. Caves, crevices and abandoned structures can be inviting to the curious, but they are also inviting to snakes looking to get out of the sun.
Since snakes like areas with cover where they can hide and easily move in and out of the sun, campers should avoid those areas. Instead, select a campsite that has open ground so you can see and snakes won’t feel comfortable. Even so, campers should always check their tent, bedding and shoes before stepping into them. One never knows who might come for a visit.
Freelance writer Doug Nielsen is a conservation educator for the Nevada Department of Wildlife. His “In the Outdoors” column, published Thursday, is not affiliated with or endorsed by the NDOW. Any opinions he states in his column are his own. He can be reached at firstname.lastname@example.org. | <urn:uuid:6540d9ef-a363-47f1-ae85-2b83dd1f0443> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.reviewjournal.com/columns-blogs/outdoors/be-alert-rattlesnakes-enjoy-pleasant-spring-weather-desert-too | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965199 | 903 | 2.515625 | 3 |
1865 History of Adair County
Adair County is situated in the south-western part of Iowa being the third county east of the Missouri River, and the third north of the State of Missouri. It is bounded on the north by Guthrie, on the east by Madison, on the south by Union and Adams, and on the west by Cass. The Grand Divide, or the high land dividing the waters of the Missouri from the waters of the Mississippi, passes through the eastern portion of the county. The land is undulating, and mostly rolling prairie. The proportion of prairie to timber is about as twenty-five to one.
The timber is well distributed throughout the county, covering most of the bottom lands. There are three large bodies, one on Middle River, in the northeast part of the county, one on Grand River, in the southeast, and one on the Nodaways, in the west and southwest. It is composed principally of black walnut, oak, linn, cottonwood and elm.
The soil is chiefly black loam, containing a sprinkling of sand, from two and a half to four feet in thickness, and vesting on a bed of clay. It produces in abundance corn, wheat and all kinds of vegetables that grow in this latitude. Plums, crab apples and grapes grow spontaneously, in great abundance, and of an excellent quality. Young orchards of the different fruits are looking finely, and this promises to be a good fruit-growing county.
COAL, BUILDING STONE, ETC.
No coal has as yet been discovered, but in several places coal slate is found on the surface near the streams. Limestone is found in abundance on the banks of Middle River. Good brick clay in small quantities is found in different localities.
STREAMS, MILLS, ETC.
Middle River, running in a southeasterly direction, enters the county near the centre of the northern boundary, and passes out near the centre of the eastern boundary. Grand River, rising in the northern part, runs in a southeasterly direction and passes out near the southeast corner of the county. The two branches of the Middle Nodaway River rise in the northwest part and running south, unite near the southwest corner of the county. These with many smaller streams and fine durable springs make this one of the best watered counties in the State.
There is some good water power on the streams, but at present there are only one water and two steam saw mills in the county.
As the farmers have to a considerable degree turned their attention to wool raising, and as the country is well adapted to this purpose, a woolen factory is much needed at present, and would in the future also be a very profitable investment.
The county is divided into eleven townships, viz: Grand River, Greenfield, Grove, Harrison, Jackson, Jefferson, Lincoln, Richland, Summerset, Walnut, Washington.
The Mississippi and Missouri River Railroad, and the Burlington and Missouri \ River Railroad upon their approach to the Missouri River, if they do not pass through this county will approach, the former very near to the north, and the latter very near to the south line, and in a few years it will have the advantages and benefits arising from a competition between the two roads.
The county was organized in April, 1855, by the election of Samuel Holiday, Judge, John Gibson, Clerk, and William Alcorn, Sheriff. The State Legislature having previously appointed commissioners to select and name the county seat, Summerset was chosen. The name was afterwards changed to Fontanelle.
The first settler was Thomas A. Johnson, who came in 1849. During the coming season John A. Gilman, James Campbell, William Alcorns, John Gibson, William McDonald and Alfred Jones, settled in different parts of the county, and commenced improvements. As they all located in the timber, and were in a manner isolated, the early settlements progressed slowly. The first white child, Margaret Johnson, was born in 1850, and the first death was that of a child of John Gibson, in the same year. During the years 1855 and 1856, the land was nearly all entered by capitalists, and has been held by them for speculation, thus retarding the improvement of the county, but heavy taxes have induced many of them to place their lands in market, and good locations can now be obtained at from three to five dollars per acre.
The county has an agricultural society which has been in operation for years.
[Iowa State Gazetteer, 1865; submitted by cddd]
1911 History of Adair County
Adair County was evidently a favorite hunting ground for the Indians at one time. The many Indian remains that have been found in the county would be sufficient testimony to establish the fact, but that testimony is strengthened by the stories that have come down from the first white settlers about the visits that the Indians were accustomed to make to this region after they had yielded up their claims to it and had gone farther north into Iowa. Sometimes they came with the evident intention of staying, and menaced the safety of the white settlers. This led to encounters between the Indians and whites, the most noted of which was the battle of "The Cabins/' or the "Big Neck War," which occurred in July, 1829, and which Avill be related at length in the next chapter. How long the Indians had lived here when the whites came is not known, but the probabilities are they had been here a very long time.
The remains that have been found were picked up on the ground along the Chariton River or dug out of mounds in the same region. The mounds are mostly on the east side of the river, and are estimated at about three hundred in number. They were always built on high ground, either on hills or ridges, and were circular in shape. They are from ten to thirty feet in diameter, and are at present from two to five feet high in the center. It appears from those in the best state of preservation that they were originally banked up rather high at the circumference with a slight slope upwards to the center.
That some of these mounds were used for burial purposes is well established by the fact that human remains have been found in them. Very few bones have been found, however, in a good state of preservation. As soon as they were uncovered they generally crumbled into dust. The teeth were usually in a better state of preservation than the bones.
In the center and at the bottom of one these mounds situated in section 13, township 61, range 16, about two miles east of Yarrow on Sugar Creek, there was found a rock grave. Slabs of rock had been laid on the ground and on them a body had been placed; then other slabs had been set up on edge along the sides and at the head and feet; and then across these upright slabs others had been placed, so that the body was fairly well enclosed. On top of the grave the dirt had been piled up several feet. Considerable skill had been used in constructing it. This grave was opened by Mr. T. J. Dockery, of Kirksville, several years ago.
In other mounds that have been opened bodies have been found which had been laid between layers of loose rock, while in others the bodies were apparently covered over with dirt and without any such protection. In one or two mounds were found a great lot of burnt rocks, and it has been supposed that the remains of the persons buried in these mounds were first cremated and their ashes covered over.
Besides these human remains there have been found all kinds of stone implements and weapons. Axes, large and small, arrowheads, spear points, knives, and the like have been found. Pieces of pottery and pipes have also been taken out. One of the most interesting things found is a smooth black stone, oval in shape, about a quarter of an inch thick, about five inches long and" an inch and a half wide. Along the edge notches are cut. It is conjectured that this was a kind of record. Probably some Indian passed a string through the two holes that had been bored through it near the end and hung it about his neck, and as he shot down game he would keep a record of it by notching this stone. The stone was found by Mr. T. J. Dockery in the mound which contained the rock grave mentioned above.
At various times expeditions have been formed among the citizens of Kirksville to excavate some of these mounds. The earliest one of which anything is known was made in July, 1877. The party consisted of Sam'l Reed, R. M.Ringo, John Harlan, B. F. Heiny, H. W. Snyder, Robert Clark, Henry Eckert, A. Wolf, Dan Draper, Wm. Her-ron, W. C. B. Gillespie, W. T. Baird, and W. P. Nason. This party excavated two mounds on the farm of A. K. Collett, six miles west of Kirksville, and found remains of two Indians far below the surface between the layers of loose stone. The bones that were found were brought to Kirksville and placed on exhibition at Hope's Drug Store. That these bones are not those of white persons is supported by the fact that the first white settlement in the county was made in the immediate vicinity of these mounds, and no tradition has come down of any whites being buried at these places.
Other expeditions have been made since then, especially in the early eighties. Prof. W. J. Smith of the Kirksville Business College, and T. J. Dockery made frequent trips, and Prof. C. E. Ross, formerly of the State Normal School at Kirksville, organized several expeditions.
Many relics have been found lying on the ground and some have been turned up in plowing.
Several collections of relics picked, up in the county were made by different persons. The most noted collections were those of B. W. Sands, T. J. Dockery. W. J. Smith, C. E. Ross, and Geo. W. Cain. The Sands collection is probably the largest that was ever made of relics found in this county. In June, 1886, Prof. Smith arranged an Indian Exhibition in his Business College, and brought together all the Indian relics he could get, and to add greater interest he had brought up from the Indian Territory a number of Cherokee Indians who appeared in their native costumes and gave certain exhibitions. The event proved to be one of extraordinary interest
PUBLISHED BY: The Denslow History Company 1911
Copyright © Genealogy Trails
All data on this website is Copyright by Genealogy Trails with full rights reserved for original submitters. | <urn:uuid:e3d22c48-b3a5-40b6-b7fc-57628059e7cc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://genealogytrails.com/iowa/adair/history.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00063-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.985552 | 2,248 | 3.234375 | 3 |
|Location||Philippines, Region XII|
|Central coordinates||124o 15.00' East 7o 53.00' North|
|IBA criteria||A1, A4iii|
|Year of IBA assessment||2001|
Site description Lake Lanao is the second largest lake in the Philippines and the largest in Mindanao. It is a large, oligotrophic, freshwater lake, formed by the tectonic volcanic damming of a basin between two mountain ranges and the collapse of a large volcano. This IBA includes the lake itself and some extensive forest cover on its south and southeast shorelines. Some of the higher altitude forests of the Lake Lanao Watershed are included in the Butig Mountains (PH099) and Mt Piagayungan (PH098). There are extensive reed beds around the edges of the lake, and large areas of Eichhornia crassipes and other aquatic vegetation on the lake surface. Most of the surrounding areas have been cleared for agriculture but there is still some primary lowland dipterocarp forest on the nearby Sacred Mountain, and there are patches of secondary dipterocarp forest at Wao. The lake serves as a reservoir for the generation of hydroelectric power on the Agus River, which generates 70% of the electricity used by the people of Mindanao. It supports a major fishery, and is important for recreational activities including boating, swimming and sport fishing. There are several towns and many villages around it, and a Mindanao State University campus is situated there.
Key Biodiversity Several of the threatened and restricted-range species of the Mindanao and Eastern Visayas Endemic Bird Area have been recorded around Lake Lanao, all forest birds apart from Spot-billed Pelican and Philippine Duck. The pelican is extinct there, but Philippine Duck probably still occurs, as the lake is reported to support large numbers of waterfowl. It is likely that some of the old bird records from ‘near Lake Lanao’ were actually collected in, for example, the nearby Mt. Piagayungan (PH098) or the Butig Mountains (PH099). However, the limited area of lowland forest near the lake could still support some forest birds.
Non-bird biodiversity: Lake Lanao is of great limnological interest. The fauna includes many species of fishes and invertebrates that are endemic to the lake, and presents an outstanding opportunity for research on evolution in the Cyprinids. There are about twenty species of Cyprinidae endemic to the lake, but many of the other fishes occurring in the lake have been introduced.. Mammals occurring in the area include wild pig (probably Sus philippensis) and deer Cervus mariannus and many endemic small mammals.
|Species||Season||Period||Population estimate||Quality of estimate||IBA Criteria||IUCN Category|
|Philippine Duck Anas luzonica||resident||2001||present||-||A1||Vulnerable|
|Spot-billed Pelican Pelecanus philippensis||non-breeding||2001||present||-||A1||Near Threatened|
|Philippine Eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi||resident||2001||present||-||A1||Critically Endangered|
|Spotted Imperial-pigeon Ducula carola||resident||2001||present||-||A1||Vulnerable|
|Giant Scops-owl Otus gurneyi||resident||2001||present||-||A1||Vulnerable|
|A4iii Species group - waterbirds||unknown||2001||20,000 individuals||unknown||A4iii|
|Philippine Cockatoo Cacatua haematuropygia||resident||2001||present||-||A1||Critically Endangered|
|IUCN habitat||Habitat detail||Extent (% of site)|
|Artificial - terrestrial||-|
Protection status The Lake Lanao Watershed (185,640 ha) was created by Proclamation No. 871 in February 1992.
References Davies et al. (1990); Scott (1989).
Contribute Please click here to help BirdLife conserve the world's birds - your data for this IBA and others are vital for helping protect the environment.
Recommended citation BirdLife International (2016) Important Bird and Biodiversity Area factsheet: Lake Lanao. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 28/06/2016
To provide new information to update this factsheet or to correct any errors, please email BirdLife | <urn:uuid:951a095e-cc54-44c9-af63-df4533982d0d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id=9797 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00150-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.866889 | 977 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Error control is a strategy used to catch situations that blocks a sucessful result of an application operation. This can be viewed in diferent levels of an application. At low level: one function could receive a unespected parameter. At high level, a tool could not accept a specific set of actions from the user.
I think it is fundamental distinguish what is a low level error from a high level one. Each one can get a diferent course and can be also shown to the user by a diferent way. If, by any reason, the programmer has created a SQL with syntax error and, because this, the user could not update a value in the DB, it is not correct to show that the problem was found at the SQL generation. After all, the final user might not know (and should not know) what is SQL. However, if the final user has filled a form field with an invalid value, we should show details about what they gone wrong and/or how they can fix it.
Using native exceptions from PHP language is a solution specially indicated to treat low level errors. At high level errors, we could also use it, but I prefer using validation methods to treat user input, then I put user errors in an array. Note that, there is no attempt to adjust user input, so the user should adjust by yourself. At other hand, a low level error can be bypassed (or not).
The behavior of exceptions can be simple, but it can offer sophisticated solutions. I do not want to discuss about exceptions syntax and use. So, if you want to know more about it, you can read the PHP manual: http://php.net/manual/en/class.exception.php. If you do not like to create many exceptions, maybe you could know the native exceptions from SPL: http://php.net/manual/en/spl.exceptions.php.
A moderate solution to error control is creating methods that returns boolean values (true = was ok / false = something wrong) and, optionally, the method could receive an array parameter by reference. So, if some problem occours, the error array is filled by the message and the method returns false.
For the errors that never should occour (for example, an error by the programmer that did not used a language feature correctly), it is possible to use exception, but there is an other feature to that: the error log trigger. It can be done by the function trigger_error. The funciton receives an error message and an error level. The error levels that can be triggered by the programmer are:
- E_USER_NOTICE - When you want to show a notice to programmer (it is not exactly an error). For example: a function has used more memory that was expected.
- E_USER_WARNING - When you want to show a warning to programmer (a error, but not so serious). For example: the connection with DB fails (because an unknown reason), but the page still can be generated with a message to the client.
- E_USER_ERROR - When the error was fatal and the script must be stoped immediately. For example, one method should receive obligatorily a parameter from a specific data type, but the programmer has used other type.
- E_USER_DEPRECATED - A special kink of warning that indicates that the method is deprecated, and should not be used anymore, or it was replaced by an other feature to take the same result.
There are two PHP function specially useful to standardize the process flow of the errors and exceptions did not catch by try/catch. They are: set_error_handler and set_exception_handler. With they, it is possible, for example, keep some kind of errors in database to make searches easily, control the amount of errors in a period, etc. | <urn:uuid:e8597c8c-4f85-472d-8341-50b250e4eebf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://rubphp.blogspot.com/2011/06/error-control.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00101-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915366 | 802 | 2.90625 | 3 |
Plentiful fossils of dinosaur contemporary allow population study
Blacksburg, Va., Nov. 6, 2004 — Dinosaurs ruled the earth for hundreds of millions of years, then disappeared so completely that to find even a partially complete skeleton of a single multi-ton animal is rare. Meanwhile, the Virginia Museum of Natural History has scores of fossils of Tanytrachelos ahynis, a 12 to 18-inch reptile that also lived millions of years ago, at the same time as the earliest dinosaurs.
Tanytrachelos is a long-necked reptile that was related to the perhaps better-known nine-foot (up to three meter) long Tanystropheus, also known for its very long neck. They belong to the Protosauria, a suborder of aquatic and terrestrial reptiles. As a contribution to efforts to create a family tree for all protosaurs, a Virginia Tech graduate student is taking advantage of the plentiful and nearby collection of Tanytrachelos fossils to study their preservation and population dynamics.
Michelle Casey of Elk River, Minn., a master's degree student in geosciences at Virginia Tech, will present her findings at the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology meeting in Denver Nov. 3-6 and at the Geological Society of America 116th annual meeting Nov. 7-10, also in Denver.
All but one of the fossils of the small aquatic reptile are from the Solite Quarry, located on the Virginia-North Carolina border not too far from the museum in Martinsville, Va. and all specimens are currently accessible through the Martinsville museum.
The quarry reveals the late Triassic Cow Branch Formation. The location was a rift basin lake, one of a series of lakes from South Carolina to New Jersey that formed inland when the European continent pulled away from the American continent, forming the Atlantic Ocean.
"Working with Tanys is cool because you find a lot of them still articulated — the pieces of bone are still put together," said Casey. "They must have been buried really fast or left completely undisturbed after they died."
The bones are still in the rock. "They are too fragile to remove from the sediment." Nevertheless, with 90 specimens so far, Casey has measured everything she can about all the little bones — shape, size, relationships — more than 100 linear measurements. She plots each fossil using statistical methods to condense multiple-dimensional space into two-dimensional plots and then looks for variation between different groups of Tanys.
So far, Casey, museum vertebrate paleontology curator Nicholas Fraser, and Virginia Tech geosciences professor Michal Kowalewski have discovered there are no differences in morphology between populations of fossils from different times. "We have fossils from different lake cycles, about 350,000 years apart, but found no statistically significant differences in the size of specimens from the different periods," Casey said.
The researchers also tested for size differences between two different types of Tany based on a bone in the pelvic region that about 40 percent of them have. One might be female and one male, Casey said. "We found no significant differences in shape or size between the two forms, suggesting that they definitely belong to the same species."
In addition to the morphometric studies, the team is doing taphonomic analyses, trying to determine what effects the exceptional preservation might have on other Tany studies.
Casey's bone measurements also note when bones were missing, "so all the missing values are data. For instance, we can look at how many are missing a tibia, how many are missing a femur, how many are missing both, and how many fossils have all or most of the variables."
"We are looking at which variables are most common and which are least common. Even in this collection, where there is exceptional preservation of articulated specimens, the outlook is bleak," Casey said. "Only 47 percent of specimens have both of the two most common variables, femur length and femur width. Most have more missing variables than stuff you are looking for."
Casey said that such preservation trends are often linked to environmental factors rather than any intrinsic differences between the fossils themselves. "These specimens were preserved at the bottom of a lake, where there was not much oxygen. In that environment, there were not many scavengers. Perhaps there were differences in these factors in the two horizons the fossils come from," she said. "Another research group from the museum is working with Dr. Fraser on the geochemistry to address these issues."
The paper, "Morphometric and Taphonomic Analyses of Tanytrachelos ahynis from the Late Triassic Cow Branch Formation, Solite Quarry, Virginia," by Casey, Fraser, and Kowalewski, will be presented at the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology meeting at 2:15 p.m. on Saturday, Nov. 6, at the Adam's Mark Hotel and at the Geological Society of American meeting at 9:30 a.m. on Tuesday, Nov. 9, in rooms 111/113 of the Colorado Convention Center. "It is unusual to have this kind of data to present at the SVP," Casey said, "because the sample sizes are usually so small."
© 2005 The Geological Society of America | <urn:uuid:80d96f0a-a185-43f0-a973-c13b0f8088b0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.geosociety.org/meetings/2004/prVT_Casey.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00035-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956263 | 1,089 | 3.46875 | 3 |
Polotsk (pôˈlətsk) [key], city (1989 pop. 76,837), W Belarus, on the Western Dvina River at its confluence with the Polota. It is a large rail junction and agricultural trade center. Manufactures include building materials, farm implements, processed foods, metal goods, and glass filaments. One of Russia's oldest cities, Polotsk was the capital of a principality of the same name from the 10th to 13th cent., when it passed to Lithuania. Polotsk became self-governing in 1498. A flourishing center for trade, first with Scandinavia, Novgorod, and Pskov and then (13th-16th cent.) with Riga, Polotsk was transferred to Russia in 1772. The city retains the Cathedral of Sofia (1044–66) and the Cathedral of the Spaso-Evfrosina monastery (12th cent.).
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:155581a5-2d45-4f8a-9d52-62ef4477b57e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.factmonster.com/encyclopedia/world/polotsk.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00173-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.917987 | 223 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Bad Apple Proverbs: There's One In Every Bunch
Geoff Nunberg is the linguist contributor on NPR's Fresh Air with Terry Gross. He is the author of the book The Way We Talk Now.
Proverbs are like other traditions — they owe their longevity to how easy it is to reinterpret what they mean. Take "A rolling stone gathers no moss." It clearly suggests some traditional wisdom about travel, but what? The Scots think it means "moving around keeps you fresh and free." The English use it to mean "moving around keeps you poor and rootless" — and Americans can think it means either. One way or the other, it can't help being wise.
Or take the one about "a few bad apples," the reflexive defense whenever misconduct surfaces in the midst of some organization, from Enron to Abu Ghraib to Haditha to the mortgage meltdown. It's an ancient bit of counsel, whether it's said of bad apples or rotten ones, or of bushels, barrels, baskets or bins. Benjamin Franklin had it as "the rotten apple spoils his companion," which goes back to Shakespeare's time.
It has the sound of a metaphor that's grounded in the facts of everyday life, like "A fish rots from the head down." Or at least it used to be, back when people had to pick through their pippins before they put them up for the winter. That's not a concern for most of us now. The only bins of apples we see are at the supermarket, and the rotten ones don't make it that far. And we don't worry about long-term storage. We just buy as many as we need for the moment — whatever the season, we can get fresh ones next week.
So you might figure the proverb might have become obsolete along with others from the forgotten agrarian past, like "It's a good apple tree that has the most sticks under it." Instead, it turns out to be much more frequent than it was a few generations ago.
But as the memory of rotting apples fades, the meaning of the "bad apple" proverb has changed. In 19th century America, it was a staple of Sunday morning sermons: "As one bad apple spoils the others, so you must show no quarter to sin or sinners." Or it could suggest that finding one wrongdoer in a group should make you suspicious of everybody else. "A bad apple spoils the bin," one journalist wrote in 1898 of the Dreyfus Affair; if one officer is capable of forgery then why wouldn't others be as well?
Back then, nobody ever talked about "just a few bad apples" or "only a few bad apples" — the whole point was that even one was enough to taint the group. These days, those are the phrases people use to imply that some misdeeds were an isolated incident — a couple of rogue cops, a handful of unprincipled loan officers, two or three sociopathic soldiers. Then there's the version that goes, "There are always going to be a few bad apples." That's a counsel of moral realism: there's always evil in the world; get over it. That's not a sentiment you would have heard in a nineteenth-century sermon, much less from a grocer you were complaining to about the wormy fruit he'd sold you the week before. "Well, Mrs. Gold, we all have to expect find a few rotten apples, don't we?"
The crucial historical flipping point for the proverb may have been in 1970 when The Osmond Brothers reversed its meaning in the lyrics of their first number one hit, "One Bad Apple (Don't Spoil the Whole Bunch, Girl.)" At any rate, that seems to be how a lot of people think the proverb goes nowadays, whether or not it makes agronomic sense.
But it's curious that the proverb become so much more popular now that its meaning has flipped, particularly because in general we don't use proverbs as much as our ancestors did. We roll our eyes at people who pepper their conversations with maxims like "A penny saved is a penny earned" and "A stitch in time saves nine." In fact, it sometimes seems that the main reason for keeping these old proverbs around is so we can ring clever changes on them, like Groucho Marx's "Home is where you hang your head" and George S. Kaufman's "One man's Mede is another man's Persian."
Yet a proverb can still come in handy now and again, particularly when we find ourselves on the conversational defensive, when the reputation of a group has been compromised by the misdeeds of some of its members. We could answer those imputations by denying the logic of induction: "Just because you've seen one black crow it doesn't mean the whole flock is black."
But it can be more effective to counter that logic with a proverb that closes down the discussion with a bit of venerable folk wisdom — in this case, one about not letting a few rotten apples ruin it for everybody else.
As it happens, that's nothing like what the proverb meant to the folk who coined it, who actually knew their apples. But proverbs fly too low to the ground to be examined or questioned. They're there to replace reflection with pre-packaged verities. That's how they can come to signify opposite things without losing a whit of their wisdom in the process. As the French put it Proverbe ne peut mentir, "A proverb can't lie." But of course that's a proverb too. Copyright 2011 National Public Radio. To see more, visit http://www.npr.org/. | <urn:uuid:4e28e323-e6f5-454b-8e27-6f054812a783> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://weku.fm/post/bad-apple-proverbs-theres-one-every-bunch | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00046-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.976511 | 1,178 | 3 | 3 |
Assam Higher Secondary (AHSEC) Result 2011
Class 12 Result
Assam Higher Secondary Education Council (AHSEC)
Assam was known as Pragjyotishpur in the Mahabharata; and Kamarup in the 1st millennium. “While the Shan invaders called themselves Tai, they came to be referred to as Āsām, Āsam and sometimes as Acam by the indigenous people of the country. The modern Assamese word Āhom by which the Tai people are known is derived from Āsām or Āsam. The epithet applied to the Shan conquerors was subsequently transferred to the country over which they ruled and thus the name Kāmarūpa was replaced by Āsām,which ultimately took the Sanskritized form Asama, meaning ‘unequalled, peerless or uneven’. The British province after 1838 and the Indian state after 1947 came to be known as Assam.
Results here: http://www.ahseconline.org/
Tags: Assam Higher Secondary Result AHSEC Class 12 Result HS Result exam result examination result Assam Higher Secondary arts result Assam Higher Secondary science result Assam Higher Secondary commerce result assam hs result assam hs commerce result assam hs science result 12th result exam results | <urn:uuid:54cc561d-642e-4366-a53b-7a1db3a64cef> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://careerquize.blogspot.com/2011/05/assam-higher-secondary-result-ahsec.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00100-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94917 | 281 | 2.59375 | 3 |
The Church’s mission is to evangelize. Evangelization is the Church’s deepest identity. Therefore, the Catholic school, parish schools of religion, and adult religious education programs which carry out the mission of the Church also exists to evangelize. “I sense that the moment has come to commit all of the Church’s energies to a new evangelization…” (Pope John Paul II).
The late John Paul II called all Catholics to join in what he called a “new evangelization and mission to the nations.” He stated that it is a call that “no believer or institution of the Church is exempt from, to proclaim Christ to all people” (Mission of the Redeemer, 3). Therefore, Catholic religious education is not exempt from proclaiming and celebrating Jesus Christ and evangelizing all who come through its door. This is what we are about in Catholic schools, parish schools of religion, and adult religious education programs, to help others discover the person Jesus Christ, so that they may be open to His Way and His Church.
“In face of a growing indifference to God, the “new evangelization” must not be about a social or political structure, but the person of Jesus Christ.” Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger made this statement to a world gathering of catechists and religion teachers in Rome on December 10, 2000. Six years later, now as Pope Benedict XVI, he would state that “the first apostles, like today’s, were not heralds of an idea but rather witnesses of Christ before the world” (Vatican City, March 22, 2006).
The evangelizing Catholic school and parish programs, not separate from the Church but in union with the Church, seek to lead others to accept the person of Jesus and His Way and His Church. Evangelization means helping people develop an intimate relationship with the Lord. Catechesis, as seen through the lens of evangelization, builds on this initial relationship, deepens it and brings it to maturity, ultimately in the adult person. Catechesis is the “preeminent moment” in the process of evangelization.
The challenge administrators and teachers/catechists, who minister in a culture growing more and more secular and relativistic, is to be much more conscious of how they evangelize and realize that everyone can be and needs to be evangelized. All teachers and all administrators need to be much more enthusiastic and intentional about sharing their faith in Jesus and His Church before effective catechesis can occur.
In 2018, Catholic schools in the Archdiocese of Saint Louis will celebrate 200 years of faithful and dedicated service to its mission to make Jesus known to children, youth, and their parents. Catholic schools, along with parish religious education programs, are compelled to be evangelizing institutions. Every faculty member, every student and every family has the right to be evangelized and, also, have the obligation to evangelize. Every Catholic school and parish program is entrusted with the responsibility of bringing every person entrusted to their care to a mature relationship with Jesus and calling them to conversion and discipleship.
For additional information contact:
Reverend Monsignor John M. Unger
Catholic Education Office
20 Archbishop May Drive
St. Louis, MO 63119 | <urn:uuid:711fa827-073f-4c57-b0e1-ca929f63b2da> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://archstl.org/education/page/evangelization | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00068-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960721 | 681 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Keywords: time series, sum of sinusoids, discrete spectra
The data give the normalized magnitudes of the voice data when the vowel 'ooh' was sung at a pitch of 290 Hz. A Kurzweil K2500 Sampler/Synthesizer was used to capture and to store the data.
The frequencies found in the signal can be used to identify the phonetical vowel, and are of interest in voice synthesis, therapy and training. Further details are given in Oliver (1997).
|Magnitude||Normalized Magnitudes at equi-spaced time intervals|
Data File (tab-delimited text)
|Oliver, W. D. (1997). The Singing Tree: A Novel Interactive Musical Interface. Master of Science Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The data given here was digitized from Figure C-4.|
|Smyth, G. K. (2000). Employing symmetry constraints for improved frequency estimation by eigenanalysis methods. Technometrics 42, 277-289. (Abstract - Zipped Postscript)|
The signal contains three strong sinusoids. The following graph gives the results of fitting one, two and three sinusoids respectively to the data. The S-Plus codes uses the function pronyfreq.
> out3 <- pronyfreq(Magnitude,nfreq=3) > out2 <- pronyfreq(Magnitude,nfreq=2) > out1 <- pronyfreq(Magnitude,nfreq=1) > plot(Time,Magnitude) > lines(Time,out1$fitted,col=2) > lines(Time,out2$fitted,col=3) > lines(Time,out3$fitted,col=4) > legend(locator(1),legend=c("1 Freq","2 Freq","3 Freq"),col=c(2,3,4),lty=1)
The frequences are estimated to be 0.11, 0.23 and 0.34. A constant term of -0.978 is also estimated, which might be put to zero.
> out3$freq 0.1134373 0.2299815 0.3401675 > out3$coef -0.9780157 8.1729553 -1.3621919 -5.6189912 66.2204549 22.5080047 24.6546725 | <urn:uuid:d1be8bc5-a7b1-419e-9232-9477dc28856b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.statsci.org/data/general/ooh.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00119-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.776657 | 524 | 2.859375 | 3 |
This is my first post on this forums. I have been learning a bit of C++ in the past and got to the point where I was able to write a drawing program (Console drawing program, where you "draw" with characters. Program had a few different brushes, two layers, save and load capabilities). Now I want to suspend my learning of C++ and switch over to C and learn it well before I switch back to C++ and throw myself at OOP, classes and stuff. Reasons for this, no matter how illogical they seam, are my own
My question is this:
Since I am using <stdio.h> instead of <iostream>, I cant find an equivalent of cin.get() in stdio. I need it to stop the program from finishing... i.e. when I wrote Hello world program in C using stdio, upon its execution I saw a console window flashing for a millisecond without seeing the results of a program. Can anyone help? | <urn:uuid:c2571c0f-404f-4105-85b5-56fbc5394da4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cboard.cprogramming.com/c-programming/121454-c-equivalent-cin-get.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00121-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957439 | 205 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Patients require a tooth extraction for different reasons. Some teeth are severely decayed. Others have advanced periodontal disease or are broken in a way that cannot be repaired. Other teeth may need removal because they are poorly positioned in the mouth (such as impacted teeth) or in preparation for orthodontic treatment.
Before extracting your tooth we will use a local anesthetic to numb your tooth and jawbone, as well as the gums that surround the area. During the extraction process you will feel a lot of pressure. This is from the process of firmly rocking the tooth in order to widen the socket for removal. Although you will feel this pressure, there will be no pain because of the anesthetic.
Sometimes a tooth is firmly positioned in its socket or its curved root makes it impossible for us to pull the tooth. In either of these cases, we may section your tooth. In this very common procedure, we cut the tooth into sections and then remove each section one at a time.
Some bleeding may occur. You can control the bleeding by placing a piece of moist gauze over the empty tooth socket and biting down firmly for 30 minutes.
This is an important part of the healing process and you must be careful not to dislodge the clot. Avoid:
If swelling occurs, you can place ice on your face for ten minutes and off for 20 minutes. Repeat this cycle as you feel necessary for up to 24 hours.
If you experience pain, use non-prescription pain relief medications such as acetaminophen or ibuprofen.
For most extractions, make sure you chew on a different side of your mouth than where the extraction was. Stay away from hot liquids and alcoholic beverages for 24 hours. A liquid diet may be recommended for 24 hours.
After the extraction, avoid brushing the teeth near the extraction site for one day. After that you can resume gentle cleaning. Avoid commercial mouth rinses, as they tend to irritate the extraction site. Beginning 24 hours after the extraction, you can rinse with salt water (one teaspoon salt in a cup of warm water) after meals and before bed.
Dry socket is when a blood clot fails to form in the socket where the tooth has been extracted. Dry socket can also occur if a clot becomes dislodged. Dry sockets significantly delay the healing of the extraction site.
Dry sockets manifest themselves as a dull throbbing pain that usually doesn't appear until three to four days after the extraction. The pain can be moderate to severe and radiate from the extraction area. Dry socket may cause a bad taste or bad breath and the extraction site appears dry. Following the postoperative extraction instructions will reduce the chances of developing dry socket.
After a tooth has been extracted there will be a resulting hole in your jawbone where the tooth was. In time, this will smooth and fill in with bone. This process can take many weeks or months. However after 1- 2 weeks you should no longer notice any inconvenience. | <urn:uuid:02ddc735-0e08-45a9-bd8c-d40c7908a779> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.vanderbilthealth.com/dental/21043 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00128-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942303 | 610 | 2.875 | 3 |
Our new National Marriage Project report, “Before ‘I Do,’” suggests that the adage “What happens in Vegas stays in Vegas” is false when applied to relationships before marriage: namely, what happens before “I Do” does matter for later success in marriage. We find, for instance, that the following experiences are associated with lower marital quality:
- Having a child before marriagei
- Starting a relationship by “hooking up”
- Having had a number of sexual partners before marriageii
- Cohabiting with multiple partners before marriage (serial cohabitation)iii
Social scientists do not argue so much about the fact of such associations as the meaning of them—do they reflect causation or can they be dismissed with another adage, “correlation does not equal causation”? In more sophisticated critiques, the question is the degree to which such findings reflect what social scientists call “selection effects.” That is, some suggest that the apparent link between such behaviors and lower-quality marriages is simply an artifact of certain personality characteristics (e.g., a propensity to risky behavior), difficult family backgrounds (e.g., parental divorce), or socio-demographic disadvantages that make some people more likely to report these behaviors and more likely to have lower-quality marriages.
For instance, economist and Bloomberg View columnist Noah Smith dismissed our new report by tweeting:
@WilcoxNMP @USATODAY @SharonJayson Study is biased for many reasons. Selection bias. Different uses of the word “hookup”. Reverse causality.
–Noah Smith (@Noahpinion) August 19, 2014
We acknowledge that it is challenging to establish the degree to which findings like these in the social sciences reflect causality. Further, we do believe that selection plays an important role in understanding romantic, marital, and family outcomes and that what goes into selection—including income, education, poverty, and family environment—clearly impacts how, for some, personal choices get restricted by environments. Nevertheless, we want to suggest reasons for caution when making conclusions about personal choice and the role of selection.
Consider the link between premarital births and marital outcomes. Selection plays an important role in who is most likely to have a child before marrying (either with another partner or with the person he or she ends up marrying). All can likely agree about the challenges this presents. For example, having a child from a prior relationship can impact the options an individual has in searching for the best possible partner. Or, for a couple with a child before marriage, the tasks required in taking care of the child may interfere with the establishment of positive relationship routines. Regardless of these obvious points, does evidence for the role of selection mean people have no choice but to live out their predispositions? We do not think so.
The history of research on cohabitation provides a clear example of the importance of understanding selection.iv Decades of findings showed that cohabiting with one’s eventual spouse before marriage is associated with poorer marital outcomes.v Findings in this area have recently become more nuanced (for more information, see this recent post), but from the discovery of this link through the present, researchers have realized that selection plays an important role in understanding how cohabitation is associated with outcomes in marriage.vi
Selection variables have typically been operationalized as relatively static, socio-demographic variables, such as religiosity, attitudes about divorce, education level, income, and family background. Historically, the people who were most likely to live together before marriage also had characteristics that made them more likely to struggle in marriage than those who hadn’t cohabited. That means at least part of the negative link between cohabitation and marital outcomes was driven by background characteristics rather than by the effects of cohabitation itself. Some people seem to argue that this link and other links between certain behaviors and poor relationship outcomes are entirely explained by selection.
It is impossible to prove with certainty that the associations between early relationship choices and marital outcomes involve causality. Doing so would require experimental designs that randomly assign people to various relationship experiences. It would be a further reach beyond existing methods to demonstrate that people have free will and can make choices. Nevertheless, as we argue in the “Before ‘I Do’” report, there are good reasons to believe that causality does come into play.
What Choice Do You Have?
Strong selection-based explanations for how predictors relate to outcomes come with a cost: they imply that the choices of individuals have little bearing on their outcomes. This type of determinism disavows the ability of individuals to affect their own destinies. If we overemphasize selection, we risk undermining personal agency and implying that people are dependent entirely on outside help and influence. This message is disempowering.
We propose that, although selection matters in relationship outcomes, so too do our choices and beliefs. Here’s an example of how those factors may play out in the life of one individual.
Suppose a person, “Jennifer,” is at high risk for poor relationship outcomes due to certain demographic characteristics. In addition, she has already cohabited with two partners, and she has a son from one of these prior relationships.
Now suppose that Jennifer has recently come to realize that living with someone increases the difficulty of breaking up. She subsequently meets a man she finds attractive but in contrast to her past pattern, she decides to go more slowly and she chooses not to have him move in with her and her child—thinking, “at least not yet.” She wants such an important step to be a mutual decision, not an accident.vii Her relatively poor economic options make this hard to do, but she holds out.
After two months of dating, Jennifer has figured out that this man is not a good fit for her: he’s controlling and he drinks a lot, and she is concerned about how he has treated her son. She decides for sure not to let the man move in and, then, soon after, she decides to break off the relationship.
Handling Selection Cautiously
A strong selection perspective doesn’t really address how having a child with one boyfriend affected Jennifer’s long-term chances of forming good romantic relationships, or how her decision about her latest relationship could alter important aspects of the rest of her life and that of her son. Jennifer still faces a high risk of lower relationship and marital quality later on, but she was able to exercise her own choice at a moment when much was at stake. Giving her the support to continue making choices that protect her and her child’s interests in the future could have similar beneficial effects.
Studying selection characteristics, such as those that affect people like Jennifer, shows us which people may need the most help in overcoming the risks built into their lives. At the same time, we believe that researchers should handle the subject of selection with caution and carefully consider the messages given to individuals about how they live their lives. If a behavior (1) is identifiable, (2) is reliably associated with negative outcomes, and (3) is plausibly one a person has some control over, we believe that it is best not to dismiss the importance of that behavior. Even when such behaviors clearly involve selection, we should help people understand what aspects of their destiny can be impacted by personal choice.
Whatever their prior life experiences and demographic characteristics, understanding the potential impact of relationship experiences on outcomes can empower individuals to make choices that bring them closer to achieving their aspirations.
Scott Stanley, Ph.D., is a Senior Fellow at the Institute for Family Studies and a Research Professor and Co-Director of the Center for Marital and Family Studies at the University of Denver. Galena Rhoades, Ph.D., is a Research Associate Professor in the Psychology Department at the University of Denver and a psychologist in private practice.
i. Waite, L. J., & Lillard, L. A. (1991). Children and marital disruption. American Journal of Sociology, 96(4), 930.; Tach, L., & Halpern-Meekin, S. (2009). How does premarital cohabitation affect trajectories of marital quality? Journal of Marriage and Family, 71(2), 298-317.
ii. Teachman, J. D. (2003). Premarital sex, premarital cohabitation, and the risk of subsequent marital dissolution among women. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65(2), 444-455.; Busby, D. M., Willoughby, B. J., & Carroll, J. S. (2013). Sowing wild oats: Valuable experience or a field full of weeds?. Personal Relationships, 20(4), 706-718./pere.12009.
iii. Lichter, D., & Qian, Z. (2008). Serial cohabitation and the marital life course. Journal of Marriage & Family, 70, 861-878.; Lichter, D.T., Turner, R.N., Sassler, S. (2010). National estimates of the rise in serial cohabitation. Social Science Research, 39, 754-765.
iv. For example, see: Smock, P.J. (2000). Cohabitation in the United States: An appraisal of research themes, findings, and implications. Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 1-20.; see also Brown, S. L., & Booth, A. (1996). Cohabitation versus marriage: A comparison of relationship quality. Journal of Marriage and Family, 58, 668-678.
v. Stanley, S. M., Rhoades, G. K., & Markman, H. J. (2006). Sliding vs. Deciding: Inertia and the premarital cohabitation effect. Family Relations, 55, 499–509.
vi. For example: Lillard, L. A., Brien, M. J., & Waite, L. J. (1995). Premarital cohabitation and subsequent marital dissolution: A matter of self-selection? Demography, 32, 437-457.
vii. For more on this distinction, see: Lindsay, J. M. (2000). An ambiguous commitment: Moving into a cohabiting relationship. Journal of Family Studies, 6(1), 120-134.; Manning, W. D., & Smock, P. J. (2005). Measuring and modeling cohabitation: New perspectives from qualitative data. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 989-1002.; Stanley, S. M., Rhoades, G. K., & Markman, H. J. (2006). Sliding vs. Deciding: Inertia and the premarital cohabitation effect. Family Relations, 55, 499-509. | <urn:uuid:709f7a32-b743-40a6-a194-34746bec7606> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://family-studies.org/selection-effects-and-personal-choice/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00149-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94004 | 2,268 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Essay Topic 1
What is your opinion of the history of China as presented by Henry Kissinger? Do you feel that Kissinger was able to be objective in his presentation of the historical and cultural facts about China? Do you think another person might have been able to present the history in a more objective light? Would the history be as accurate? Explain.
Essay Topic 2
Who do you think was the most effective leader in Chinese history? Which was the best? Which was the worst? How might a leader like Qing fare in the modern world? How do Mao, Qing, Deng and Zhou compare? Which was the most powerful? Which was the most successful?
Essay Topic 3
Discuss Mao. Why is Mao a controversial figure? What was Kissinger's opinion of Mao? How did the Chinese people view Mao? Why was he called "Chairman Mao?" Were Kissinger's personal feelings different from...
This section contains 1,291 words
(approx. 5 pages at 300 words per page) | <urn:uuid:78060626-f28a-4c28-a0f3-23ffb9c13b7d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bookrags.com/lessonplan/on-china/essaytopics.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00182-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.983151 | 204 | 3.203125 | 3 |
Sassafras (Sassafras albidum) is one of the easier trees to identify by its leaves. Sassafras leaves can have a mitten shape, with either a left thumb or a right thumb, or the sassafras leaf can be three-lobed, as shown in the photo at right. It can also have an oval, unlobed leaf. Usually, you'll see all three shapes on the same tree.
The sassafras tree is a member of the laurel family so it has aromatic foliage. Rub a leaf between your fingers, and its scent may be obvious. The intensity of the aroma seems to vary from one colony to another. You can also experience the unique aroma of sassafras by crushing a little twig.
Sassafras tea was widely used in the past for its various medicinal effects. Sassafras root and bark was an important export in colonial times. However, natural sassafras tea has been banned from commercial sale in the US since the 1970s, because of concern that safrole, a compound in natural sassafras products, may cause cancer.
In earlier times, homemade root beer was made by fermenting molassess (sometimes mixed with honey) and sassafras root. Commercial root beer used oil of sassafras and safrole for flavoring. Artificial flavoring or safrole-free sassafras extract is now used commercially, and is available for sassafras candy and other sassafras recipes.
Sassafras trees are native to most of the eastern United States. The trees are typically 35 to 50 feet in height at maturity. Individual sassafras trees in the South, may be taller than this average. The spread is usually about 2/3 the height.
A champion sassafras tree is located at Owensboro, KY. It is 76 feet in height. In 1982, its spread was 69 feet and a trunk circumference of 253 inches (over 11 feet) at 4-1/2 feet from the ground. According to the National Register of Big Trees, the Owensboro tree is still the champion sassafras tree for the United States.
Sassafras albidum suckers from its roots, so the tree is often seen in colonies. In our neighbor's pasture, it grows in a colony along the fence row on a hillside, with black locust trees which also sucker from their roots. It's interesting that an article about sassafras trees in the Appalachians mentions them growing with locust trees there, also.
Interested in planting a sassafras tree? It will do well in a sunny, well-drained site, but will not tolerate shady, soggy conditions. If you're digging up a sassafras tree in the wild, look for a very young tree and use ball and burlap techniques to transplant it in early spring.
In spring, your sassafras will have small yellow flowers, and in autumn, small, red-stemmed, dark blue berries, which are enjoyed by birds. The autumn colors of its foliage will vary; leaves may turn yellow, red, orange or purple.
There are potential problems with a backyard sassafras tree. Sassafras is vulnerable to damage from wind or ice because its wood is brittle. It will form a colony from its root suckers, unless you keep them mowed off. The suckers may be a problem for nearby neighbors, as well as for you!
Leaves picture: Wikipedia, under the GNU Free Documentation License
Tree growing on rocks picture: National Park Service, by J. M. Reuter
Young sassafras tree: Copyright © 2007 Genevieve Netz. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:f459888c-8ff1-4a10-b487-ed07a3f8e0f1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://treenotes.blogspot.com/2007/08/sassafras-root-beer-tree.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00146-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960611 | 784 | 2.75 | 3 |
Photographs of veterans number in the thousands within the collections of the Library of Congress. We can see the faces of veterans of wars fought in foreign lands and in our own backyards. We have photographs of veterans who fought in wars in the last century – and the one before that – as well as men and women just returned from the scene of a conflict.
But what if we go even further back in American history – all way to the American Revolution? We know the faces of that war only through the hand of an artist, through oil paintings and engravings, right?
Not exactly. Though they were taken many decades after the Revolution, the Prints and Photographs Division does in fact have photographs of six men who fought for American independence from the British in the 18th century.
These were the Last Men of the Revolution:
Lemuel Cook (right), aged 105, reported he was present at the 1781 surrender of Lord Cornwallis to General George Washington, a pivotal moment in the Revolution. And Alexander Millener (bottom left in the above grid) recalled seeing Gen. Washington and his wife Martha while stationed at Valley Forge. The photographs were published in 1864, even as the U.S. was embroiled in another war – the American Civil War. Similar photographs as well as interviews with the men appeared in a book published by Rev. E. B. Hillard the same year. The personal accounts Hillard collected in the book are intriguing, of course, and add to the pages and pages written about the American Revolution. But there is also something powerful about having the photographs of six faces who actually saw those events unfold.
Hillard spoke of this idea in the introduction of his book:
“History lives only in the persons who created it. […] As we look upon their faces, as we learn the stories of their lives, it will live again before us, and we shall stand as witnesses of its great actions.” -Rev. E.B. Hillard, “The Last Men of the Revolution,” p. 24.
- Study the faces of the Last Men of the Revolution.
- Explore the American Revolution as it was depicted at the time and as later generations pictured it, including the surrender of Lord Cornwallis.
- See images related to American veterans in the Prints and Photographs Online Catalog.
- The Veterans History Project (VHP) of the Library of Congress collects and preserves images, interviews and papers of American war veterans from World War I through the Afghanistan and Iraq conflicts. If you are a veteran or know one, consider participating in the project. Explore the VHP online database. | <urn:uuid:6c6c0328-878e-4d7e-b3d8-aad259810640> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blogs.loc.gov/picturethis/2013/11/the-last-men-of-the-revolution/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967523 | 541 | 3.21875 | 3 |
Latest update: March 4th, 2013
By All Means Rescue!
‘If One Removes A Fish From The Sea’
Among the 39 forbidden melachos of Shabbos are shocheit (slaughtering) and tzeidah (trapping). As we know, under certain circumstances, a single action can make one liable for several melachos. The Orchos Shabbos (ch. 14, footnote 3) asks if hunting deer might not be an example of this. If a person catches a live deer, he violates tzeidah. If he slaughters a deer in his possession, he violates shocheit. How about if he shot a deer in the forest on Shabbos? At one and the same time, he killed the deer (thus apparently violating shocheit) and brought it under his control (thus apparently violating tzeidah).
Is Killing Trapping?
This question begs examination of the precise definition of tzeidah. Does trapping consist only in bringing a live animal under one’s control, or does any impediment to the free movement of an animal constitute tzeidah? This question was presented to Rabbi Elyashiv, zt”l, who responded by citing a proof from our sugya. The Gemara rules that if a person takes a fish out of water and a portion of its skin the size of a sela-coin dries out, he has violated meleches shocheit since the fish will most certainly die. Rashi, Tosafos, and the Rambam all explain that our Gemara discusses the death of a fish that was already caught before Shabbos.
What led them to draw this conclusion? Apparently, they wished to emphasize that if the animal had previously been free, and a person pulled it out of the water on Shabbos, he would have violated meleches tzeidah as well. We see, therefore, that pulling a free-swimming fish out of water on Shabbos is a violation of both tzeidah and shocheit.
Presumably, the same should apply to shooting a deer. On further consideration, however, this proof is not conclusive. When a fish is taken out of the water, it is trapped but not dead yet. The deer, in our example, however, died the same second it was trapped.
Rabbi Shlomo Zalman Auerbach, zt”l, explains that tzeidah does not apply to domestic animals, as we find in our daf. Even if they are released, they willingly return home. Therefore, they are considered “trapped” wherever they go, and there is no prohibition in trapping them again.
The same is true of human beings who willingly seek out each other’s company. There is no prohibition against trapping people because they are already trapped by society, so to speak. Furthermore, even if trapping would apply to humankind, it would only apply to people trying to escape their pursuers. Thus, there is no prohibition in pulling a drowning man out of the water, for example – even if there is a prohibition in pulling fish out of the water – because a drowning man is not trying to escape his rescuers. Quite the contrary. (See Kobetz on Rambam, Shabbos 10:22 who disagrees. See also Teshuvos Avnei Nezer, O.C. 189.)Rabbi Yaakov Klass and Rabbi Gershon Tannenbaum
About the Author: RABBI YAAKOV KLASS, rav of Congregation K’hal Bnei Matisyahu in Flatbush, Brooklyn, is Torah Editor of The Jewish Press. He can be contacted at email@example.com. RABBI GERSHON TANNENBAUM, rav of Congregation Bnai Israel of Linden Heights, Boro Park, Brooklyn, is the Director of Igud HaRabbanim – The Rabbinical Alliance of America.
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For Seniors: Resize Windows
When you open a Desktop application window, it can be maximized to fill the whole screen, restored down to a smaller window, or minimized to an icon on the taskbar.
With a Desktop application such as Word or WordPad open and maximized, click the Restore Down button (the icon showing two overlapping windows) in the top-right corner of the program window.
The window reduces in size.
To enlarge a window that has been restored down, to again fill the screen, click the Maximize button.
This button is in the same location as the Restore Down button; this button changes its name to one or the other, depending on whether you have the screen reduced in size or maximized. A ScreenTip identifies the button when you rest your mouse pointer on it.
Click the Minimize button (it’s to the left of the Restore Down/Maximize button and looks like a dash or underline) to minimize the window to an icon on the taskbar.
To open the window again, just click the taskbar icon.
With a window maximized, you can’t move the window. If you reduce a window in size, you can then click and hold the title bar to drag the window around the Desktop, which is one way to view more than one window on your laptop screen at the same time. You can also click and drag the corners of a reduced window to resize it to any size you want. | <urn:uuid:9eb2a6d4-07b8-4e61-80b7-d0419d2bce58> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/for-seniors-resize-windows.navId-810380.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00169-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.872692 | 306 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Infinity Project: Engineering Education for Today’s Classroom
Posted on January 24, 2010 Comments (3)
The Infinity Project is a national middle school, high school, and early college engineering curricula. The math and science-based engineering and technology education initiative helps educators deliver a maximum of engineering exposure with a minimum of training, expense and time. Created to help students see the real value of math and science and its varied applications to high tech engineering – The Infinity Project is working with schools all across the country to bring the best of engineering to their students.
The Infinity Project curriculum is a complete, year-long course designed to complement the existing mix of math and science classes. Experience in classrooms all across the United States shows that Infinity keeps students challenged, learning and exploring from start to finish. Using The Infinity Project curriculum in the classroom, students learn firsthand how to use math and science to create and design a wide variety of new and exciting technologies that focus on topics of interest to students – the Internet and cell phones, digital video and movie special effects, and electronic music.
Engineering Our Digital Future is designed for early college students or high school students who have completed Algebra II and at least one science course. The course focuses on the fundamentals of modern engineering and technology in the information and communications age. | <urn:uuid:df263f0b-2ded-48fa-8d7f-a8e6d1ea30cb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://engineering.curiouscatblog.net/2010/01/24/infinity-project-engineering-education-for-todays-classroom/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939445 | 266 | 3.375 | 3 |
DESY X-ray source PETRA III uncovers how liquid crystals flow
Novel experimental concept provides structural insights
From blood vessels to cement mixers – information about how substances flow is key knowledge for a wide variety of systems. The viscosity and elasticity of fluids are routinely investigated in food, cosmetics, oil and other industries. However,companies usually measure these properties with little understanding of what is going on inside the sample. Scientists from Forschungszentrum Jülich, Utrecht University, and Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY) have now chosen a novel approach to flow studies. With a unique setup at DESY’s PETRA III light source, the researchers monitored changes of the viscoelastic properties of liquid crystals under stress while, at the same time, followed the inner structure of the sample.
The German-Dutch research team exposed a preparation of liquid crystals to stress by rotating the sample back and forth. Taking ten X-ray images per second with PETRA’s bright X-ray beam, the scientists simultaneously “filmed” the sample’s structural response. The study, which was published online today by the journal Physical Review Letters, may transform how flow studies will be approached in the future.
A rheometer with X-ray vision
Industrial businesses use so-called rheometers to analyze the flow properties of their products. These devices monitor a sample’s motion in response to an external force. Companies use rheometers, for instance, to adjust how yoghurt feels on the tongue or how body lotion feels on the skin. “Yet, a rheometer alone cannot tell you anything about the inner structure of a sample,” says DESY scientist Bernd Struth, one of the study’s authors. “It would be of great interest if we could understand, in detail, how the flow behavior is determined by the microstructures inside the substance and, hence, how we can control the flow properties.”
For that reason, Struth (together with Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc.) developed a new type of rheometer that can be utilized at powerful X-ray light sources such as PETRA III. One of its unique features is a specially developed optical element. It allows the X-ray beam to travel vertically through the setup although it emerges from the light source in the horizontal plane. “This setup is one of a kind, and it enables us to do completely new science,” says Struth. “We can study how a sample flows and, at the same time, examine with the X-ray beam how the molecules arrange in it.”
At the PETRA beamline P10, scientists load their sample between two horizontal plates. One of the plates remains fixed while the other rotates back and forth, causing so-called shear stress. The external force deforms the sample, and the researchers analyze if the sample responds like a fluid or more like an elastic spring. Simultaneously, a powerful X-ray beam travels through the setup. From the scattering pattern, which the X-rays form on a detector, the scientists calculate the orientation of particles inside their samples at each point in time.
Unexpected flow behavior of liquid crystals
The researchers are particularly interested in understanding how liquid crystals can be switched between different flow behaviors. “Drilling mud, for example, which is used in the process of pumping oil through boreholes, can be switched from a state in which it flows to a state in which its motion freezes,” says Pavlik Lettinga, the study’s first author from the research center in Jülich. “We studied the mineral gibbsite because it is a good model system for substances such as drilling mud.”
When in rest, platelets of gibbsite are known to settle with their flat surfaces parallel to the walls of the container they are in. The platelets with a typical diametre of 250 nanometres can easily slide on top of one another as layers of liquid while maintaining order like a crystal, hence the term “liquid crystal”. But what happens when the platelets are forced out of their comfortable position by applying shear flow? Do they flow like a liquid or are they rather elastic like a solid? Shear flow, where a moving plate moves back and forth between two positions, is an ideal method to probe the dual solid-liquid behavior of gibbsite platelets.
The researchers found that the response of the platelet structure depends on the amplitude of oscillation and, hence, the amount of deformation. If the amplitude is large enough, the platelets tilt up from their initial position and flip over like a playing card. This happens twice per oscillation cycle – at the points of flow reversal. At those points, the sample is elastic, whereas between the flips the platelets slide on top of one another like a fluid.
For small amplitudes, in contrast, the platelets tilt up without flipping over. The playing card gets only lifted. When the flow is reversed, the platelets return to their original position as if the card is put back down. For small amplitudes, the platelets respond like an ideal solid and are elastic over the entire oscillation cycle.
“With our method, we can precisely determine why the sample flows and why it becomes elastic,” says Lettinga. “Similar transitions in flow behaviour may occur in other viscoelastic substances as well. However, they may have gone unnoticed because people have not looked into their samples with x-rays before.”
The approach to flow studies may change in the near future. “We are now able to see how the transition from elastic to viscous behavior relates to changes of the microstructure inside a sample,” Struth says. “With our data as input, theoreticians can start developing models for such transitions.”Accurate models would be an important step towards predicting and tailoring the flow properties of various materials.
One of the best known uses of liquid crystals is in displays (LCD, liquid crystal display). In LCDs, the optical properties of liquid crystals are switched electrically. The researchers, in comparison, switched liquid crystal flow properties mechanically. It would be exciting to investigate if their “mechanical switch” can also be applied to LCDs.
Reference: The non-linear behavior of nematic platelet dispersions in shear flow; M.P. Lettinga, P. Holmqvist, P. Ballesta, S. Rogers, D. Kleshchanok, and B. Struth; "Physical Review Letters" (DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.109.246001).
Video of the changing scattering pattern when applying an oscillation with strain amplitude of 12.8 and frequency of 0.04 Hz. Whenever the gibbsite platelets flip over, the researchers observe peaks in the scattering pattern. For large oscillation amplitudes, this happens exactly twice per cycle - when the flow direction changes. http://prl.aps.org/epaps/PRL/v109/i24/e246001/fp04Str12p8.avi
Pavlik Lettinga and Bernd Struth are co-organizers of an “In Situ Rheology” workshopto be held at DESY on January 24-25, 2013. | <urn:uuid:fe600674-bd09-4a64-b152-a056cafded07> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.desy.de/news/@@news-view?id=4241&lang=eng | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00059-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.917687 | 1,559 | 2.578125 | 3 |
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| TABLE OF CONTENTS
Software debugging basics
Unit testing basics
Unit testing, Extreme Programming and TDD
Debugging for security
Other useful resources
|Unit testing basics|
Unit testing is critical part of the debugging process. Still, it can be time-consuming and some developers and testers are put off by it. Alberto Savoia, unit testing expert and cheerleader, is featured in a number of the links below, and with good reason. Not only is he extremely knowledgeable, he knows how to sell unit testing. Reading these tips, tutorials and expert responses may not make you fall in love with unit testing, but they will teach you how to do it properly, effectively and efficiently.
- Definition: Mock object -- Understanding mock objects is imperative, since they are so often employed in unit testing. This definition from WhatIs.com should help.
- Q&A: Unit testing critical for improving software quality -- Unit tester extraordinaire Alberto Savoia discusses why unit testing is so important and how he was inspired to write his hilarious booklet, The Way of Testivus... or How to Complete Projects Ahead of Schedule. The booklet may be entertaining, but it's also full of good testing advice.
- Podcast: Unit testing in an agile environment -- Agile development involves a good amount of unit testing. In this Parasoft's Nada DaVeiga explains how agile software development affects unit testing in a software project.
- Q&A: Alberto Savoia sings the praises of software testing, unit testing, specifically. Savoia explains why developers don't test their code nearly enough, whether "crappy code" is relative, and how developers can create code that's truly "beautiful." Read his chapter, "Beautiful Tests," from the book Beautiful Code for more.
- Article: One programmer's unit test is another's integration test -- Kevlin Henney defines, for once an for all, what a unit test is by explaining what a unit test does. He's peppered his article with links that clarify his point further.
- Article: Unit testing: Exploring the continuum of test doubles -- From MSDN Magazine, this intensive article goes beyond stubs and mock objects to include the full spectrum of what the author calls "test doubles." Readers are aided by several examples with code. MSDN includes a link the complete sample code.
- Podcast: Painless unit testing for legacy Java code -- Those lucky enough to clean up legacy code may want to take a short break and listen to this podcast from Alberto Savoia. Savoia discusses a novel approach that may save time and stress.
- Article: Issues in breaking dependencies for unit testing -- The author explores common stumbling blocks to unit testing legacy code and offers solutions. There's plenty of sample code to help the reader.
- Blog post: Introduction to automated unit testing -- Jay Flowers has a lot of experience with unit testing and his post should be very helpful for those approaching automated unit testing for the first time. Sample code is provided.
- Article: Top 12 reasons to write unit tests -- As if achieving software quality wasn't reason enough.
- FAQ: Software testing FAQ:Unit test tools -- This thorough FAQ covers the tools, frameworks and libraries of unit testing. Highlights include Mockry and GrandTestAuto. This is a very large amount of information, and though it is well-organized, beginners may become overwhelmed.
For more information on unit testing tools and how certain methodologies affect unit testing, read our next section, Unit testing, Extreme programming and TDD.
Dig Deeper on Software Security Testing and Quality Assurance | <urn:uuid:c9215bcb-9b72-49f1-8355-81abcd57d7d0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://searchsoftwarequality.techtarget.com/tutorial/Better-software-through-debugging-and-unit-testing-Unit-testing-basics | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9038 | 789 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Myths and Misconceptions about Second
Language Learning: What Every Teacher Needs to Unlearn.
Mclaughlin, Barry. National Clearinghouse for English
Language Acquisition & Language Instruction Educational Programs.
This article discusses commonly held myths and
misconceptions about second language learning and attempts to
clarify a number of important issues in the area of SLA.
This article presents some of the most influential
theories of SLA. It first outlines some general distinctions and
categorizations concerning the different theories as well as
criteria for the evaluation of the various theories. A critical
overview follows the description of each theory and its contribution
to SLA research. In this article, the monitor model, Interlanguage
theory, Uinversal Grammar theory and some cognitive theories are
This article discusses the importance of contextual
factors (i.e. individual, social and societal factors) and how these
factors affect second language learning.
This article first discusses the definitions of
motivation transfer and how these two factors affect the language
This article explores Gardner's socio-educational
model and the significance of motivation as a contributing factor in
second language acquisition.
This article outlines effectiveness and orchestration of L2 learning
strategies, factors influencing the choice of L2 learning
strategies, and L2 learning strategy training.
This article provides an overview of language learning strategies (LLS)
for second and foreign language teachers. It outlines the background
of LLS and LLS training, discusses a three step approach teachers
may follow in using LLS in their classes, and summarizes key
reflections and questions for future research on this aspect of
This digest discusses the goals and frameworks of strategy training,
highlights approaches to such training, and lists steps for
designing strategy training programs.
This article presents a model of metacognition consisting of five
metacognitive skills: (1) preparing and planning for learning, (2)
selecting and using learning strategies, (3) monitoring strategy
use, (4) orchestrating various strategies, and (5) evaluating
strategy use and learning. The author suggests that second language
teachers should help students learn to think about what happens
during the language learning process, which will lead them to
develop stronger learning skills.
This digest provides an overview of the methodological foundations
underlying the lexical approach and the pedagogical implications.
The lexical approach concentrates on developing learners'
proficiency with lexis, or words and word combinations. It is based
on the idea that an important part of language acquisition is the
ability to comprehend and produce lexical phrases as unanalyzed
wholes, or "chunks," and that these chunks become the raw data by
which learners perceive patterns of language traditionally thought
of as grammar.
This digest focuses on insights from the author's long-term research
on the writing experiences of a group of second language (L2)
university students. These insights suggest possible ways of making
writing classes more useful to L2 students.
This article gives a brief description of each
learning style and how language teacher can teach these styles to | <urn:uuid:6886d7ce-1896-4e97-bf17-1dee777cd367> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www2.nkfust.edu.tw/~emchen/SLA/SLA_articles.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00198-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.771053 | 669 | 3.203125 | 3 |
1. Taps opens with this description of Fisk's Landing: "The hills came sweeping down from their hardwood forests and challenged the flatness, mingling with it in querulous juxtaposition" (p. 1). How is landscape, particularly the relationship between the flatlands and the hills, important to the story? How are the characters shaped by the land around them?
2. When recalling his father's death Swayze remarks, "Selective memory is a human trait, and memory itself, I have learned, is the 'corrector is existence'" (p. 18). In what ways does memory operate as a "corrector of existence" in this novel, and in life?
3. Swayze notes, "An observant boy in the small town of that long-ago American era could learn much by just listening and watching, and could privately appropriate merely in the course of events more knowledge of an adult person than that person might have of himself" (p. 33). Whom does Swayze understand better than the person understands him or herself?
4. On some levels, Durley Godbold and Amanda Pettibone seem poorly suited for each other. The town gossips burst with ideas as to why they are together most hypotheses centering on the Godbold money. Why do you think Amanda marries Durley?
5. Swayze recognizes that in his position of funeral director Potter Ricks has become "a custodian of our past" (p. 121). Are there any other characters who can be similarly described?
6. Swayze asserts that doing something well makes one a hero (p. 290). Who are the heroes in Taps?
7. When Swayze and Arch are first commissioned to play "Taps," they look upon it as a somewhat unwelcome task. By the end of the novel, their playing has clearly taken on a new meaning for them? In what ways does this experience change them? Is it for the better?
8. Fisk's Landing has sent its young men to many a war the Legionnaires, for the most part, represent veterans of WWI, and the VFW has begun recruiting from the veterans of more recent wars. How does the Korean War affect the town differently from any past war?
9. Willie Morris has often been categorized as a "Southern" writer. Could this story have been set anyplace else?
10. Luke Cartwright is described as "achingly American" (p. 70). What makes him so? What is Willie Morris's definition of "American"?
Willie Morris was born in Jackson, Mississippi, in 1934. He graduated from the University of Texas and pursued graduate studies in history at Oxford University. During the Korean War, Morris played "Taps" for military funerals in his hometown of Yazoo City, Mississippi. He worked on Taps from the late 1960s until his death in 1999.
Morris held editorial roles at the Daily Texan and the Texas Observer, and was the youngest editor in chief of Harper's, the nation's oldest magazine. From 1967 to 1971, while at Harper's, he worked with writers such as William Styron, Gay Talese, David Halberstam, and Norman Mailer. Morris wrote for many publications, including Vanity Fair, George, Esquire, the Oxford American, and Southern Living.
Morris won numerous awards, including the Houghton Mifflin Literary Fellowship for North Toward Home (1967), the Christopher Medal, the Richard Wright Medal for Literary Excellence, and the Governor's Award for Literature. His works include My Cat Spit McGee (1999), The Ghosts of Medgar Evers: A Tale of Race, Murder, and Hollywood (1998), Prayer for the Opening of the Little League Season (1995), Terrains of the Heart and Other Essays on Home (1981), The Last of the Southern Girls (1973), and Yazoo: Integration in a Deep Southern Town (1971). Morris's novel My Dog Skip (1995) was adapted for the screen and made into a popular film.
Morris directed much literary energy and great passion towards Mississippi and its environs. He sought to change both the way Northerners perceive Southerners and to change the way Southerners themselves dealt with the legacy of slavery. Morris used writing to express his dueling sense of alienation from and affection for his native state, and in doing so gave voice to a generation of displaced Southerners.
Morris returned to Mississippi in 1980 and served as writer-in-residence at the University of Mississippi in Oxford. In 1999 he died of a heart attack at the age of sixty-four. He is survived by his wife, JoAnne Prichard Morris, and his son, David Rae Morris. Compatriots from the literary world and Yazoo City united to pay tribute to their lost friend as he lay in state in the rotunda of Mississippi's Old Capitol. William Styron remarked that Willie's "country-boy openheartedness and candor masked an encyclopedic knowledge and an elegantly furnished mind." David Halberstam proclaimed, "No one ever did it better, no one made it more fun, and no one did it with greater sweetness."
"Mississippi is America writ large," Willie Morris used to say. Through his writing and editing, he helped to redefine what it means to be Southern, and in a larger sense what it means to be American.
About JoAnne Prichard Morris
JoAnne Prichard Morris was born in Indianola, Mississippi, in 1944. She graduated from the University of Mississippi and pursued graduate studies in folklore and American and Southern culture at Western Kentucky University. She is the coauthor of Yazoo: Its Legends and Legacies (1976) and was executive editor at the University of Mississippi Press from 1983 to 1997. JoAnne met Willie Morris in 1967 while teaching high school in Yazoo City. She has said that her marriage to Willie was "a very happy and a richly textured one, based on books and writing, love of the ragged beauty of our native Mississippi, politics, friends, family, and Willie's wonderful capacity for generating warmth and fun everywhere he went."
A Conversation with JoAnne Prichard Morris, widow of Willie Morris
Q) When did Willie Morris write Taps?
A) In a way, Willie had been writing Taps for most of his writing life that is, from the mid-1960s, before he even published his first book, North Toward Home. Before he began NTH, he had experimented with a novel using material from his boyhood, including the scenes in the cemetery when Swayze plays "Taps" for local boys killed in the Korean War. These scenes form the central image of Taps. Over the years Taps stayed on his mind; he pondered plot and organization, he wrote sections of it, off and on, and in the 1980s, after he had come back to live in Mississippi, he began writing in earnest. He completed a good working draft in the late 1980s. Then other projects intervened. Periodically, he would get the manuscript out, make notations, polish the language a little. Sometimes he would ask me to read a section, and we'd discuss it. There wasn't much he wanted to change. I think he just wanted it to be perfect.
Also and I'm speculating here, but I believe I'm right I think he sensed on some deeper level that Taps would be his last book. He knew he was very close to finishing it, and he had other books he wanted to write. Taps was very special to Willie his "baby," he called it.
Q) Why was Taps so special to him?
A) First of all, I think the experience of playing "Taps" for military graveside services when he was in high school touched him deeply, profoundly on an emotional level. It also gave him ideas he contemplated and developed was consumed by, really throughout the remainder of his life and through all his work about human emotions (love, sacrifice, patriotism, joy, and melancholy) and complicated personal relationships, social and racial divisions and injustices, the power of land, and the presence of death in life. He wanted to say in one book all he felt and had learned over a lifetime. Taps is that book. So, in a real sense, Taps was his life's work. He loved it, and he feared it, too, I think.
Q) Why did he fear it?
A) I think he feared he wouldn't get it right, or maybe that he couldn't. Here was a man who had spent most of life writing memoirs and other very personal nonfiction; yet in this book of fiction, he probably got closer to his own flaws and regrets and demons than he ever did in nonfiction.
Q) How did you feel about helping prepare Taps for publication?
A) I had some reluctance about getting involved so soon after Willie's death. I put off getting "inside" the manuscript as I knew I must, apprehensive that it would be too difficult emotionally. But I knew that Willie wanted me to do it: among his final words to me were "get Taps together." It was together really; there wasn't much he had wanted to change. I knew he trusted my judgment, and he had always felt I could and should trust my editorial instincts.
When I finally delved deeply into it, I found myself in touch with Willie in a way I had not been since his death. We had conversations, just as we always had, about words and ideas. Sometimes I'd go to sleep wondering about what to do about a detail or even a particular word, and the next morning it would be clear to me.
I went over the manuscript line by line, word by word like this, making the deletions Willie had indicated, checking spellings and meanings and usages of words, checking facts and regional cultural information matters Eudora Welty has described as making sure the moon is in the right part of the sky. (Were the titles of songs playing in the juke joint correct for that time? Were the flowers blooming in the correct month?) I didn't write any new material other than a word or phrase here and there. The big difference, of course, was that Willie couldn't respond in person to what I suggested, but we talked so many times about Taps over the years that I knew I was carrying out his final wishes for the book. This is absolutely Willie's book.
Ultimately, the whole process was a uniquely fulfilling one a sweet and wonderfully intimate conversation with Willie. As always, I learned much from Willie about words and ideas, and even more about his tender, sorrowful, loving, full heart.
Q) Do you think Willie would be pleased with Taps in its final form?
A) Yes not only with my part but with the loving care Houghton Mifflin has given his "baby." Houghton Mifflin published his first book and now this, his last. Everything comes full circle. Willie would love that. I wish he could see the final book.
Q) Willie Morris is best known for North Toward Home, his first book, and My Dog Skip, a more recent one, which was made into a popular family movie. Both books were memoirs. Taps is fiction. Will fans of those books find similarities in Taps?
A) Yes, of course. It has humor and small-town adventures, tender moments, touching scenes, and Willie's wonderfully lyrical prose.
Taps is set in a small town (Fisk's Landing), which is physically quite similar to his own hometown of Yazoo City, Mississippi, on the edge of the Mississippi Delta.
It has a teenage boy as its main character and narrator. He has a dog, a girlfriend, and a prankster pal. There's an eccentric supporting cast: a snoopy, obsessive mother who teaches tap dancing; a foul-mouthed basketball coach; a demanding English teacher; a paranoid undertaker and his blind black helper; a greedy, racist plantation owner; a smart black football player; and a retinue of quirky old World War I veterans, raucous hill-boy soldiers, and self-absorbed Southern girls.
In Taps he draws on the prodigious memory and attention to detail for which he is known in North Toward Home, My Dog Skip, and all his other books. I think those who have read many of Willie's books and friends who knew him will feel his presence in every line.
But there are some surprises in Taps, some dimensions as yet undiscovered.
Q) What surprises will readers of Willie Morris's previous books find in Taps?
A) Taps is a bigger, deeper book than his most well known previous books. It is as thoughtful and wise as it is entertaining. The novel form, which Willie had used only once before, allowed him to develop characters, scenes, ideas, and emotions more fully. In Taps, he shows great depth and understanding of human motivations, failings, and triumphs. Both expansive and intimate, Taps is a serious, mature realization of the themes and obsessions that preoccupied him for most of his life. (And it has sex, intrigue, and murder, too!) | <urn:uuid:c5440e4b-8bef-4046-b67d-ad27ee25bbb5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.houghtonmifflinbooks.com/readers_guides/taps.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00060-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.98312 | 2,768 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Little ArchitectLondon, UK
Ongoing from January 2014
What is Little Architect?
Architecture surrounds us from the moment we are born and it will accompany and house us throughout our entire lives. Little Architect is an education and learning platform for teaching architecture in London’s primary schools and is part of the Visiting School programme, at the Architectural Association School of Architecture.
The programme aims to teach children how to observe, understand and enjoy architecture and the built world and to become part of a more sustainable future. Our in-school projects and workshops are organised around interesting, creative and fun, cross-curricular activities for five to nine-year-olds. They provide an opportunity for students to think and communicate about buildings and cities through experimentation and drawing.
Prominent features of the workshop:
Little Projects develops one of seven activities in-depth over three 90-minute visits to your school. Activities are directly related to architecture and sustainability and all tasks have been created especially for KS1 and KS2 students. These multi-day lessons allow students to deeply explore and question the topics addressed in class.
Little Workshops takes place in one 90-minute school visit. Content is similar to the Projects, but key concepts are covered in a shorter amount of time.
Our lessons have been designed for a whole classroom (for a maximum 30 children at a time).
- Two or more AA tutors will work closely and interactively with all children
- Ideally the class teacher will be with the tutors during the activity so that they can discuss the content and evolve the children’s ideas following the workshop
- They will have homework to do between lessons! We will ask the class to look at buildings while out in the city, especially their shapes and materials
- Activities are always focused on a combination of individual and group exercises
- Multimedia presentations and explanations are all directly related to architecture and sustainability and all the tasks and related information have been created especially for KS1 and KS2 students, using some of their favourite references to learn about buildings and cities
Both programmes have the following objectives:
- Promote observation skills
- Foster creativity and enjoyment of the built environment
- Understand the importance of drawing as a communication tool
- Promote eco-friendly behaviour
- Develop commitment to a more sustainable future
- Increase drawing and sketching habits outside of the curriculum
- Teach in a holistic, integrated and interdisciplinary way
- Learn about energy, urban flora and fauna, heritage, urban food, water, buildings, transport
Nothing is ugly or beautiful; everything is fascinating and fun!
Our team is always working to provide new programmes. Here are some of our current workshops and projects:
- Skyline Crown
- City of a Thousand Pieces
- Flying City
- Rethinking your School
- Future City Mural
- Making your own Architecture Book
- Our Future Local Area
If you want Little Architect to come to your school please contact us at:
We will develop custom programmes and fees depending on your school’s requirements and the number of visits. All activities include at least two DBS certified AA tutors visiting your school.
Where are we?
36 Bedford Square, London WC1B 3ES
T +44 (0)20 7887 4000 F +44 (0)20 7414 0782
Dolores Victoria (Lola) Ruiz Garrido:
CEO at Semisótano Arquitectos. Her award-winning projects include the Church in Roquetas de Mar, the Tetris House (Spanish Biennial X and XI) or Europan 7 (Latvia). She tries to bridge architectural understanding and people through culture and sustainability. She has taught sustainable architecture to children (Future Cities Project) in institutions such as the Islington Museum, and the Hugh Myddelton Primary School. Lola is currently the general secretary of ASA, the biggest sustainable association for architects in Spain. She was AA Summer School tutor in 2012 and 2013. | <urn:uuid:5c91ce12-1713-4b37-b67d-ec8d3229f62d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.aaschool.ac.uk/STUDY/VISITING/littlearchitect | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945477 | 823 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Dan Ariely and co-authors have an interesting new paper looking at moral behavior, specifially cheating, in people who grew up in either East or West Germany.
From 1961 to 1989, the Berlin Wall divided one nation into two distinct political regimes. We
exploited this natural experiment to investigate whether the socio-political context impacts
individual honesty. Using an abstract die-rolling task, we found evidence that East Germans
who were exposed to socialism cheat more than West Germans who were exposed to
capitalism. We also found that cheating was more likely to occur under circumstances of
…If socialism indeed promotes individual dishonesty, the specific features of this socio-political
system that lead to this outcome remain to be determined. The East German socialist regime
differed from the West German capitalist regime in several important ways. First, the system
did not reward work based to merit, and made it difficult to accumulate wealth or pass
anything on to one’s family. This may have resulted in a lack of meaning leading to
demoralization (Ariely et al., 2008), and perhaps less concern for upholding standards of
honesty. Furthermore, while the government claimed to exist in service of the people, it failed
to provide functional public systems or economic security. Observing this moral hypocrisy in government may have eroded the value citizens placed on honesty. Finally, and perhaps most
straightforwardly, the political and economic system pressured people to work around official
laws and cheat to game the system. Over time, individuals may come to normalize these types
of behaviors. Given these distinct possible influences, further research will be needed to
understand which aspects of socialism have the strongest or most lasting impacts on morality.
It’s interesting that Ariely et al. try to explain cheating as a result of socialism. My own approach would look more to the virtue ethics of capitalism and Montesquieu who famously noted that
Commerce is a cure for the most destructive prejudices; for it is almost a general rule, that wherever we find agreeable manners, there commerce flourishes; and that wherever there is commerce, there we meet with agreeable manners. | <urn:uuid:960d80e6-c65e-4f60-bb44-d1c0859bcca5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://marginalrevolution.com/marginalrevolution/2014/07/moral-effects-of-socialism.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958544 | 443 | 2.53125 | 3 |
International Day for Biodiversity Celebrated at Geology Museum
19:53 May 22, 2012
May 22 is the International Day for Biodiversity. The Association of Young Biologists celebrated this day at the Geology Museum after Karapetyan at the Institute of National Academy of Sciences of Armenia. This place was selected on purpose. The museum was founded in 1937 based on Hovhannes Karapetyan’s collection, Honoured Scientist of the USSR, Professor. At the beginning the museum has 1410 items, while now the collection consists of 11,000 items, which are demonstrated in 6 sections: mineralogy, paleontology, petrography, natural resources, mineral waters of Armenia and natural monuments of Armenia.
The seminar held by the Association of Young Biologists and Yerevan Aarhus Cetner was dedicated to the extinct species red-listed in the Red Book of Armenia. | <urn:uuid:afa25db7-d0be-490c-99bd-c9f5618922c9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ecolur.org/en/news/biodiversity/international-day-for-biodiversity-celebrated-at-geology-museum/3850/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00200-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92785 | 190 | 2.703125 | 3 |
The American Gas Association (AGA) released its Preliminary Findings Concerning 2011 Natural Gas Reserves which estimates that U.S. natural gas producers found and replaced more gas than was consumed in 2011, thus reserves have continued to grow. We estimate that the national inventory of gas reserves is approximately 300 trillion cubic feet. America’s abundance of natural gas is supported once more, as a likely contributor to continued price stability.
This ‘on-the-shelf’ inventory is the foundation along with growing national resource estimates that may point to as much as a 100 year natural gas supply in America. This abundance is helping to reduce prices and increase stability for our customers and also ensuring that that natural gas is America’s domestic, clean foundation fuel for now and into the future.
Natural gas reserves, as measured in the AGA report, are those quantities of natural gas estimated to exist as the result of drilling and completion of existing wells. Natural gas resources, assessed by groups such as the Potential Gas Committee, represent a broader definition of all natural gas in-place that may be considered as future supply, including gas yet to be discovered. When periodic assessments of undiscovered resources are combined with proved reserves a vision of future supply of natural gas emerges. Today, the combination of reserves information and resource assessments places that future supply at 2,100 Tcf or greater. That represents about 100 years of supply at current gas production rates, which are 22-23 Tcf per year.
The previous domestic reserves record of 293 Tcf was recorded in1967. During 2010 and now again for 2011, the American Gas Association estimates that more than 100 percent of total domestic annual production was replaced with new natural gas reserve additions and revisions of previous estimates. AGA estimates that proved U.S. reserves may be as high as 300 Tcf, today, a new reserves record.
AGA and its members believe that our domestic natural gas resource base must be developed responsibly. We are committed to the continued safe and reliable extraction, transport and delivery of natural gas to consumers. | <urn:uuid:3ab15431-7780-47c4-879c-36a27eeec016> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.truebluenaturalgas.org/natural-gas-reserves-record-levels/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00049-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962073 | 418 | 2.765625 | 3 |
noun(usually morning prayers)
1A formal act of worship held in the morning, especially regularly or by a group assembled for this purpose.
- Every morning the Ansar recruits would rise for morning prayers and then do physical training until the sun came over the horizon.
- Assume that Jews traditionally have a celebratory feast on Saturday after morning prayers and call it the ‘Sabbath feast.’
- That's why the morning prayers begin with a series of blessings thanking God for the simple and obvious.
1.1 [in singular] (In the Anglican Church) the service of matins.
- Went along to morning prayer at the church which I have really been enjoying - finding fun in the fact that God can really powerfully move in such a formal setting!
- I returned quickly to my quarters for morning prayer.
- I woke up in time for morning prayer, had breakfast, arrived early for my 9 am lecture and stayed fully awake throughout it.
For editors and proofreaders
Syllabification: morn·ing prayer
Definition of morning prayer in:
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed. | <urn:uuid:e12808d6-8bfe-4eea-ace9-8a6c78896fd5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/american_english/morning-prayer | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00126-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941424 | 257 | 2.546875 | 3 |
KYRGYZSTANLOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT
FLORA AND FAUNA
ENERGY AND POWER
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS
BANKING AND SECURITIES
CUSTOMS AND DUTIES
LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS
TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION
FLAG: Red field with a yellow sun in the center; in the center of the sun is a red ring crossed by two sets of three lines, a stylized representation of the vent in a Kyrgyz yurt.
ANTHEM: Kyrgyz National Anthem.
MONETARY UNIT: The som was established in May 1993; som1 = $0.02492 (or $1 = som40.13) as of 2005.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is in force.
HOLIDAYS: Constitution Day, 5 May; Independence Day, 31 August; National Day, 2 December.
TIME: 5 pm = noon GMT.
Kyrgyzstan is located in southern Asia, between China and Kazakhstan. Comparatively, it is slightly smaller than the state of South Dakota, with a total area of 198,500 sq km (76,641 sq mi). Kyrgyzstan shares boundaries with Kazakhstan on the n, China on the e, Tajikistan on the s, and Uzbekistan on the w. the country's boundary length totals 3,878 km (2,410 mi), and its capital city, Bishkek, is located in the north central part of the country.
The topography of Kyrgyzstan features the peaks of Tian Shan, which rise to over 7,000 m (23,000 ft), and associated valleys and basins which encompass the entire nation. About 90% of Kyrgyzstan has an elevation exceeding 1,500 m (4,900 ft). Slightly over 5% of Kyrgyzstan's land is under irrigation.
Seismic activity continues along the Tian Shan as these mountains continue to be uplifted. As a result, frequent and sometimes devastating earthquakes occur within the region. These also trigger massive mudslides and avalanches that have been know to destroy villages. In August 1992, a 7.3 magnitude earthquake occurred near Jala-Abad, killing 75 people and leaving several thousand homeless.
The country's climate is continental to polar in the Tian Shan Mountains. In the Fergana Valley the average temperature in July is 27°c (81°f). In January, the coldest temperatures are in the mountain valleys, with recorded lows below -30°c (-22°f). the climate is temperate in the foothill regions of the north.
The country's flora and fauna is similar to Tajikistan. there are several types of wildflowers in the valleys. Yak, mountain goats, and snow leopards can be found in the mountains. the country claims to have the world's largest natural-growth walnut forest. Numerous flocks of migrating birds pass through the country each year. As of 2002, there were at least 83 species of mammals, 168 species of birds, and over 4,500 species of plants throughout the country.
Among Kyrgyzstan's most significant environmental issues are water pollution and soil salinity resulting from improper irrigation methods. The pollution of the nation's water causes health problems for 25% of its people, many of whom draw water directly from contaminated wells and streams.
In 2003, about 15% of Kyrgyzstan's total land area was protected. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 6 types of mammals, 4 species of birds, 2 types of reptiles, 3 species of invertebrates, and 1 species of plant. Threatened animal species include the great bustard, European bison, snow leopard, field adder, and tiger.
The population of Kyrgyzstan in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 5,172,000, which placed it at number 112 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 6% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 33% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 97 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 1.3%, a rate the government viewed as satisfactory. the projected population for the year 2025 was 6,713,000. The population density was 26 per sq km (67 per sq mi).
The UN estimated that 57% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 1.45%. The capital city, Bishkek, had a population of 806,000 in that year. The second-largest city was Osh, with a population of 220,000.
As of 1999, the total number of registered and unregistered refugees was estimated to be between 40,000 and 50,000 (1% of the total population). There were about 13,000 officially registered refugees, mainly from Tajikistan, and about 700 from Afghanistan. The great majority of Tajik refugees were of ethnic Kyrgyz origin and desired to stay in Kyrgyzstan permanently. the government was working with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) to implement an integration package to assist Tajik refugees in their transition to Kyrgyz citizenship. In the period 1989–95, some 296,000 Russians, 39,000 Ukrainians, and 3,000 Belarussians all departed from Kyrgyzstan. Also, 46,000 Germans (formerly deported under Stalin during World War II from Soviet and Volga regions) returned to Germany. In 2004, there were 3,753 refugees and 453 asylum seekers. Over 300 Kyrgyzstanis sought asylum in 2004 in Sweden and the Czech Republic. In 2005, the net migration rate was an estimated -2.47 migrants per 1,000 population, changed from -12.5 in 1990. the government viewed the immigration level as too high, but the emigration level as satisfactory. Remittances in 2003 were $52.1 million.
According to the latest estimates, about 66.3% of the total population are Kyrgyz, 11.2% are Russian, 14% are Uzbek, 1.1% are Dungan (ethnic Chinese Muslims), 1% are Uighurs, and 6.4% other. About 420,000 ethnic Kyrgyz reside elsewhere in the former Soviet Union and 170,000 in China. Kyrgyz speak a Turkic language and most are Sunni Muslims. There are major ethnic and clan based cleavages, including north–south clan and regional tensions that threaten fragmentation.
According to some reports, 10% or more of Russians left Kyrgyzstan during 1991 because of ethnic tensions. Ethnic Germans, deported to Kyrgyzstan by Stalin during World War II, are also leaving Kyrgyzstan. In June 1990, in the Osh region on the eastern edge of the fertile Fergana Valley, a major ethnic conflict broke out between Kyrgyz and Uzbek inhabitants over land distribution. Approximately 250 people died in what has been termed "the most explosive region of Central Asia," because of its mixed population of Uzbeks and Kyrgyz, poverty, and high unemployment. Periodic clashes also occur between Kyrgyz and Tajiks along the border with Tajikistan over water resources. Beefed-up Kyrgyz security forces were placed in the Osh and Alais regions in early 1993 to prevent spillover from fighting going on between Tajik ex-communists and oppositionists in the mountains of northern Tajikistan and to halt the inflow of Tajik refugees.
A Turkic tongue, Kyrgyz is the official language. Until 1926, the Kyrgyz and Kazakh languages were not officially recognized as two distinct languages. Kyrgyz orthography was formally organized in 1923 and was modeled after the northern dialects using Arabic script. Afterward, Roman letters were used until 1940, when the Cyrillic alphabet was mandated by the Soviet government, with three special additional characters. Since independence, there has been discussion about switching back to the Roman alphabet.
Although the Kyrgyz language is the traditional language, most of Kyrgyzstan's population also speaks Russian, the language of business and commerce. In March 1996, the Kyrgyzstani legislature amended the constitution to make Russian an official language, along with Kyrgyz, in territories and workplaces where Russian-speaking citizens predominate.
Some 80% of the population are Muslim, mostly Sunni of the Hanafi persuasion. An estimated 11% are Russian Orthodox. Together, Jews, Buddhists, and Roman Catholics make up about 3% of the population. There are about 249 registered Protestant places of worship in the country and 12 Baha'i congregations.
The constitution provides for freedom of religion, a secular state, and the separation of church and state. However, in practice some minority Muslim groups as well as non-Muslim groups have reported discrimination by the government and social groups. All groups must be registered with the State Commission on Religious Affairs in order to operate legally; this same commission serves as a government forum to promote interfaith understanding and tolerance.
As of 2004, Kyrgyzstan's railway system consisted of 470 km (292 mi) of broad gauge railroad, the largest portion of which was a single east–west rail line of 370 km (230 mi) that went from Issykkul' across the Chuskaya region into Kazakhstan. There were some 18,500 km (11,507 mi) of highways, of which 16,854 km (10,483 mi) were paved in 2002. Irregular service with public transportation occurs frequently. As a landlocked nation, water transportation is of minor importance with only 600 km (372 mi) of waterways as of 2004. However, inland travel is possible on several east–west rivers. Kyrgyzstan has an estimated 52 airports and airfields as of 2004, of which 18 had paved runways as of 2005. The principal airport is Manas, located at Bishkek. In 2003, about 206,000 passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international airline flights.
The area of present-day Kyrgyzstan contains evidence of human habitation from the time of the Lower Paleolithic era on, approximately 300,000 years ago. Archeologists suggest that two types of economies developed in the territory—farming and pastoral nomadism. By the 7th century bc, nomadism had become predominant, and the area was controlled by various tribal alliances. In the north the Saki (7th–3rd centuries bc) were succeeded by the Usuni (2nd century bc–5th century ad); in the south, the Parkan state (2nd–1st centuries bc) was replaced by the Kushani kingdom (1st–4th century ad). The ethnic identity of those peoples is the subject of much debate, but they were not Turkic. From the 6th century on, various Turkic tribes began to push westward, eventually settling most of Central Asia, including Kyrgyzstan. Much of present Kyrgyzstan was united by the 7th century as part of the West Turkic Kaganate, and replaced in the 8th century by the Turgash, who in turn were conquered by the Karluk, who originated in the Altai region further north.
When the present-day Kyrgyz first came to this territory is the subject of much debate. References to tribes of that name living in the Altai occur in the 10th century, but another people with the same name who lived along the Enisei River are first mentioned in records from the 2nd century bc. The Enisei Kyrgyz formed the Kyrgyz Kaganate in about ad 650, which survived until defeat by Genghis Khan in 1209. Kyrgyz tradition prefers to see its origin in that state, but ethnographers and archeologists view the claim with considerable skepticism.
Evidence suggests instead that the present-day Kyrgyz are an amalgamation of various peoples, as existing tribes incorporated themselves into fresh waves of conquerors. The territory was part of the Karakhanid state from about 950–1150, during which the urban population was actively involved in trade and manufacturing along the Silk Road. Conversion to Islam also began in this period.
Genghis Khan's Mongols conquered the area in the 13th century, destroying most of the Karakhanid culture and introducing large numbers of new peoples into the area, of Turkic, Mongol, and Tibetan stock. The resulting mix of tribes was almost certainly the basis for the present-day Kyrgyz people, who retain much of the memory of those origins in the orally preserved genealogies of their 40 clans and tribes. The present Kyrgyzstan flag includes the depiction of a sun with one ray for each tribe. The Kyrgyz follow the Mongol practice of dividing their people into left (ong ) and right (sol ) "wings," said to reflect either the deployment of troops in military formation, or the tribe's original place of habitation. There is also a third group, the ichkilik, which seems to include parts of the Kyrgyz identity.
From the 15th century until the 17th century, the Kyrgyz tribes were part of the larger delineation of Central Asian history, which distinguished agricultural sedents from pastoral nomads. the appearance of the same tribal names among Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and Uzbeks suggests how the people of this territory formed a series of tribal alliances, rather than a true state.
In the 18th century the Kyrgyz began to come under pressure from Mongol tribes farther east. This prompted some of the northern tribes to send delegations to the Russians, who had pushed into Siberia in the 17th century, and who were beginning to take what is now northern Kazakhstan under its control. the Russians made no distinction between the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz, calling both Kyrgyz. The southern Kyrgyz, however, were conquered by the Kokand Khanate, established in the late 18th century, separating them from the northern Kyrgyz. This split between south and north continues to the present day in Kyrgyz life.
Russian expansion into what it called the Steppe included Kyrgyzstan. Most of northern Kyrgyzstan was incorporated into the empire by 1863; the south followed in 1876, when Russia destroyed the Kokand Khanate. Administratively, present-day Kyrgyzstan was split among four guberniias. Beginning in the 1890s Russia settled Russian and other European farmers into the fertile river valleys of the north, forcing Kyrgyz nomads higher into the mountains.
By 1916, Russia's policies of livestock requisition and land use had left the Kyrgyz badly impoverished. When Russia attempted to issue a draft call-up for Central Asian males, including the Kyrgyz, widespread fighting broke out all across the territory. the uprisings were suppressed, with great loss of life; population in the northern part dropped as much as 40%. Since independence in 1991, the state has commemorated the 1916 uprising as genocide.
Hostility to the tsars meant that there was some support for the Bolsheviks, at least until it became clear that Lenin was not going to encourage the development of national states. Resistance to the Russians continued sporadically until the mid-1920s in what Russian historians have labeled the "Basmachi Rebellion."
As Bolshevik power was consolidated, Kyrgyzstan was first made an autonomous oblast (political unit) of the Russian Federation in 1924; it was upgraded in 1926 to an autonomous republic, but still within Russia. (At that time Russia was one of the Soviet Republics.) Kyrgyzstan did not become a full Soviet Republic until 1936.
The republic was regarded as one of the least developed of the Soviet states, politically and economically. Thus, it came as a great surprise when, on 28 October 1990, Kyrgyzstan became the first Soviet republic to select its own leader. the Kyrgyzstan legislature refused to ratify Communist Party leader Absamat Masaliyev's bid to become the republic's president and elected instead, Askar Akayev, president of the republic's Academy of Science. Akayev and his supporters began asserting Kyrgyz nationalism and wresting political and economic control over the republic from the Soviet Communist Party. these efforts were briefly interrupted by an attempted coup in Moscow by Communist Party hardliners in August 1991. Akayev bravely condemned the coup and, after it fizzled, on 30 August 1991, he severed ties with the Communist Party and Kyrgyzstan declared its independence. On 12 October 1991, Akayev's presidency was confirmed by direct popular election.
A constitution was adopted on 5 May 1993. An economic and political crisis led to the resignation of the first government in December 1993, but Akayev's presidency was reaffirmed by a popular referendum of support conducted on 30 January 1994. Over 95% of registered voters participated in the referendum; 97% of those who voted supported President Akayev.
In September 1995, Akayev's supporters submitted a petition signed by 1.2 million people (52% of the voting age population) urging the legislature to approve a referendum extending Akayev's term to the year 2001. After contentious debate, the legislature rejected holding a referendum, and Akayev instead announced that a presidential election would be held on 24 December 1995. Thirteen candidates were registered, but 10 were disqualified, leaving Akayev, Masaliyev, and former speaker Medetken Sherimkulov. Akayev won reelection to a five-year term, receiving 72% of about 1.9 million votes in a race deemed generally "free and fair" by international observers, though questions were raised about the disqualifications. In July 1998, Akayev hailed a Constitutional Court decision permitting him to run for a third term in the year 2000. He was reelected president on 29 October 2000, receiving 74% of the vote in an election marred by serious irregularities. Opposition activity prior to the election had been severely curtailed.
Severely shaking Kyrgyzstan's stability, several hundred Islamic extremists and other guerrillas entered Kyrgyzstan from Tajikistan in July–August 1999. The guerrillas seized hostages, including four Japanese geologists, and several Kyrgyz villages, stating that they would cease hostilities if Kyrgyzstan provided a safe haven for refugees and would release hostages if Uzbekistan released jailed extremists. The guerrillas were rumored to be seeking to create an Islamic state in south Kyrgyzstan as a springboard for a jihad in Uzbekistan. A Kyrgyz Security Council member in October 1999 alleged that the guerrillas were trying to seize the major drug trafficking route in southern Kyrgyzstan. Kyrgyzstan called out reservists and admitted that its military was unprepared for combat. Kyrgyzstan received air support from Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, but protested Uzbek bombing of a Kyrgyz village. the Kyrgyz defense minister on 18 October 1999 announced success in forcing virtually all guerrillas back into Tajikistan.
The United States established a major airbase near Bishkek in December 2001 for military and humanitarian uses during its campaign in Afghanistan to oust the Taliban regime and al-Qaeda forces there. Kyrgyzstan and the United States have established closer political and security ties since 11 September 2001. At US prompting, the IMF reached agreement with Kyrgyzstan on a $93 million loan in December 2001. Since 11 September, all radical Islamic groups in the Central Asian nations have been linked with international terrorism. Both the Hizb-ut-Tahrir (Freedom Party) and the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU), two radical Islamic organizations looking to establish an Islamic state in Central Asia, have a strong presence in the country. The IMU, expelled from its own country, collaborated with the Taliban and al-Qaeda and led armed incursions into Kyrgyzstan. Following the antiterrorist operations led by the United States after 11 September, all major units of the IMU were destroyed. In addition, in October 2002, Kyrgyzstan and China staged their first joint military exercises, aiming to coordinate their response to terrorism.
In January 2002, legislative assembly member and opposition leader Azimbek Beknazarov was detained on charges which supporters said were politically motivated. In February, Sherali Azarkulov, a prominent human rights activist, died while on a hunger strike to protest Beknazarov's detention. In March, five people were killed in the southern Aksy rayon in clashes with police during a protest demanding Beknazarov's release, and in May, the government resigned after a state commission ruled that senior officials were to blame for the deaths of the protestors. Beknazarov was subsequently freed, after being given a one-year suspended sentence for abuse of office. A rally in June called for Akayev's resignation, increasing fears of political instability and civil war. Large protests and arrests continued throughout the year. In January 2003, Akayev announced a referendum would be held on his presidency and on amendments to the constitution to "improve democracy." On 2 February, 76.6% of Kyrgyz citizens supported the amendments in the referendum, and 78.7% of voters determined Akayev should remain in office until his term expired in December 2005.
In January 2004, several opposition members in parliament announced they had found listening devices in their offices. the ensuing scandal prompted parliament to set up a commission to examine the case. The commission's conclusion was that the National Security Service (NSB) had planted the devices. As of 2005 no action had been taken against the NSB although the lower house of parliament adopted a resolution to hold the NSB responsible.
Starting with the parliamentary elections in February, 2005 was a year of massive unrest for Kyrgyzstan. Of the 75 seats in parliament only 6 were won by opposition parties. The belief that the election had been rigged by the government led to widespread protests, culminating in the March Revolution, or as it is otherwise known, the "Tulip Revolution." The revolution forced President Akayev, to flee the country and formally abandon his role as president on 11 April 2005. Elections were held on 10 July 2005 with Kurmanbek Bakiyev receiving 88.6% of the vote. Although the next presidential elections were scheduled to be held in 2010, there had been massive unrest in Kyrgyzstan since Bakiyev took office and his own tenure was in question. In September 2005 Azimbek Beknazarov was dismissed as prosecutor general and parliamentary member Bayaman Erkinbayev was assassinated. Many northerners associated the rise in crime and corruption with the March Revolution, which was led mainly by politicians with southern political roots, including Bakiyev.
When Kyrgyzstan was still a Soviet republic, the legislature elected Askar Akayev president. Under his leadership, Kyrgyzstan declared independence and drafted a new constitution, ratified 5 May 1993. This constitution established a democratic presidential system with separation of powers and expansive human rights guarantees. In early September 1994, Akayev's supporters in the legislature—a slim majority of 168 out of 323 sitting deputies, most of whom were local administrators—boycotted the last session of the legislature before the expiration of its mandate in February 1995. This boycott prevented formation of a quorum, causing the dissolution of the legislature. Oppositionists alleged that the timing of the dissolution was aimed to squelch a legislative investigation into corruption in the government and to open the way for Akayev to create a more malleable legislature. Akayev took over legislative powers, and decreed that legislative elections would be held by the end of the year. He also decreed that a referendum would be held in October 1995 to approve amendments to the constitution, including provisions revamping the legislative system to weaken it relative to the presidency. He argued that legislative and other provisions of the May 1993 constitution were too "idealistic" because the "people are not prepared for democracy," and a "transitional period" was needed. Although the amendment process, like the dissolution of the legislature, contravened the constitution, the referendum questions were approved by over 80% of the voters.
Under the 1996 amendments, the president was given expanded powers to veto legislation, dissolve the legislature, and appoint all ministers (except the prime minister) without legislative confirmation, while making legislative impeachment more difficult. the legislature confirms the prime minister and high judges. Akayev spearheaded a referendum on 10 February 1996 to further alter the constitution. The amendments specify that Kyrgyzstan, or the Kyrgyz Republic, will be a secular, unitary state. It creates three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial. the Jogorku Kenesh (parliament or supreme council) has legislative responsibilities. The Jogorku Kenesh is made up of two houses—the 35-member legislative assembly and the 70-member assembly of people's representatives. The legislative assembly is responsible for day-to-day operations of the legislature, such as interpreting laws and ratifying international treaties. The legislative assembly also has the power to impeach the president. The assembly of the people's representatives meets periodically during the year to consider budget, tax, and appointment issues.
The executive branch is comprised of the cabinet of ministers, or ministries, appointed by the president and approved by the parliament. The head of the cabinet is the prime minister, also appointed by the president and confirmed by the parliament.
The president is to be elected once every five years, for no more than two terms, from among those citizens who are between 35 and 65 years of age, who have lived at least 15 years in the republic, and who are fluent in the state language, which is Kyrgyz.
There is no vice president. The usual functions of vice president, including the duty to replace the president in case of death or incapacity, are borne by the speaker of the parliament, who is elected from among the membership of the parliament.
Judges are chosen by the president, subject to parliamentary affirmation. Potential judges must be citizens between 35 and 65 years who have legal training and legal experience of at least ten years. The length of their service is unlimited, but can be terminated by the parliament.
In theory, the constitution provides a number of basic guarantees of human freedom, including freedom of religion, of the press and other forms of media, of movement about the republic and place of dwelling, of association, and unarmed assembly. It guarantees the privacy of post and other forms of communication, and guarantees private property. In terms of social benefits, the constitution guarantees pensions, unemployment compensation, legal representation, medical treatment, and free basic education.
Despite restrictions on its powers, in 1997–98, the legislature showed increasing signs of independence from executive power. Moving to further weaken it, Akayev spearheaded another referendum on 17 October 1998 to amend the constitution. Approved by 91.14% of voters, the amendments sharply restricted the legislature's influence over bills involving the budget or other expenditures, limited a legislator's immunity from removal and prosecution, increased the size of the legislative assembly to 60, and decreased the size of the assembly of people's representatives to 45. It also provided for private land ownership and upheld freedom of the press. The legislature has acted in subordination to the executive branch, but has at times asserted itself by overriding presidential vetoes. In November 1999, the assembly of people's representatives rejected the government's budget for 2000, calling for added social and defense spending.
Kyrgyzstan's 20 February 2000 legislative election (with a runoff on 12 March) reflected the erosion of Kyrgyzstan's earlier signal progress in Central Asian democratization, according to the US State Department. Under new laws, 15 seats in the upper chamber were set aside for party list voting. The Central Electoral Commission ruled that 16 parties out of 27 legally registered were disqualified from fielding party list candidates, though it urged that such candidates could instead seek single-member seats. the major opposition Democratic Movement of Kyrgyzstan-Dignity Party bloc was initially registered but then decertified. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) on 8 February criticized the decertification as a narrow interpretation of the law and as restricting popular choice in the election. In all, 545 candidates were finally permitted to run for 105 seats. Six parties received over 5% of the vote, giving them seats: the Party of Communists (5 seats), Union of Democratic Forces (4), Democratic Party of Women (2), Party of Veterans (2), My Country (1), and Ata-Meken (1). Only Ata-Meken and the Communist Party are clear opposition parties. Only three constituency races were decided in the first round. In the second round on 12 March, 84 members were elected in a confusing vote. Prominent opposition politician Daniyar Usenov was disqualified after the first round, although he actually had won, according to the OSCE. Similarly, opposition Dignity Party head Feliks Kulov received more votes than his opponents in the first round, but was heavily defeated in the second through apparent legerdemain, according to the OSCE. After the second round, the opposition Democratic Movement, Dignity Party, and the People's Party protested the results.
About 120 OSCE observers and 2,000 local observers monitored the election. In the first round, OSCE monitors pointed to problems such as the disqualification of prominent opposition parties and the pro-government composition of electoral boards, and in the second round criticized continued government harassment of opposition candidates, politically motivated court decisions disqualifying some opposition candidates, and irregularities in vote-counting. US State Department spokesman James Foley on 14 March stressed that "the United States is disappointed in the conduct of the 2000 parliamentary election in Kyrgyzstan," which "amounted to a clear setback for the democratic process." On 23 March, he criticized Kyrgyz authorities for forcibly suppressing a peaceable demonstration and for arresting Kulov the day before on vague charges of committing crimes several years ago. Kulov was acquitted of charges of abuse of office in August, but was rearrested in January 2001. That July, new charges of embezzlement were brought against him, and in May 2002, he was sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment.
On 29 October 2000, Akayev was reelected president with 74% of the vote in an election marred by serious irregularities. Throughout 2001, the government continued to harass the opposition, independent media, and human rights defenders. Police used force to disperse protesters and arrested them throughout 2001 and 2002.
On 13 January 2003, Akayev announced a referendum would be held on 2 February for amendments to the constitution, including the abolition of the two-chamber parliament in favor of a single chamber, the abolition of party-list voting for parliament, and immunity from prosecution of former presidents and their families. Voters could not vote on the changes individually, but were to approve or reject them wholesale. They also had to indicate whether or not they wanted Akayev to remain in office until his term expired in December 2005. 76.6% of Kyrgyz citizens supported the amendments in the referendum, and 78.7% of voters determined Akayev should remain in office. Turnout was over 86%. the opposition, which called for a boycott of the vote and sent observers to monitor the election, said that turnout had been less than 40%, failing to reach the 50% threshold for the referendum to be valid.
Elections for a new unicameral body (Jorgorku Kenesh) were held 27 February 2005, but the vast majority of positions remained undecided and protests over electoral irregularities culminated in the March Revolution which ousted Akayev from office. New legislative elections had not been rescheduled as of then. Kurmanbek Bakiyev was elected president in July 2005 with 88.6% of the vote, although the likelihood that he would remain in power throughout his term was thought unlikely.
There is no formal ruling party. Over two dozen parties are legally registered, though all are small and some are inactive. Fewer than one-half of legislators claim party affiliation. Pro-Akayev parties include the Birimdik (Unity) Party, and the Adilet (Justice) Party (formed by writer Chingiz Aitmatov in October 1999). the main "constructive opposition" party is the People's Party. Among other parties, the Party of Communists (PCK; headed by Masaliyev) calls for reunification with Russia. The Erkin (Free) Kyrgyzstan Progressive Democratic Party calls for elevating the rights of ethnic Kyrgyz. The Democratic Movement calls for democratic socialism. Erkin Kyrgyzstan, Asaba, the Social Democratic Party, Unity, Democratic Movement, My Country, and others decided in July 1999 to form a bloc to contest the legislative elections. the Dignity Party, headed by Felix Kulov (former vice president, security minister, and Bishkek mayor) was formed in August 1999. The electoral code forbade parties from taking part in the February 2000 legislative races unless they were more than one year old, eliminating eight new parties. The Central Electoral Commission in late 1999 also declared the People's, Citizens of Bishkek, Labor Popular, and the People of Manas Parties disqualified on technicalities from taking part in the race. Religious parties are banned. Regional interests are important in the political process. the Kyrgyz leadership reportedly favors interests of the Chu region. Ten major opposition parties formed a broad coalition, the People's Patriotic Movement, in April 2001. After the March Revolution, political parties realigned several times and as of October 2005 the Kyrgyz political situation was in constant flux.
The republic is divided into seven administrative regions, plus the capital city of Bishkek. In addition, there are rayons, or districts. Each oblast and rayon has a local administration consisting of a governor and a local assembly. According to a presidential decree of March 1996, regional governors are appointed by the president to four-year terms, and are responsible for making sure that the local executive and legislative branches cooperate in carrying out state decisions, upholding law and order, ensuring citizens' rights and freedoms, obtaining funds to maintain local government and public property, adhering to state budget strictures, ensuring that taxes are collected, making sure that local pensions and state wages are paid, and generally ensuring the local welfare. Although in theory answering to the president, in practice some of the governors have become powerful spokesmen for regional interests, and run their districts with considerable autonomy. In October 1999, the first elections of municipal, rayon (district) and oblast (region) assemblies or keneshs took place. A new electoral law called for the candidate who gained a simple majority of votes to be declared the winner, introduced multi-seat constituencies, and dictated that only a Kyrgyz citizen who has lived in a constituency for no less than two years could become an assembly deputy.
The 1993 constitution declares the independence of the judiciary from the other branches of government. Thus far, however, the courts remain under the supervision of the Ministry of Justice and continue to operate mostly under Soviet-era laws and procedures. Some judicial reforms are being introduced, such as a separate judicial budget and more judicial training. There are three levels of criminal courts: local courts, which handle petty crimes; provincial courts, which consider most categories of crime, and the appellate Supreme Court. Traditional elders' courts may also handle petty crimes in rural areas. Defendants in elders' courts may appeal to the local administrative court.
A state prosecutor, or procurator, remains responsible for criminal arrests, investigations, and presentations before a panel consisting of a judge and two people's assessors (pensioners or members of labor collectives). Since 1990 there has been a right to have legal counsel in criminal cases. In 1996, the Constitutional Court ruled that only the defense has the right of appeal. Counteracting these restrictions on prosecutorial power, the law continues to allow judges to remand a case to the procurator for further investigation, rather than to declare the defendant guilty or innocent.
Judges hold varying terms of office. Constitutional Court judges are appointed to 15-year terms, Supreme Court judges to 10-year terms, and first-term local court judges to 3-year terms by recommendation of the president and confirmation by the Jogorku Kenesh (legislature). The 1993 constitution instituted a Western concept of judicial review by a Constitutional Court which did not exist under the former Soviet regime. Formed in 1993, the Constitutional Court reviews legislation and administrative acts for consistency with the constitution. It also considers cases on appeal involving individual rights and liberties of citizens. Constitutional Court decisions are final. There is also a higher court of arbitration and a system of lower courts for economic cases.
Libel is a criminal offense and so there is much self-censorship among Kyrgyz journalists. Access to the internet is not controlled and there are no reports of government censorship of internet material. Freedom of assembly and association are generally respected, as seen by the massive protests of 2005. In March 2004, the president signed a law limiting the crimes that carry the death penalty to aggravated murder, rape of underage children, and genocide.
the trafficking of women and girls into forced prostitution abroad continued to be a serious problem and some victims have reported that Kyrgyz authorities are involved in trafficking. In response, the criminal code was amended in 2003 to punish trafficking with up to 20 years in prison, and the Ministry of Internal Affairs opened an anti-trafficking police unit in 2004. the tradition of bride kidnapping and forcing women into marriage persists despite being illegal, and few are prosecuted for the crime.
Kyrgyzstan is a member of many international organizations including the United Nations and the World Trade Organization.
Active armed forces in 2005 totaled 12,500 personnel. the Army had 8,500 personnel. Major components included 215 main battle tanks, 30 reconnaissance vehicles, 387 armored infantry fighting vehicles, 63 armored personnel carriers, and 246 artillery pieces. The Air Force had 4,000 personnel for which key combat elements included 72 fighter aircraft, of which 24 were in storage, and 9 attack helicopters. There was also an estimated 5,000 member paramilitary border guard force. Kyrgyzstan provided the UN with a total of 14 observers in four African countries. The United States, Denmark and Russia each have small contingents in Kyrgyzstan. The defense budget in 2005 totaled $73.1 million.
Kyrgyzstan was admitted to the United Nations (UN) on 2 March 1992; it is part of several specialized organizations, such as the FAO, IFC, IMF, UNCTAD, UNESCO, and the World Bank. the country is a member of the CIS, the WTO, the Asian Development Bank, the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), the NATO Partnership for Peace, and the OSCE. In June 2001, leaders of Kazakhstan, China, Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan met in China to launch the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) and to sign an agreement to fight terrorism and ethnic and religious militancy while promoting trade. Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Belarus, and Tajikistan established the Eurasian Economic Community in 2000.
The United States and the European Union (EU) nations, along with many others, have diplomatic relations with the country. Kyrgyzstan has especially good relations with Germany, neighboring Central Asian states, and China. The country maintains close ties with other former USSR nations. In environmental cooperation, Kyrgyzstan is part of the Basel Convention, Conventions on Biological Diversity and Air Pollution, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, and the UN Conventions on Climate Change and Desertification.
Kyrgyzstan is among the poorest of the post-Soviet countries. the poverty rate was officially estimated at 40.8% in 2004, although Western estimates place it at around 84%. Although coal, gold, mercury, and uranium deposits are considerable, the country boasts few of the oil and gas reserves that promise a badly needed economic windfall to other Central Asian republics.
Kyrgyzstan's economy is primarily agricultural, with cotton, tobacco, wool, and meat being the primary agricultural products, although only cotton and tobacco are exported in any significant quantities. In 2005, 37.1% of GDP was in the agricultural sector; industry accounted for 21.9% and services for 41%. Over 50% of the labor force is engaged in agriculture.
Under the presidency of Askar Akayev, the process for economic restructuring toward a free market orientation outpaced that of most other post-Soviet republics, yet the transition has been an extremely difficult one. Dissolution of the state ordering system in Kyrgyzstan and its reduction in other post-Soviet republics have disrupted the traditional supply channels and effective markets for the country's industries, severely affecting overall economic performance. Akayev was ousted in spring 2005, and former Prime Minister Kurmanbek Bakiyev was elected president in July 2005. Under Bakiyev, concerns to be addressed include continuing privatizations, expansion of democracy and political freedoms, and reduction of corruption, among others.
As of 1995, 59.5% of enterprises had been privatized or converted to joint stock companies; privatized firms accounted for more than half the GDP that year. Some 50% of industrial firms, 75% of agriculture, and 90% of retail trade were privatized by 1995. By 1999, most of the state-owned enterprises had been sold. Kyrgyzstan was the first CIS country to become a member of the WTO.
The Kyrgyz government instituted tight monetary and fiscal policies in 1994 that reduced inflation from 23% per month in 1993 to 5.4% in 1994 and further, to 2.3% in 1995. Inflation was up again to 18% in 1998. Gross domestic product grew by an average annual rate of 7% from 1987 to 1998, with a 1998 growth rate of 1.8%.
A reform of the government structure in early 1992 consolidated 41 ministries into 13 ministries and 7 commissions. As part of this change, the Ministry of Economy and Finance was established to assume the fiscal and economic planning duties previously carried out separately by the Ministry of Finance and the State Planning Committee. In May 1993, Kyrgyzstan was the first country of the CIS countries to announce the introduction of its own currency, the som. Although taken in order to stabilize the national economy in face of continuing turmoil in the ruble zone, this step posed a large setback to previous negotiations for a single monetary union with other post-Soviet republics. The som has been remarkably stable since 1994, and is considered the most stable currency in Central Asia, although the government still faces excessive debt.
A decline in output from the Kumtor gold mine in 2002 resulted in an 0.5% decline in GDP, although GDP growth rebounded to some 6% over the 2003–05 period. The government reduced the fiscal deficit to 1% of GDP in 2005. The government in 2005–06 was embarking upon a poverty-reduction and economic-expansion program, and promised reforms in the tax system.
The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005, Kyrgyzstan's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $9.3 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $1,800. the annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 2%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 4.2%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 37.1% of GDP, industry 21.9%, and services 41%.
According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $108 million or about $21 per capita and accounted for approximately 5.6% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $198 million or about $39 per capita and accounted for approximately 10.7% of the gross national income (GNI).
The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Kyrgyzstan totaled $1.36 billion or about $269 per capita based on a GDP of $1.9 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of -3.7%. In 2001 it was estimated that approximately 33% of household consumption was spent on food, 11% on fuel, 3% on health care, and 22% on education. It was estimated that in 2004 about 40% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.
In 2000 (the latest year for which data was available), the labor force totaled an estimated 2.7 million persons. As of that year, agriculture engaged 55%, industry 15%, and services 30%. the estimated unemployment rate in 2004 was 18%.
A labor comprehensive law protects the right of all workers to form and belong to unions. The Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Kyrgyzstan (FITUK), successor to the former Sovietera official unions, remains the single trade union umbrella organization. Nineteen of the 20 union organizations in Kyrgyzstan are affiliated with FITUK. The exception is the union of entrepreneurs and cooperative members, which essentially is an association of over 80,000 self-employed persons. Strikes are permitted. Collective bargaining is legally recognized and is used to negotiate workers conditions on a limited basis.
The standard workweek is 41 hours. Safety and health regulations in factories are generally not enforced. Child labor is widespread due to economic hardship. The government set the minimum wage at $2.00 per month, which does not provide a decent standard of living.
In 2003, Kyrgyzstan's crop-producing land amounted to 1,365,000 hectares (3,373,000 acres), or 7.1% of the total land area. About 50% of this area is used to cultivate fodder crops, 42% for winter wheat and barley, 5% for commercial crops (cotton, sugar beets, mulberry trees for silkworms, and tobacco), with the remaining 3% used for growing potatoes and other vegetables. Cultivation occurs primarily in the Shu, Talas, and Fergana valleys. About 39% of GDP was derived from agriculture in 2003. Since independence, about 75% of state farms have been privatized.
Wheat is Kyrgyzstan's main grain crop. Total wheat production was estimated at 998,000 tons in 2004. Individual farmers account for over half of production; state farms, about 40%; and the rest by private households. Production of barley in 2004 was estimated at 233,000 tons; corn, 453,000 tons; and rice, 18,000 tons.
Tobacco is an important cash crop in Kyrgyzstan. the areas around Osh and Jalālābād in the Fergana Valley and the Talas oblast to the north of Osh are the three major tobacco growing regions. The estimated total production was 13,000 tons in 2004.
About 48% of the total land area is considered permanent pastureland. Because of the rugged topography, pasture-based stock breeding is the agricultural mainstay.
Livestock in 2005 included 4 million chickens, 2,964,900 sheep, 1,035,000 cattle, 361,100 horses, 808,400 goats, and 83,000 pigs. Yaks are also bred. Meat production in 2005 totaled 196,000 tons; cow's milk, 1,114,000 tons; wool (greasy), 10,000 tons; and eggs, 18,000 tons.
The Naryn River is the primary site of fishing activity, but fishing is of little commercial significance. The Yssk Kol Lake is slightly saline and not conducive to the development of fresh water species fishing. The total catch in 2003 was 26 tons, including 14 tons of carp.
Forests and woodlands account for about 5.2% of the total land area. With 85% of the country covered by high-altitude mountain ranges, and coupled with an underdeveloped transportation system, the forestry sector is not commercially significant. Imports of forest products totaled $13.3 million in 2004.
Kyrgyzstan's southwestern region contained most of the nation's mineral wealth, including, most importantly, antimony (often found with lead-zinc), mercury (often found with fluorspar), and gold. Principal deposits of these minerals were found in the Kadamzhayskiy Rayon and Khaydarkan regions, in the Alay foothills. The Khaydarkan mercury mining and metallurgical complex, in the Osh region, was the major producer of metallic mercury in the former Soviet Union.
In 2002, Kyrgyzstan produced 537 metric tons of metallic mercury, a decline from 579 metric tons in 2001. Antimony metal and compounds production in 2002 totaled 1,504 metric tons. the mountains also contained deposits of gold, mercury, tungsten, molybdenum, rare earth metals, indium, sulfur, tin, and arsenic. Gold production in 2002 was estimated at 18,000 kg. Output figures in 2002 were: fluorspar concentrate, estimated at 2,750 metric tons, up from 1,175 metric tons in 2001; and cement 532,800 metric tons, up from 468,900 metric tons in 2001.
Unlike its Central Asian neighbors, Kyrgyzstan has insignificant reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Kyrgyzstan's principal energy resources are its deposits of coal. Sub-bituminous coal deposits are found on the southern fringe of the Fergana Valley (at Suluktu and Kyzl-Kyya), while hard coal comes from the west and northwest fringes of the valley (at Tash-Komur, Jalal-Abad, and Osh) and in the Tian Shan foothills east of Ysyk Kol Lake. In 2002, coal production amounted to 506,000 short tons, of which lignite or brown coal accounted for 387,000 short tons and bituminous copal 119,000 short tons. However, demand for coal in that year amounted to 1,369,000 short tons, necessitating the import of 978,000 short tons to make up the difference.
Several large hydroelectric projects are spread along the Naryn River and its headwater tributaries, and a series of dams built on irrigation canals, produce power for the manufacturing sector around Bishkek. The two major electric power plants are a 1,200 MW facility at Toktogul and a 760 MW generator at Bishkek. In 2002, electrical production totaled 13.046 billion kWh, of which nearly 91.8% came from hydropower and 8.2% from fossil fuels. Of the electric power produced, 27% was exported in 2002, mainly to Uzbekistan. Total installed capacity in 2002 was 3.779 million kW. Consumption of electricity in 2002 was 8.938 billion kWh.
Production of oil and natural gas in small quantities comes from fields at the northeastern edge of the Fergana Valley. In 2002, Kyrgyzstan produced an average of 2,000 barrels per day of oil. However, demand for oil averaged 10,090 barrels per day in that year, requiring Kyrgyzstan to import (including crude oil) an average of 8,320 barrels of oil per day. As with oil, domestic natural gas production satisfies only a small percentage of domestic demand. In 2002, Kyrgyzstan's natural gas consumption came to 42.38 billion cu ft, while production was only at 350 million cu ft. Natural gas imports for that year came to 42.38 billion cu ft. A crude oil refinery was built in Dzhalalahad in 1997 by a Kyrgyz-Canadian joint venture. It produces heavy fuel oil, diesel fuel, and gasoline. In 2002, production of refined petroleum products averaged 2,350 barrels per day.
During the Soviet era, industry in Kyrgyzstan was totally dependent on the other republics for raw materials and other resources. Between 1985 and 1989, industrial output increased at a rate of over 5% annually. With the disruption of traditional supply and export arrangements within the former USSR, however, industrial output declined by 1% in 1990 and dropped by over 23% in 1992. Industrial production decreased by 24% in 1994 and by another 12.5% in 1995. By mid-1995, production began to recover and in 1997, Kyrgyzstan reported an industrial growth rate of 7%, and one of 14% for 1998. The high growth rate in 1998 was associated with a steep rise in gold production. Nearly all of Kyrgyzstan's industrial output derives from the capital of Bishkek and surrounding areas. Mechanical and electrical engineering (vehicle assembly, washing machines, electrical appliances, electronics), light industry (mainly textiles and wool processing), and food processing make up close to 75% of the country's industrial production and 80% of its industrial exports. Other important industries include chemicals, leather goods such as shoes, and construction materials (primarily cement). In 2004, the industrial production rate stood at 7.l%. In the early- and mid-2000s, the mining sector accounted for the majority of foreign investment. the high world price for gold also contributed to a rise in GDP and attracted foreign investment in the mid-2000s.
The government passed the Privatization and Denationalization Act in December 1991, authorizing the transfer of all small, medium, and large-scale industrial enterprises to the private sector. The Concept Law on Privatization, passed in 1994, was designed to correct early problems with the transition. By 1995, about 600 enterprises had been sold, with 250 fully privatized. the transition was also expected to involve the conversion of defense industries to civilian use under private ownership. One important conversion involved the participation of a South Korean firm in establishing electronics manufacture at a plant previously geared toward military-related production. The government is encouraging the purchase of substantial shares of individual enterprises by worker collectives, although more widespread and noncollective ownership is also being promoted. By 1999, much of the government's stock had been sold.
The Kyrgyz Academy of Sciences, founded in 1954 at Bishkek, has departments of physical engineering, mathematics, mining geological sciences, and chemical-technological, medical-technological, agricultural, and biological sciences. Attached to the academy are 24 specialized learned societies and research institutes concerned with agriculture, medicine, natural sciences, and technology. Kyrgyz State University has faculties of geography, physics, mathematics, information science and applied mathematics, biology, and chemistry. Agricultural and medical institutes and a technical university are located in Bishkek. The city also has a botanical garden and a scientific and technical library.
In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 14% of college and university enrollments. In 2002, there were 413 researchers and 51 technicians actively engaged in research and development (R&D) per million people. For that same year, R&D expenditures totaled $16.104 million, or 0.20% of GDP, with business and government accounting for 52.7% and 45.9%, respectively. Higher education accounted for only 0.1%, with foreign sources providing the remaining 1.2%. High technology exports in 2002 amounted to $6 million, or 6% of manufactured exports.
As in other post-Soviet republics, structural reform appears to be proceeding most rapidly in the domestic retail sector. Small shops and traders predominate among the country's private retailing entities. However, expansion in the number of private wholesale distributors has been much less marked, placing small retailers in a disadvantaged position compared with large-scale and potentially monopolistic producers within the country's industrial sector. As of 2006, the government continued to work toward reforms, including greater privatization, that would strengthen a market economy. A 20% value-added tax applies to most goods and services.
Most businesses open around 9 am and close at about 6 pm, with lunch taken sometime between noon and 2 pm. Some offices are open from 9 am to 1 pm on Saturdays. Retail shops are usually open from 7 am to 8 pm, with an afternoon lunch period. Department stores, bookstores, and other shops usually open according to state institution hours. Bazaars are open from 6 am until 7 or 8 pm.
Since 1992, Kyrgyzstan's trade balance has been negative, continuing the structural deficit caused by the costs of oil and gas, pharmaceuticals, and agricultural resources formerly supplied through internal trade with other Soviet republics. The primary export partners in 2004 were: the United Arab Emirates (28.2%); Russia (19.1%); China (12%); Kazakhstan (11.1%); and Switzerland (6.3%). Import partners included: China (26.3%); Russia (22.3%); Kazakhstan (17.1%); and Turkey (5.4%).
Kyrgyzstan exports metals, including gold, mercury, iron, steel and uranium; hydropower; tobacco; cotton; road vehicles; and inorganic chemicals.
Kyrgyzstan had traditionally maintained a trade deficit, derived mostly from dependence on imports from other former Soviet republics. Exports began to increase by 1995, however; the country registered relatively high growth rates in the early 2000s and had a trade surplus in 2001. Foreign exchange reserves are minimal ($593.2 million in 2005). In 2001, the IMF awarded Kyrgyzstan $93 million in aid over a three-year period. Total external debt as of January 2005 stood at $2.428 billion.
In 2005, exports were valued at $759 million, and imports at $937.4 million. The current-account balance in 2005 was estimated at -$77.02 million.
The central bank of Kyrgyzstan is the National Bank of the Kyrgyz Republic (NBK). It heads all 20 banks in the system, the savings bank, three former specialized state banks that have been converted into joint-stock commercial banks, two foreign joint-venture banks, and commercial banks. The specialized banks still dominate the allocation of credit and the taking of deposits, although some smaller banks are starting to challenge the major banks. However, many of the country's commercial banks have only one office. The larger banks have large bad loan portfolios; Promstroybank (Construction Bank) had 80% of its loans overdue at the end of 1994. Bank failures and bank consolidation were common during the late 1990s.
The NBK, formerly the local branch of Gosbank (the State Bank of the former Soviet Union), began to operate independently in
|United Arab Emirates||144.3||7.8||136.5|
|(…) data not available or not significant.|
|Balance on goods||-82.7|
|Balance on services||7.0|
|Balance on income||-61.7|
|Direct investment abroad||…|
|Direct investment in Kyrgyzstan||45.5|
|Portfolio investment assets||1.1|
|Portfolio investment liabilities||5.0|
|Other investment assets||-78.1|
|Other investment liabilities||23.5|
|Net Errors and Omissions||71.6|
|Reserves and Related Items||-3.8|
|(…) data not available or not significant.|
December 1991 and is intended to perform all the functions of a central bank. The government has stuck with a tight monetary policy. The currency unit was initially the ruble following independence; however, with IMF support, the government introduced a new currency, the som, in May 1993 in order to stabilize the economy, avoid the inflation of the ruble, and attract foreign investment. The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $114.9 million. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $170.2 million. the money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 11.9%.
The country has a small stock exchange, opened in May 1995. As of January 1996, 298 companies issued securities, with 7 trading on the stock exchange.
No recent information is available.
During the early 1990s, economic output declined, while inflation escalated. As a result, the proportion of public revenues in GDP plummeted. Transfers from the former Soviet Union amounting to over 11% of GDP largely created an overall budget surplus equivalent to 4.1% of GDP in 1991. In 1992, parliament agreed to a further tightening of fiscal policy (including decreased expenditures and the elimination of transfers to inefficient state enterprises) due to the virtual termination of inflowing subsidies caused by the demise of the Soviet Union. The som, currency introduced by the government in May 1993, has proven fairly stable, and monthly inflation has slowed from 40% to about 10%.
The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Kyrgyzstan's central government took in revenues of approximately $516.3 million and had expenditures of $539.9 million.
|Revenue and Grants||12,482.1||100.0%|
|General public services||3,202.7||24.5%|
|Public order and safety||752||5.7%|
|Housing and community amenities||800.9||6.1%|
|Recreational, culture, and religion||295||2.3%|
|(…) data not available or not significant.|
Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$23.6 million. Total external debt was $2.428 billion.
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2001, the most recent year for which it had data, budgetary central government revenues were som12,482.1 million and expenditures were som13,098.8 million. The value of revenues was us$258 million and expenditures us$271 million, based on a official exchange rate for 2001 of us$1 = som48.378 as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 24.5%; defense, 7.5%; public order and safety, 5.7%; economic affairs, 10.9%; housing and community amenities, 6.1%; health, 10.5%; recreation, culture, and religion, 2.3%; education, 21.7%; and social protection, 10.8%.
The personal income tax varies up to a maximum rate of 40%; the corporate rate ranges from 15–55% with a standard rate of 35%. Also levied are a 20% value-added tax; a withholding tax ranging from zero to 5%; and a social security contribution of 37% by employers and 1% by employees.
Imports are subject to customs duties at an average rate of 10%. The rate is 10–20% for certain products, including tobacco, alcoholic beverages, precious metals, and petroleum. Imported raw materials and imports from the former USSR are exempt. Also, a 20% value-added tax is levied on products from everywhere except Azerbaijan, Belarus, and Russia. Kazakhstan, Belarus, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan have formed a customs union. Kyrgyzstan and the United States signed a most-favored nation agreement in 1992.
In June 1991, the Kyrgyzstan parliament passed the Foreign Investment Law guiding the establishment of local enterprises with foreign shareholding as well as 100% foreign ownership. the law secures the right to repatriation of profits and allows foreign investment in all sectors of the economy except military production and certain forms of ownership in agriculture. Foreign buyers may acquire small enterprises being transferred from the state to the private sector directly on the open market; foreign participation in auctions or other forms of bidding for medium and large-scale enterprises requires special government permission. At present, the government is attempting to attract overseas investors, particularly to the minerals, electronics, and agro-processing sectors of the economy. In 1995, the Foreign Investment Law was amended to expand foreign investment opportunities, to clarify investors' rights, and to remove or extend some time limits on certain aspects of foreign investment. Foreign direct investment (FDI) that year amounted to about $800 million, and was rising at a slow but steady rate. Investments from Canada represented 45% of the total; these were concentrated primarily in gold mining (the largest single project being the $375 million development of the Kumtor gold field). Investments from Turkey comprised about 20% of the total; those from the United States, 12%; and China, 10%. In 1998, foreign direct investment totaled $102 million, up from $83 million in 1997.
In 2004, the Kyrgyz government founded the National Council for Good Governance that was tasked with tackling corruption. The government is working with NGOs, international financial institutions, and international donors, to develop a plan to combat corruption. The government and members of the business and diplomatic communities have met to discuss reforms and a strategy to market the Kyrgyz Republic to foreign investors. Reforms are to be made in the banking sector, in addition to legal reforms and infrastructure improvement. Taxes are complex, with businesses paying anywhere from 12 to 19 different taxes; some of these are not financially burdensome, but require time-consuming accounting. There are currently four free economic zones (FEZs) in Kyrgyzstan: at Bishkek, Naryn, Karakol, and Maimak. FDI totaled $116 million in 2002, an increase from $90 million in 2001. In 2002, the countries providing the largest sources of FDI included: the United States ($39.1 million); Germany ($31.4 million); Turkey ($30 million); Canada ($25.7 million); South Korea ($11.7 million); and China ($10 million).
Under the Soviet system, economic planning efforts in Kyrgyzstan focused on increasing agricultural production (particularly in the meat and dairy subsectors during the 1980s) and specialized development of industrial sectors in line with the wider Soviet economy. Transfer payments from the central government as well as capital inflows into state enterprises covered the republic's modest balance of trade deficit with its Soviet trading partners and countries beyond. With this support, GDP growth was sustained at moderately high levels in the late 1980s, averaging 5.1% in 1985–89.
Kyrgyzstan declared its independence in 1991. Since then, the Kyrgyzstan government faced the task of sustaining a viable national economy despite the sudden cessation of transfers from the central government, the country's critical dependence on oil and gas imports, and its landlocked geographic position that has hampered development of trading ties outside the economically troubled former Soviet Union. Reforms have aimed at making the transition to a market-oriented economy.
Kyrgyzstan experienced declines in gross domestic product (GDP) from 1991–94. Both per capita income and overall output fell to well below the 1990 level. Agricultural output fell by an estimated 20%, and industrial output, by 42%. By 1996, however, Kyrgyzstan had begun to show progress, especially when compared to the other former Soviet republics, in the areas of privatizing state enterprises, ending the state ordering system, lifting price controls, and converting military enterprises to civilian uses. Prime Minister Apas Jumagulov reported in 1995 that the economic crises had eased, and the rates of decline were slowing.
A value-added tax was introduced in 1992 to help strengthen the government revenue base. Expected state revenues, however, have fallen short of expectation due to steeply declining consumption and collection difficulties within the new tax system. With seriously declining revenues since 1991, the government's ability to make new development investments in either the productive sectors or physical and social infrastructure has been severely constrained. Capital expenditures as a percentage of total budgetary expenditures declined from 15% in 1990 to only 7% in 1992. Because of its commitment to democracy, Kyrgyzstan has received favorable treatment from international economic aid agencies. In 1992, the government signed a formal agreement with Russia transferring its share of the former Soviet Union's external debt to the latter in return for relinquishing most claims to the financial and other assets of the former USSR.
In May 1996, President Akayev negotiated an aid package from the Asian Development Bank that included $60 million in loans to finance privatization of agriculture and to renovate power and heating facilities in Bishkek. In support of the government's efforts to evolve the country's agriculture from large communes to private farms, the Asian Development Bank also offered loans to small farmers. In July 1996, the International Finance Corporation promised $40 million to finance a project to mine for gold near Issy-Kul', a large lake in the northeast. In November 1996, the World Bank moved to support programs to reform the Kyrgyzstan banking system and to modernize the electric power generating system. In 2001, the IMF awarded Kyrgyzstan $93 million in aid over a three-year period, and that year Kyrgyzstan received $50 million in aid from the United States.
In 2001, the government published its Comprehensive Development Framework (CDF) for 2001–10. The CDF contains the following goals for strengthening the economic stability of the country: modernization of the telecommunications, transportation, and tourism infrastructures; reduction and rationalization of the government's regulatory role in the economy; implementation of more sound fiscal, monetary, and taxation policies; reform of the judicial system to protect property rights; poverty reduction and employment creation, especially among Kyrgyz youth; and strengthening and reforming the banking sector. In addition to these goals, by 2006 other ingredients of future growth included progress fighting corruption, further restructuring of domestic industry, and success in attracting foreign investment.
Old age, disability, and survivorship pensions are provided to all employed persons and members of cooperatives and collective farms. Contributions of 8% of earnings from employees, and 25% of payroll by employers finance the program. A universal medical care system exists for all residents. Maternity benefits for employed women include 100% of pay for 126 days of leave. Workers' compensation, unemployment benefits, and family allowances are also provided.
Women have equal status under the law, although discrimination persists. Women are well-represented in the workforce in urban areas, and participate in higher education and professional fields. However, they appear to be disproportionately affected by growing unemployment. A women's congress in Bishkek convenes periodically to consider women's issues. Opportunities for women are lacking in the rural areas. Domestic abuse and violence against women remain common. The lack of government funds impacts the programs aimed at assisting children. Child labor is increasingly common.
There is reported discrimination in hiring, promotion, and housing against citizens who are not ethnic Kyrgyz. Police brutality has been reported, as well as arbitrary arrest and detention. The government violates basic civil rights, including the freedoms of speech, assembly, association, and the press. In 2004 the human rights record showed improvement. There were problems with freedom of speech and the press, due process for the accused, religious freedom, ethnic discrimination, and electoral irregularities. There are cases of police brutality and arbitrary arrest, but the number of incidents is declining. Citizens have only a limited ability to peaceably change their government. there are independent newspapers, magazines, and radio stations, and some independent television broadcasts, although the government takes measures to curtail the operations of independent media.
Kyrgyzstan's health care system has remained state-run following the breakup of the Soviet Union. Primary health care is being restructured using a family group practice model. As of 2004, there were an estimated 268 physicians, 675 nurses, and 26 dentists per 100,000 people. Approximately 26% of the country's hospital beds were eliminated between 1990 and 1996, but hospital expenditures still account for more than 70% of health care spending. Total health care expenditure was estimated at 4.4% of GDP.
The infant mortality rate in 2005 was 35.64 per 1,000 live births and the maternal mortality rate was 65 per 100,000 live births. As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, 26.1 and 9.1 per 1,000 people. Major causes of death were communicable diseases and maternal/perinatal causes and injuries. Immunization rates for children up to one year old were tuberculosis, 97%, and polio, 84%. As of 1999 the rates for DPT and measles immunizations were, 98% and 97%, respectively. Tuberculosis incidence and mortality rates are rising steeply, reflecting economic hardship and the deterioration of the health infrastructure. Controlled for 30 years, diphtheria has reemerged since the breakup of the Soviet Union. Nearly 50% of these cases occurred in persons 15 or under. The cancer mortality rates in Kyrgyzstan were higher than the medium human development countries. In 2005, life expectancy was 68.16 years.
The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.10 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 3,900 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 200 deaths from AIDS in 2003.
During the Soviet era, there was a severe lack of urban housing in Kyrgyzstan. In 1990, Kyrgyzstan had 12.1 sq m of housing space per capita and nearly 85,000 households (or 18.6%) were on waiting lists for housing in urban areas. At the first census in 1999, there were about 1,109,716 households in the country; the average number of members per household was 4.3. Overcrowding is a problem both in urban and rural areas; it is not unusual for two or three generations of family members to live in a single household. From 1996–2000, only about 14,800 new dwellings were built. the rate of housing constructions has not kept pace with the growth of population. But just as troubling is the slow rate of maintenance and improvement of the existing housing stock. In some apartment complexes, an entire floor may share one toilet. In 2000, about 77% of the population had access to improved water sources; most residents had some access to improved sanitation.
The educational system was not developed until after the 1920s when the country came under Soviet control. Primary school covers four years of study and is compulsory. This is followed by five years of basic secondary studies. At this stage, students may continue for two years of complete secondary education (necessary for university studies) or opt for a three-year vocational program. There are also training programs available for over 200 trades. the academic year runs from September to July.
In 2001, about 14% of children between the ages of three and five were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 89% of age-eligible students. It is estimated that about 93% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 24:1 in 2003.
The State University of Kyrgyzstan is the main institution of higher education. In 2003, about 42% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program. the adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 98.7%.
The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture is the primary administrative body. As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 4.4% of GDP, or 18.6% of total government expenditures.
Important libraries in Kyrgyzstan include the National Library of the Kyrgyz Republic, with over 3.6 million volumes, and the Scientific Technical Library of Kyrgyzstan, with over 5.8 million volumes. The Kyrgyzstan State University library contains over 931,000 volumes, the Kyrgyzstan Agricultural Institute holds 626,000, and the Kyrgyzstan Technical University holds 766,000 volumes.
The State Historical Museum of Kyrgyzstan has 20,000 items on display depicting the history of Kyrgyzstan. The Kyrgyzstan Museum of Fine Arts collects primarily modern work. There are several regional museums exhibiting primarily archaeological findings.
Telephone links to other former Soviet republics are via land line or microwave, and to other countries through Moscow. the telephone network is underdeveloped, with some 41,000 residents waiting for telephone lines as of 2003. In 2003, there were an estimated 76 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people. the same year, there were approximately 27 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.
The state-owned Kyrgyz National TV and Radio Broadcasting Corp. has the widest broadcast range, but still could not reach the entire nation as of 2005. In 1998, there were 12 AM and 14 FM radio stations. In 2003, there were an estimated 110 radios and 49 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 12.7 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 38 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were two secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.
In 2004, between 40 and 50 newspapers and magazines were published on a regular basis. The largest daily newspapers (with 2002 circulation figures) were Sovetik Kyrzystan (circulation 162,625), Slovo Kyrgyzstan (in Russian, circulation 111,000), Vecherni Bishkek (also in Russian, with a circulation of 51,500), and Kyrgyz Tuusu. The state-operated printing house, Uchkun, is the primary printing facility for the nation's major newspapers. An independent printing press was opened in 2003 by a group known as Media Support Center; by late 2004, this press was reportedly publishing about 50 commercial and political newspapers.
On 2 July 1992 the government passed a law on the press and mass media which supports freedom of the press but also provides guidelines proscribing publication of certain information. the law supports the right of journalists to work, obtain information, and publish without prior restraint. The law prohibits publication of state secrets, material which advocates the overthrow of, or changes to, the existing constitutional order in Kyrgyzstan or elsewhere. It also prohibits publication of material that advocates war, violence, or intolerance toward ethnic or religious groups. Desecration of national norms, ethics, and symbols like the national seal, anthem, or flag is prohibited. Publication of pornography is prohibited, as is propagation of untrue information.
Important economic organizations in Kyrgyzstan include the Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the Kyrgyzstan Council of Free Trade Unions. Active political organizations include the Committee for the Defense of Human Rights, the Slavic Fund, Free Kyrgyzstan, Agigat, and Ashar. The Kyrgyz Bar Association was formed in August 1995. The Congress of Women of the Kyrgyz Republic serves as an umbrella organization for women's development groups. There are a number of sports associations and clubs through the country. The Kyrgyzstan Medical Association is one of several professional associations dedicated to research and education in specialized fields. Kiwanis International and the Lions Clubs have programs in the country. The Red Crescent Society and Habitat for Humanity are also active.
The development in tourism has been a main priority of Kyrgyzstan since it gained its independence in 1991. Osh, Kyrgyzstan's second-largest city, is considered a holy city by Muslim pilgrims who visit it annually to pray at its Islamic shrines. The capital city of Bishkek is surrounded by some of the highest mountain ranges in the world. Bishkek is known for its large public parks and gardens, shady avenues, and botanical gardens. Equestrian sports are very popular in Kyrgyzstan.
Passports and visas are required for entry to Kyrgyzstan and are not obtainable at land borders or other airports. the principal accommodations are hotels that formerly belonged to the Soviet Intourist system. However, foreign chains have developed a number of projects in Central Asia. In 2002 there were 139,589 visitors who arrived in Kyrgyzstan, of whom 63% came from Europe.
In 2004, the US Department of State estimated the daily expenses of staying in Kyrgyzstan at $189.
Askar A. Akayev was elected president of the republic of Kyrgyzstan, in October 1990, prior to the republic declaring its independence. He remained president until 2005, when he was deposed in the popular uprising known as the "Tulip Revolution." Kurmanbek Bakiyev (b.1949) became acting president in 2005. Chinghiz Aitmatov (b.1928), winner of two Lenin Prizes for literature, is a native Kyrgyzstani.
Kyrgyzstan has no territories or colonies.
Abazov, Rafis. Historical Dictionary of Kyrgyzstan. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow, 2003.
Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe. Human Rights and Democracy in Kyrgyzstan: Hearing Before the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, One Hundred Seventh Congress, First Session, December 12, 2001. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing office, 2002.
Foreign Investment and Privatisation in Kyrgyzstan. London: Clifford Chance, 1993.
Handrahan, Lori. Gendering Ethnicity: Implications for Democracy Assistance. New York: Routledge, 2002.
Kolsto, Pal. Russians in the Former Soviet Republics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995.
Kort, Michael. Central Asian Republics. New York: Facts On File, 2004.
Kyrgyzstan: The Transition to a Market Economy. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1993.
Seddon, David (ed.). A Political and Economic Dictionary of the Middle East. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2004.
"Kyrgyzstan." Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations. 2007. Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2586700211.html
"Kyrgyzstan." Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations. 2007. Retrieved June 25, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2586700211.html
|Official Country Name:||Kyrgyz Republic|
|Region:||East & South Asia|
|Language(s):||Kirghiz (Kyrgyz), Russian|
|Number of Primary Schools:||1,885|
|Compulsory Schooling:||10 years|
|Public Expenditure on Education:||5.3%|
|Foreign Students in National Universities:||125|
|Educational Enrollment:||Primary: 473,077|
|Educational Enrollment Rate:||Primary: 104%|
|Student-Teacher Ratio:||Primary: 20:1|
|Female Enrollment Rate:||Primary: 103%|
History & Background
The Republic of Kyrgyzstan is a small, mountainous, landlocked country in Central Asia approximately the size of the U.S. state of South Dakota and with a population in 1999 of 4.8 million inhabitants. Bordered by China in the east, Kazakhstan in the north, Uzbekistan in the west, and Tajikistan in the south, it was one of the smaller, more obscure constituent republics of the former Soviet Union when it declared its independence on 1 January 1991.
Kyrgyzstan gets its name from its largest ethnic group, the Kyrgyz. Originally a group of nomadic peoples from the southern Siberian steppes, they migrated south between the eleventh and sixteenth centuries into modern day Kyrgyzstan. As a nomadic people, the Kyrgyz did not possess a written language until it was transcribed around 1862, using the Cyrillic alphabet. This period also saw the beginning of Russian colonization of Kyrgyzstan, a migration that today has resulted in a significant number of ethnic Russians living in Kyrgyzstan. When the Kyrgyz arrived in present day Kyrgyzstan, they encountered a sedentary people in the flatter more southerly areas, the Uzbeks. Thus today the country is made up of 65 percent Kyrgyz, 12 percent Russian, and 13 percent Uzbeks with a very small number (less than 1 percent) of Tadjiks, Ukrainians, Koreans, and Jewish ethnic minorities. This breakdown, however, conceals regional differences whereby Russians are concentrated in the major cities, Uzbeks constitute a majority in the south, and ethnic Kyrgyz are predominant in the more mountainous and rural areas.
Russian presence and influence in Kyrgyzstan was particularly significant following the Russian revolution of 1917-1918. At this time central Russian control was exercised by the placement of Russians in positions of authority. Moreover, the educational system for the 70 years of Soviet control was based exclusively on the Russian/Soviet model of Marxist-Leninist orthodoxy, a system that today is generally being replaced by a more western capitalist model and curriculum. Therefore, understanding the Kyrgyz educational system invariably involves an understanding of the Soviet system that it replaced and the changes in the external and internal educational environments that have occurred since 1990. In addition to this environment is the emergence in certain parts of the country, particularly the south, of an Islamic system of schooling. This reflects both that the Kyrgyz and southern Uzbeks and Tadjiks are followers of Islam and that religion is a force in the cultural base. Thus there is a rise in Islam as a force in education in the country.
The period of Soviet control was particularly marked in Kyrgyzstan by a rise in literacy. In 1926, at the time of the first Soviet census, there were 65,636 males in the Kyrgyz Socialist Soviet Republic, and 30,846 were literate; there were 63,430 females, and 13,936 were literate. In the census of 1989, just before the collapse of the Soviet Union, only 3 percent of the population (males 1.4 percent and females 4.5 percent) was considered illiterate.
With limited natural resources, a lack of internationally competitive industries, and a landlocked status, Kyrgyzstan has had some difficulty adjusting to a privatized, market economy. It is generally agreed that the process of economic and political transition has been one of the more successful of the former Soviet Republics, but not without significant economic hardship to the people. This hardship has dramatically affected the educational system.
In the years since independence, the other major issue within the new nation that has affected the educational system has been the search for and establishment of a Kyrgyz national identity, along with its resultant impact on the Russian, Uzbek, and other minorities. As a result of measures to establish a Kyrgyz identity, many Russians have emigrated from Kyrgyzstan while those who remain have perceived an erosion of their cultural identity as a result of preferential treatment for Kyrgyz cultural elements. This is important, as Russians formerly held the most important positions in technology, trade, and education. The loss of some 300,000 highly educated Russians in the last 10 years has significantly affected the administrative and educational functions in the country. In an attempt to offset these perceptions, the government has made Russian an official language along with Kyrgyz, established a Slavic university, and appointed prominent ethnic Russians to key government positions. Perhaps more problematic has been the resolution of the issue of Islamic fundamentalism. While Kyrgyzstan is an avowed secular state with Islam the predominant religion, its government has been required to address the incursion of Islamic separatist armed rebels into southern parts of the country, which in turn has diverted public funds to the military that might have gone toward education.
Constitutional & Legal Foundations
Constitutional Provisions & Laws Affecting Education: Universal free education in Kyrgyzstan was first enshrined in the USSR constitution in the 1970s. It provided for state-subsidized education for all with the goal of 100 percent literacy.
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the government wrote and adopted on the 12 May 1993 a constitution for the new nation. Article 32 in the constitution reads:
- Every citizen of the Kyrgyz Republic shall have the right to an education.
- General secondary education shall be compulsory and free of charge, and everyone shall be entitled to receive it in the state educational institutions.
- The state shall provide for the vocational, special secondary, and higher education for every person in accordance with individual aptitude.
- Paid education for citizens at national and other educational institutions shall be allowed on the basis of and in the procedure established by the legislation.
- The state shall exercise control over the activity of educational institutions.
By also including in Article 16 of the constitution the recognition and guarantees of other human rights, Kyrgyzstan became party to other treaties that affect education, such as discrimination against women, social rights, and the rights of children—all of which have major education provisions.
Upon independence, education was one of the first areas of social concern to be addressed. The Kyrgyz Republic's education law, enacted in 1992, has essentially governed the post-Soviet system of education.
In 1996, policy measures to implement the 1992 law on education were expanded in a national education program called "Bilim." These measures were to guide education development up to the year 2000. The policy addressed the issues of basic necessities (reading, writing, and problem solving), educational content (knowledge, values, and views), and the role of education in quality of life, decision-making, and educational goals. It is necessary to see "Bilim" as a response to what was perceived as a deteriorating system of education and the measures necessary for the government to take to stop this erosion in quality and accessibility. "Bilim" was essentially the policy framework under which Kyrgyzstan's educational system operated between 1996 and 2000, but various supplementary programs have also been introduced addressing such issues as access, educational response to rising poverty levels, international assistance, specialization in education, and bringing technology into the classroom.
In 1997 the Education Law of 1992 was amended to allow individual institutions to determine their own educational system and their own curriculum within set national funding amounts, standards, and curriculum guidelines. Essentially the system of higher education reflected item four of the constitution by becoming more fee-based and attempting to become more responsive to market demands.
Educational Philosophies: There were three dramatic changes in educational philosophy in Kyrgyzstan in the 1990s. The first paradigm shift was the move from a repetitive, rote learning educational philosophy to more problem-oriented critical thinking. The second was the attempt to offset declining literacy rates and school attendance with a program called "Education for All." This mobilized not only education professionals but also other government agencies, particularly social service agencies, and enlisted the assistance of a wide range of NGOs (nongovernmental organizations) and international aid agencies to combat the adverse effects on the school system of economic and social transition. The third is the movement toward a more national Kyrgyz identity that of necessity starts in the school system.
Compulsory Education & Age Limits: In 1996 Kyrgyzstan had a school age population of 674,000, which was up from 651,000 just 6 years earlier. Education is compulsory for 9 years, comprising 4 years in a primary school from age 6 through 10, followed by secondary school for 5 years up to the age of 15. At this point students can leave school or continue their studies in either an upper secondary school, a specialized secondary school, or a technical/vocational school. At 18 years of age, further education is conducted within the university system.
Academic Year: The academic year begins 1 September or as close to it as possible, and end of year exams are usually over by early June. Attestats (the graduation transcripts) are issued on 22 June and is usually the final event of the school year. The university year usually ends in May.
Enrollment: In 1995 enrollment in primary schools was 97 percent of the relevant age group; enrollment figures for compulsory secondary school are unknown, but in 1996 the gross enrollment percentage was 79 percent, which was down from a reported 100 percent in 1990. Thus it appears that as children get older they are increasingly not attending school but working to offset economic hardship in the family. Testament to this fact is that in 1996 enrollment for males (75 percent) was less than for females (83 percent). This suggests that the collapse of the Soviet Union has affected school enrollments.
Females & Minority Enrollments: Unlike many nations, Kyrgyzstan has full equality in education as a legacy of both the Soviet system and the new Kyrgyz constitution. In fact, the need for boys to assist in farm labor and periodic markets (bazaars ) means girls have a better attendance record than boys. Females make up 51 percent of primary school children, 55 percent of secondary school children, and 52 percent of university students Females also have a dominant role in the management of the educational system in Kyrgyzstan. The majority of teachers are female. Indeed, in 2001 Kyrgyzstan had an ethnic Kyrgyz female Minister of Education, Camilla Sharshekeeva. Similarly, the compulsory and universal access to education has meant that education for ethnic minorities has not been an issue at the primary and secondary level. The imposition of Kyrgyz nationalism within the educational system was a major driving force behind the establishment of a Slavonic University in 1993 to cater to the ethnic Slavic population in Kyrgyzstan.
Language of Instruction: In 1998, a total of 65.7 percent of primary and secondary schools taught in Kyrgyz, 6.9 percent in Russian, 20.1 percent mixed (Russian and Kyrgyz), 7.2 percent in Uzbek, and 0.3 percent in Tadjik. These figures indicate a rise in Kyrgyz instruction and a significant diminution (down 15 percent) in Russian in a 5 year period. In addition, of the 207 schools built between 1993 and 1998, some 138 were schools in which instruction is only in the Kyrgyz language. These percentages also reflect regional distribution of the ethnic groups within Kyrgyzstan, with most rural schools in the north and east teaching in Kyrgyz, while in the south, in the Fergana Valley, Uzbek and Tadjik are the preferred languages of instruction. The fact that prospective teachers attend and graduate from regional institutions of higher education in their own ethnic regions would seem to perpetrate this distribution.
In contrast, at institutes of higher education, Russian predominates as the language of instruction. This is due in part to the ready availability of Russian texts as opposed to Kyrgyz language texts. In 1993-1994, 64.6 percent of university students were taught in Russian, 34.7 percent in Kyrgyz, and 0.7 percent in Uzbek.
Examinations: Students are examined at the end of every semester with the summer examination determining whether the student advances to the next grade. Examinations at the end of secondary school are partly used as university entrance examinations. These are in conjunction with examinations set by the individual university for the field of study that the aspiring student wishes to enter. A national testing system was also introduced in 1993, but suspicion and distrust of the motives behind it has hampered its use as a barometer of success.
Grading System: Grading is done by individual teachers and professors. They enter grades into an official book, called unofficially by its Russian name of Zachotka, which the student will carry to prospective employers. It is common practice in Kyrgyzstan and throughout the former Soviet Union for teachers and university professors to accept payment to inflate student grades. This is directly attributable to the low salaries of the teaching staff. In addition, the institution is usually prepared to change student grades in order to place students in employment positions that will reflect favorably on the institution.
Private Schools: A large number of private schools commenced teaching in Kyrgyzstan following the breakup of the Soviet Union. All operate on a fee basis but often with outside sources subsidizing the institution. The most numerous are so-called gymnasiums, lyceums, innovation schools, and the purely private institutions. The 94 gymnasiums cater to 46,000 pupils, the 70 Lyceums to 19,700 pupils, and the 344 innovative schools to 109,000 pupils. The latter primarily target gifted children. In 1999, there were approximately 25 institutions totally supported by private funds. Most (20) are aimed at secondary school students and reflect efforts by ethnic minorities to preserve their culture. Hence Korean, Jewish, and Tatar associations provide some private schooling for their ethnic minorities, while evangelical church groups have been active in establishing church schools in Kyrgyzstan. Most visible have been privately funded Turkish educational establishments, particularly in higher education where the establishment in 1998 of a Turkish university was a major addition to higher education options.
Religious Schools: The revival of Islam in a formerly avowed atheist state has been marked by a rise, albeit small, in religious schools. At present, theological students study in such countries as Saudi Arabia and Turkey and return to small institutions attached to the mosque (Medressahs ). The curriculum is heavily dependant on learning from the Koran as opposed to general theological studies.
Instructional Technology (Computers): There is a serious lack of computers not only in the schools of Kyrgyzstan but also the country as a whole. It is estimated that fewer than 10 percent of the schools have computers. Most of the specialized institutions of higher education have computer labs working with donated and purchased computers, but state institutions, particularly in the outlying cities, have a serious lack of computers for instructional technology. In addition, the computers that are in existence are often dated and unable to accommodate technological advancements. In particular, the Internet is highly restricted and difficult to access consistently.
Textbooks—Publication & Adoption: Severe budget difficulties have meant that new textbooks have not been produced or purchased. Moreover, most of the textbooks in Kyrgyzstan originated in Russia and are therefore in the Russian language. Kyrgyz educational authorities are aware that textbooks that reflect the change in the political and economic spheres are available, but access is highly problematic because of their cost. For example, in 1998, of 72 books that were to be published, only 25 were produced, with a circulation of 553,000 copies. Ministry data indicate a set of texts for the first year of schooling cost 160 soms per student, 220 soms for fifth year students, and 430 soms for the graduating class—more than a teacher's monthly salary (US$10 equals approximately 500 soms). Thus, access to English language texts is even more restricted. Most libraries have some donated English language texts, but relevance to the curriculum is coincidental if at all.
Audiovisuals: There is a serious deficiency in audiovisual services in classrooms at all levels. In large part this is a legacy of the Soviet pedagogical method of instruction by lecture. The severe budget restrictions since the collapse of the Soviet Union has further limited the use of audiovisual materials as modern teaching aids.
Curriculum—Development: There have been attempts to change the school curriculum since the fall of the Soviet Union to reflect new political and educational philosophies. At the primary level there has been a strong movement to introduce more Kyrgyz culture into the school curriculum, particularly Kyrgyz language study and a focus on Kyrgyz history and culture (art, music, and literature). At higher levels there is continued emphasis on Kyrgyz subjects with more intensive mathematics and the sciences. In addition, health awareness and sex education have entered the curriculum. A major impediment to the application of new curriculum materials is the slow movement away from the former Marxist-Leninist rubric, which is in large part owing to an aging teacher population unfamiliar with western educational subjects and systems. Thus one will still find economics classes that use statist and interventionist models as opposed to models of free market economics, private entrepreneurship, and western management systems. Teacher retraining has been a major focus of the state, and in 1992 the Kyrgyz Institute of Education, a major training institution, opened a retraining department. In Osh, the second largest city, a Skills Improvement Institute for practicing teachers has also enjoyed some success.
Foreign Influences on Educational System: Kyrgyzstan has been the recipient of significant foreign aid since the collapse of the Soviet Union, and education has been the beneficiary of much of this aid. The United States, through U.S. AID programs and U.S. Information Agency programs, has contributed significantly to educational development. Peace Corps volunteers have been especially active in teaching English in both urban and rural schools. Fulbright and MacArthur fellows, through the U.S. Department of Education, have been active in exchanges in higher education, particularly in the Kyrgyz-American School in Bishkek. Universities in the United States and Europe have established affiliations with a number of Kyrgyz universities. For example, Portland State University in Oregon established a link with Osh State University in the early years of independence; this has expanded to create a number of centers, including one for business. The Kyrgyz-American University has links with a consortium of Indiana universities, George Washington University, and Brown University. Private sector assistance through the Soros Foundation has been active in Bishkek, and those western businesses with a significant presence in Kyrgyzstan have generously supported Kyrgyz students and institutions. Turkish aid, in the form of a new university, has also been a marked part of foreign influence on education.
Role of Education in Development: More than 1.1 million persons are employed in Kyrgzy education, making it the most significant employer in the country. Moreover, education has been touted as a major path to bring Kyrgyzstan into the world economy. However, the educational system has regressed considerably since the days of high literacy rates and technological achievements of the Soviet era. The reasons for this are readily apparent: lack of funding for teachers, equipment, and buildings; a movement out of the country of the best and brightest graduates; and corruption at all levels.
Preprimary & Primary Education
General Survey: Before 1990, Kyrgyzstan had an extensive system of kindergartens that provided preschool care from the age of one year up to the time children started primary school. This system was state run and an excellent preparation for school system entry. Mass privatization and the divesting of kindergarten facilities by the state and the new private enterprises has led to a massive reduction in the number of preschool facilities. In 1990 there were 16,976 such institutions, whereas by 1996 the number had dropped to 449. Moreover, many had become private and were unable or not prepared to deliver preschool educational programs. In 1995-1996, 35,254 students were enrolled in preprimary institutions with 4,013 teachers. The Ministry of Education believes that this sector has suffered the most as a result of the change to a market economy.
In 1995-1996 there were 1,885 primary schools with 473,077 students being taught by 24,086 teachers, a ratio of 19 to 1. By 1998 the number of teachers had dropped to 19,122, of which fewer than 50 percent had a higher education. It is also believed that enrollment in primary schools is declining, particularly in rural areas where the need for child labor to help with farm and home chores to subsidize the family income is more important than schooling. Moreover, the amalgamation of some classes in primary schools as a result of unpaid teachers leaving the profession is contributing to this problem.
Urban & Rural Schools: Notwithstanding the difficulties in the school system, there were no school closures between 1990 and 2000, and enrollments increased as a result of high birth rates. By 1999 there were 1,939 schools in Kyrgyzstan, 1,614 of them in rural areas. However, as was noted above, rural primary schools seem to be suffering more than urban schools from the economic woes of the country. Class sizes are bigger than in urban schools as a result of class amalgamation, and, where high birth rates exceed capacity, schools operate in shifts. Indeed, seven schools offer evening classes to accommodate students who are unable to attend during the day. The physical condition of the schools in Kyrgyzstan is a significant problem. Many rural school buildings had no hot water or indoor toilet facilities, even in Soviet times, and since 1990 conditions have further deteriorated. Many need repair and refurbishment. City governments are wealthier than rural governments, hence urban school buildings are in better repair with utilities less disrupted and thus more conducive to teaching.
Teachers: Most rural teachers are women, usually trained at the local regional institute and teaching in a former collective school building. Teaching conditions are difficult and taxing; salaries are often absent, delayed, or only partially paid. The average monthly salary in 2001 was approximately 500 soms or US$10. Many continue to teach because, as some say, "We have nothing else to do, and it is our duty." In urban areas conditions are somewhat better, with more of a guarantee of salary and greater access to equipment and supplies.
Dropouts & Repeaters: In 1997 school authorities perceived that the decline in school attendance was becoming a serious problem. In particular it appeared that refugees from Tajikistan, as well as Kyrgyz peoples migrating from the predominantly Uzbek southern region, were moving into those regions near the capital city of Bishkek and not attending school. In 1997, a total of 8,588 children did not attend school; of these, 945 were primary school children. As a result of government action (providing school meals, clothing, and free transportation to school), the overall figure was reduced to 5,074 in 1998, but the number of primary school children not in school had risen to 2,287. The large reduction in dropouts had been achieved by reducing secondary school dropouts. The government is collecting detailed data on why these 5,074 students did not attend school, an important step in further reducing this number. The number of students repeating grades is not available, but there is anecdotal evidence that students can and do repeat. This number has been increasing as students dropout and are reinstated.
General Survey: The drop in the number of teachers throughout the Kyrgyz Republic has been particularly marked in the secondary schools. In 1995 there were 38,915 secondary school teachers, but by 1998 this figure had fallen to 35,254. In 1995 there were 498,849 students.
Curriculum—Examinations & Diplomas: The most important diploma a student obtains is his or her Secondary School Certificate (Attectat o srednem obrazzovanii ), which is necessary for entering higher education or a profession.
Teachers: Of the 35,235 teachers in the secondary schools, 87 percent have received a college education. Secondary school teachers tend to teach specialized subjects (9,434 of the 35,235 in 1998), such as music, physical education, the sciences, and art. With the falling number of teachers and the rising birth rate, class sizes are invariably increasing.
Dropouts & Repeaters: As in the primary schools, absent students were a worrisome feature of secondary schools in 1997. That year, 2,517 secondary school pupils were reported as having dropped out of school, the second largest age group of non-attending students in Kyrgyzstan (3,276 had never attended school). In 1998 this figure was reduced to 783. In the higher secondary schools, 1,850 students dropped out in 1997, but only 1,187 in 1998. Overall, dropout rates are low. Graduation rates are high with an average 853 pupils graduating per 1,000 students.
Vocational Education: As was noted earlier, upon completing the lower level of secondary education at the age of 15, a student can continue in the secondary school, attend a specialized secondary school, or begin specialized technical or vocational study. In 1996 there were 32,005 students in Kyrgyzstan's 115 vocational schools with 3,371 teachers teaching 350 subjects.
Nonformal Education: Private tutoring of students exists in Kyrgyzstan primarily for the purpose of passing examinations or improving language skills and for English.
Types—Public & Private: Until 1990, the only university in Kyrgyzstan was Kyrgyz State University in the capital, Bishkek. However, in regional centers around the country, a large number of institutes affiliated with Kyrgyz State University offered a wide range of subjects and degrees upon graduation. Since the fall of the Soviet Union, Kyrgyz State University still exists, but the former institutes have invariably been transformed by title and courses into universities. Thus, for example, the Osh Pedagogical Institute founded primarily for linguistic study in 1951 was renamed Osh State University in 1992 and offers programs in business. The major change within higher education since 1990 has been the need to charge admission or tuition fees, in part to offset diminishing government subsidies.
Admission Procedures: Admission commences in the summer preceding September entry. Most institutions require an application form with particulars of the student's secondary or vocational record. Institutions that specialize in English subjects or teach in English may require TOEFL tests. In July, universities offer entrance exams, which are derived by the universities, and grant or deny entry based on the results.
Administration: Institutions administer themselves, with oversight by the State, which grants a license that reads:
University: has the right to practice teaching activity in the sphere of high professional education with a variety of majors, levels of education, duration according to the attachment of this license and on terms of considering all the basic requirements of this document and limited contingent of students.
Enrollment: In 1995 there were 33 institutes of higher education in Kyrgyzstan serving 49,744 students. The most significant are Kyrgyz State University with 15 faculties and 7,300 students; the Kyrgyz-Slavonic University; the Kyrgyz Technical University with 7 schools; the Kyrgyz Humanities University with 3,873 students; the new Manas Kyrgyz-Turkish University with 750 students in 2000 (its third year of operation); and the Kyrgyz-American School with more than 1,000 students.
Teaching Styles & Techniques: The principal language of instruction in these institutions is Russian, but with the proliferation of higher education institutions in Kyrgyzstan, instructors use a wider variety of source material.
Finance (Tuition Costs): Typical tuition fees at private universities range from $1,500 for Kyrgyzstan nationals to $2,000 for foreign students, but fees for Kyrgyz State University and other public universities are significantly lower, about 5,000 to 10,000 soms (US$100 to US$200) per annum. Scholarships in the form of fee waivers are available at most institutions to deserving students. Only Manas Kyrgyz-Turkish University has no fee structure.
Courses, Semesters, & Diplomas: Higher education in Kyrgyzstan usually lasts five years; the two-semester system commences in September and ends in May with a one month winter recess. As was noted earlier, institutions generally select the courses they wish to offer, and students graduate with a "Diploma of (Specialization in the field of study)." Students can pursue a "Candidate of the Sciences" for a further three years, during which they usually write a thesis and finally may obtain a doctoral degree, which requires another thesis. This last tends to be synonymous with postgraduate training.
Professional Education: The only professional education in the republic is offered by western-owned businesses to train their workers and managers. Most of this training is done "in-house," but there have been instances of workers being sent out of the country for professional development. A part of the U.S. AID monies of the mid-1990s was dedicated to middle management training, particularly for lawyers and government officials who, after a month overseas, returned to Kyrgyzstan to participate in privatization and democratization.
Postgraduate Training: There is a long history in Kyrgyz institutes of post-graduate teaching, which was usually linked with the award of the doctorate. Of necessity, this training is highly specialized and is found in institutes established under the Soviet system to produce an intellectual elite.
Foreign Students: Very few foreign students study in Kyrgyzstan, due almost entirely to the deteriorating state of the country's educational system. Typical of the extent of foreign student enrollment was Kyrgyz Humanities University and Osh State University with 44 foreign students (or 1.1 percent of total student enrollment) and 200 foreign students (3.3 percent) respectively in 1998.
Students Abroad: Given the difficulty of transition and the uncertain future of the nation, an ability to speak a foreign language—particularly English—with the resultant opportunities to study abroad, has become a major goal for students in higher education. Unfortunately, once students complete their studies overseas, they are often reluctant to return to Kyrgyzstan to become part of the labor force. Essentially a brain drain is occurring, and although it is on a small scale, it is enough to warrant concern. In 2001 there were 126 Kyrgyz students in the United States and fewer in Europe, with the majority of these in the United Kingdom. The major deterrent for Kyrgyz students to studying abroad is the high cost of tuition and living expenses outside Kyrgyzstan; hence most students studying outside Kyrgyzstan are on some kind of scholarship. Those few students whose studies abroad are funded with Kyrgyz money are required to return to Kyrgyzstan for a minimum of two years; however, often upon graduation, these students remain outside Kyrgyzstan to work.
Role of Libraries: Libraries have a reduced role in higher education primarily because they lack current books, texts, and periodicals. Much of the literature published before 1990 is considered by students and faculty alike to be tainted and hence of little use.
Administration, Finance, & Educational Research
Government Educational Agencies: There are essentially two levels of educational responsibility in Kyrgyzstan. At the local level, administrative bodies (Village, Rayon, and Oblast councils) are responsible for school provision, maintenance, and teaching materials, including teachers. At the state level the Ministry of Education sets the curriculum for all primary and secondary public schools, while institutions of higher education set their own curriculum within limits set by the state. Control over education policy is exercised by the state through the financing, certifying, and licensing of education. In reality the severe economic hardships that have beset rural areas since 1990 have required significant state intervention in the running of local schools. This is particularly significant in the area of teacher salaries, whereby the state has been required to assume payment because rural agencies have no money to pay salaries. Moreover, in recent years, unlicensed educational establishments have arisen and are functioning, and the state is desirous of bringing these institutions into the state system.
Ministry of Education: Day to day responsibility for state education resides in the Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture, based in Bishkek. This ministry also collects data for baseline reference and applied research.
Educational Budgets: Notwithstanding the rise of private funding in the post-Soviet years, state budgeting is still the primary source of funds. Kyrgyzstan's gross domestic product was $1.3 billion in 2000, of which education contributed approximately 4 percent.
In 2000, some 2.3 billion soms (US$47 million) were spent on education. This is 3.3 percent of the gross domestic product, which is less than in 1990 when it accounted for 8 percent.
Education spending in 2000 represented 20.1 percent of all government expenditures, which was second only to that of the large category of government administration, military, and pensions. In 1991 and 1997, government expenditures on education were 23 and 22.6 percent, respectively. Notwithstanding the government's commitment to funding education, it is apparent that not only is education spending falling, but also that current allotments are inadequate to cover education needs. In addition, inflation has significantly eroded the purchasing power of these expenditures over the years.
Types of Expenditures: Notwithstanding the fall in preprimary schools, preprimary education in 1996 consumed 6 percent of the national education budget; 68 percent was directed to secondary schools and 14 percent to tertiary schools. The government believes funding for universities is still too high and that the priority for expenditure should lie in the primary and preprimary schools.
National Education Organizations: There are no national education organizations in Kyrgyzstan. Oversight is delivered in part by international organizations such as UNESCO and the United Nations Development Program.
Adult Education: Adult education has been recognized as a priority in the republic in order for adults to adjust to the new socioeconomic system. However, requiring students or businesses to pay for this learning seems to be a major obstacle to its success in difficult economic times. Foreign languages, bookkeeping and accounting, marketing and market economics, management, and computer literacy have been identified as priorities. External NGOs, such as Carana Corporation, have provided such training, but few business establishments offer these programs at present.
Open Universities & Distance Education: Open university does not exist in Kyrgyzstan. Distance learning is possible through existing universities in the form of correspondence courses called externat, but these are supplementary to the universities' normal in-residence structure. Students studying by correspondence courses with major universities make up a significant part of the part time student body. In 1998, Kyrgyz State University had approximately 6,000 students in correspondence courses along with the 7,300 students in residence, while at Osh State University more than 200 students take correspondence courses. There are no distance education courses delivered through television, radio, or the Internet because of the scarcity of such media in Kyrgyzstan.
Training & Qualifications: Thirteen higher education institutions offer teacher training, along with four dedicated teacher training colleges. Prospective teachers attend these institutions for five years before graduating. In 1999 teacher training colleges enrolled 14,000 students, and each year the nation graduates 1,000 to 1,500 new teachers. In view of the high birth rates, this number is insufficient to meet the demand. Moreover, the loss of teachers, particularly in rural areas where demand is highest, is cause for concern. Finally, there is a shortage of teachers in English, Kyrgyz, mathematics, and all the sciences.
Salaries: The average teacher salary has increased every year since 1990 but is grossly inadequate both in purchasing power and in its ability to keep up with inflation. It remains one of the most problematic areas of Kyrgyzstan's educational system. In 1993 the average monthly salary was 100 soms; in 1996, 230 soms; 1998, 315 soms; 1999, 385 soms; and, as earlier stated, in 2000, 500 soms. (In 2000, US$1.00 equaled 48 soms). However encouraging these salary increases are, they should be seen in light of the official Kyrgyzstan figure for minimum living expenses of 1,280 soms per person per month. Finally and sadly, these figures do not indicate that, owing to significant cash flow problems in state and local governments, teacher salaries are often delayed as long as six months or not paid at all.
Unions & Associations: There are no teachers' unions or associations in Kyrgyzstan.
The Kyrgyz educational system faces significant challenges. Once a model of literacy, availability, and accomplishment, it has been eroded by external environmental problems and a difficult adjustment to a necessary internal structural change. The principal challenges appear to be:
- The grave economic situation, which causes students, especially boys, to forgo school to attend to help support their families.
- The apparent inability of the central government to adequately fund education and in particular to pay public school teachers a living wage.
- The need for curriculum change to reflect the new, market-driven, privatized economy.
- The widespread corruption and associated grade inflation at all levels of the educational system.
- An increasing birth rate, particularly in the rural areas, that will add pressure to the educational system.
The former Soviet republics enjoyed a period of significant western interest in their transition for most of the 1990's. It is unfortunate that since then, for whatever reason, interest has waned, yet the problems are still present. In the initial stages of transition, much of the interest involved the use of international programs as a means of assisting in the transition. However this interest has stabilized. Those programs that remain are heavily politicized or driven by religious interests.
It would therefore appear that the most significant changes required for Kyrgyzstan's educational system to stabilize would be for the country to enjoy economic stability and prosperity, from which education could take its place as a significant contributor to the country's viability. Unfortunately, most observers cannot see this kind of stabilization and growth occurring any time soon.
Europa Publications 2001. The Europa World Yearbook 2000. 41st ed. Vol. 2. London: Europa Publishers.
International Association of Universities 1998. International Handbook of Universities. 15th ed. New York: Groves Dictionaries.
Natskomstat Kyrgyzskoy Respubliki (National Statistical Committee of the Kyrgyz Republic). 1999 Census. Available from http://nsc.bishkek.su.
Republic of Kyrgyzstan. The Constitution of the Kyrgyz Republic. Available from http://www.kyrgyzstan.org.
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Vsesoiuznaia perepis naseleniia 1926 goda. (Tsentral'nyy Statistcheskoye Upravleniye SSSR 56 vols.) 1926.
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Itogi Vsesoiuznaia perepis naseleniia 1989 goda. (Tsentral'nyy Statistcheskoye Upravleniye pri Sovete Ministrov SSR 1989)
United Nations Development Program (UNDP). United Nations Development Program in Kyrgyzstan. Available from http://www.undp.kg.
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Education Forum's Assessment Report on Kyrgyzstan. Available at http://www2.unesco.org.
——. The Right to Education. World Education Report 2000. Paris: UNESCO.
—Richard W. Benfield
Benfield, Richard W.. "Kyrgyzstan." World Education Encyclopedia. 2001. Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3409700124.html
Benfield, Richard W.. "Kyrgyzstan." World Education Encyclopedia. 2001. Retrieved June 25, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3409700124.html
LOCATION AND SIZE.
Located in the central region of Asia, bordered by China on the east, Kazakhstan on the north, and Uzbekistan and Tajikistan on the west and south, Kyrgyzstan is a remote, landlocked, mountainous country with a total area of 198,500 square kilometers (76,641 square miles). It is a bit smaller than the U.S. state of South Dakota. Kyrgyzstan's capital, Bishkek, is located near the northern border of the country close to the border with Kazakhstan and Kazakhstan's largest city, Almaty.
The population of Kyrgyzstan was estimated at 4,685,230 in July 2000. In 2000 the birth rate stood at 26.29 births per 1,000 while the death rate was 9.15 deaths per 1,000 persons. The population growth rate was estimated at 1.43 percent in 2000. Migration out of the country was estimated at 2.8 per 1,000.
The vast majority of Kyrgyzstanis live in rural areas. The World Bank reported that only 33.6 percent of the population lived in urban areas in 1999. The population density for the entire country was 25 per square kilometer (65 per square mile) that same year, according to the World Bank.
At the beginning of the 21st century, roughly 50 percent of Kyrgyzstan's multinational population was ethnic Kyrgyz; 20 percent was ethnic Slavic (Russian, Ukrainian, and other Slavic groups); 13 percent was Uzbek; about 2 percent was German; and other groups comprised the remaining 12 percent. The Kyrgyz (also spelled Kirghiz) language is a Turkic language. Russian and Kyrgyz are the principal languages spoken in Kyrgyzstan, but Uzbek, Tajik, and Uigur are also widely spoken outside the major towns. In practice, most government and commerce is conducted in the Russian language in the large cities. Many Kyrgyz government officials and professional and technical workers use Russian as their principal language. Most rural areas use Kyrgyz or one of the other indigenous languages of the region as their principal language.
OVERVIEW OF ECONOMY
Kyrgyzstan is a remote, landlocked country with inadequate trade and transportation infrastructure . Kyrgyzstan's economy heavily emphasizes agriculture and animal husbandry, but there is a growing service sector in the urban areas. In 1999 agriculture accounted for 45 percent of the economy, while services comprised 35 percent. Industry made up the remaining 20 percent. Oil and gas, machinery and equipment, and foodstuffs are Kyrgyzstan's main imports. Kyrgyzstan's principal trading partners are Germany, Russia, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan. Cotton, wool, hides and meat are the main agricultural products and exports. Industrial exports include gold, mercury, uranium, and electricity. Kyrgyzstan is a mountainous country with significant hydroelectric power generating potential.
While it was part of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) from 1917 to 1991, Kyrgyzstan had a highly specialized economic niche in the communist economic system. Kyrgyzstan served primarily as a provider of primary commodities such as gold, mercury, and uranium, and unprocessed agricultural goods such as foodstuffs, cotton, wool, and meat. After the USSR collapsed in 1991, Kyrgyzstan's mining and industrial enterprises underwent rapid contraction due to the loss of orders from buyers and the inability of the existing transportation infrastructure to make possible a rapid entrance into other markets. Kyrgyzstan's military industrial enterprises soon lost their financing. Production at Kyrgyzstan's gold, mercury, and uranium mines fell sharply.
After national independence on 31 August 1991, the newly established Kyrgyz government planned to create a market-based economy and to integrate into the world economy. Among the former communist countries, Kyrgyzstan became a leader in the movement of the post-So-viet states toward an open market economy. But the transition to an open economy has been difficult for this small country with few manufactured goods. The economy underwent severe contraction between 1990 and 1995. However, the Kyrgyzstan economy began to rebound in 1996 as new, post-communist practices began to take effect. The budget deficit as a proportion of the GDP was cut in half during the period 1995 through 1997.
With assistance from international organizations, such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, the Kyrgyzstan government has made good headway in establishing the legal and regulatory foundation for a market economy. Kyrgyzstan carried out privatization of small enterprises and overhauled the country's banking and financial systems. In 1998 the Kyrgyzstan constitution was amended to allow for private ownership of land. Kyrgyzstan was the first country of the CIS to join the World Trade Organization (December 1998). At the urging of international financial institutions, the Kyrgyzstan government took steps to liberalize its foreign trade relations. These steps included eliminating some tariff restrictions (1991-92), eliminating certain highly bureaucratic export registration requirements (1998), and eliminating export duties (1999).
But Kyrgyzstan's enthusiastic pro-market posture has not met with the anticipated level of economic success. Basic economic indicators plunged between 1991 and 1995 when Soviet-era government subsidies for industry, farming, and public services were eliminated. Rapid restructuring of the economy led to sharp drops in farm and industrial output. From 1996 to 1997, the declines in output were reversed and the economic picture for Kyrgyzstan brightened considerably. A large increase in government revenue from the newly opened Kumotr gold mine, the largest single industrial enterprise in the country, combined with favorable weather that helped boost agricultural production. Economic growth in 1996 registered 7 percent and climbed to 10 percent in 1997. Inflation declined, and the government's current account deficit, an indicator of the government's fiscal responsibility, dropped to its lowest level since independence.
This picture changed when Kyrgyzstan was hit hard by the 1998 financial collapse in its major trading partner, Russia. The financial collapse in Russia led to a sudden drop in orders for Kyrgyzstan goods from Russia. The contraction in output led also to a deterioration in Kyrgyzstan's balance of payments at the same time as the country's indebtedness to foreign lenders increased substantially.
POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, AND TAXATION
The Republic of Kyrgyzstan was an early leader in the post-communist transition. The country's pro-reform leader, Askar Akaev, a scientist and former president of the republic's Academy of Sciences, quickly established an impressive record of encouraging political and economic liberalization. The Kyrgyz government liberalized most prices, established a national currency, began privatization and financial sector reform, and introduced the legal and regulatory framework for open trade with its neighbors. Non-tariff barriers were removed, and export taxes were eliminated on all goods between 1994 and 1997. In December 1998, the Kyrgyz Republic became the first former communist country to qualify for entrance to the World Trade Organization.
Kyrgyzstan's legal system is based on the continental legal system. Kyrgyzstan's constitution was adopted in 1993. The constitution recognizes a separation of powers among 3 branches of government: an accountable executive, a deliberative legislative, and an independent judiciary. The constitution has provisions to ensure checks and balances, competitive elections, and judicial independence. The judiciary consists of Constitutional Court (to decide issues of constitutional import), the Supreme Court, an arbitration court to resolve commercial disputes. There is a system of lower courts. The constitution was amended in February 1996 by a popular referendum that substantially expanded the powers of the president.
The Kyrgyzstan political system is formally a competitive system. Officials are popularly elected in multi-candidate elections. The country's president is elected by popular vote for a 5-year term. Kyrgyzstan president Askar Akaev was first elected in October 1990 and reelected in December 1995 and December 2000. High officials such as the prime minister and other top cabinet officials are appointed by the president and submitted for approval to the Kyrgyzstan legislature, the Zhogorku Kenesh. There are numerous parties and political movements. The officially registered political parties are the Agrarian Party, the Agrarian Party of Kyrgyzstan, the ASABA party, the Communist Party of Kyrgyzstan, the Democratic Movement of Kyrgyzstan, the Dignity Party, the Fatherland Party, the Justice Party, Kyrgyzstan Erkin Party, the Movement for the People's Salvation, the Ashar Party, the National Unity Democratic Movement, the Peasant Party, the Republican Popular Party of Kyrgyzstan, and the Social Democratic Party.
The Kyrgyzstan government has sought to limit the size of the public sector to enable greater opportunities for the growth of private industry and services. Accordingly the government has sought to reduce the total government revenue as a percentage of the GDP. However, after the 1998 economic crisis, tax collection fell behind anticipated levels. Tax revenue collection relies heavily on industry. Poor industrial performance contributed to the shortfall in tax revenue. Yet during the economic crisis total government expenditures were higher than anticipated in recent years due to the increased costs of social protection programs. International financial institutions urged the Kyrgyzstan government to maintain a tight monetary policy , reduce government spending, and increase revenue collection. Yet the Kyrgyzstan government was reluctant to adopt these politically unpopular measures.
INFRASTRUCTURE, POWER, AND COMMUNICATIONS
The main components of Kyrgyzstan's physical infrastructure include roads, rail, electric grids, gas pipelines, and a telecommunications system. The country's road system consists 16,854 kilometers (10,467 miles) of paved roads. The rail system consists of 1 major rail line of a length of 370 kilometers (299 miles) linking the Kyrgyz capital, Bishkek, with Kazakhstan. The fixed (copper wire) telephone system and microwave relay stations dating from the Soviet period (consisting of 357,000 lines) are rapidly being overtaken by new, decentralized mobile phone services. Of the country's 14 airports, only the capital airport is capable of accommodating international flights.
Mountainous Kyrgyzstan has abundant low-cost hydropower but only very limited amounts of oil, gas, and coal. Consequently, Kyrgyzstan is dependent upon the other Central Asian countries for much of its gas and petroleum. Kyrgyzstan trades hydroelectric energy for natural gas with both Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. With the urging of international donors, Kyrgyzstan is seeking to adopt an energy policy that will reduce the role of the state, increase private sector involvement, and explore the potential for energy exports, particularly to China. China's recently adopted "Go West" policy has opened a potentially rich market for hydroelectric energy in the adjoining Xinjiang-Uigur Autonomous Province of China.
|Country||Newspapers||Radios||TV Sets a||Cable subscribers a||Mobile Phones a||Fax Machines a||Personal Computers a||Internet Hosts b||Internet Users b|
|aData are from International Telecommunication Union, World Telecommunication Development Report 1999 and are per 1,000 people.|
|bData are from the Internet Software Consortium (http://www.isc.org) and are per 10,000 people.|
|SOURCE: World Bank. World Development Indicators 2000.|
Since being corporatized (that is, separated from the previous unified Soviet system and turned into a Kyrgyzstan state-owned corporation) in 1994, the Kyrgyz state power company, Kyrgyzenergo, has operated 22 hydroelectric power stations with a combined capacity of over 30 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) annually. Electricity production averaged roughly 12 billion kWh per year. The expansion of electricity output was held back, though, by inadequate transmission equipment and inadequate pricing and cost recovery. Given these factors, Kyrgyzstan commenced the privatization of its energy utility in 1998. The process came to a conclusion in early 2001. The goal of the privatization was to separate regulatory functions from energy production and sales. As a result of the strategy to separate the various energy functions and shift to a cost-recovery basis for energy production, there have been significant increases in electricity and district heating costs. Loans and credits with the World Bank and other multilateral development banks are earmarked to reduce the social costs of the transition to a privatized energy sector.
The 3 most important sectors of Kyrgyzstan's economy are: agriculture, accounting for about 45 percent of the GDP (US$52.8 million in 1999); industry, accounting for about 20 percent of the GDP; and services, accounting for the remaining 35 percent in 1999. The most significant economic sector, agriculture, is the largest employer in the country, employing over half of the country's labor force . In 1999 the International Monetary Fund estimated that 886,000 workers were employed in Kyrgyzstan's agriculture and forestry sectors. Agriculture accounted for about 22 percent of the country's exports in 1999. Other important sectors are hydroelectric energy production, mining, particularly gold mining, and service. Small industries and processing plants are located in Kyrgyzstan's larger cities, particularly Jalalabod, Osh, and Talas in addition to the capital, Bishkek.
Kyrgyzstan produces cotton, sugar beets, vegetables, potatoes, grapes, melons, tobacco, fruits and berries, grain, wool, and meat. Total agricultural production dropped in 1992 from earlier levels and then began to rise. The disruption in farm inputs such as seeds, farm machinery, and agricultural extension services, along with transportation difficulties and weak consumer demand, led to the drop in output. After the effects of the market transition from communism began to be felt, overall agricultural production began to increase after 1996. However, livestock and wool production, 2 of the traditional mainstays of the Kyrgyzstan rural economy, continued to decline due to slack demand for products such as hides and wool and new competition from Turkish, Chinese, and other suppliers.
In connection with the Kyrgyzstan government's goal of maintaining an open market and liberal economic order, the government has avoided intervention in the agricultural economy through price supports and targeted subsidies. This policy contrasts sharply with that of neighboring Uzbekistan, where the government has continued to maintain a major presence in the agricultural economy. Kyrgyzstan instituted a land reform program to transfer use rights to land from the Soviet-era large state farm cooperatives to individual farmers. By 1999 over 90 percent of Kyrgyz farms were held in private hands with long term (99 years) use rights. Farm land may be bought and sold and transferred through inheritance. The CIA World Factbook reported that 55 percent of the Kyrgyzstan workforce was engaged in agriculture in 1999.
Since the collapse of the USSR, the industrial and manufacturing sector has undergone considerable contraction. Between 1990 and 1995 production declined in all sectors of the power industry, engineering and metal-work, and fuel, light, chemicals, and petrochemicals sectors. By 1999, the industry sector accounted for 20 percent of the country's GDP and employed 15 percent of the labor force, according to the CIA World Factbook.
Kyrgyzstan's manufacturing plants are concentrated in and around the capital, Bishkek. Many of these enterprises were not competitive on international markets and thus have been shuttered and closed since they lost subsidies from the government. The enterprises that remain tend to operate well below capacity.
Unlike other developing countries faced with transferring workers from low productivity subsistence agriculture to higher productivity industry, Kyrgyzstan faces the opposite problem. The government seeks to spur industrial restructuring to cut employment in formerly subsidized, inefficient industries, and to encourage the emergence of new lower tech enterprises in the agricultural and service sector.
The only industrial sector that experienced significant growth recently was gold mining. In May 1997 the Kumtor Operating Company, which is two-thirds owned by the Kyrgyzstan Republic and one-third by a Canadian company, began gold mining operations. The construction of the mine cost US$450 million. The initial estimate of recoverable gold was 16.5 million troy ounces of gold, and gold was expected to average around 485,000 ounces a year over the life of the project. In late 1999 the company revised its estimates of recoverable gold downward, taking into account the changes in the price of gold and a revision of the geological expectations of the mining work. Accordingly, the amount of recoverable gold was revised downward to 4.27 million troy ounces. Company officials announced that the mine would be closed in 2008. This represents a major setback for the Kyrgyz government's development plans, given that revenue from the gold mine constituted a major portion of the government's income (40 percent in 1999).
The service sector is the second largest sector after agriculture. An estimated 566,000 workers were employed in the Kyrgyzstan service sector in 1999, according to the International Monetary Fund. This sector was under developed during the Soviet period when the government put most emphasis on heavy industry and agriculture. After independence, the service sector expanded rapidly. New laws and regulations made it possible to open private businesses offering consumer goods and services. The small service sector surged ahead as business people began offering services, such as car repair, housing construction and improvement, real estate services, legal services, beauty shop services, and other small business that did not require substantial investment.
The banking and financial services industry expanded rapidly, although during the first decade of independence (1990-2000) this financial sector continued to be heavily oriented toward foreign economic activity rather than local financial services. The government adopted a program in 2000 to support micro-credit lending to put more emphasis on local financial services.
The year 2001 was declared the "year of the tourist." Since Kyrgyzstan is the "Switzerland of Asia," the government has sought to take advantage of the beauty of Kyrgyzstan's spectacular mountains and lakes to encourage greater tourism. The tourism sector is a priority area for economic development in Kyrgyzstan. The country, with major mountain ranges and some of the highest peaks in the world, possesses breathtaking natural features. The towering mountains of Peak Pobeda (7,439 meters), Peak Lenin (7,134 meters), and Peak Khan-Tengri (6,995 meters) exist in what is called the "realm of eternal ice and snow." The country offers white water rafting, pony trekking, hiking, mountaineering, skiing, mountain biking, and many other possibilities.
Very nearly one-half of Kyrgyzstan's foreign trade is with former Soviet countries. Kyrgyzstan's largest trading partner is Russia, comprising almost 40 percent of foreign trade. Behind Russia is Ukraine, the United States, Uzbekistan, Turkey, the United Kingdom, Germany, South Korea, and other countries. Kyrgyzstan exported to Germany goods worth US$148 million in 1999. Russia imported goods worth US$70 million, Kazakhstan imported goods worth US$50 million, Uzbekistan imported US$46 million, and China imported goods worth US$25 million. In the same year, Kyrgyzstan imported from Russia goods worth US$110 million, from Kazakhstan US$73 million, from Uzbekistan US$50 million, from the United States US$56 million, from Germany US$47 million, from China US$36 million, and from Canada US$26 million.
Kyrgyzstan's main exports are processing industry products (67 percent) and agricultural goods (17 percent), while the main imports were machine-building products (21 percent), coal and petroleum products (11 percent), food and tobacco (7 percent) and textiles (6 percent).
Kyrgyzstan is heavily dependent on the outside world for fuel imports. In 1999 Kyrgyzstan imported 576 million metric meters of natural gas, 1,075,000 tons of coal and 368 tons of high grade petroleum fuels (diesel and gasoline). Kyrgyzstan sustains this level of fuel imports primarily through exporting electricity. The country exported, primarily to Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, 2,001 million kilowatt hours in 1999.
|Trade (expressed in millions of US$): Kyrgyzstan|
|SOURCE: United Nations. Monthly Bulletin of Statistics (September 2000).|
The Kyrgyzstan government has taken measures to improve the trade environment. Customs procedures and non-tariff barriers have been reduced in recent years in anticipation of the country's joining the World Trade Organization (1998). However, Kyrgyzstan's trade potential is complicated by the fact that Kyrgyzstan is land-locked. Few goods and services move from Uzbekistan into Kyrgyzstan. The borders with Tajikistan and China have been subject to heavy security regulation. But Kyrgyzstan's border with Kazakhstan is a long and relatively open border. The Kazakh and Kyrgyz languages are closely related and mutually comprehensible. However, Kazakhstan produces few of the manufactured goods that Kyrgyzstan requires. Consequently, Kazakhstan serves mainly as a transshipment point for goods from outside Central Asia, particularly Russia and Europe.
The Kyrgyzstan government has taken steps to improve the foreign investment climate in the country. A new foreign investment law was adopted in September 1997. The law was adopted to bring the country into conformance with the standards of the World Trade Organization. The law provides protection against expropriation, that is, nationalization of property by the government. According to the law, foreign investors have the same legal status and conditions as Kyrgyz investors and can do business as wholly-owned foreign businesses in Kyrgyzstan or as joint ventures either with Kyrgyz partners or other foreign partners. Foreigners can buy stocks and securities in Kyrgyz companies and participate in privatization programs. Foreign investors can repatriate capital, that is bring earnings from foreign investments and foreign trade back into the country. They can also freely export profits as foreign currency or as goods produced or as commodities or services bought. Local currency is freely convertible into foreign currency, including for import purposes or payment against project expenses. Investors may retain earned foreign currency, without having to convert it into local currency.
Kyrgyzstan was the first country in Central Asia to introduce its own currency (May 1993) following the collapse of the USSR. When first introduced, 4 som were equal to US$1. However, over the years since the som was introduced inflation reduced the value of the som relative to the dollar. Kyrgyzstan experienced hyperinflation in the early 1990s, with inflation reaching 1,400 percent, but economic measures have since brought inflation down.
Between 1995 and 1997, positive developments in the economy reinforced the government's intention to restrict the supply of money. A scarce currency will tend to be valuable, but as the currency becomes more available, its value declines. Accordingly, as the money sup-
|Exchange rates: Kyrgyzstan|
|soms (KS) per US$1|
|SOURCE: CIA World Factbook 2001 [ONLINE].|
ply increased, the value of the Kyrgyz som declined. Following the 1997 crisis in the Asian financial markets and, in particular, following the collapse of financial markets in Russia in August 1998, the Kyrgyz economy suffered dramatically. Kyrgyzstan's money supply rose in 1998 and 1999. During this period inflation, which had been brought under control, rebounded in 1998 and reached nearly 40 percent in 1999. During 1999, the som lost 35 percent of its value to the U.S. dollar. Public confidence in the currency was further shaken by a major financial fraud involving some of the country's largest commercial banks.
In 1998 the Kyrgyzstan banking system suffered a major financial crisis which led to closing half of Kyrgyzstan's 26 commercial banks in 1999. The Soviet-era banking system had been expanded and slightly modified during the period between 1992 and 1995 but had not adopted standards of bank operations in accordance with international practice. As a result, in 1995, according to a World Bank study, over half of the commercial banks had a negative net worth. The study also concluded that 60 percent of all the banking sector's loans were considered unrecoverable, that is, these loans would never be paid back by the borrowers, according to the IMF. The public lost confidence in the banking system, and many people withdrew their funds, leading many of the banks to go out of business.
Kyrgyzstan is a relatively heavily indebted country. Outstanding debt in the first quarter of 2000 amounted to US$1,409 billion, according to the IMF. Much of the Kyrgyzstan republic's debt is concessional; that is, it has been loaned by public entities as special assistance at better-than-market terms by international financial institutions such as multilateral development banks. But a considerable portion is non-concessional; that is, it is money that was loaned by private lenders such as commercial banks. Even if Kyrgyzstan is granted special repayment terms, delays, or postponements in the repayment schedule, the burden of future debt will remain high. The Kyrgyzstan government will need to bolster its fiscal position through reducing government expen-
|GDP per Capita (US$)|
|SOURCE: United Nations. Human Development Report 2000; Trends in human development and per capita income.|
ditures and increasing revenue. More competent debt management and limits on contracting debt will help. More emphasis on government reforms may also improve the overall economic pictures by improving the investment climate and enhancing the productive and export potential of the country.
POVERTY AND WEALTH
Poverty in Kyrgyzstan increased between 1994 and 2000. IMF estimates of the consumer price index rose in 1995 to 143 percent, in 1996 to 189 percent, in 1997 to 233 percent, in 1998 to 252 percent, and in 1999 to 343 percent, and in 2000 to over 400 percent. At the same time, the index of real wages (adjusted for inflation and other factors) climbed only gradually from 100 percent in 1994, to 117 percent in 1995, to 112 percent in 1996, to 116 percent in 1997, to 139 percent in 1998, dropping to 128 percent in 1999 and further to 105 percent in 2000. Thus, while the cost of living increased fourfold between 1994 and 2000, wages remained approximately at the same level.
In 2000 Kyrgyzstan ranked 98 out of 174 countries listed on the UNDP Human Development Index. Income distribution and social indicators for Kyrgyzstan fell considerably behind other countries at comparable stages of
|Distribution of Income or Consumption by Percentage Share: Kyrgyzstan|
|Survey year: 1997|
|Note: This information refers to income shares by percentiles of the population and is ranked by per capita income.|
|SOURCE: 2000 World Development Indicators [CD-ROM].|
|Household Consumption in PPP Terms|
|Country||All food||Clothing and footwear||Fuel and power a||Health care b||Education b||Transport & Communications||Other|
|Data represent percentage of consumption in PPP terms.|
|aExcludes energy used for transport.|
|bIncludes government and private expenditures.|
|SOURCE: World Bank. World Development Indicators 2000.|
development. For instance, nearly a quarter of the population was not expected to reach age 60. The proportion of young people enrolled in schools dropped. The rates of infectious diseases, particularly tuberculosis, increased. By 1997 an estimated one-half of the population had fallen below the official poverty line, living on the equivalent of less than US$0.75 per day. The average monthly pension payment was among the lowest in the former Soviet states, amounting to less than US$10 in 1999.
Although on national average only 1 in 2 persons in Kyrgyzstan is categorized as poor, 80 percent of the poor live in rural areas. During the 1990s, despite substantial recovery in agricultural production, rural incomes per capita fell substantially. The degree of poverty in rural areas has also become more severe relative to urban areas. While extreme poverty decreased from 19.1 percent of the population in 1996 to 14.8 percent in 1997, most of this resulted from a targeted poverty reduction program in urban areas only. Poverty is also distributed unevenly in the population, affecting more women than men. The Kyrgyzstan government has initiated a national poverty reduction program, the Arakat program. Moreover, the government is waging major efforts to revamp its poverty-fighting strategy in coordination with major donors, including the Asian Development Bank and the World Bank.
Kyrgyzstan had a working population in 1999 of 1,854,000 people, but the total number of people within working age (16 to 60) was 2,542,000. An estimated 1,718,000 of these were employed, and 54,000 people were estimated as unemployed in 1999, only 5,400 of whom received unemployment benefits.
The decline in Kyrgyzstan industrial sector has pushed many people out of technical and professional positions. Most of this movement has been in the direction of the service sector. A large proportion has also moved to agricultural employment. While the legal system and social security systems traditionally provide for fewer protections for these sectors, in fact working conditions in Kyrgyzstan's declining industry deteriorated significantly in the post-Soviet years as workers' unions and collective bargaining was unsuccessful in promoting the health and safety of working conditions in such declining industries. The international donor organizations, such as the World Bank and the multilateral development banks, have identified social protection as one of the highest priorities of future assistance to Kyrgyzstan.
COUNTRY HISTORY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
552. Formation of the first Turkic khanate, uniting Turkic-speaking regions under one political leadership.
750. Arabs conquer the area that is now Kazakhstan, spreading the influence of the Islamic culture and religion.
840. Formation of the Kyrgyz khanate.
1240-1440. The Mongol Horde—armies originating from what is now Mongolia—overwhelm the Kipchak nomads. The Mongol Horde sweeps westward and southward, extending Mongol influence over much of modern-day Central Asia.
1850. Major Russian emigration to Kyrgyzstan occurs as emigrants search for new agricultural lands.
1867. The Russian tsar decrees the establishment of the Turkestan general-governorship, extending official Russian rule into Kyrgyzstan, making the country part of the Russian Empire.
1917. The Russian provisional government, unable to rule a country exhausted by World War I, falls to the Bolshevik Revolution. Bolshevik revolutionaries (communists) in St. Petersburg proclaim the establishment of a communist government.
1918. The communists announce the establishment of the Russian Socialist Republic (which includes the territory of present-day Kyrgyzstan). Opponents of the communists rally to restore the monarchy. Civil war ensues and continues for 2 years.
1924. The Kyrgyz Autonomous District is formed within Russia.
1936. The Kyrgyz Autonomous District is transformed into the Kyrgyz Socialist Republic.
1957-61. Under Soviet leader, Nikita Khrushchev, a new agricultural initiative called the "Virgin Lands Campaign" relocates tens of thousands of people from the European parts of the USSR to Central Asia, including Kyrgyzstan.
1991. An unsuccessful attempt to take over the Soviet government by Communist Party hard-liners precipitates a crisis in Moscow. Kyrgyzstan declares independence from the USSR on 31 August. A group of 11 high Communist Party officials gather in Almaty (then known as Alma-Ata) to sign a document announcing the end of the USSR and the establishment of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) on 21 December.
1992. Kyrgyzstan joins major international organizations: the UN, World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
1993. The Kyrgyzstan constitution is adopted.
1995. A new version of the Kazakhstan constitution, assigning greater powers to the executive branch, is adopted.
1998. Kyrgyzstan is the first post-Soviet state to be admitted as a member of the World Trade Organization.
2000. Kyrgyzstan joins the Eurasian Economic Community, an international organization designed to create a common economic market throughout much of the former USSR.
Kyrgyzstan faces major challenges. The country has liberal trade orders in the former Soviet Union. However, as a small, landlocked country with only limited trade potential, the latitude for development through globalization is limited. The most urgent issue is reducing poverty. Changes in the way that the government treats foreign investors, tourists, and foreign companies may lead to an improvement in the country's ability to promote investment and create new jobs.
Kyrgyzstan has no territories or colonies.
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Brinton, William M. An Abridged History of Central Asia, 1998. <http://www.asian-history.com/choose.html>. Accessed September 2001.
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Haghayeghi, Mehrdad. Islam and Politics in Central Asia, NewYork: St. Martin's Press, 1995.
Hopkirk, Peter. The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia London: Kodansha International, 1994.
International Monetary Fund. "Kyrgyz Republic: Selected Issues and Statistical Appendix." IMF Staff Country Report No. 00/131, October 2000.
Pomfret, Richard. The Economies of Central Asia. Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1995.
Rashid, Ahmed. The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism? Karachi [Pakistan]: Oxford University Press, 1994.
Roy, Olivier. The New Central Asia: The Creation of Nations London: Tauris, 1998.
United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Report 2000. <http://www.undp.org/hdro/>. Accessed September 2001.
Bishkek (formerly known as Frunze).
Som (KS). One som equals 100 tyiyn. Som are circulated in denominations of 1, 3, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, 1,000, 2,000, and 5,000.
Cotton, wool, meat, tobacco, gold, mercury, uranium, hydropower machinery, shoes.
Consumer durables, oil and gas, machinery and equipment, foodstuffs.
GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT:
US$10.3 billion (purchasing power parity, 1999 est.).
BALANCE OF TRADE:
Exports: US$515 million (1999 est.). Imports: US$590 million (1999 est.).
Gleason, Gregory. "Kyrgyzstan." Worldmark Encyclopedia of National Economies. 2002. Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3410100147.html
Gleason, Gregory. "Kyrgyzstan." Worldmark Encyclopedia of National Economies. 2002. Retrieved June 25, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3410100147.html
The Kyrgyz Republic (formerly the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic of the former U.S.S.R.)
Dzhalal-Abad, Osh, Przhevalsk, Tokmak
This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report dated January 1996. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.
The Republic of KYRGYZSTAN declared its independence on August 31, 1991, during the collapse of the Soviet Union. Formerly known as the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic, its independence was recognized by the United States on December 25, 1991 and an embassy was opened in Bishkek the following February. The country was admitted to the United Nations on March 2, 1992. Of all the former Soviet republics, Kyrgyzstan has been the most reform-minded, politically and economically. However, the country has severe economic problems, along with continuing ethnic and clan-based conflict.
Bishkek is located in the extreme northern part of Kyrgyzstan, 10 miles from the border with Kazakstan. It's population in 2000 was approximately 662,000. A 30-minute drive from Bishkek, and one climbs into the foothills of the Ala-Too range of the Tien Shan, or "Heavenly" mountains. Bishkek has lovely tree-lined walking parks and wide streets (although one must watch for open manholes).
Shopping for food on the local economy requires knowledge of local sources, perseverance, and a high tolerance level for crowds and less than hygienic conditions.
Those who prefer to do their own shopping on the local market find the best source of basic foodstuffs to be found in the large open-air food bazaars such as the Osh or Alamedin bazaar. During summer and fall there is a plentiful supply of fruits (apples, oranges, local berries, melons, pears, peaches, tomatoes and imported bananas) and vegetables (cabbage, beans, loose leaf lettuce, onions, cucumbers, radish, squash, beets, spring onions, summer squash, pickled vegetables and, of course, potatoes). During the winter and early spring months the selection shrinks dramatically leaving only basic root vegetables and a very limited selection of high priced imported fruit.
There are a number of small private shops which import canned goods from Western Europe for sale to the expatriate community. Prices tend to be high but these shops do provide variety during the winter months. Noticeably lacking in even these shops are fresh dairy products. Post continues to experience difficulty in finding reliable sources of long-life milk products. Staff members usually purchase long-life milk in shops in the neighboring capital of Almaty (a seven-to-eight hour round trip drive from Bishkek). Almaty also provides a much larger selection of Western food products, albeit at high prices.
Purchase and preparation of meat products are of particular concern to staff members. There are no western style butchers and most meat is sold in open air, unrefrigerated bazaar stalls. Usually a large piece of meat must be purchased and cut down into smaller pieces at home. Great care must be taken to thoroughly cook all meat products to eliminate the risk of bacterial contamination. Beef, mutton, pork, and a limited selection of chicken, (and horse, if desired) meat products are available year round. Frozen chicken from Holland and the United States can also be found in the markets.
A selection of soft drink products including Coke, Sprite, Fanta is available. Currently the products are imported from Turkey by a joint venture Coke representative company. This company plans to begin bottling operations in Kyrgyzstan in 1996. A selection of European beer is available on the local market as well as Kyrgyz champagne and cognac products.
Local sources of sugar, flour, salt, baking soda, and macaroni are adequate but the quality of these products may not be suitable for American tastes. Local salt is not adequately iodized.
There is an abundance of local spices but they are sold in bulk and the purchaser must provide his/her own container. The markets also have an abundance of locally-pickled cabbage, onions, cucumbers, tomatoes. There is excellent rice available locally in bulk.
Items which are difficult to find locally include coffee (other than instant), cleaning products (though a Proctor & Gamble representative has recently opened a retail store in the city which sells P&G products such as TIDE), personal care products (some available through the P&G store), paper products (to include toilet paper, tissues, paper napkins, paper towels, note paper, computer paper, construction paper for school supplies, wrapping paper for gifts, gift cards, etc.), women's nylon stockings, chemical products to fight insect infestation (cockroaches, flies, mosquitoes, pet care flea/tick products), school supplies (pens, pencils, notebooks), batteries, English language books and magazines, contemporary music tapes and CDs.
The choice of shoes and clothing in Bishkek is limited. The type of clothing worn in the northeast of the U.S. is appropriate in Bishkek. Winters are cold, snowy and icy. However, Bishkek does have many crystal clear winter days. Late spring, summer, and fall are generally pleasant with long stretches of sunny temperate weather. Midsummer can be very hot (mid-90s). Temperatures average 30°F (-2°C) in midwinter and 80°F (22°C) in midsummer.
A warm coat with a hood or a separate warm hat, several pairs of woolen and waterproof gloves and appropriate shoes are recommended. A good supply of shoes and boots for all types of weather, such as tennis, dress shoes, rubber rain boots, hiking boots and lined, thick-soled winter boots for children and adults is also recommended. Drycleaning is available in Almaty, Kazakstan (4 hours away). Commercial laundries are not available. Washable clothing is most practical.
Both heavy and light topcoats are desirable for spring and fall. Warm waterproof gloves, overshoes, and sweaters are also necessary. Woolen suits worn in the U.S. are satisfactory for winter in Bishkek, but some prefer heavier suits and sweater vests during the coldest months. Lighter suits are needed for summer.
Versatile clothing for luncheons, receptions or the theater is essential. Slacks, skirts, blouses and sweaters are ordinary daily wear. Most Kyrgyz women wear skirts or dresses, not slacks. Women are rarely seen in shorts. Women wear woolen clothing of several weights during fall and winter. Cottons, synthetics and blends, preferably washable, are worn in the summer. Raincoats with removable linings and a heavy coat are necessary.
Children need washable, sturdy wool, corduroy and other heavy clothing. Waterproof boots with insulated foam lining, several pairs of waterproof mittens, long thermal underwear, both heavy and lightweight pajamas, and waterproof snowpants all come in handy. Since children's clothing available locally is not of Western quality and limited in quantity.
Supplies and Services
Laundry service provided in hotels is hard on clothes. Drycleaning is available in Almaty, Kazakstan.
Tailoring and dressmaking is available in Bishkek. Service varies from place to place, and it is best to frequent shops or dressmakers recommended by others with similar tastes. The choice of fabrics available in Bishkek is limited.
Local barbers and beauty shops are plentiful. Although relatively inexpensive, techniques and methods used by hairdressers differ from those in the West. Some European hair products are available in a few stores. Special hair products generally are not available.
Religious services are held in several mosques, the Russian Orthodox Church, the Jewish Synagogue, the Presbyterian (Korean), Baptist and the Seventh Day Adventist churches in Bishkek. Several missionary groups are in Bishkek including the Hare Krishna, the Church for Unification and other nondenominational faiths. Some offer services in English.
The Bishkek International School, a private institution which opened in September, 1994, offers English language instruction for elementary students from 5 years through 13 years of age. The school operates under the control of Quality Schools International, a private nonprofit organization, which operates schools in Yemen, Albania, Kazak-stan, and Ukraine. The school typically has an enrollment of less than 10 students.
The school term is from early September to mid-June. The curriculum includes English, mathematics, cultural studies, science, art, music and physical education.
Some American parents have placed their children in local Russian language schools. If children are prepared for the extra work involved in learning Russian and if parents are prepared to devote the time to give children extra help, the experience can be rewarding.
Many sports are available in Bishkek and the surrounding countryside. A large outdoor swimming pool is available in the summer, and a modest indoor pool is sometimes available in the winter. A limited number of tennis courts are available in good weather. An indoor tennis court (converted basketball court) is available for rent in the sports palace during the winter. Some spectator sports such as soccer and wrestling are available.
Downhill skiing is possible in the mountains, about a one hour drive from Bishkek. Ski weekends are organized to the slopes with chalets.
Horseback riding is available in Bishkek. Trekking through the mountains of Kyrgyzstan by horseback and on foot are popular ways to see the beautiful areas of the country during the spring, summer and autumn. Fishing, hunting and white-water rafting are other popular sports in Kyrgyzstan.
In general, bring all your own sports equipment and clothing as items are difficult to find and/or unavailable locally.
Bishkek offers wide range of local products of interest to staff members. Kyrgyz rugs are unique in their design and construction. Local jewelers produce beautiful designs utilizing semiprecious stones and local rocks. Craftsmen also produce stone boxes with inlaid designs from types of rock found throughout the country. Kyrgyz musical instruments, local wool felt hats and ethnic clothing, and pottery are also of great interest to expatriates. There are a large number of expert painters and sculptors in Kyrgyzstan.
Prices for quality Kyrgyz artwork and crafts are still reasonable.
Bishkek has several cultural activities. The Bishkek Opera and Ballet Theater offers autumn and winter performances. The Philharmonic provides classical, modern symphony and Kyrgyz orchestral and traditional performances. The Philharmonic was built in 1980. The gigantic statue in front depicts the 1,000-year-old epic hero Manas atop his magic steed Ak-Kula slaying a dragon. The Kyrgyz Drama Theater and the Russian Drama Theater perform classic productions.
Bishkek has many beautiful parks and monuments. Walking tours to the many architectural and historical landmarks are a good way to get a feel for the city. Within three blocks of the Embassy are the Museum of Fine Arts, the National Library, the Opera House, the National Museum, the Circus (a Kyrgyz troop of horse riders and acrobats have just begun a one year tour with the Barnum and Bailey Circus in the U.S.), the Frunze Memorial House-Museum, the Zoological Museum and the Monument to the Great Patriotic War.
Directly in front of the U.S. Embassy is Erkindik Prospect (Erkindik means "freedom" in Kyrgyz) It is a one mile long walking park lined with huge oak trees. One can stroll Erkindik Prospect through an outdoor sculpture garden, past the Drama Theater, along the Art Gallery in the Park, by the Tea House and continue in the large walking park for 30 minutes until you reach the Train Station. This walk provides a pleasant break in summer and winter.
Markets (rynoks) provide a colorful feature to Bishkek life. The largest market is the Osh market, named for the second largest city in Kyrgyzstan. The Osh market features the greatest variety and least expensive fruits, vegetables, meats and souvenirs in Bishkek. On the weekends, cats, dogs and birds are sold at the Osh market. The Alamedin market is a smaller market located near the U.S. Embassy. On the weekends, the "Push" Market, so-named because you have to push to get through the market, offers the greatest selection of merchandise in Bishkek, the latest from the popular shopping trips to India, Turkey and the Middle East.
Two Chinese, one Korean, two Turkish and one pizza restaurants are the eating establishments most frequented by the international community in Bishkek. Ethnic Kyrgyz food such as shaslik, plov and manti is served in a few restaurants, but primarily from stands on the streets. One should be careful when deciding to try the local cuisine from street vendors.
The two main hotels in Bishkek have bars, cafes and souvenir gift shops.
Movie theaters, for the most part, show films in Russian. Some Western films also play in theaters, but they are dubbed in Russian. Kyrgyz television programming includes some interesting cultural events and historical documentaries.
The American community in Bishkek numbers around 125 and is composed primarily of USAID contractors and a few businessmen/women. Embassy personnel, as well as contractors, entertain each other informally at dinner, receptions or theatrical performances.
On an informal level, individuals organize visits to areas of interest and short trips for rest and recreation. Members of the international community get together for volleyball, softball, and touch football.
The International Women's Club is a social organization for women of the foreign community of Bishkek. The organization is nonpolitical, nonreligious and wishes to promote friendship and understanding between their members and the people of Kyrgyzstan. The group was founded in May, 1995 to give English-speaking women a chance to get together socially and to meet new women in the foreign community. Currently the club has over 50 members representing 15 countries. The club has meetings twice a month on Thursdays; new arrivals to Bishkek are always welcome. Meetings are held in homes and restaurants.
Canadian citizens are numerous in Bishkek due to the Kyrgyz-Canadian joint venture gold mining company. Many international visitors with international organizations such as the IMF, UNICEF, UNDP and British, Dutch, German, and European Community assistance organizations are active on the social scene. Social relationships with Kyrgyzstani citizens are not difficult to establish, particularly if one possesses Russian or Kyrgyz language skills. There is no prohibition on establishing social relationships with Kyrgyzstani citizens. On the contrary, reaching out and making Kyrgyzstani friends is encouraged.
Americans are popular and generally welcomed by all segments of society in Bishkek. The level of violent crime is not high by American standards; however, theft, burglaries, and even mugging is on the increase because of the declining economy. Westerners are likely to become targets as they are associated with wealth.
Because of energy deficits and broken, unreplaced street lamps, Bishkek is poorly lit after dark. The precautions necessary in any large Western city should taken in Bishkek after dark. One should avoid walking alone at night, especially where there are few people.
Many apartment buildings have poorly lit entrances through courtyards or in the rear of the building. A pocket flashlight is essential for nighttime activities. Some bars and restaurants are frequented by the local "mafia." It is better to avoid these facilities.
Travel by train from Bishkek to Moscow and other locations is not recommended due to an increase in crime on the trains. Bus travelers have had backpacks slashed.
Normal precautions, such as not exposing money or dressing ostentatiously, are recommended.
DZHALAL-ABAD , with a population of approximately 74,000, is located in southwest Kyrgyzstan near the border with Uzbekistan. Surrounded by an agricultural area, the city's main commercial enterprises are food processing plants and other light industries.
OSH is near the Uzbekistan border, only 30 miles from the Uzbek city of Andizhan. A large number of ethnic Uzbeks live in the Osh region. Agriculture and mining are the most important enterprises. Silk, cotton textiles, and food processing are the main industries. Many Muslims make a pilgrimage to Osh to visit Takht-i-Sulaiman, a hill mentioned in Islamic lore.
PRZHEVALSK (formerly Karakol) is located in northeast Kyrgyzstan on the eastern boundary of Issyk-Kul. The city is in the center of an agricultural region. A resort area, it is also a transportation hub—as a port for water transportation on the Issyk-Kul and as a commercial transport center with routes to the north and east.
TOKMAK is an industrial town, located just east of Bishkek. The building of a railway in 1938 contributed to the city's development. Tokmak has a population of 72,000.
Geography and Climate
Located in Central Asia, it is about the size of the State of Nebraska, with a total area of 198,500 square kilometers. It is 900 kilometers east to west and 410 kilometers north to south. Kyrgyzstan is bordered on the Southeast by China, on the north and west by Kazakstan, and on the south and west by Uzbeki-stan and Tajikistan. Bishkek (formerly Frunze), the capital, and Osh are the principal cities.
Kyrgyzstan is a mountainous country with the Tien Shan and Pamir mountain ranges dominating 65% of the country. The average elevation is 2,750 meters, ranging from 7,439 meters (24,409 feet) at Pik Pobedy (Mount Victory) to 394 meters in the Fergana Valley of the south. Kyrgyzstan's estimated 6,500 distinct glaciers are thought to hold 650 billion cubic meters water. The alpine regions provide rich pastures for sheep, goats, cattle, horses and yaks. Agriculture is conducted in the Chui River valley of the north and in the Fergana valley in the south. Over half the cultivated area is irrigated. Cotton, sugar beets, silk, tobacco, fruit, grapes and grains are grown. There are gold, coal, antimony, lead, tungsten, mercury, uranium, petroleum and natural gas deposits. Industries include food processing, the manufacture of agricultural machinery and textiles. The country is lightly forested; woods cover only about 3.5% of the country. However, forests in southern Kyrgyzstan include the largest wild nut (walnut) groves on earth.
The local climate is cold in the winter and desertlike hot in the summer. In January, evening temperatures can be in the teens (Fahrenheit); daytime temperatures often rise to above freezing, enough to start melting ice and snow. Summer temperatures can rise above 90 degrees by the end of May. The air is dry year round.
Bishkek, the capital of Kyrgyzstan, is situated in the extreme northern region of the country.
In 2000, the population of Kyrgyzstan was approximately 4,600,000, of whom 52.4% were ethnic Kyrgyz. Russians make up 18% of the population, Uzbeks 12.9%, Ukrainians 2.5% and Germans 2.4%.
Because of the country's mountainous terrain, the population tends to be concentrated in a relatively small area. About two-thirds of the population live in the Fergana, Talas and Chui valleys. The Chui valley, where the capital Bishkek is located, is the major economic center, producing about 45% of the nation's gross national product. Virtually all ethnic Uzbeks live in the southern area of the country, the Fergana valley. As a result, the Fergana region is more orthodox Muslim and traditional than the north.
The Kyrgyz language is a Turkic-based language with Mongol and Altaic elements. Kyrgyz did not become a written language until 1923, at which time an Arabic-based alphabet was used. Kyrgyz was changed to a Latin-based alphabet in 1928 and to a Cyrillic-based one in 1940. Most Kyrgyz living in the cities speak Russian. In rural areas, more Kyrgyz is spoken.
Arts, Science and Education
The Arts, Science and Education have suffered tremendously from lack of funding for the last four years. Public school teachers, especially in the rural areas, are seldom paid and usually in products rather than salary. Fuel shortages and the lack of funding to purchase fuel have forced many schools to operate without heating. Books and other learning materials are in short supply. At the university level, new private universities are operating entirely on revenues raised by tuitions and public universities likewise are charging tuitions to cover costs. Some universities are affiliated with foreign universities, including several American universities.
Education was one of the strongest features of the old regime, and many areas of strength still exist, especially in the sciences. The Academy of Science still operates. The recent introduction of Internet communications is expanding the ability of Kyrgyz scientists to work with scientists from other regions of the world. Ecological and environmental concerns of the country are observed by new NGOs which monitor the condition of Lake Issyk-Kul and measure fallout on Kyrgyz territory from Chinese Lop Nur nuclear tests.
Commerce and Industry
While a Soviet republic, Kyrgyzstan was dependent on transfer from Moscow for 12% of its GDP and had developed an industrial structure tightly integrated into Soviet structures and heavily weighted toward the defense industry. Consequently the breakup of the Soviet Union has had severe consequences for Kyrgyzstan's economic output. For this and other reasons, Kyrgyzstan has been in the forefront of economic reforms. Privatization was begun earlier than in other Central Asian states and is now proceeding steadily with U.S. assistance. Collective and state farms have been broken up and investment is being sought to develop gold mining and hydroelectric power.
Kyrgyzstan has stabilized its economy with a stable national currency—the Som—which has traded at around 10 to 11 som per U.S. dollar, and a low inflation rate. Exports began to pickup in 1994 and continued to grow in 1995. The former CIS countries remain major trading partners but China is now the largest market for Kyrgyzstani exports and trade patterns continue to diversify away from traditional trading partners. The banking and financial sector remains weak and tourism, which has great potential, remains undeveloped.
Agriculture accounts for over 40% of GDP with wool, cotton and hides being important products. Since independence the country has not been self-sufficient in grains and has needed to import wheat, rice and animal feeds. Herds have decreased sharply in recent years.
The production of fruits, vegetables and cotton has increased. The agricultural sector is in the midst of a major transition and it will be several years yet before this important sector stabilizes. Aside from mining, food processing and textiles based on locally produced raw materials offer the best prospects for industrial growth.
Unemployment is high in Kyrgyzstan and standards of living for Kyrgyzstanis have dropped dramatically since independence.
Traffic regulations and procedures in Kyrgyzstan are similar to those in the U.S. However, driving habits of local drivers mean that one must use caution when driving and when crossing streets as a pedestrian.
Winter evenings in Kyrgyzstan are dark and cold with severe icing on city streets. Only the main streets of Bishkek are plowed regularly; side streets and housing complexes remain covered with snow and ice throughout the winter.
Public transportation in Bishkek is inexpensive, but overcrowded. The city's network of buses and trolley-buses covers the entire city. Riders should be ready to contend with a good deal of pushing and shoving during the morning and evening rush hours. Passengers enter the bus from the rear doors and exit/pay through the front doors. The city has no streetcars or subway.
Many taxis cruise the city and private cars often provide taxi services. There are taxi stands at some busy corners in central Bishkek. After a taxi or car stops, the required destination should be stated; if the driver agrees, a price should be negotiated before entering the vehicle. Kyrgyz or Russian is a necessity when dealing with taxis. Extra precautions should be taken in the evenings, when it is advisable to use only clearly marked taxi rather than a private vehicle.
Kyrgyzstan's rail and air transportation system is limited and service is marginal. The rail system runs from Bishkek east to Lake Issyk-Kul and to the north to connect with rail lines for Uzbekistan, Russia and Kazakstan. Trains are unclean, overcrowded, dangerous and have no ventilation.
Air travel from the Bishkek International Airport (Manas airport) is often unreliable due to delays, sudden cancellations, or lack of fuel, particularly in winter. The successor to Aeroflot in Kyrgyzstan, Air Kyrgyzstan, operates regular service throughout the country and on a limited basis to Tashkent, Uzbeki-stan and a few cities in Russia. There are regular charter shopping flights to the United Arab Emirates, Turkey, India and Thailand. A German charter flies several times per month to three cities in Germany.
The road system in Kyrgyzstan provides access to all cities, towns and most villages. However, north-south travel in Kyrgyzstan is impossible from December through March due to heavy snow in the mountain passes. In all seasons, the traveler should plan her/his trip carefully since information, food, water, lodging and fuel are often not readily available. In winter, the traveler must be well prepared with food, water, heavy clothing and fuel as roads can close quickly due to ice and snow, leaving the traveler stranded for hours.
Telephone and Telegraph
Telephone service from Kyrgyzstan to the U.S. and to most European cities is inadequate but improving. Local calls often have serious static interference. Calls requested through the operator may require a wait. International calls to the U.S. cost about $1.00 per minute. The phone system in Bishkek uses the "pulse" rather than the "tone" method as commonly found in the U.S.
Newspapers, Magazines and Technical Journals
No foreign newspapers and magazines are available in hotels or in newspaper kiosks. However, copies of the International Herald Tribune can be ordered and delivered from Singapore by air through Almaty.
Radio and TV
Television and radio programming in Bishkek provides regular news broadcasts and basic information about Kyrgyzstan and international affairs. Broadcasts rely heavily on educational documentaries, films, and concerts. One station broadcasts from Bishkek, two stations provide broadcasting from Moscow in Russian and one broadcasts in Turkish from Turkey.
Radio programs on Bishkek's radio stations begin early in the morning. Much of the programming is musical. A good shortwave radio is required to receive Voice of America, BBC World Service and Radio Liberty. VOA is broadcast on an AM station in Bishkek at Sam.
Health and Medicine
Local medical practice in general is not up to the standards of Western medicine. Pharmaceutical supplies and drugs are in short supply. Routine laboratory work is problematic due to lack of supplies or working equipment.
Air pollution in Bishkek continues to increase. Utility smokestacks have no scrubbers. Residents of the suburbs burn coal or wood for heat and cooking, which adds to the haze trapped in the Bishkek valley. Persons with respiratory problems will notice increased sinus/allergic difficulties.
A high pollen count in the spring sometimes compounds air pollution problems. Persons susceptible to hay fever should bring an ample supply of medications and tissues as local supplies are uncertain.
Pests such as cockroaches and ants can be a nuisance in some apartments. Mosquitoes can be an annoyance in the summer. Travelers should bring an ample supply of insect repellent, traps, and fly swatters, as these items are not available locally.
Fruits and vegetables bought locally should be washed with a chlorine disinfectant.
The standard of cleanliness in many public buildings, restaurants, taxis, airports, and train stations fall short of Western standards. The few toilet facilities found on the roads while traveling are usually avoided for the cleanliness of nearby trees.
Drinking tap water is not recommended. Parents should bring fluoride fortified vitamins or fluoride tablets to add to the water supply for their children as once water is distilled, it loses its fluoride content. Locally produced carbonated mineral water is available, but it has a high sodium content.
The number of restaurants available in Bishkek is limited. Local markets have a good variety of fruits and vegetables in the summer, with winter produce consisting of potatoes, carrots, onions, cabbage and beets. Meats are hung in the market without refrigeration. No meat is packaged. A few small stores have opened with imported canned and packaged meats and vegetables.
NOTES FOR TRAVELERS
Passage, Customs & Duties
A passport and visa as well as an invitation are required. For further information regarding entry requirements, contact the Embassy of the Kyrgyz Republic at 1732 Wisconsin Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007, telephone (202)338-5141, fax: (202) 338-5139, or on the Internet at http://www.kyrgyzstan.org. Americans are required to register their passports with the Office of Visas and Registration, of the Kyrgyz Internal Affairs Ministry, within five business days of arrival in the Kyrgyz Republic. There are fines for failure to register and fines for late registration. This requirement does not apply to official delegation members and bearers of diplomatic passports.
U.S. citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their U.S. passport with them at all times, so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and citizenship are readily available. To this end, the American Citizen Services Unit of the Consular Section at U.S. Embassy Bishkek provides free-of-charge certified photocopies of the passports of U.S. citizens who register with the Consular Section.
In accordance with the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations and certain bilateral treaties, a consular officer from the U.S. Embassy must be given access to any U.S. citizen arrested in the Kyrgyz Republic. U.S. citizens who are arrested or detained should ask for the U.S. Embassy to be contacted immediately.
Americans living or visiting the Kyrgyz Republic are encouraged to register at the U.S. Embassy and obtain updated information on travel and security in the Kyrgyz Republic. The U.S. Embassy in Bishkek is located at 171 Prospect Mira, 720016 Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic. The phone number is 996-312-551-241, fax 996-312-551-264.
All dogs and cats entering Kyrgyzstan and Kazakstan must be accompanied by a certificate of good health bearing the seal of the relevant local board of health and signed by a veterinarian. The certificate should not be issued more than 10 days prior to the animal's arrival. A rabies certificate is needed. Travelers should carefully check with the airlines to ensure that the airline has room on all portions of the trip to Almaty to ensure that the pets arrive at the same time as the owner.
There are some competent local vets in Bishkek, but in general, veterinary care is at a level similar to that of the U.S. in the 1950s. Few vets have access to up-to-date vaccines from reliable companies. Refrigeration of vaccines is frequently ignored, thereby putting the vaccine's effectiveness at risk.
Currency, Banking, and Weights and Measures
Kyrgyzstan is no longer a part of the Soviet centralized banking system and has established its own independent system. The Kyrgyz Republic is a cash-only economy. The banking system is not well developed and there are no automated teller machines. One or two hotels or banks may, on occasion, accept travelers checks or credit cards but fees can be quite high for travelers checks, as much as 20%. U.S. bills dated earlier than 1990, or bills that are worn, torn or stained are usually not accepted in Kyrgyzstan. Several years ago the country introduced its own currency, the som. The rate of the som to the dollar in December, 1995 was 11Som to US$1.
The metric system of weights and measures is used.
The Kyrgyz Republic is an earthquake-prone country. General information about natural disaster preparedness is available via the internet from the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) at http://www.fema.gov.
Jan. 1 … New Year's Day
Jan. 7 … Christmas (Russian Orthodox)
Mar. 8 … Women's Day
Mar. 21 … Noruz (Persian New Year)
May 1 … Worker's Day
May 5…Constitution Day
May 9…Victory Day
June 13 …Commemoration Day
Aug. 31…Independence Day
Dec. 2 …National Day
These titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on Kyrgyzstan. The Department of State does not endorse unofficial publications.
Atkinson, Thomas N. Oriental and Western Siberia. New York: Praeger, 1970.
Franck, Irene M. The Silk Road: A History, New York, 1986.
Hopkirk, Peter. The Great Game, The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia, New York, 1992.
Katz, Zev, ed. Handbook of Major Soviet Nationalities. New York: Free Press, 1975.
Makcemov, B. The Kirghiz Pattern,Frunze, 1986. Orozbakov, Sagymbai. Manas-UNESCO Edition, Bishkek, 1995. Prohorov, B. Frunze, Moscow, 1984.
Omurkulov, Kadyr. Kirghizia. Moscow: Novosti Press Agency Pub. House, 1987.
Prior, Daniel. Bishkek Handbook, Inside and Out. Bishkek, 1994.
Prior, Daniel. Manas, the Epic Vision of Theodore Hergen, Bishkek, 1995.
Shukurov, E. Discovery of Kyrgyzstan. Bishkek, 1993. Thubron, Colin. The Lost Heart of Asia, New York, 1994.
Whittel, Giles. Central Asia: The Practical Handbook. London, 1993.
"Kyrgyzstan." Cities of the World. 2002. Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3410700188.html
"Kyrgyzstan." Cities of the World. 2002. Retrieved June 25, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3410700188.html
|Official Country Name:||Kyrgyz Republic|
|Region (Map name):||East & South Asia|
|Area:||198,500 sq km|
|GDP:||1,304 (US$ millions)|
|Number of Television Sets:||210,000|
|Television Sets per 1,000:||44.2|
|Number of Radio Stations:||28|
|Number of Radio Receivers:||520,000|
|Radio Receivers per 1,000:||109.4|
|Number of Individuals with Internet Access:||51,600|
|Internet Access per 1,000:||10.9|
Background & General Characteristics
Kyrgyzstan was one of 15 constituent republics of the former Soviet Union that upon the devolution of the Soviet Union became a separate nation. It declared its independence in 1992 and since that time has been pursuing policies aimed at democratic government, decollectivization, privatization, and the change to a market economy. The policies enacted since independence and the relative success of these policies in achieving these goals have been cause for economists and political scientists to judge that the transition in Kyrgyzstan has been among the most successful of all the former republics. However, it is generally agreed that the transition to and relationship with a free and independent media has been the least successful of all its policies. In addition, since the start of the new millennium an even more adversarial relationship with the government has become apparent, to the extent that media relations are now seen by external observers as the most serious impediment to true progress, and indeed is cause for suggesting that many of the gains of the first 10 years of independence are now being seriously eroded. Some observers have suggested that the need for the United States to have a significant presence in the Muslim world following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and in particular the predominantly Muslim Kyrgyzstan, has muted U.S. criticism of Kyrgyzstan government policies toward the media and perhaps encouraged Kyrgyz government attacks on the fledgling independent media.
The legacy of the 70 years of Soviet influence has created a highly educated, highly literate population. In a nation of 4.7 million people there is almost 100 percent literacy (99 percent males, 96 percent females). Most of the population is concentrated in the two large cities of Bishkek (the capital) and Osh, but a significant part of the population resides in smaller urban centers: 38 percent of the population is urban and 62 percent rural. Most of the urban centers have newspapers, and all have television coverage. In the rural areas radio and TV coverage is spotty, in large part due to the mountainous terrain, for much of Kyrgyzstan lies in the northern ranges of the Himalayas. Within the country there are significant ethnic concentrations geographically. The north and rural interior mountain valleys are predominantly populated by ethnic Kyrgyz with concentrations of ethnic Russians in the cities and larger communities. In the south, ethnic Uzbeks are a significant majority, and the media reflect their differing cultural attributes, particularly their Uzbek language. Small concentrations of ethnic Germans, Tatars, Jews, Tadjiks, who are often refugees from war in Afghanistan and Tadkjikistan, are present but are served by the mass media. All ethnic groups except Russians, Germans, and Jews are Muslim.
It is difficult to assess the quality of journalism in Kyrgyzstan for the turmoil over the past 10 years since independence has meant that there has been little history of a consistent regular press, and the turmoil caused by the constant animosity between the press and the government has provided little impartial basis on which to judge. Local westerners rate it a 3 out of 10 and getting worse as a result of the terrible economy, making it difficult for the media outlets to fund quality coverage. Moreover there is a complete lack of historical tradition in journalism, for up to 1990 the Communist government rigidly controlled the press in content and orientation. What can be said was that upon the fall of the Soviet Union there was an immediate and vociferous expression of dissatisfaction that was given voice by the media, and this dissatisfaction has not abated, notwithstanding persistent and punitive actions against the media by the government. In short, 10 years of a free press has been characterized by the voices of dissatisfaction accusing the government of seeking to curtail and control public opinion. The result has been a print media that has focused on providing political commentary to the detriment of providing solid factual news.
Following are the data on newspapers and electronic media in Kyrgyzstan, but what it does not show is the irregular appearance of many of the newspapers on the streets, the complete lack of audited sales (hence the circulation figures are generally unreliable), and the number of newspapers that come into circulation, publish for a short amount of time, and then cease publication without explanation. Most Kyrgyz newspapers are tabloids with 8 to 16 pages per issue. Twelve pages are average. Most are printed overnight and hence are morning editions. Later editions are unknown, and Sunday newspapers are rare. The Friday editions are the largest in volume with 32 pages and also contain the most advertisements, often up to 50 percent, and commanding the highest prices for ads. Otherwise advertising rarely exceeds 20 percent of the content and particularly in those newspapers out of favor with the government, this percentage may be as low as one percent.
Popular magazines (the most popular journal being the AKI Press journal) are available weekly and are dedicated to sports, fashion, film, or automobiles. There are three English language newspapers that come out sporadically and usually cover a week's news. They are the Kyrgyzstan Chronicle, The Times of Central Asia, and theBishkek Observer. Other language newspapers can occasionally be found in specialized bookstores and kiosks, though invariably the news is dated.
Of the urban centers in Kyrgyzstan, 10 have some form of electronic or print media. The largest and most competitive market is in Bishkek with 18 newspapers, 11 radio stations, and 4 TV stations. The most popular newspaper is Delo Nomar (50,000), followed by Slovo Kyr gyzstana (24,000), Moya Stolitsa (25,000), Aalam (18,000), Res Publica (7,000), Ordo (10,000), Kyrgyz Tuusu (10,000), and Kyrgyz Rukhu (7,000). Vechernyi Bishkek is the largest circulation newspaper with anywhere between 20,000 and 60,000 copies depending on press run, but in view of its government ownership has a dubious claim to being the most popular newspaper. Many other newspapers appear but have limited circulation. For instance Obshestvenniye Rating, Tribuna, andErkin Too all have circulations of less than 10,000 copies. The cost of a newspaper in 2002 was 3 soms or 0.10 cents U.S. on weekdays and 6 soms on Fridays. The high circulation newspaper Moya Stolitsa has been at the forefront of legal pressure, usually from government ministers for alleged libel. Publication ceased in 2001 as a result of the refusal of the government printing house to print the newspaper, but it has since resumed publication.
Twenty-four other smaller urban centers claim to have newspapers, but it is usually only one local newspaper (though Bishkek newspapers are circulated in these cities). For example the city of Jalalabad, the fourth largest city, has four local newspapers, but they only publish once per week. Similarly a city like Karakol in the mountains of Eastern Kyrgyzstan boasts seven newspapers, but circulation is significantly less than 5,000, and the papers only publish once per week. The exception to this pattern is the city of Osh with 12 newspapers, but none have a circulation larger than 5,000. Similar to Bishkek, Friday and Saturday are the most popular days of publication. In total with a circulation of only 15 per 1,000 people, Kyrgyzstan exhibits one of the lowest newspaper reader-ship levels in the world.
The economic performance of Kyrgyzstan over the first years of its existence has been rated possibly the best of all former Soviet Central Asian republics. However, while this is cause for optimism in the long term, the performance has been dismal by world standards. Growth rates have been negative or very low; inflation has been as high as 300 percent and in 2002 was still at an unacceptable 37 percent. The result has been low wages, limited foreign investment, and a general moribund economy. Criticism of such a poor economic performance has been limited in the media; rather they have concentrated on the perceived practices of nepotism, cronyism, and corruption that are seen as underlying cases of the poor economic performance. Furthermore the media has spent much time reacting to the autocratic rule of the one man who has held the presidency in the 10 years since the Soviet Union disbanded, President Askar Akaev. Certainly low per capita incomes have limited newspaper purchases, but it would not appear to be a major factor in media success.
The irregular appearance of newspapers on the street and the popularity of television as a medium make television the preferred news source. Newspapers are either government owned (Vechernyi Bishkek has the government as a majority owner) or privately owned. There are approximately 14 private TV stations and 11 radio stations. In Osh two television stations (Osh Television and Mezon) broadcast in the Uzbek language, and there have been instances when the government has accused the station of both televising too much Uzbek programming and also inciting ethnic hate during elections. It is difficult to classify the types of Kyrgyz newspapers. They are generally popular, but the incessant criticism of government and other entities would suggest that some might be yellow. However, the vicious backlash that has been waged against such journalism is not in keeping with traditions of yellow journalism elsewhere in the world. The small circulations and small staffs have militated against any concentration of ownership in newspaper chains. Competition is ostensibly present, and hence there are no monopolies or the need for antitrust legislation.
The government, through the publishing house Uchkun, owns the distribution network in Kyrgyzstan. Being government-owned, they have few problems obtaining newsprint. The government recently passed a decree (De-cree 20) that gives Uchkun and, by default the government, a monopoly on newsprint allocation, a potentially serious threat to a free press. In addition the government controls the small advertising market and hence has a considerable control over editorial and news content. The average cost of newspaper printing was US$10,500 for 35,000 copies in 2002.
The relationship between the government and the media since the fall of the Soviet Union is the one area that has dominated the emergence and functioning of the press and currently appears to be getting worse rather than better.
The Constitution of the Kyrgyz Republic, adopted in 1993, provides, under Article 16, the rights of all citizens "…to free expression and dissemination of one's thoughts, ideas, opinions, freedom of literary, artistic, scientific and technical creative work, freedom of the press, transmission and dissemination of information." Two supplementary laws that govern the media were passed in 1997: "On guarantees and free access to information" and "On the protection of professional activities of Journalists." "The Law of the Kyrgyz Republic on Mass Media" was originally passed in 1992, and despite pressure to amend this law, it remains in place as the most important law governing the media. There are no freedom of information laws in Kyrgyzstan.
As a requirement of that statute all of the country's mass media, including media owners and journalists, must register with the Ministry of Justice in the case of print, or the National Agency for Communications in the case of electronic media and cannot work or publish until permission has been granted by the Ministry. Permission is usually forthcoming in the one-month period required for a decision. The National Agency for Communications also reviews program schedules and issues electronic frequencies for broadcasting. In some cases the agency has unilaterally required stations to change frequencies thus incurring significant disruption and cost to the station. As a result of these restrictions Radio Free Europe estimates only two radio stations in the country are broadcasting legally. There is a fee for registration, but posted bonds are not required.
The press laws establish quite clearly what is prohibited material, namely official state secrets, intolerance toward ethnic minorities, pornography, and desecration of Kyrgyz national symbols like the national seal, anthem, or flag. The statute also identifies "encroachment on the honor and dignity of the person" as an offense. The statute (Articles 24-28) takes great care to identify indemnity of moral damage and other offences of this kind, and it is these provisions in the law that have been extensively used to stymie and restrict the media. Furthermore libel is a criminal, not a civil, action, and attempts to change this have been overwhelmingly defeated in the national Parliament with little hope given for this status to change. The result has been imprisonment of journalists, heavy fines, and ultimately media cessation of publication. It is this situation and the lack of an incentive to change that suggests an unfavorable prognosis for improvement. In the application of these press laws the judiciary has generally been favorable to the plaintiff in the case of honor and dignity suits launched against the media. This might be expected insomuch as the president and Parliament appoint the judiciary.
The right to free speech and freedom of the press, while enshrined in the Constitution and the media laws, is in practice generally not respected. Moreover, legislation that would further restrict the media seems to be an ongoing threat.
The state controls the television and much of the radio, and these outlets receive significant subsidies, which permit the government to influence the media. While the power of the government to affect and in some cases silence media agents has been clearly shown (many of whom were imprisoned, fled, or faced trial on flimsy charges), it might be suggested that in lieu of a strong vocal opposition to the president, the fact that there is independent media who still voice opposition and protest suggests that there may be hope for some form of editorial influence on government policies.
In an attempt to break the stranglehold on the printing and distribution of the print media by Uchkun, the European Union attempted in 2002 to sponsor the import of new printing presses. To date the government has withheld an import license for the equipment, and hence alternative presses for newspaper publishing are not available. Ironically, while the former Soviet Union promoted a strong and vociferous trade union movement, in the years since independence no form of worker protest against media manipulation has occurred.
There is no single agency in Kyrgyzstan concerned with monitoring the press, but the fact that Uchkun is the only newspaper-publishing house in the country and that it is government owned creates a de facto censorship. For example, Uchkun refused to publish Res Publica (pending payment of a fine to the president of the state TV and corporation) in 2000, and in 2002 it was refusing to print both Res Publica and Moya Stolitsa-Novosti (notwith-standing court orders to publish the newspapers) over alleged "moral damage" to the president of Uchkun. In view of the possibility of jail and the heavy fines that have been levied against journalists and independent newspaper owners, it is generally agreed that self-censorship is a significant occurrence in Kyrgyzstan. For example, one journalist in Jalalabad was sentenced to two years in prison and a fine equivalent to US$2,250—both penalties were subsequently reduced on appeal. In 2001 Res Publica was fined an equivalent of US$5,000 for criticizing the justice department, and the independent newspaper Asaba was required to pay the equivalent of US$105,000 to a parliamentary deputy for repeated insults over an eight-year period. The challenge, as one observer put it, is "to stay out of jail but publish something that has some relation to the truth." In what may be seen as a response to the increasing pressure on the media from government, there has been a significant increase in the number of agencies, foundations, and associations both internally and externally created. Most important is the Public Association of Journalists, a media non-government organization or NGO, "Glasnost (openness) Defense" Public Foundation to defend journalists in court (established in 1999); the public association "Journalists" representing 160 media professionals in the republic (founded in 1998); the Public Foundation of Media Development and the Protection of Journalists' Rights (founded in 1998); and the "Press Club" founded in 2000. The Association of Independent Electronic Mass Media of Central Asia, "Anesmi," (founded in 1995) represents the electronic media but is for all practical purposes defunct. There is also a Center of Women Journalists of Central Asia, as there are a large number of female journalists in Kyrgyzstan, where gender issues are increasingly coming to the fore in this predominantly Islamic country. Journalists can also be part of the Union of Journalists of the Kyrgyz Republic. In Osh the Resource Media Center has been active in the fight for journalists' rights. Sadly there is no Press Council that mediates disputes between plaintiffs and the media in the event of perceived slights; rather litigation is the preferred means of dispute resolution.
Attitude toward Foreign Media
Article 30 of the state media law guarantees the right of foreign mass media to operate in Kyrgyzstan without opposition. Generally the government's attitude toward foreign media has been one of dislike as a result of the criticism that has been directed toward Kyrgyzstan's record on media freedoms. There have been instances of foreign journalists being assaulted—in 2002 a journalist from the Kyrgyz-Turkish newspaper Zaman Kyrgyzstan was assaulted, but whether this was directed against him as a representative of the media or just unrelated street crime cannot be ascertained. More significantly western governments, particularly the United States and UNESCO, have played a major role in the protection and education of journalists in order to stimulate an independent media. UNESCO has established a Media Resource Center in Bishkek to which journalists from Europe and the America's come to instruct others in the best practices for journalists. English language classes and computer literacy classes have also been taught. In the future management courses will be taught. Of more direct impact has been the establishment, as a result of U.S. State Department funding, of Internews. Internews is a nongovernmental organization (NGO) that operates "based on the conviction that vigorous and diverse mass media form an essential cornerstone to an open society." To that end it produces TV news programs and youth radio stations but more recently has become involved in the defense of TV stations, radio stations, and journalists who have been sued under the nation's media laws. Internews is also active in the proposed amendment of current media laws. Foreign correspondents do not have to be accredited, nor do they require special visas. Cables are not approved, nor have there been any instances of foreign correspondents being prevented from doing their job. Domestic journalists have free access to international press organizations. The Kyrgyz government tacitly supports the UNESCO Declaration of 1979 by its support of the OSCE office in Bishkek that monitors this declaration.
The official government news agency is named Kabar. It is responsible for all government pronouncements and is the best source for local news but is generally considered untrustworthy. Western NGOs and other interested parties have incontrovertible proof of Kabar supplying patently false and misleading information in the past. There are a number of independent news agencies: Belyi Parokhod, Jihan, and Internews, all of which provide both national and international coverage as well as local politics and commentary. Most major international news bureaus cover Kyrgyzstan out of Moscow (AP) or Karachi (Reuters). Thus detailed, ongoing international pressure on the government to recognize and respect media freedoms is less than in other, larger countries.
The state owns and controls the TV station transmitters and therefore is in a position to control electronic news broadcasts. There are five TV channels in the capital city of Bishkek. Channel one is Kyrgyz programming, channels two and three are feeds from Moscow, channel four is a Turkish feed, and channel five is the independent channel showing mostly soap operas and pirated western movies.
Electronic News Media
The importance of the Internet as a source of information is limited owing to the lack of computers and the poor telecommunications network in the country. In an attempt to expand the Internet as a news source, the U.S. State Department opened seven information centers in seven cities and towns with free access to the Internet to enable citizens to access various press sites. In 2003 it will open five more urban centers. In yet another example of a contradiction between theory and practice, the government has undertaken to increase electronic access and communication, while shutting down the online news site "Politica KG" in 2000 during the presidential election.
Education & TRAINING
There are a number of schools of journalism in Kyrgyzstan institutes of higher education. The primary institutions teaching journalism are the American University in Kyrgyzstan (AUK), Slavic University, and Bishkek Humanities University. Many Kyrgyz students in standard literature classes also see journalism as a viable and attractive career. The numbers graduating from these institutions are small. For example, AUK graduated 10 journalism students in 2001.
The most serious problem facing the provision of an independent media in Kyrgyzstan is the attitude and policies of the government. In the earliest years of independence there was cause for hope that the media would grow to become a solid acceptable force in the progress of the nation. By the late 1990s the situation had begun to deteriorate with a significant growth in the number of lawsuits, harassment of journalists by means of intimidation, and use of the taxation system to challenge the existence of an independent media. Matters came to a head in 2000 when the president, Askar Akaev, sought a third term in office, normally prohibited under the Constitution but permitted by the Supreme Court on the basis that he became president under the old Soviet regime and hence technically had not served two terms. The media outcry was met by a series of punitive measures against any of the media that opposed his campaign for a third term. Thus the situation exists in the early twenty-first century where, on a scale of one to one hundred (Free= 0-30, partly free= 31-60, and Not free 61-100), the 1999 Freedom House Survey of Press Freedom rated Kyrgyzstan 64 and is considered without a free press, a situation reminiscent of the press under the Soviet regime only 10 years earlier.
The prospects and prognosis for the media in the twenty-first century is dependent on the state of relations with the government. Certainly the government in its official statements espouses the need for a free and independent media, but in practice it is a long way from that reality. From here the government can go even further in its challenge to the independence of the media, secure in the knowledge that for the foreseeable future western governments need to be on good terms with Islamic governments. Or it can address the concerns voiced by both the OSCE and the U.S. government that human rights and the state of the mass media are areas of immediate and serious concern and can address these issues to the satisfaction of Kyrgyz journalists, media, and outside observers.
Freedom House Media Ratings, 2002. Available from http://freedomhouse.org.
Kyrgyzstan 2001 World Press Freedom Review. Available from http://freemedia.at.
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). "Report on Independent Media," 2002. Available from http://www.usaid.gov.
U.S. Department of State. "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2001." Available from http://www.state.gov.
Richard W. Benfield
Benfield, Richard W.. "Kyrgyzstan." World Press Encyclopedia. 2003. Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3409900120.html
Benfield, Richard W.. "Kyrgyzstan." World Press Encyclopedia. 2003. Retrieved June 25, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3409900120.html
The Kyrgyz Republic gained its independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Since then, the family law of the former Kyrgyz Soviet Socialist Republic (KSSR) remains in effect. With the transition to a market economy that began in 1991, Kyrgyz children and families face many new social and economic problems. Independence brought a significant revival of Islamic tradition, especially in the south. These changes have brought with them a need to reform family law.
The evolution of Kyrgyz family law can be divided into three periods: The first was the time before the 1917 Russian Revolution. The second began with the family law reforms instituted in 1917. The third commenced in 1991, when Kyrgyz Republic achieved its independence from the Soviet Union, and prevails through the beginning of the twenty-first century.
It is impossible to understand the role of the family in the Kyrgyz Republic without studying family relations in Kyrgyzstan in the second half of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries. During this period, family law combined customary law, the norms of Muslim law, and the law of the Russian Empire. The three were inter-connected, influenced each other, and contradicted each other. None of the three systems was dominant.
Customary, or traditional, law is a set of unwritten norms produced over a long period of time, regulating all kinds of activity and having a binding character. In Kyrgyzstan, the sources of customary law are custom (adapt or urp), the practice of courts (biilerdin bytymy), and the written decisions of the Congress of Judges (Ereje). Customary law was passed from generation to generation by word of mouth. Within this tradition, the standards of family law and inheritance varied among districts. In the south, customary law was strongly influenced by Muslim law. At the same time, traditional laws changed constantly as a region's economic relations developed and evolved.
In traditional Kyrgyz culture, almost all marriages are arranged, with the purpose of forming alliances between clans. Women, upon marriage, become part of the husband's clan; their status within the family depends on the number of male children they bear and their skills in performing their duties as wife, mother, and daughter-in-law. The pre-Soviet Kyrgyzs had no tradition of veiling or seclusion. Polygamy was common.
The oral folklore of the Kyrgyz people has its roots in ancient times; its prehistory remains alive in the legendary Manas epos (or body of traditional poems and stories on the same theme). Manas is an original encyclopedia for study of the customs, traditions, beliefs, and the worldview of the Kyrgyz people. As the historian V.V. Radlov notes, the epos, as a document of Kyrgyz history, presents a picture of family life, spiritual life, economy, ethics, popular philosophy, religious concepts, and matchmaking.
In the Soviet period, the centralized government created a new family law when it presented countries with decrees, codes, and other acts. Turkestan, which included Kyrgyzstan, accepted the Soviet orders and decisions explaining the Family Code of 1918. The new legislation was carried out slowly because the population was still under the powerful influence of local clergy, aristocrats, and customary law judges (biev). The biev were wealthy elders informally chosen by the community, discretely maintained by the ruling class (baev) in the patriarchal-feudal aristocracy and imperial administration to keep peace between the classes. Their rulings were oral.
When they created the code, the Soviets did not take into account the conditions of the region. The people were used to living according to custom and Muslim law. Because of this situation, the Soviet Union subsequently permitted Islamic judges (kaziev) and the biev to decide family disputes by application of both the Family Code of 1918 and traditional norms, unless those norms were inconsistent with the Family Code. The Soviet Union also recognized household and national traditions in 1924 when the legal institution of adoption under customary law was restored in Turkestan. In general, however, Kyrgyzstan leaders were limited in their ability to regulate family relations and generally followed Soviet laws and rules.
The Marxist-Leninist government encouraged the "liberation" of women from the home and into the workforce, particularly in the urban areas. Under Soviet rule, women were given equal access to employment, protection under family law, and social-support provisions. Girls were required to attend school. The Soviets prohibited bride-price and dowry, but officials rarely enforced the prohibition, and the practice remained common.
During the Soviet era, public law, not civil or private law, governed family relations. Many government decisions show this policy. To encourage motherhood, the Soviet government prohibited abortion in a 1936 decision. Women who had abortions in violation of that prohibition were punished under the Criminal Code until 1955.
During World War II, the government opened many orphanages to care for children whose parents had been killed in the war. On September 8, 1943, the Decree of Presidium of the Supreme Soviet "On Adoption" was issued to encourage adoption of these children. The Presidium enacted an edict on July 8, 1944, that specified that only a marriage registered with the state was accorded rights and obligations. This edict also made divorce very difficult and abolished paternity proceedings. From February 15, 1947, to January 21, 1954, marriages between foreigners and Soviet citizens were prohibited.
The Supreme Soviet enacted completely new family legislation on October 1, 1968. These "Fundamental Principles of Legislation on Marriage and the Family" were followed in 1969 by new family codes in the fifteen Soviet Republics. This 1969 Family Code remains in effect in the Kyrgyz Republic at the beginning of the twenty-first century. Under Soviet rule, the central marriage code was designed to establish equality between spouses, secularize marriage, and make divorce simple and accessible to both partners.
The constitution of the Kyrgyz Soviet Socialist Republic in 1978 established the protection of family as a constitutional principle. Other legislation mandated equality of men and women, the strengthening of the family, and the protection of children.
Kyrgyz Republic became sovereign and independent in 1991. Restoration of independence in Kyrgyzstan, as well as in its neighboring countries, was connected to the collapse of the USSR. With independence came the opportunity to continue the interrupted development of the market economy and institutions of the democratic state.
The Constitution of the Kyrgyz Republic, accepted by the Supreme Soviet in 1993, continues Soviet-era protection by providing in Article 26 that motherhood, fatherhood, and childhood will be under the defense of the State. The addition of fatherhood enlarges the provisions of the constitution.
Since independence, the Parliament of the Kyrgyz Republic (Jokorku Kenesh) has ratified many international conventions. Analysis of the conventions in the fields of women's and children's rights has shown that the existing base of Kyrgyz law as a whole agrees with international norms.
Development of family law after the restoration of independence has been determined by the common conception of civil or private law. A new civil code went into effect in 1996. According to Art.1 of this code, "Civil legislation shall be applied to family relationships, if such relationships are not regulated by family legislation." Portions of the 1969 family code have been moved into the 1996 civil code including trusteeship and the acts of a civil condition.
Legal regulation of marriage. In Kyrgyz law, marriage is the union of men and women, which brings legal consequences, creating a status for the married person and for the state. The only legal marriage ceremonies are state-sanctioned, although the participants may have religious ceremonies as well. Couples who plan to marry must file applications at a government office (the ZAGS bureau) one month in advance of the wedding. The waiting period may be reduced or extended by up to one month for justifiable reasons. In both cases, the ceremony must be preceded by a procedure before a civil registrar who issues written findings that there are no obstacles to the marriage. A civil wedding may be accompanied by a religious ceremony, but a religious ceremony without the civil ruling is not valid. Marriage is finalized by registration.
Under law, both parties to a marriage must be at least eighteen years old. The CMF Art.18 provides for the possibility of lowering the marriageable age, but only for the woman and not by more than one year. Couples who marry in religious ceremonies or under customary law at younger ages are not legally married and do not receive legal marriage benefits. The department of state generally decides questions about the lowering of marriageable age. Many marriages today are based on mutual consent of spouses; paternal consent is still a requirement by custom, maintaining a semblance of the tradition of arranged marriages.
According to civil wedding statistics from by the Ministries of Justice, the number of registered marriages has diminished. In 1996, 36,710 couples registered to marry; in 1997, the figure was 26,110; in 1998, 26,910; in 1999, 26,060; and in 2000, 26,557. There is an increasing number of unregistered, traditional unions or de facto marriages. De facto unions are popular especially in the south and among rich men in cities.
In Kyrgyzstan, bride-price, known as kalym, is again openly practiced in the post-Soviet era. According to Kyrgyz custom, the groom gives the bride's family a gift of livestock. Kyrgyz women sometimes bring family livestock into the marriage. The children of the marriage subsequently inherit the bride-wealth, not the husband and his family. De facto polygamous marriages have also increased in number. One statistic showed that as many as 70 percent of the men in the south had multiple wives. Polygamy typically takes the form of acquiring a woman over the age of twenty-five as a second wife. The second wife is called the tokol and is married in a religious ceremony conducted by the iman, or Muslim cleric. The tokol has no legal rights under Kygyz law.
Under the Criminal Code of 1997, bigamy and polygamy are punishable crimes and result in the annulment of the second marriage. Nevertheless, men take on additional wives under traditional and Muslim law. Traditional law permits more wives does Islamic law, which limits a man to four wives. These unions have created a conflict between traditional, religious, and civil law.
De facto marriage, or cohabitation, is of a personal and spiritual nature; it carries no legal family obligations (such as alimony or division of property) according to the civil code. De facto unions are not forbidden by law and are not prosecutable, but the law does not accord them any legal significance. Thus, men and women living together are not considered spouses and do not inherit from each other. Children born from these unions are considered illegitimate and bear the mother's surname. The relations between children and their natural fathers are not considered paternal in the same sense as those involving legitimate children. Although children have the right to receive child support from their natural father, the law does not provide for inheritance rights after his death. Nevertheless, many women who are second wives—who joined the household as a result of de facto marriage—apply to courts to defend the inheritance rights of their children. Such cases are a problem in legal practice.
There are two categories of de facto union. The first might be termed modern and voluntary. These unions exist as a result of a mutual agreement of the parties with little involvement of their families. They occur primarily in the cities. This is a contractual model as a voluntary union of two individuals. The second category, in which the family of the man or man himself pays a bride-price to woman's family, is consummated by the transfer of an agreed bride-wealth. These de facto unions are based on an agreement between families. A woman from a poor family may be forced to marry even if she believes that her rights are being violated. However, since the enactment of the 1997 criminal code, the purchase or ransom of bride-price by parents is no longer a criminal offense. The new code recognized this practice as a social custom and thus not punishable by criminal law.
The difficult question is determining the form of a relationship before its legal effects can be ascertained. Women in polygamous unions often believe that they are validly married under Islamic law, which recognizes these unions. Customary law in Kyrgyzstan also permitted polygamy. In the south, a first wife may not protest against her husband's expressed intention to marry other women. Women and their families do not demand a marriage certificate because the ceremony (nike) is performed by an Islamic official (moldo—a man who works in a mosque under an iman). These traditions date back to the prerevolutionary era and belong to both the Islamic and traditional laws. Given these circumstances, parties may remain ignorant of their actual legal status until a marital dispute or the death of one person throws a dark shadow on the validity of their marriage.
The Code of Marriage and Family does not include legal rules to govern the distribution of property when one of the cohabitants dies intestate before the validity of the relationship is decided in court. The law has no provisions that give economic protection to the woman who lives with the man and her children. This brings consequences for the second wife and her children. Fathers' and children's rights and duties arise from the establishment of the children's parentage. A child's parentage becomes legal when certified by the ZAGS. The parentage of a child born to unmarried parents may be established if the child's mother and father submit a joint declaration to the ZAGS. Based on the parents' free and willing declaration that they are the parents, ZAGS register the child's birth and issue the parents a birth certificate that indicates the child's father's and mother's name, patronymic, and surname.
The courts may determine a child's paternity if the child is born out of wedlock and if, at the time of birth, no joint declaration was submitted to the ZAGS. Paternity may be established based upon cohabitation and the running of a joint household by the mother and the respondent for at least six months prior to the birth of the child, the joint upbringing or maintenance of the child by the two, or documentary evidence authentically proving that the respondent recognizes his paternity. Paternity can be proved if only one of these is established. Cohabitation and running a joint household by the child's mother and the respondent before the child's birth may be proved if the two persons lived in the same household, ate together, took care of one another, and acquired property for mutual use and enjoyment or for the child. All these facts may be confirmed with various documents and witnesses' testimony. After the court exhaustively examines all evidence relevant to a paternity case, it declares whether the respondent is the child's father or not. The court's decision becomes the basis for the entry in the ZAGS registry, which brings about personal and property rights and obligations between the child and the father.
The process of establishing paternity may be difficult, particularly after the father has died. Documentary evidence is rarely available, and the illegal widow will have to offer proof of established cohabitation. In many cases, a de facto union may not last long enough to meet this test. Genetic evidence is accepted, but is expensive and only available in Moscow.
Experience shows that the woman usually loses when the second marriage is invalid under the general law. Since the Kyrgyz Republic republic gained its independence, polygamy and de facto marriage unions have spread in the neighboring republics of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan. This has come about because of the interests of Muslim men and the revival of Central Asian traditions. Polygamy is against the law in all of these countries, but the governments do not enforce the laws. During the Soviet era, the criminal code prohibited both polygamy and the payment of bride-price. Even more important, a man with more than one wife (or a man who divorced) would lose his membership in the Communist Party and would lose prestige and even his job as a result.
Divorce. The Code of Marriage and Family required equal ownership and distribution of marital assets upon divorce. By the end of the twentieth century, the number of divorces exceeded 50 percent of the annual marriages.
Domestic violence increased in the post-Soviet era. Under the criminal code, husbands do not have a right to beat their wives, but domestic violence is only a crime if the abused partner complains. Hospital admission records indicate an increase in domestic violence injuries requiring medical attention.
The transition to independence and a market economy have brought a need for family law reform. Because of the large gap between the law on the books and the practices in Kyrgyz society, the shape of family law reform will be controversial. The 1969 Code on Marriage and the Family of the KSSR, which became effective on January 1, 1970, is still in force. A new family code for the Kyrgyz Republic will fundamentally change the system of family law in almost every aspect. The new family code will attempt to achieve an international standard of human rights, with particular emphasis on the rights of children In 1994, the country approved the International Convention on the Rights of the Child, but no legislation was passed to implement it.
The institution of family has undergone tremendous changes in the last century due to both societal and political upheaval. Marriage as an institution has diminished with the rise in cohabitation and illegitimate children. Further change is certain to occur.
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"Kyrgyzstan." International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family. 2003. Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3406900267.html
"Kyrgyzstan." International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family. 2003. Retrieved June 25, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3406900267.html
Kyrgyzstan (kērgĬstän´), officially Kyrgyz Republic, republic (2005 est. pop. 5,146,000), c.76,600 sq mi (198,400 sq km), central Asia. It borders on China in the southeast, on Kazakhstan in the north, on Uzbekistan in the west, and on Tajikistan in the southwest. Bishkek, the capital, and Osh are the chief cities.
Land and People
Kyrgyzstan is a mountainous country in the Tian Shan and Pamir systems, rising to 24,409 ft (7,440 m) at Pobeda Peak on the Chinese border. Ninety-four percent of the country is over 3,300 ft (1,000 m) above sea level, with an average elevation of 9,020 ft (2,750 m). Lake Issyk-Kul lies in the northeast. The climate is continental with great regional variations; there are glaciers in the north, and the subtropical Fergana Valley highlands lie in the southwest. The Talas Alatau and the Fergana ranges roughly separate SW Kyrgyzstan from the larger northeast.
The borders with neighboring Central Asian nations, were often not clearly defined under Soviet rule, and they have yet to be finally demarcated. In the Fergana Valley, several small sections of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan form enclaves in Kyrgyzstan, and there is a small Kyrgyzstani exclave in Uzbekistan. The jumbled geography has led at times to border incidents and tensions.
The Kyrgyz, a Sunni Muslim, Turkic-speaking pastoral people, constitute about two thirds of the population; the rest are Uzbeks (about 14%), Russians (about 12%), and other minorities. The Uzbeks reside largely in the southwest. Some 20% of the people are Russian Orthodox Christians. About two thirds of the population is rural. Kyrgyz and Russian are both official languages, and Uzbek is also spoken.
Over half of Kyrgyzstan's population is engaged in agriculture and herding. There is rich pasturage for sheep, goats, cattle, and horses. Most of the cultivated area is irrigated. Cotton, tobacco, potatoes, sugar beets, vegetables, grapes, fruits, and berries are grown; sericulture is carried on, and grain crops are cultivated in the nonirrigated areas.
Kyrgyzstan has deposits of gold, rare earth metals, coal, oil, natural gas, nepheline, mercury, bismuth, lead, zinc, and uranium. Industries include food processing, nonferrous metallurgy, forestry, and the manufacture of apparel and textiles, agricultural machinery, appliances, furniture, and electric motors. In addition, the Kyrgyz are also noted for such traditional handicrafts as wood carving, carpet weaving, and jewelry making. Many citizens work abroad, especially in Kazakhstan and Russia, and their remittances are important to Kyrgyzstan's economy.
The nation's leading exports are cotton, wool, meat, tobacco, metals (particularly gold, mercury, and uranium), natural gas, hydropower, and machinery; the chief imports are oil and gas, machinery and equipment, chemicals, and foodstuffs. The main trading partners are China, Russia, the United Arab Emirates, and Kazakhstan.
Kyrgyzstan was the first of the former Soviet Central Asian republics to acquire democratic institutions. Under the constitution adopted in 2010 and fully effective when the interim government ends in 2011, the president, who is head of state, is elected by popular vote for a single six-year term. The government is headed by the prime minister. The unicameral legislature consists of the 120-member Jogorku Kenesh, the Supreme Council or Parliament; members are popularly elected by a system of proportional representation for five-year terms. No one party can hold more than 65 seats. Administratively, the country is divided into seven provinces and the capital area.
Formerly known as the Kara [black] Kyrgyz to distinguish them from the Kazakhs (at one time called Kirghiz or Kyrgyz), the Kyrgyz migrated to Kyrgyzstan from the region of the upper Yenisei, where they had lived from the 7th to the 17th cent. The area came under the rule of the Kokand khanate in the 19th cent. and was gradually annexed by Russia between 1855 and 1876. The nomadic Kyrgyz resisted conscription into the czarist army in 1916, leading to an uprising in which 100,000 and perhaps many more died and many fled to China. The Kyrgyz also fought the establishment of Bolshevik control from 1917 to 1921. As a result of war devastation, there was a famine in 1921–22 in which over 500,000 Kyrgyz died. The area was formed into the Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous Region within the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic in 1924, becoming an autonomous republic in 1926 and a constituent republic in 1936.
In 1990, Askar Akayev, president of the republic's Academy of Sciences, was elected president as a compromise candidate by the legislature. After fighting off an attempted coup in 1991, the government declared Kyrgyzstan independent of the Soviet Union. Kyrgyzstan subsequently became a member of the Russian-dominated Commonwealth of Independent States, and a new consitutution was approved.
Akayev, who remained president, fostered ties with China and other neighboring nations and initiated an ambitious program of free-market reforms. He retained his post in the 1995 elections, which were denounced by opposition leaders but given guarded support by UN observers. Also in 1995, Kyrgyzstan, along with Belarus and Kazakhstan, signed a pact with Russia providing for close economic cooperation. In 1996, Akayev won a referendum on amending the constitution to increase the presidency's powers. Islamic militants seized several towns near the border with Tajikistan (where a civil war began in 1992) in 1999, and in 2000 Kyrgyzstani forces fought Uzbek guerrillas based in Tajikistan that had infiltrated into the Fergana Valley. Akayev was reelected president in Oct., 2000, in a contest that observers said was marred by intimidation and ballot fraud. A U.S. air base, used for operationsin Afghanistan, was established at Manas in late 2001, following the Sept. 11th attacks against the United States. A Feb., 2003, referendum approved constitutional changes and affirmed Akayev's current term in office. The vote was prompted by unrest prior to 2003, but the constitutional changes and outcome of the vote were denounced by those opposed to Akayev.
The 2005 elections for parliament ended in a lopsided victory for Akayev's supporters, a result that sparked unrest in a nation already beset by persistent poverty and corruption. In March, opposition demonstrators seized control of the southwestern cities and regions of Jalal-Abad and Osh, and the uprising spread to Bishkek. As a result of the "Tulip Revolution," Akayev fled the country for Russia (and officially resigned the following month), and Kurmanbek Bakiyev, a former prime minister who had resigned in 2002 and then opposed Akayev, was appointed prime minister and acting president. Despite the supreme court's annulment of the elections, the departing parliament decided to accept the results, and the new legislators took office.
In the months leading up to the July, 2005, presidential election, the country experienced an increased level of civil unrest as the provisional government struggled somewhat to establish its control, and the unrest continued sporadically through the rest of 2005. The July vote resulted in a landslide victory for Bakiyev, who had agreed in May to appoint his most significant political rival—Felix Kulov, the provisional government's former security services coordinator—as prime minister. Kulov was confirmed as prime minister in September.
At the end of 2005, the political situation remained somewhat tenuous, with the president seeking to consolidate his power and influence despite his pledge to reduce his powers and parliament seeking to increase the prime minister's powers. Corruption and crime, meanwhile, had become worse than it had been under Akayev; reform efforts stalled; and by 2006 interethnic tensions and violence appeared to be increasing. Increased antiterror operations in SW Kyrgyzstan, directed mainly against Uzbeks, appeared in part designed to suppress an Uzbek campaign for enlarged civil rights and aggravated ethnic strains.
Unhappiness with Bakiyev led to several large demonstrations against him in 2006, and a loss of support in parliament. In May, 13 government ministers resigned after being criticized by the parliament, but then remained in office after meeting with the president. Omurbek Tekebayev, a former parliament speaker and opposition leader, was arrested in Poland in Sept., 2006, on drug charges, then was released when the heroin was determined to have been planted. The president's brother and the deputy director of the state security service were implicated in affair, which was seen as a government effort to discredit its opponents.
The president and parliament continued to joust over constitutional reform, with each side preferring that it have the stronger powers in any new national charter. In November, however, after a week of opposition demonstrations in the capital, parliament passed a compromise constitution that reduced the president's powers, and the president signed it. In December, Prime Minister Kulov's government resigned, ostensibly to accelerate the election of a parliament under the new constitution so that the new parliament might elect the prime minister (as required under the new constitution), but parliament subsequently adopted revisions to the November constitution that restored some of the president's lost powers and also allowed the president to appoint a new cabinet until a new parliament was elected. Bakiyev then twice appointed Kulov prime minister, but parliament refused to approve the choice.
In late Jan., 2007, a compromise choice, Azim Isabekov, the agriculture minister, was appointed prime minister and confirmed, but he resigned in March after the opposition, which had become increasing critical of the government, refused to join in a coalition. Bakiyev then appointed opposition politician Almazbek Atambayev as prime minister, but many in the opposition continued to resist joining a coalition government, mounting demonstrations instead and calling for the president to resign and parliament to dissolve. In May, 2007, there was an apparent attempt to poison the prime minister, possibly over a government decision to nationalize a semiconductor plant, but he survived after treatment.
In Sept., 2007, the constitutional court ruled that the 2006 amendments to the constitution were invalid because a referendum was required. The following month, however, a referendum approved the changes, but independent observers questioned the result, saying that there was evidence of an inflated turnout and ballot stuffing. Subsequently, parliamentary elections were called for December, which were won overwhelmingly by the president's Best Path Popular (Ak-Jol Eldik) party. The largest opposition party was denied any seats and accused the government of fraud; despite winning 8% of the vote nationally, the election commission said it failed to win the .5% required in each region. Western observers said the election failed to meet international standards and were critical of the regional vote requirement. Igor Chudinov was named prime minister. The government moved in Feb., 2009, to end U.S. use of the Manas air base; although Kyrgyzstan denied it, the action appeared linked to the country's receipt of $2 billion aid package from Russia. In June, however, the government agreed to a new lease on the base in return for increased rent and other aid. Bakiyev was reelected in July, but the campaign was criticized as unfair and the vote, which was denounced by the opposition as fraudulent, was marred by widespread irregularities and criticized by OSCE observers. Chudinov and the cabinet resigned in Oct., 2009, as Bakiyev undertook a major government reorganization that placed control of foreign affairs and security forces directly under the president; Daniyar Usenov, the president's chief of staff, succeeded Chudinov as prime minister.
In early 2010 Bakiyev faced growing criticism, even from his supporters, for moves against opposition politicians and independent media outlets. In April, protests that began in Talas spread to Bishkek and other northeastern cities, and when clashes in the capital resulted in the deaths of some 80 people, Bakiyev fled to his native Jalalabad prov. in W Kyrgyzstan. Opposition politicians proclaimed an interim government, with former foreign minister Roza Otunbayeva as its leader. Bakiyev and Usenov subsequently went into exile, and were later convicted in absentia of various crimes.
The new government struggled to assert contol and reestablish order, especially in SW Kyrgyzstan, where support for the former president was stronger. When Uzbek volunteers helped the government regain control in Jalalabad in June, the move apparently sparked ethnic rioting in SW Kyrgyzstan, with the largely Kyrgyz police and the military reportedly supporting Kyrgyz mobs (though the government denied this and blamed the rioting on foreigners, some Uzbek leaders, and the Bakiyev family). An independent international inquiry estimated that 470 people were killed, and some 410,000 were displaced. The violence disproportionately affected Uzbeks, many of whom sought refuge in neighboring Uzbekistan.
A referendum later in the month approved a new constitution establishing a parliamentary republic; Otunbayeva was named to serve as interim president until the end of 2011. In the Oct., 2010, parliamentary elections, five parties won votes from more than 5% of the eligible voters (the threshold for representation in parliament); no party won more than 9%. A sixth party narrowly failed to win the necessary votes due to a change in the election commission's calculation of the number of eligible voters, leading to protests from the party and its supporters.
In Dec., 2010, three parties, including the SW-Kyrgyzstan-based Ata Jurt (Homeland) party, which opposed the creation of a parliamentary republic, formed a government; Social Democrat Atambayev became prime minister for the second time. He subsequently ran for president, handily winning in Oct., 2011, but the voting was marred by irregularities and reflected regional divisions, with most of his support coming from the northeast. In December the Social Democrats withdrew from the governing coalition, forcing the formation of a new government; a new four-party coalition was formed, with the Respublika party's Omurbek Babanov as prime minister. That government collapsed in Aug., 2012, when two of the parties withdrew from the coalition. Those parties and the Social Democrats formed a new government in September, with Jantoro Satybaldiyev, an independent, as prime minister.
In Oct., 2012, Kamchybek Tashiyev, the nationalist leader of Ata Jurt, was arrested when he led an attempt to storm the parliament complex in the capital; he was later acquitted (June, 2013) of having attempted to overthrow the government. In June, 2013, Kyrgyzstan decided to end the U.S. lease on Manas by July, 2014; the decision was apparently linked to Russia's forgiveness of some of Kyrgyzstan's debt and other aid. Most U.S. personnel left by Feb., 2014. In July, 2013, the government signed an agreement to sell control of the state natural gas distribution company to the Russian giant Gazprom for $1 in exchange for infrastructure investments in Kyrgyzstan's energy system and other considerations. In Mar., 2014, Prime Minister Satybaldiyev resigned after the Ata Meken (Fatherland) party withdrew from the government, and then stepped down as interim government leader. Djoomart Otorbayev, an independent, became acting prime minister and then prime minister when the prior three-party governing coalition formed a new government in April, but he resigned a year later. Tamir Sariyev succeeded him as prime minister. In 2015, Kyrgyzstan joined the Eurasian Economic Union.
See S. Akinev, Islamic Peoples of the Soviet Union (1986).
"Kyrgyzstan." The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. 2016. Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Kyrgyzst.html
"Kyrgyzstan." The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. 2016. Retrieved June 25, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Kyrgyzst.html
Official name: Kyrgyz Republic
Area: 198,500 square kilometers (76,641 square miles)
Highest point on mainland: Victory Peak (7,439 meters/24,406 feet)
Lowest point on land: Kara-Daryya (Karadar'ya) (132 meters/433 feet)
Hemispheres: Northern and Eastern
Time zone: 5 p.m. = noon GMT
Longest distances: Not available
Land boundaries: 3,878 kilometers (2,410 miles) total boundary length; China 858 kilometers (533 miles); Kazakhstan 1,051 kilometers (652 miles); Tajikistan 870 kilometers (539 miles); Uzbekistan 1,099 kilometers (681 miles)
Territorial sea limits: None
1 LOCATION AND SIZE
Kyrgyzstan is located in central Asia, west of China, south of Kazakhstan, east of Uzbeki-stan, and northeast of Tajikistan.
2 TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES
Kyrgyzstan has no territories or dependencies.
Average temperatures vary significantly by region in Kyrgyzstan. The coldest January temperatures are in the mountain valleys, where readings have been known to fall below -30°C (-22°F). The warmest January average is -4°C (25°F), near the southern city of Osh and around Lake Issyk-Kul, which never freezes. In July, the average temperature is around 27°C (81°F) in the Fergana Valley on the high mountain peaks.
Like temperatures, precipitation rates, which include snow as well as rainfall, are largely a product of Kyrgyzstan's mountains. Precipitation occurs to a greater extent in the western mountains and to a lesser extent in the flatter, lower regions of north-central Kyrgyzstan.
Average precipitation levels range from 10 to 50 centimeters (4 to 20 inches) in the valleys and 18 to 100 centimeters (7 to 40 inches) in the mountains. Extremes vary from less than 10 centimeters (4 inches) per year on the west bank of Issyk-Kul to 200 centimeters (79 inches) per year in the mountains above the Fergana Valley.
4 TOPOGRAPHIC REGIONS
Landlocked in east central Asia, Kyrgyzstan covers just 198,500 square kilometers (76,641 square miles), making it the smallest of the Central Asian countries that became independent after the breakup of the Soviet Union in the 1990s. There are a number of small areas within southwestern Kyrgyzstan that belong to neighboring Uzbekistan or Tajikistan.
Kyrgyzstan is predominantly mountainous. Only about 10 percent of the terrain is below 1,500 meters (4,900 feet) in elevation; and more than half the land surpasses 2,500 meters (8,200 feet). Permanent snowfields and glaciers blanket about 3 percent of the country. Indeed, studies estimate that Kyrgyzstan's 6,500 glaciers contain an amazing 650 billion cubic meters (850 billion cubic yards) of water. This abundance of mountain moisture is the source of Kyrgyzstan's many lakes and fast-flowing rivers.
The primary mountain range in Kyrgyzstan is the great Tian Shan, whose peaks, valleys, and basins essentially define the whole republic. In addition, the Trans Alai mountains in the south, part of the Pamirs, are also significant. The only land flat enough to be suitable for large-scale agriculture is in the Chu, Talas, and Fergana Valleys of the north and east.
5 OCEANS AND SEAS
Kyrgyzstan is a landlocked country.
6 INLAND LAKES
There are nearly two thousand lakes in Kyrgyzstan, located at the higher elevations of 3,000 to 4,000 meters (9,840 to 13,120 feet). Most are small, but together they have a combined surface area of some 7,000 square kilometers (2,703 square miles). Lake Issyk-Kul comprises most of the total area by itself; at 6,100 square kilometers (2,360 square miles), it is Kyrgyzstan's largest lake. Issyk-Kul is located in the northeastern Tian Shan mountain range. Some commercial fishing interests operate on the lake year-round, as it never freezes. Two other large lakes, Song-Kul and Chatyr-Kul, lie in the Naryn Basin.
7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS
The majority of Kyrgyzstan's many rivers are small, fast-flowing runoff streams with origins in the melting snows of the high eastern mountains. Not one of these is navigable, however—not even the country's largest river, the Naryn, which converges with other rivers to become the great Central Asian Syr Darya. In the north, the Chu River flows northwestward, eventually drying up in the desert country of southern Kazakhstan.
The northern areas of Kyrgyzstan near the border with Kazakhstan are desert regions, with very little vegetation.
9 FLAT AND ROLLING TERRAIN
Only 4 percent of Kyrgyzstan is forest. Conifers predominate in the lower valleys and northern mountain slopes. Kyrgyzstan can boast the world's largest natural-growth walnut forest. Deer, mountain goats, and mountain sheep are abundant, but the country's forests also support many rare, protected wildlife species like the Tian Shan bear, the red wolf, and the snow leopard.
Because of its mountainous geography, Kyrgyzstan has many valleys throughout its mountain ranges. Of note are the lush Osh and Fergana Valleys.
10 MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES
Kyrgyzstan lies where two great Central Asian mountain systems, the Tian Shan and the Pamirs, come together. The Tian Shan Mountains run northeast to form the country's eastern border with China; Kyrgyzstan's southern border with Tajikistan follows the Trans Alai Range along the northernmost part of the Pamirs.
The Tian Shan is the largest system of mountains in Asia outside of the Himalayas, and its highest point, Victory Peak (Pik Pobedy, Jengish Chokusu; 7,439 meters/24,406 feet) is the highest peak in Kyrgyzstan. A series of secondary mountain ranges are considered part of the Tian Shan system. In Kyrgyzstan these include the Ala Tau, running generally east to west across northern Kyrgyzstan. Another chain, the central Fergana Mountains, runs southeast to northwest.
11 CANYONS AND CAVES
The Ala-Archa Canyon, located about 40 kilometers south of Bishkek, is a rugged area favored by hikers. Near Lake Issyk-Kul is the Jeti-Öghüz canyon, with cliffs composed of red sandstone.
12 PLATEAUS AND MONOLITHS
Plateaus dot the country's mountain ranges, most significantly the Issyk-Kul plateau that overlooks the lake of the same name.
13 MAN-MADE FEATURES
The Popan reservoir in southeastern Kyrgyzstan is vital to support agriculture in the Fergana Valley, which helps feed much of the country.
14 FURTHER READING
Thomas, Paul. The Central Asian States—Tajikstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan. Brookfield, CT: Millbrook Press, 1992.
©agatay, Ergun. "Kyrgyzstan: A First Look." Aramco World (Houston: Aramco Services Company), Vol. 46, No. 4 (1995): 10–21.
Kyrgyzstan Online. http://www.online.kg (accessed April 24, 2003).
Kyrgyz Embassy. http://www.kyrgyzstan.org (accessed April 24, 2003).
"Kyrgyzstan." Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of Physical Geography. 2003. Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3425900154.html
"Kyrgyzstan." Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of Physical Geography. 2003. Retrieved June 25, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3425900154.html
198,500sq km (76,640sq mi)
Kirghiz 52%, Russian 22%, Uzbek 13%, Ukrainian 3%, German 2%, Tatar 2%
Land and climateA mountainous country, the highest mountain, Pik Pobedy, is 7439m (24,406ft) above sea level. The largest of Kyrgyzstan's many lakes is Ozero (Lake) Issyk-Kul in the ne. The lowlands of Kyrgyzstan have warm summers and cold winters, but in the mountains, January temperatures drop to −28°C (−18°F). Much of Kyrgyzstan has a low annual rainfall. Mountain grassland is the dominant vegetation. Less than a tenth of the land is used for crops.
History and politicsIn ancient times, nomadic herders populated the area that is now Kyrgyzstan. Mongol armies conquered the region in the early 13th century. Islam was introduced in the 17th century. China gained control of the area in the mid-18th century, but in 1876 Kyrgyzstan became a province of Russia. In 1916, Russia put down a rebellion and many local people fled to China. In 1922, when the Soviet Union was formed, Kyrgyzstan became an autonomous region. In 1936, it became a Soviet Socialist Republic. Under communism, nomads were forced to live on government-run farms. In August 1991, Kyrgyzstan declared independence. The Communist Party was dissolved. President Askar Akayev began to introduce free-market reforms. In 1994, a new constitution was adopted. There are tensions between the rural nomadic Kirghiz and the urban Russians and Uzbeks.
EconomyIn 1997, private ownership became legal. Agriculture, especially livestock raising, is the chief activity (2000 GDP per capita, US$2700). Major products include cotton, eggs, fruits, grain, tobacco, vegetables, and wool. Industries concentrate around the capital, Bishkek, and manufactures include machinery, processed food, metals, and textiles. The largest single export is gold. Kyrgyzstan signed economic co-operation agreements with Kazakstan, Uzbekistan, and Belarus.
"Kyrgyzstan." World Encyclopedia. 2005. Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O142-Kyrgyzstan.html
"Kyrgyzstan." World Encyclopedia. 2005. Retrieved June 25, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O142-Kyrgyzstan.html
Kirgiz, Kirghiz, Kara-Kyrgyz, Kirghizstan
Identification. The name qirqiz or kyrgyz dates back to the eighth century. The Kyrgyz people originated in the Siberian region of the Yenisey Valley and traveled to the area of modern-day Kyrgyzstan in response to pressure from the Mongols. The Kyrgyz people believe that their name means kirkkyz, (forty girls), and that they are descended from forty tribes. Today the majority of Kyrgyz people live in the Kyrgyz Republic, also known as Kyrgyzstan, but there are large populations living in China, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Kyrgyzstan was formerly the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic, or Kirghizia.
Location and Geography. Kyrgyzstan has an area of 76,500 square miles (198,500 square kilometers). Its neighbors are China to the southeast, Kazakstan to the north, Tajikistan to the southwest, and Uzbekistan to the northwest. In addition, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan control two enclaves each within Kyrgyzstan's borders in the southern part of the country. Ninety-four percent of the land is mountainous, and only 20 percent of the land is arable. The valleys are densely populated along the few paved roads.
The capital, Bishkek, is in the north, near the Kazak border, where it was known as Frunze during the Soviet era. The country is divided into north and south by mountain ranges. Northern culture has been influenced by Russians, while southern culture has absorbed Uzbek traditions. The Naryn region in central Kyrgyzstan is relatively isolated, and it is here that the Kyrgyz culture is most "pure."
Demography. In 1998 the population of Kyrgyzstan was estimated at more than 4.5 million. Approximately 52.4 percent of the inhabitants are ethnically Kyrgyz. Ethnic Russians (22.5 percent) and Uzbeks (12.6 percent) make up the largest minorities. Many smaller groups, including Ukrainians, Germans, Dungans, Kazaks, Tajiks, Uighours, Koreans, and Chinese, make up the remainder. Many Kyrgyzstan-born Germans and Russians emigrated after the fall of the Soviet Union, but due to government efforts, Russian emigration has slowed. The Kyrgyz have a high birth rate, and have become the ethnic majority since independence.
Linguistic Affiliation. Kyrgyz is a Turkic language, most closely related to Kazak. Kyrgyz is mutually intelligible with both Kazak and Uzbek. Northern pronunciation varies from southern and has more Russian loanwords. Many Uzbek loanwords are used in the south.
Kyrgyz was originally written in Arabic script, but Soviet policy changed its alphabet first to Latin and then to a modified Cyrillic. After independence the Kyrgyz government discussed returning to the Latin alphabet, but this transition has not taken place. In 2000 Russian was adopted as an official national language. It is still commonly used as the language of business, and many ethnic Russians cannot speak Kyrgyz. All children study Kyrgyz, Russian, and English in school.
Symbolism. Public art abounds in the form of statues, murals, roadside plaques, and building decorations. One of the most popular themes is Manas, the legendary father and hero of the Kyrgyz people. His deeds are commemorated in the national epic Manas, which is chanted by manaschis. Manas is the symbol of Kyrgyz bravery and is often shown astride a rearing horse, with sword in hand, fighting the enemies of the Kyrgyz people.
While they call Manas their "father," the Kyrgyz do not see themselves as a warlike people. Instead, they are a family of artists. This identity is embodied in the yurt, or boz-ui, the traditional Kyrgyz dwelling. The boz-ui is an important cultural symbol, as both the center of the Kyrgyz family and the showplace of Kyrgyz art. The Kyrgyz flag reflects this. On a field of red a yellow sun is centered with forty rays coming from it. In the center of the sun is a tunduk, the top of the boz-ui. It was under this that the family gathered.
Inside the boz-ui are hung all the forms of Kyrgyz craftsmanship, including rugs called shirdaks. They are made of brightly colored appliquéd wool felt, with stylized nature motifs that have been passed down for generations. These motifs are also often used for borders and decorations on public art.
Other important symbols are taken from the Kyrgyz landscape. The unofficial national anthem is "Ala-Too," which names the various features of Kyrgyzstan's landscape. The mountains are described as a body wearing snow and sky, and Lake Issyk-Kul is the eye. Issyk-Kul, in the northeastern part of the country, is called the "Pearl of Kyrgyzstan," and its beauty is a source of great pride. Both the mountains and the lake are on the Kyrgyz seal behind a large golden eagle, flanked by shirdak designs, cotton, and wheat.
History and Ethnic Relations
Emergence of the Nation. The Kyrgyz people were originally settled in Siberia. Pressure from the Mongols forced their group to splinter into nomadic tribes and move to the region now known as Kyrgyzstan. Here they were subdued by the Kokandian Khanate, but there were many rebellions. The Kyrgyz allied with Russia as it expanded to the south. Russia then conquered the Kokands and ruled the Kyrgyz as a part of Russian Turkestan. The Kyrgyz rebelled in 1916 against the Russian peasant influx and the loss of grazing land. After the Communists took control, groups such as the Basmachi movement continued to fight for independence. Stalin's collective farms caused protests in the form of killing herds and fleeing to China.
National Identity. Until the advent of Communist control, the Kyrgyz were still a nomadic people made up of individual tribes. The idea of a Kyrgyz nation was fostered under Soviet rule. Kyrgyz traditions, national dress, and art were defined as distinct from their neighbors. Today people will name the Kyrgyz national hat (kalpak ), instrument (komuz ), sport (uulak ), house (boz-ui), drink (kumyss ), and foods. Stalin then intentionally drew borders inconsistent with the traditional locations of ethnic populations, leaving large numbers of ethnic Uzbeks and Turkmen within Kirghizia's borders. This was supposed to maintain a level of interethnic tension in the area, so that these closely related groups would not rise up against him.
Kyrgyzstan, like many of its neighbors, voted against independence when the Soviet Union collapsed. With no history as an independent nation, they have struggled with the loss of centralized government control. The people of Kyrgyzstan are, however, meeting these challenges, and Kyrgyzstan is held up as the most democratic and market-oriented country in Central Asia.
Ethnic Relations. Kyrgyzstan is an ethnically diverse country, which leads to tensions between and among different groups. Unlike in neighboring Uzbekistan, the Russian people are not vilified or considered morally corrupt. However, Russians claim there is discrimination by Kyrgyz people. In addition, smaller groups, such as the Uighours and the Dungans, complain of widespread discrimination.
The strongest ethnic tensions are felt between the Uzbeks and the Kyrgyz, particularly in the southern region of Osh. In 1990 riots and fighting broke out between these groups over competition for housing and job segregation. It is estimated that two hundred to a thousand people were killed in the fighting. Intergovernmental tension is also high, fueling ethnic conflicts.
Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space
The Kyrgyz people did not have an established architecture of their own before they came under Russian rule. Governmental and urban architecture is in the Soviet style. Cities were designed with many parks and plazas filled with benches that focused on monuments to Soviet achievements. Much of the housing in urban centers consists of large apartment blocks, where families live in two- or three-room apartments. Bazaars come in all sizes, and are divided so that products of the same type are sold side by side.
Most houses are of one story, with open-ended peaked roofs that provide storage space. Outer decorations vary by ethnicity. Families live in fenced-in compounds that may contain the main house, an outdoor kitchen, barns for animals, sheds for storage, gardens, and fruit trees. The traditional dwelling was the portable boz-ui, made of wool felt on a collapsible wooden frame, which people still live in when they take their animals to the summer pastures.
Furniture is a Western adaptation, and its use varies between the north and the south. In the north most families will have a kitchen table with chairs. They also may have a low table for meals, with either stools or sitting mats called tushuks. They sleep on beds or convertible couches, and usually there is a couch in the room where the television is kept. Many families also have an outdoor cooking area and eating place for summer use. Sleeping, cooking, and formal areas are kept separate.
In the south there is minimal furniture. A table, sofa, and chairs are kept in a formal room, along with a cabinet full of the family's glassware and books. Large social gatherings usually take place in a special room with two alcoves built into a wall. Decorative chests are placed in the alcoves, and the family's embroidered sleeping mats and pillows are displayed on top.
Southern families may have a low table, or they may spread a dastarkon (tablecloth) directly on the floor and surround it with tushuks to sit on. The dastarkon is treated as a table and is never stepped on. People sleep on the floor on layers of tushuks, which are neatly folded and placed in a corner of the room during the day. In summer, platforms are set out in the garden for eating and sleeping on, often with railings to lean against. Families may sleep in the kitchen in the winter if there is a woodstove.
Throughout the country, floors and walls are lined with carpets and fabric hangings. Furniture usually is placed along the walls, leaving most of a room empty.
Food and Economy
Food in Daily Life. Common dishes include: lagman (hand-rolled noodles in a broth of meat and vegetables), manti (dumplings filled with either onion and meat, or pumpkin), plov (rice fried with carrots and topped with meat), pelmeni, (a Russian dish of small meat-filled dumplings in broth), ashlam-foo (cold noodles topped with vegetables in spicy broth and pieces of congealed corn starch), samsa (meat or pumpkin-filled pastries), and fried meat and potatoes. Most meat is mutton, although beef, chicken, turkey, and goat are also eaten. Kyrgyz people don't eat pork, but Russians do. Fish is either canned or dried. Lagman and manti are the everyday foods of the north, while plov is the staple of the south.
Most people eat four or five times a day, but only one large meal. The rest are small, mostly consisting of tea, bread, snacks, and condiments. These include vareynya (jam), kaimak, (similar to clotted cream), sara-mai (a form of butter), and various salads.
Kyrgyz cafes, chaikanas, and ashkanas usually will have six or seven dishes, as well as two or three side dishes, on the menu. Many places also will serve shashlik, which is marinated mutton grilled on a skewer. It is common for only a few of the menu items to be available on any given day. Drink options are limited to tea, soda, and mineral water. Patrons are expected to order as a group and all eat the same entree. Ristoran (restaurants) usually have more varied European and Russian dishes.
Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. During holidays and personal celebrations, a sheep is killed and cooked. In the north, the main course is beshbarmak, which is accompanied by elaborate preparations. The sheep is slaughtered by slitting its throat, and the blood is drained onto the ground. Then the carcass is skinned and butchered, and the organ meats are prepared. The intestines are cleaned and braided. The first course is shorpo, a soup created from boiling the meat and organs, usually with vegetables and pieces of chopped fat. The roasted sheep's head is then served and distributed among the honored guests. The fat, liver, other organs, and the majority of the meat are divided equally and served to the guests, with the expectation that they will take this home. Guests receive a cut of meat that corresponds to their status. The remaining meat goes into the besh-barmak. It is shredded into small pieces and mixed with noodles and a little broth, which is served in a communal bowl and eaten with the hands.
In the south, the main course is most often plov. The sheep is killed and prepared in the same manner as in the north. Shorpo also is served, and the meat, fat, and organ meats are shared and taken home in the same way; however, it is rare for the head to be eaten. Plov is served in large platters shared by two or three people, and often is eaten with the hands.
For a funeral and sometimes a marriage, a horse will be killed instead of a sheep. The intestines are then used to make sausage.
In the summer a traditional drink called kumyss is available. This is made of fermented mare's milk, and is drunk at celebrations when it is in season. Multiple shots of vodka are mandatory at all celebrations.
Basic Economy. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Kyrgyzstan went into a deep recession. The economy seemed to be improving in 1997, with low inflation and high growth percentages predicted for 1998, but the troubled Russian economy caused renewed economic difficulties.
Kyrgyzstan is considered self-sufficient in both food and energy. Despite this, electricity is either unpredictable or rationed in the winter. About 35 percent of the people are involved in agriculture, and nearly every village family has a garden where they grow food to support their needs. Most people have a small amount of livestock, such as sheep, cows, and chickens. Excess produce and dairy products are commonly sold to neighbors or at the bazaar.
Unemployment is high, but many people make money by selling goods at the bazaar or by using their private cars as taxis. Kyrgyzstan is dependent on other countries, such as Turkey and China, for consumer goods and chemical products. Since independence, most manufacturing plants and factories have closed or are working at reduced capacities.
Average salaries are higher in the north. State employees may not be paid for months at a time. Pensioners receive minimal monthly payments as well as flour and cooking oil. In 1998, a total of 23 percent of households could not meet their basic food needs.
Land Tenure and Property. Early attempts at privatization led to rioting in Osh in 1990, so this process was put on hold. Farmland cannot be owned by individuals, but it is possible to hold land rights for up to ninety-nine years.
Commercial Activities. Kyrgyzstan is a country with few natural resources. The economy is based on agriculture, mining, and animal products. Most exports are in the form of raw materials. Kyrgyzstan has deposits of gold, coal, bismuth, mercury, antimony, tungsten, and copper. The most important export is hydroelectric power.
Major Industries. Craftsmanship accounts for nearly half of Kyrgyzstan's yearly production. Artisans make saddles, carpets such as shirdaks and alakiis, embroidered hangings called tushkiis, and are skilled at goldsmithing. Other industries include metallurgy as well as those for mechanical and electrical materials, motors and electronic components, and some textiles. The processing of animal products such as in tanning, shoe manufacturing, wool production, and animal slaughter also are important.
The Kumtor gold mine has been rated as the seventh biggest in terms of world importance. Agriculturally, wheat, potatoes, sugar beets, and tobacco are the most important crops. Cotton and silkworms for silk production also are grown.
Trade. Kyrgyzstan trades with one hundred other countries. Within the CIS, its largest-volume trading partners are Russia, Kazakstan, and Uzbekistan; outside the CIS, they are Germany, China, Turkey, the United States, and Korea. In 1998, Kyrgyzstan's exports came to $513.7 million (U.S.), and its imports equaled $841.5 million (U.S.). Kyrgyzastan's major exports are precious metals, power resources, tobacco, and cotton, while major imports include fuel and energy, commodity goods, equipment, and machinery.
Division of Labor. The law states that those under eighteen cannot work, but children often help their parents in the fields and by selling goods. At harvest time, village schools often close so that the children can work.
Jobs are scarce, and people take whatever is available. Russians tend to work in cities, where service sector jobs are available. Uzbeks typically work in the bazaar, selling goods. Many Kyrgyz grow crops and tend livestock. These divisions of labor are often a result of where people choose to live.
Classes and Castes. Because of the economic hardships endured since independence, Kyrgyzstan has a very small upper class and a large lower class. While ethnic Kyrgyz may be in either class, it is more rare to find other ethnic groups in the upper class, which consists mainly of politicians and community leaders.
Symbols of Social Stratification. Speaking Russian and dressing in a Western manner, having a two-story house, a Mercedes, or a BMW are all signs of wealth. Poor knowledge of Russian is considered a sign of lower-class status.
Government. The Kyrgyz government is basically democratic, with three governmental branches: the president and his advisers; the Parliament, which has two houses; and the courts. Parliament is made up of the Legislative Assembly and the Assembly of People's Representatives. In February 1996 a referendum was passed that expanded the president's powers with respect to Parliament, but Parliament has shown its ability to function separately from the president.
Leadership and Political Officials. As of 1996, there were fifteen political parties active within Kyrgyzstan. The parties with the most support are the "Bei Becharalar" Party with thirty-two thousand members, the Communist Party with twenty-five thousand members, the Party of Protection of Industrial, Agricultural Employees and Low Revenue Families with fifteen thousand members, and the Democratic Party "Erkin Kyrgyzstan" with nearly thirteen thousand members. Other parties include the Social Democratic Party, the Democratic Party of Women, the Democratic Party of Economic Unity, and the Agrarian Labor Party.
Political power is closely linked to wealth, both locally and on a national scale. Corruption and buying votes, as well as ballot box stuffing, are common during elections. Kyrgyzstan was the first Central Asian country to hold a presidential election after independence.
Social Problems and Control. The Ministry of Internal Affairs (MIA) is primarily responsible for the prevention and investigation of crime. Because of Kyrgyzstan's economic difficulties, funding for these activities has dropped since independence. Organized crime and drug trafficking are considered the most high-profile crimes, and this is where Kyrgyzstan's crime prevention resources are being utilized.
The national police force, or militzia, is underpaid and understaffed, so bribes and invented fines are common. Corruption and nepotism are widespread. Many people feel that the rich can do what they want and that the poor are helpless. The media have much more freedom than in other parts of Central Asia.
Military Activity. Kyrgyzstan has a small national guard and navy but no air force. Kyrgyzstan has signed accords with both Uzbekistan and Kazakstan for joint air defense. Military activity has been limited to dealing with an Islamic fundamentalist group in the southern region of Batken; the group began fighting in August 1999.
Social Welfare and Change Programs
The first program to offer social assistance was the National Program to Overcome Poverty. Its goal is to eliminate extreme poverty by developing entrepreneurship, particularly among women. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are central to the implementation of the program.
Under this program, the Kyrgyz government has set up employment promotion companies. Their programs include infrastructure development, social assistance, public education, vocational training for youth and women, and assistance for rural migrants in urban areas.
There are also numerous international organizations working with and supplying funding for projects in Kyrgyzstan.
Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations
In 1995 there were three hundred NGOs in Kyrgyzstan. Fifty of them covered gender issues, and eighteen specifically targeted women. NGOs often are seen as vehicles for obtaining foreign aid and grants, and there have been problems with corruption. However, many small NGOs play important roles within their communities. Counterpart Consortium provides important training and assistance to developing NGOs.
Gender Roles and Statuses
Division of Labor by Gender. Historically, women had a fair amount of equality with men in the Kyrgyz culture. Soviet policies maintained this equality, providing women with jobs outside the home and a role in politics. Today women still work outside of the home, primarily in education and agriculture. However, women hold few managerial or political positions. In addition to these jobs, women are responsible for all work inside the home. Men are dominant in business and politics.
The Relative Status of Women and Men. While Kyrgyz women are not sequestered, like those in many other Muslim societies, they tend to have less status than men. Age is the most important determinant for status, however, and an older woman will be given respect by younger men.
Within the household women are often the seat of power, making everyday decisions about running the household. It is common for them to hold positions of power in schools as well. In politics and business, however, men have greater power.
Marriage, Family and Kinship
Marriage. Arranged marriages were once common, but are no longer. While couples may choose each other, they often know each other for no more than a few months before they are married. People are expected to marry in their early twenties, after they have finished secondary school, and to have children quickly.
The bride must have a dowry, consisting of clothing, sleeping mats, pillows, and often a handknotted rug. The groom is expected to pay a bride price in the form of cash and several animals. Some of the cash may go toward furnishing the bride's dowry, and often the animals are eaten at the wedding feast.
A typical wedding lasts three days. The first day consists of the bride and groom going to the city with friends and classmates to have the marriage license signed. The bride wears a Western-style wedding dress, and the couple's car is decorated with wedding rings or a doll in bridal clothes.
On the second day the bride and groom celebrate separately with their friends and family. There is food and dancing through the night.
On the third day the bride and her family travel to the groom's family's house. The bride is expected to cry, because she is leaving her family. At the groom's house there are more celebrations and games. Gifts are exchanged between the couple's parents. At the end of the night, a bed is made from the bride's dowry. Two female relatives of the groom are chosen to make sure that the marriage is consummated and that the bride was a virgin.
If the groom is the youngest son he lives with his parents and takes care of them in their old age. The new bride is known as a kelin, and it is her responsibility to take over the household duties from her mother-in-law. If the groom is not the youngest, the couple will live with his family only until they can provide the couple with a house.
An alternate marriage tradition is that of wife-stealing. A man may kidnap any unmarried woman and make her his wife. Usually the girl spends one night alone with her future husband. The next day she is taken to meet her mother-in-law, who ties a scarf around the girl's head to indicate that she is now married. She may run away, and it is legal to sue the man who steals her, but it is shameful to do so and unlikely that another man would marry her. Often a lesser bride price is still paid after a girl is stolen, but a dowry is not provided. Girls may be stolen when they are fifteen or sixteen years old.
Polygamy is not practiced, but it is common for people to have lovers when they are married. It is more acceptable for men to do so, and they may refer to their mistresses as their second wives. More than one in five couples get divorced.
Domestic Unit. Because of the tradition of the youngest son taking care of his parents, it is common for a family to consist of grandparents, parents, and children. Individuals live with their parents until they marry. Most families have three or more children, with larger families common in rural villages. Members of the extended family also may visit and live with the immediate family for months at a time.
Inheritance. The youngest son lives with his parents until their deaths, at which time he inherits the house and the livestock. He may decide to share this livestock with his brothers, and is expected to do so if they are in need. Daughters do not inherit from their parents because they become members of their husbands' families.
Kin Groups. Tribal ties were important just after independence, but now regional ties are more important. Favoritism for those from the same tribe or region is common.
There are three main tribal branches: the ong, sol and the ichkilik. Within these branches there are many smaller tribes.
Tribes become important during marriage. Two people from the same tribe may not marry, unless they do not share a common ancestor for seven generations.
Infant Care. Infants are primarily cared for by their mothers or other female family members. For the first forty days of an infant's life, he or she cannot be taken outside the home or be seen by anyone but the immediate family. Infants are strapped into their cradles much of the time and quieted when they make noise. When a mother visits another woman the mother usually will take her infant along. A child is rarely taken from his or her mother without the child's consent, and sometimes bribes are used to make the child reach out to another family member.
Child Rearing and Education. Children are expected to be quiet. They are not brought to parties or official functions, and so are prevented from disturbing guests. Girls begin to take on household duties when they are six or seven years old. By the time she is sixteen, the eldest daughter may be responsible for running the household. Boys are considered rowdy and active and often have fewer household chores.
Education is mandatory for both boys and girls. Public schools are found in all towns and villages, and they offer schooling from first to eleventh grade.
Higher Education. Primary and secondary education are free and nearly universal within Kyrgyzstan. Higher education is highly prized but expensive, and there is little financial aid.
The most important element of etiquette is respect. Respect is given to elders and authority figures. Verbal respect is given by using the polite pronoun and endings, and by using the titles eje (older sister) and baikay or aga (older brother). People always use these polite forms, even with close friends and relatives.
Respect also is shown physically. Men and women alike will give up their seats to elders on public transportation. A person's position at a table also shows his or her status. Men and women usually sit on opposite sides of a table, with the eldest and most respected at the head of the table, farthest from the door.
Strangers do not usually acknowledge each other while passing on the street. Any close contact, however, such as sitting near each other on public transportation or making a transaction at the bazaar, will open the way to introductions. It is common to invite new acquaintances into the home.
Friends greet each other differently in the north and the south. In the south, men and women both greet friends of the same gender by shaking hands, often with the left hand over the heart. The opposite gender usually is ignored. Greetings are a series of questions with no pause and spoken over the other person's greetings. Older women and female relatives often will kiss on the cheek while shaking hands. The Arabic greeting assalom aleikum is frequently used between men.
In the north, greetings are shorter, and only men shake hands with each other. Assalom aleikum is used only by a younger man to an elder, as a form of deep respect. Good-byes in both the north and the south are brief.
There is less personal space than in the United States, and strangers brush against each other in public without apologizing. People tend to sit shoulder-to-shoulder, and physical affection is common between members of the same sex. People usually don't form lines. Pushing to the front of a group for service is normal and inoffensive.
In the more conservative south, men and women often occupy separate rooms at large celebrations. Boys and girls do not commonly befriend each other.
Bread is considered sacred by the Kyrgyz and must never be placed on the ground or left upside down. It is never thrown away, and leftovers are fed to animals.
At the end of a meal, a quick prayer may be said. This is from the Qur'an, but it honors the ancestors. The hands are held out, palms up, and then everyone at the table cover their face in unison while saying omen.
Religious Beliefs. The Kyrgyz consider themselves Sunni Muslim but do not have strong ties to Islam. They celebrate the Islamic holidays but do not follow Islamic practices daily. Many areas were not converted to Islam until the eighteenth century, and even then it was by the mystical Sufi branch, who integrated local shamanistic practices with their religion. Ethnic Russians and Ukrainians tend to be Orthodox Christians.
Religious Practitioners. In the past, the Kyrgyz people relied on shamans as healers. Some theorize that the manaschis were originally shamanistic and that the Manas epic is derived from calling on ancestor spirits for help. There are still professional shamans, called bakshe, and usually there are elders who know and practice shamanistic rituals for families and friends. The Islamic mullah is called for marriages, circumcisions, and burials.
Rituals and Holy Places. Both graves and natural springs are holy places to the Kyrgyz people. Cemeteries stand out on hilltops, and graves are marked with elaborate buildings made of mud, brick, or wrought iron. Visitors say prayers and mark the graves of holy people or martyrs with small pieces of cloth tied to the surrounding bushes. Natural springs that come from mountainsides are honored in the same fashion.
Death and the Afterlife. Burials are done in Islamic fashion, but funerals are not. Contrary to Islamic law, the body will remain on display for two or three days so that all close family members have time to arrive and say good-bye. When someone dies, a boz-ui must be erected. This is the traditional home of the nomadic Kyrgyz, a round, domed tent made of wool felt on a collapsible wooden frame. A man is laid out inside on the left, while a woman is laid on the right.
Only women are allowed inside the boz-ui to lament, while men mourn through the tent wall, from the outside. The wife and daughters of the deceased sit by the body to sing mourning songs and greet each person who comes to view the body. A wife wears black, while daughters wear deep blue. As each visitor pays respects, the mullah recites from the Qur'an.
The burial usually takes place at noon. The body is washed and wrapped in a shroud, then cloth, and then sometimes a felt rug. The body is displayed outside the boz-ui and a final prayer, the janaza, is said. Only men go to the cemetery for[fj] the burial, but the women visit the grave early the next day.
Every Thursday for the next forty days the family must kill a sheep in remembrance. At this time, those who could not attend the funeral may come to pay their respects. At the end of the forty-day period there is a large memorial feast called kirku, where a horse or a cow is killed.
On the first anniversary another memorial feast is given, called ash or jildik, which takes place over two days. The first day is for grieving, and the second is for games and horse races.
The Kyrgyz believe that the spirits of the dead can help their descendants. Ancestors are "offered" food in prayers, and people pour water on graves when they visit so the dead will not be thirsty. It is forbidden to step on a grave, and cemeteries are placed on hilltops because high places are sacred.
Medicine and Health Care
Many people still go to the hospital for most illnesses, as they did before independence, but health care is limited by lack of funds. Food and medicine are not provided by the hospital, so friends and family must bring these in daily.
Traditional beliefs blame cold for most forms of illness: Sitting on cold stones or the ground can result in grave illnesses or hurt a woman's reproductive organs; drinking cold beverages will result in a sore throat or a cold; being exposed to cold drafts is considered the cause of most minor illnesses. People treat illnesses by wrapping a blanket or a shawl around the affected body part to keep it warm. Some home remedies that derive from shamanistic beliefs are still practiced as well. Certain grasses are burned because the smoke is believed to purify the air and to prevent sickness. The air above and the waters of Lake Issyk-Kul are attributed healing properties, and swimming in the lake is a popular cure for tuberculosis.
Secular holidays include International Women's Day (8 March), May Day (1 May), Constitution Day (5 May), Victory Day (9 May), Last Bell (mid-June), Independence Day (31 August), First Bell (1 September), and New Year's Eve (31 December). Most holidays are celebrated with parties at work and at home that involve eating, drinking, dancing, and singing.
New Year's Eve is more elaborate, and many of the traditions come from Russian practices. There are costume parties, as well as performances at schools. At these performances, Det Moroze (called Ayaz-Ata in Kyrgyz) and his granddaughter give presents to good children. Det Morose wears a robe trimmed in fur and rides in a horse-drawn sleigh. Naughty children are chased by the witch Baba Yaga. People decorate yulkes, or fir trees, with garlands, ornaments, and lights, and set off fireworks at midnight. Kyrgyz people follow the Chinese zodiac, where each year is assigned an animal, and people whose sign is the same animal as the incoming year must wear something red and then give it away for good luck.
The Arts and Humanities
Support for the Arts. Support for the arts mostly comes from selling pieces or paid performances. There is little to no funding available from the government.
Literature. Kyrgyz was not written until the twentieth century. The Kyrgyz oral tradition included several epics about mythical warriors, including Manas, Jayin-Bayis, Kurmanbek, and Er Tabildi. The epic Manas is most widely known, and is still widely performed by manaschis. It is not a memorized piece; the best manaschis take the outline of the story and improvise verses, which have a distinct rhythmic beat and are accompanied by expressive hand gestures. Thirteen versions and four million verses have been recorded.
During the twentieth century, novel-writing in the historical and romance genres developed. The best-known Kyrgyz novelist is Chingiz Aitmatov, who is known for his critical novels about life in Soviet Central Asia.
Graphic Arts. Traditional crafts are taught in school, and the graphic arts are well developed. In most cases artisans create objects to be sold either as souvenirs to tourists or as heirlooms for people's homes. Some are displayed in the National Gallery or in museums abroad. Most of these are done in wool or silk, including the wool carpets called shirdaks and alakiis, embroidered wall hangings called tush-kiis, and small animal or human figures. Wood, horn, leather, and clay are also used. There are a number of painters as well, whose works are sold mostly to foreigners. These often have traditional Kyrgyz themes but often use modern and postmodern styles of painting. Galleries and art exhibits are almost exclusively in the capital city.
Performance Arts. Kyrgyz folk singing and music lessons are frequently offered in schools. There are several Kyrgyz children's performance groups, which feature traditional songs and dance as well as performances using Kyrgyz instruments. The best-known instruments are the komuz (a three-stringed lute), oz-komuz (mouth harp), the chopo choor (clay wind instrument), and the kuiak (a four-stringed instrument played with a bow). There also are adult folk, classical, and operatic musicians and groups who perform in the capital regularly. Popular television shows feature Kyrgyz pop and folk singers and musicians. There is a small but active film industry.
The State of the Physical and Social Sciences.
Scientists teach at the university level, but funding for research is limited. Most scientists have moved to other professions for financial reasons.
Abazov, Rafis. The Formation of Post-Soviet International Politics in Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan, 1999.
Anderson, John R. Kyrgyzstan: Central Asia's Island of Democracy, 1999.
Asian Development Bank. Technical Assistance to the Kyrgyz Republic for Support to the National Strategy for Poverty Reduction, 2000.
Bauer, Armin. A Generation at Risk: Children in the Central Asian Republics of Kazakstan and Kyrgyzstan, 1998.
——. Women and Gender Relations: The Kyrgyz Republic in Transition, 1997.
Bloch, Peter C. Land and Agrarian Reform in the Kyrgyz Republic, 1996.
Caspisani, Giampolo R. The Handbook of Central Asia, 2000.
Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe. Political Reform and Human Rights in Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakstan, 1998.
Country Economic Review: The Kyrgyz Republic, 1999.
Decentralization: Conditions for Success, 2000.
Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Decentralization: Conditions for Success, 2000.
Economist Intelligence Unit. Country Profile: Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, 1998.
Giovarelli, Renee. Land Reform and Farm Reorganization in the Kyrgyz Republic, 1998.
Imart, Guy G. From 'Roots' to 'Great Expectations': Kirghizia and Kazakstan between the Devil and the Deep-Green Sea, 1990.
Kotlov, Eugeny. Generous Manas, 1995.
Kyrgyzstan: 1998 Post Report, 1998.
Kyrgyzstan: Social Protection in a Reforming Economy, 1993.
Kyrgyzstan: Then and Now, 1993.
Kyrgyzstan: The Transition to a Market Economy, 1993.
Peace Corps, World Wise Schools. Destination, Kyrgyzstan, 1997.
Pirseyedi, Bobi. The Small Arms Problem in Central Asia: Features and Implications, 2000.
Ruffin, M. Holt, and Waugh, Daniel. Civil Society in Central Asia, 1999.
Slobin, Mark. Kirgiz Instrumental Music, 1969.
Smith, Diane L. Breaking Away from the Bear, 1998.
TUTTLE, TIFFANY. "Kyrgyzstan." Countries and Their Cultures. 2001. Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3401700129.html
TUTTLE, TIFFANY. "Kyrgyzstan." Countries and Their Cultures. 2001. Retrieved June 25, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3401700129.html
The people of Kyrgyzstan are called Kyrgyz. Ethnic Kyrgyz (people who trace their ancestry to Kyrgyzstan) make up more than 50 percent of the population. The rest are Russians, 22 percent; Uzbeks, 13 percent; Ukrainians and Germans, 2.5 percent each; and Tatars, about 2 percent. For more information on the Russians and Tatars, see the chapter on Russia in Volume 7; for the Germans, see the chapter on Germany in Volume 4; and for the Ukrainians and Uzbeks, see the chapters on Ukraine and Uzbekistan in Volume 9.
"Kyrgyzstan." Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cultures. 1999. Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3435900270.html
"Kyrgyzstan." Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cultures. 1999. Retrieved June 25, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3435900270.html
"Kyrgyzstan." Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes. 2007. Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O233-Kyrgyzstan.html
"Kyrgyzstan." Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes. 2007. Retrieved June 25, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O233-Kyrgyzstan.html | <urn:uuid:c9cba121-6c28-4d70-899d-1c5486a98803> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Kyrgyzstan.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00096-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95562 | 65,060 | 3.078125 | 3 |
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Date Posted: August 8, 2013
NOAA NHC senior hurricane specialist Daniel Brown (left) and NHC Director Dr. Rick Knabb (right) will take your questions during a live chat on Twitter.
Do you know what to do if a hurricane warning is issued for your community? What should be in your hurricane plan?
Don't wait until a storm threatens your community to find out. Get answers to these questions and more during our Hurricane Preparedness Tweet Chat (#HurriChat).
Just ahead of the peak of the hurricane season (mid-August through late October), NOAA National Hurricane Center Director Dr. Rick Knabb and senior hurricane specialist Daniel Brown will answer your questions about tracking and forecasting of these potentially damaging storms and how best to be prepared.
Hurricane Sandy as seen from NOAA's GOES-13 satellite on October 28, 2012.
Download here (Credit:NOAA/NASA)
Every coastal community — from the Canadian Maritimes to the U.S. East and Gulf coasts, Latin America, and across the Caribbean Islands — is vulnerable to these massive storms. Hurricane hazards include high winds, heavy rain, storm surge, flooding and tornadoes. These effects can extend well inland from the coast.
You’ve likely heard about NOAA’s updated 2013 Atlantic hurricane season outlook, which calls for an above-normal season with 13–19 named storms, of which 6–9 could become hurricanes. Regardless of the number of storms predicted, remember: It only takes one storm hitting your community to make it a “bad” year. Prepare well and have a hurricane plan.
Forecasters at NOAA’s National Hurricane Center (NHC) in Miami continuously monitor the tropical waters for signs of a developing storm and issue timely and accurate watches, warnings, forecasts and analyses to help keep the population safe, protect property and minimize economic impacts to communities.
The NHC produces a complete suite of text and graphical forecast products that are updated every six hours. Meteorologists use a variety of NHC data sources for forecasts, including real-time data from NOAA’s polar-orbiting and geostationary weather satellites, ocean and coastal observing systems, hurricane hunter aircraft (video) and land-based radars.
NOAA’s mission is to understand and predict changes in the Earth's environment, from the depths of the ocean to the surface of the sun, and to conserve and manage our coastal and marine resources. Join us on Twitter, Facebook and our other social media channels. | <urn:uuid:416cc723-0b2d-486f-a34b-cec35ded3ecc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2013/20130808_nhc_tweetchat.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00161-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.920306 | 564 | 2.671875 | 3 |
New results are in from the Fermi Space Telescope, which settled into orbit in the summer of 2008, and the findings seem to prove Albert Einstein right once again. Man, that guy was good.
The telescope detected and studied a gamma ray burst, one of the massively bright and powerful explosions that occurs when stars go supernova in distant galaxies. Astronomers were interested in the gamma rays of differing energies and wavelengths that were generated by the explosion, and that raced each other across the universe. After a journey of 7.3 billion light-years, they all arrived within nine-tenths of a second of one another in a detector on NASA’s Fermi Gamma-Ray Space Telescope, at 8:22 p.m., Eastern time, on May 9 [The New York Times].
The researchers were wondering if certain gamma rays with both high energies and short wavelengths would arrive last, at the back of the pack. That would suggest that they had violated one of the principles set out in Einstein‘s theory of relativity: that the speed of light is always constant. If researchers could detect a significant lag in some gamma rays, it would also give fresh hope to those ambitious researchers searching for a theory of everything.
Three recent studies raised hopes that physicists had caught the first glimpses of dark matter, but the somewhat contradictory results guarantee that researchers will be puzzling over the issue for some time to come. The latest results come from NASA’s orbiting Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, which was launched last June. The evidence is a reported excess of high-energy electrons and their antimatter counterparts, positrons, which could be created as dark matter particles annihilate or decay [Nature News].
Peter Michelson, principal investigator for the instrument on Fermi that made the detection, cautions that his group is not yet claiming to have found a smoking gun for dark matter. The signal could also come from more mundane sources nearby, such as pulsars, the spinning remnants of supernovae. “But if it isn’t pulsars, it is some new physics,” says Michelson [Nature News]. The new findings are published in Physical Review Letters. Meanwhile, a satellite named PAMELA recently detected higher than expected numbers of positrons, which seems to corroborate the Fermi findings. But results from a balloon experiment conducted high over Antarctica last year add a dash of confusion to the mix.
The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope may have just gotten a hint in its hunt for the mysterious dark matter that is thought to make up the bulk of the universe’s mass. A group of astrophysicists has run a simulation of the distribution of dark matter in a galaxy like our Milky Way, and say that if the telescope scans the right region of space it may be able to detect gamma rays given off by collisions between the particles that are thought to make up dark matter (which have never been directly detected, and are still speculative).
Previously, some cosmologists have proposed that the best chance of a detection lies in nearby dwarf galaxies, since they should contain dense nuggets of dark matter that could be relatively easy to pinpoint. But a new study argues that a diffuse dark matter ‘halo’ surrounding the Milky Way offers an even better shot at glimpsing the mysterious stuff. “I would bet on it,” says lead author Volker Springel…. “And I’d be willing to risk a bit of money as well” [New Scientist].
The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope only settled into its orbit a few months ago, but it’s already producing results that are delighting astronomers. Yesterday, NASA announced that Fermi had found a strange pulsar (a fast-spinning neutron star) by detecting only the gamma rays it emits. This is a first, NASA explains. Although astronomers have catalogued nearly 1800 pulsars, this is the first pulsar that seems to emit only gamma-ray radiation. Most other pulsars have been found using radio telescopes, although some also beam energy in visible light and X-rays [New Scientist].
Neutron stars are the small and incredibly dense bodies formed when massive stars explode into supernovas; perhaps the oddest of neutron stars are pulsars, which send out jets of radiation from their magnetic poles that sweep across Earth’s line of sight as the star spins on its axis. The newfound pulsar, which sits 4,600 light-years away in the constellation Cepheus, rotates at about a million miles an hour, and its beam of gamma rays reaches Earth about three times a second [National Geographic News]. Pulsars are often compared to lighthouses for the way their beams flash across our telescopes (see NASA animation). | <urn:uuid:f4b2f8af-45ab-4fe5-8965-2219a077f576> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/80beats/tag/Fermi-Telescope/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00135-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954517 | 988 | 3.171875 | 3 |
Safety regulators say parents who don't use booster seats for children are putting their kids at risk.
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration says up to 90% of children in the US who should be restrained in a booster seat are not.
Generally, the transition to a booster seat comes after the child has outgrown a safety seat but is still too small for an adult seat belt.
Car accidents in the U-S injure more than 50,000 children a year. The safety agency's Jackie Glassman says booster seats could substantially cut that number.
Boosters should installed in the back seat and children should use them until they reach at least four-feet, nine inches in height.
To get the word out, this week has been dubbed "National Child Passenger Safety Week".
Colorado law requires booster seats for children up to age 6 and at least 55" tall.
To provide further incentives for parents to use a booster seat, AAA Colorado announced it is distributing 2,000 coupons from Babies 'R Us that offer a $10 discount on any booster seat over $40. The coupons are available at most AAA offices and are valid through April at any Babies 'R Us retail location. | <urn:uuid:81c846e2-57d4-4c68-900a-a5fd3f440a77> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.kktv.com/home/headlines/2315576.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00112-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961477 | 243 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Northwest Laboratories Develop Wind Power Storage
Wind isn’t always a reliable source of power. Sometimes the wind blows when there is already too much power on the grid. And sometimes there is no wind when energy is needed.
That’s why researchers in the Pacific Northwest are developing new ways to store wind energy. One company is testing out a battery in eastern Washington that could help with the problem.
Giant wind turbine blades spin on a gusty ridge line in eastern Washington. Right now the blades are generating energy to help cool down homes and businesses on this hot day.
But wind power can be inconsistent. Researchers say there’s a solution to renewable energy variability: storage.
Chunlian Jin is an engineer at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. She says research into energy storage is important to the future of renewable energy.
“Such important research will enable the United States to use its energy resources more efficiently" says Jin.
Powin Energy is working to make energy more efficient in the Northwest. The Portland-area company is testing a new battery that can store excess energy generated from wind farms.
Right now, it’s at Nine Canyon Wind Project outside Kennewick, Wash.
A 20-foot shipping container parked at the wind farm holds the battery system. Energy Northwest is involved in the first testing phase.
John Steigers is the project developer for Energy Northwest.
“This unit, if it started out fully charged, could support an average American home for a bit over two days, all by itself" says Steigers.
That’s not a lot of power when you consider how much energy a wind farm can generate. Steigers says about 800 of these units would be needed to back up the entire Nine Canyon Wind Project.
“We don’t need that many for it to make a difference. What we’re trying to do is address short-term changes in the production" says Steigers.
In other words, the project aims to balance power on an hourly basis.
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory has developed a way to help the battery immediately respond to the power grid’s needs.
Researchers at the lab have also designed a computer model that will simulate groups of these batteries working together. The model will help determine how the system will work on a larger scale.
Powin Energy would not provide a price range for the battery. Energy Northwest’s John Steigers says one goal of this demonstration project is to weigh the costs and benefits of storing energy with this sort of battery.
Copyright 2013 Northwest Public Radio | <urn:uuid:feb15b7e-939f-4794-be7c-7f2db4d2181e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://nwpr.org/post/northwest-laboratories-develop-wind-power-storage | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00159-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92732 | 534 | 3.359375 | 3 |
More than three quarters of asthma sufferers are unaware that they may be at risk of a fatal attack, despite thinking their condition is under control, according to new survey results.
The survey findings reveal that 15% of mild or moderate asthma sufferers have attended A&E over the past 12 months due to their asthma, but still don't class their condition as uncontrolled.
The survey, conducted by Allergy UK and funded by Novartis Pharmaceuticals UK Limited, also revealed that 78% of asthma sufferers who think their asthma is mild or moderate use up to four 'reliever' asthma inhalers a month, when in reality they shouldn't even need to use one per month if their disease is well controlled.1
According to Government data, approximately 4 million people in the UK were being treated with asthma medication in 2012-2013. Based on survey findings of 464 participants, Allergy UK estimates that up to 2.7 million of those who consider their asthma to be mild or moderate, are at risk of life-threatening asthma attacks.2-5*
Nearly half (49%) of this group still suffer from breathlessness and 45% from wheezing, despite taking regular medication. According to national charity Allergy UK, these people need to be urgently reviewed.
In addition, nearly half of those who class their asthma as 'mild or moderate' have been prescribed oral steroids in the past 12 months. Using this level of medication means the condition isn't under control, as it should only be necessary in an emergency, or in the most severe asthma cases.1
"Asthma is a killer, with three people dying of it every day in the UK.6 These shocking survey results reflect what we hear time and time again from the people that call our helpline," said Lindsey McManus, Deputy CEO of Allergy UK. "People 'put up with' their asthma symptoms and continue to use medication that isn't treating the inflammation, rather than seeking help to get their asthma under control. They just don't realise they are putting themselves in danger and could soon find themselves in A&E."
Nearly one in five (16%) of those who wrongly think their asthma is under control have taken six or more days off work or school in the past 12 months because of their asthma.
Dr Monica Nordstrom, Respiratory Physician at Ashford and St. Peter's Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust agrees: "Doctors, nurses and patients themselves often fail to recognise whether asthma is moderate or severe, leading to life-threatening attacks that could have been avoided with appropriate diagnosis and management. It's important for doctors and nurses to be informed about patient-specific allergic triggers for asthma and to make the link between a patient's asthma and allergy. This can help to avoid long delays in getting appropriate treatment."
At least 60% of asthma is triggered by allergens7 including house dust mite, pollen, animal dander, mould and foods. Yet only 37% of the asthma sufferers surveyed had been allergy tested. If more of these people were allergy tested, we could see the rate of asthma attacks falling, according to Allergy UK.
'Mild intermittent' asthma is classed as having symptoms less than once a week, without sleep being affected. Sufferers are able to carry out normal everyday activities with normal lung function. Anything more than that is classed as uncontrolled asthma.8
Dr Nordstrom continues: "There are three warning signs for patients to look out for; if you use more than one reliever inhaler a month; if you've been prescribed one or more courses of oral corticosteroids in the past 12 months or if you are consistently missing work or school because of your asthma - these can all be signs that your asthma may be more severe than you think and you should seek more help from your doctor or specialist nurse."
Over one in five asthma sufferers (22%) surveyed had not had an asthma review for over a year. Lindsey McManus, Allergy UK said: "Our biggest piece of advice is to talk to your doctor or asthma nurse. They will conduct a thorough asthma review and may refer you to a specialist who may conduct an allergy assessment and review your asthma management. This is the only way to ensure that the asthma crisis doesn't worsen."
Are you at risk?
Visit www.allergyuk.org to download a leaflet on asthma triggered by allergens. The leaflet includes a questionnaire, which you can complete and give to your doctor or nurse to help them identify whether you have uncontrolled asthma triggered by allergens. They can refer you to a specialist for an allergy assessment and appropriate management. | <urn:uuid:0f821d42-6c5d-46fa-9f38-7f6de035310c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/281185.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00111-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968426 | 951 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Friday, February 29, 2008
A wonderful Montessori teacher friend of mine, created this world map!
Isn't she talented? Wow! Using the world map mat by Montessori N' Such as a guide, she cut the continents from felt and glued them to the blue fabric using craft glue. She purchased the Continent & World Miniature Animal Set to complete this work.
Duplicating materials is not common practice but when the original material was being used by the Kindergarten program the teacher used her resourcefulness and made this one for her classroom.
Inspiring! I just had to share.
*Note: This work is used with small groups, it's purpose: identifying the world continents by name, and making discoveries about where different animals live on our globe.
Thursday, February 28, 2008
Providing a mirror for young children to admire themselves is a good way to buy yourself 5 to 10 minutes of time :)
Seriously, there is nothing my Little One enjoys more than checking himself out in the mirror!
When I brought this mirror out yesterday, my little guy had a bit of a runny nose. Upon noticing this in the mirror he got himself a tissue and wiped his nose, he then checked his reflection in the mirror to make sure his nose was clean. As I observed him I was reminded of a story.
One day, when Montessori came to see how the children where getting on, she decided to give them what was at that time a rather unusual lesson--on how to blow one's nose. After explaining first of all how it should not be done she showed them how to do it as politely as possible, with as little noise as one could, and taking out the handkerchief unobtrusively so that the action remains more or less unnoticed. The children followed her demonstration with silent interest. When the lesson was quite finished they all together broke into a burst of genuine and heartfelt applause, clapping their hands "as when in a theatre a great actress evokes an ovation repressed with difficulty." she later said.
Montessori was completely amazed at this sudden demonstration of emotion, until all at once its true significance dawned on her. The question she had touched upon--keeping
one's nose clean--was one which children too often associate with discipline and humiliation. People are perpetually complaining to children about their noses being dirty. Making remarks, such as "Blow your nose, Billy." "Why don't you use your handkerchief, you dirty boy," etc. But no one had ever quietly and calmly taught them how to do it, without attacking them or criticizing them at the same time.
I have a confession, when I ran my child care center in Massachusetts I kept the box of tissues on a high shelf in the bathroom. I did this without giving it much thought. I expect I just thought it was my job to recognize when the children needed a tissue and to care for them when they did. I would provide the older child with a tissue, and assist the younger child with their nose, by wiping it for them. I really don't recall giving this much thought at all. I will say when I began working at a Montessori School the fact that each room had its very own tissue box on a low shelf, was one of the very first things I noticed when looking around the classroom.
I remember noticing this and mentioning it to the Director; she went on to explain the story I have just shared with you. I left that day full of so much new and exciting information about Montessori and this new school I had found myself teaching art at. My head was spinning and I was so happy to be part of a place that valued children so much. But, a three year old blowing his own nose impressed me most of all!
Later, during my formal Montessori training when the instructor began sharing the "Nose Blowing Lesson Story" with all of us, I smiled to myself already knowing what she would say.
Now my not yet two year old can blow his own nose! I've come a long way in my own learning, as a mother and as a teacher. As Montessori would say, children are the true teachers.
So, you have decided to research Montessori education as a possibility for your child. You have attended parent information sessions, open houses, met with the director of admissions, had a tour of the Montessori school, observed in a Montessori classroom, spoken with other parents. It’s looking pretty favorable, but there’s one more step. Before deciding if Montessori is right for your family, you must ask yourself the following questions.
Am I. . .
- Supportive of an educational method which focuses on process v. product? (Doing rather than memorizing).
- Supportive of peace education, conflict resolution, community service, and environmental education?
- Comfortable with curriculum that includes multiculturalism?
- Comfortable with (and understand the complexities of) narrative progress reports and student work portfolios. Am I willing to leave numerical/letter grades and grade level comparisons behind for now?
- Comfortable with an educational method that believes that children learn best through intrinsic motivation, where there are neither rewards nor punishments, and that competition hinders learning?
- Supportive of real-life learning situations?
- Supportive of the belief that children learn best when they have control over their own learning?
- Recognizing that objectives are usually met in a three-year cycle, as opposed to standardized grade levels?
By exploring a Montessori education, you will find that it’s not just about the education of your child. It’s a commitment to educating the whole person and family. It’s about knowing there’s something better and seeking it out and being comfortable in knowing you have made the right decision.
I thought this may be useful as I plan to follow this post with ideas about ways to bring Montessori home. As parents we bridge the gap between school and home; bringing elements from the Montessori classroom into your home helps your children become life long learners. Remember you are your child's first teacher!
Tuesday, February 26, 2008
Flower Arranging: Practical Life Activity
I purchased these cloth flowers (@ ACMOORE) then cut the bottoms, I taped them to prevent Little One from getting hurt by the exposed metal and also to accentuate the bottom of the stems, making them more visible when he attempts to put them into the vase. The vases are a collection of yard sale finds and one old vitamin bottle. The flowers are held in a shallow basket, the vases on a tray. These items could be presented on one tray, in a 3-6 classroom, however when working with a toddler I recommend this be a stationary work over a carpeted floor (if possible) to prevent the possibility of the glass breaking.
With Toddlers (or first lesson): Use just one flower for each vase, one red, one orange, one yellow. Follow with a three period lesson to identify colors.
In a 3-6 classroom: Using different colored flowers as I have done here this could be presented as a sorting work also.
In a 3-6 classroom: Use real flowers and add a water pouring component.
Enjoy and have fun! Spring is on the way, having bright flowers (either paper or cloth or the real deal) is a beautiful way to brighten your classroom during these late winter months. Bring the Natural World inside.
Remember the red bin I borrowed from my friend Paula? This weekend we filled it with sand and then water! Little One LOVED both of these new sensorial experiences and obviously got "into" his learning. Apparently the bin is too big? Using a wooden spoon he filled and dumped his blue strainer. I took a dozen photos before he notice me. It was very a very peaceful experience for him.
For water exploration I put the bin up on a low table and my nine year old joined in on the fun. Thankfully, Little One did not take a swim. This little blue strainer was a such find! I discovered it at Rite Aid for $1!!! Montessori on a budget after all.
(Please forgive me if I have posted about the strainer before, I adore it and so does Little One)
With water play I offered natural sponges, bottles to fill and pour, and a clear measuring cup with a handle. Big brother had fun entertaining his little brother, pouring water from up high into the strainer only to have it splash up the sides and into his brother's face. I quickly redirected this behavior. Everybody loves a clown, except an almost two year old who just got water splashed in his face.
Tune in next time to see what else fills up the "Red Bin".
Sunday, February 24, 2008
Our neighbor's goats have given birth and now each day we drive by, we slow down to take a peek. Yesterday they were out and about! My Little One assumes, because of their markings, that the goats are cows and was Moo-ing to them while I snapped some photos. My nine year old wants to adopt one and raise it in our home
"you know like the cats" he said :)
I think two cats is more than enough personally since last night one of my felines woke me at 3:30am because she was hungry. Grrr....what would a goat do?
So on to my grumbling,
it's only 11am and already today I have edited my oldest son's Che Guevara paper and assisted with his Che Guevara poster, done three loads of laundry, made French toast, changed three diapers, given a yogurt covered toddler a bath, helped my nine year old pick up an entire rubber-made tote full of Legos that "accidentally spilled"before above mentioned toddler could eat them, vacuumed up rice cake pieces and gold fish also "accidentally" spilled before they could be ground into the living room carpet by yep, you guessed it: Little One, and addressed 15 envelopes for work! Phew...did I mention my husband is working and it is day seven of February vacation? Enough grumbling....
Any-who, I thought some of you would like to see these beautiful babies and feel hopeful about Spring coming. And I hope YOU are enjoying your Sunday, your family and maybe hot chocolate...mmmm...sounds good, don't mind if I do.
Saturday, February 23, 2008
Many readers have been asking about my book Maria Mouse in the Children's House. I would like to thank you for your enthusiasm and support for this little story book of mine. I am hopeful it one day soon will be published and I can share that news with all of you but as of yet it hasn't been picked up by a publishing house. And so I wait....
I have been thinking about self publishing but know very little about this process. I will keep you all posted and welcome your comments and feedback about my illustrations and and suggestions about book publishing.
The children I have shared my Maria Mouse stories with have enjoyed them and I feel confident that many more children would too. I hope it happens...(I'm trying to be optimistic).
I imagine her as a force, as bright as the sun, as strong as a mountain. Yet, she was someone who would hold your hand when you were unsure and tell you to listen to your intuition.
I wish I could have known her personally. I would have loved to have heard her speak. She was brave and honest and true. We are so blessed she graced this earth and shared with us her brilliant perspective.
The Montessori Teacher:
Imagine sitting cradled within the branches of a tall and magical tree. It is the Montessori classroom. How would you feel looking all about you, new possibilities and opportunities awaiting you on every branch you reach for? Would you want to take the leap? I imagine only if you were sure you would not fall. The supportive branches and strength of the Montessori tree enable you to feel independent and sure of your footing. But knowing your teacher is always there to help you to reach that next branch is a reassuring fact.
You are not alone on this journey; you are being guided and encouraged by a loving adult who understands what it is like to climb this tree. All the branches are familiar to her and each leaf she has placed there with careful consideration for every child to admire and enjoy. Montessori herself planted the seed of this tall and miraculous tree and it is the teachers who she trained who tend to it now.
Montessori said, "Whoever touches the life of the child touches the most sensitive point of a whole which has roots in the most distant past and climbs toward the infinite future."
I remember these words and her perspective each time I enter the Montessori classroom. But bringing Montessori home is my work these days. And I know that lately I have often felt challenged by financial restraints to prepare my home to meet the needs of my growing, ever changing boys. I am resolving today to give myself a break. Yes, the prepared environment is an important element to the success of the Montessori method but it is so much more about the process than the materials. Reminding myself of this is helpful. By comparison when I visit the classroom I see beautiful materials and child sized everything, I admire and long to bring home some of the items. Let's call this "nesting". My home environment is cluttered and small, there are five of us and not much room. Some days it feels like a bush rather than a tree, but oh well, it's our bush and we are all learning in it just the same.
Bread crumbs or golden beads the learning was the same. Maria observed children in many different environments and always found this to be true: a child who feels loved and comfortable will be successful at their work.
Thursday, February 21, 2008
1.) Trips to the public library, visiting with Jane Thomas our children's librarian who nurtures my middle son's love for books. Everything from the train table to water bubbler fascinate my Little One, pushing the elevator button and the fish tank are his two most favorite parts about the whole experience. And they have BOOKS too!
2.) This blue tunnel I purchased years ago. (I think his expression says it all).
3.) Colored glass jars with lids.
4.) When my oldest son plays his guitar.
5.) Red "works".
6.) When my Mom calls just to say she loves me. (Thanks Mom)
7.) Waiting to hear if Maria Mouse will become a REAL book...anticipation.
8.) My spiral chalice, UU church services (especially the maple syrup service) working with the children's program and our FABULOUS new RE Director Danielle. (okay, that's more than one)
9.) Hot Chocolate with whipped cream (is there another way?) in my favorite mug.
10.) My BLOG. It makes me happy. And all of you who read and comment and share with me, you make my February more beautiful. Thank you.
So, what are YOUR February Ten? Please share.
Tuesday, February 19, 2008
Inspired by an original idea from the lovely and talented Mama and O at Chasing Cheerios,
I put together this
Practical Life activity: Toothpick drop
The basic aims of all Practical Life activities are to assist in the development of:
Coordination, Concentration, Independence, Order
(or CCIO that's an easy way to remember *c/o Linda Seeley Northeast Montessori Institute)
All are nurtured with this one activity.
My Little One (22months) LOVED putting the colored toothpicks into the small openings of the cheese shaker. It was a pleasant sensorial experience also because of the musical tone it made when the toothpicks fell in. He completed this work again and again and was very smiley while enjoying it.
I am sure this will become a daily favorite. Thanks Chasing Cheerios!
Then I had an idea: add a button to the end of the ribbon!
And so this hand work was born.
My niece (2yrs) stayed with this activity for 35 minutes. (This is the necklace she made!)
My Little One (22 months) was not as captured by the beauty of it. Although he did sew briefly, he was more interest in watching his older cousin and brothers sled outside. I will try this with him on another day when there are less distractions. I will say that when the "BIG boys" came in from outdoors they were very interested in what we had been making inside. And soon my nine year old and my 5 year old nephew had completed their own felt "snakes".
I imagine this would be a peaceful Practical Life activity for a 3-6 classroom. I will give it to my friends at the Cornerspring Children's House and will let you know how it goes.
Sunday, February 17, 2008
Thursday, February 14, 2008
Here is my Little One sorting bag snaps by color (these clips are for securing bags of chips, I bought at Family Dollar for, yep you guessed it: $1)
He can do so many things with them:
open and close them
sort them by color
line them up by size (he hasn't mastered this)
we even made squares with them when we opened them and placed them on the rug opposite one another.
Mostly he likes to fill and dump the basket, but by introducing him to colors, size and shape, the use of a rug, and the awareness that baskets contain objects and can be found on a shelf; I hope to familiarize him with concepts and ground rules he will continue to use in the future.
His work at 21 months is to play.
This 'work' can easily be made for about $2.00
The basket (also found at the $ store) was part of a four basket set (total cost $2.50) and the chip clips, like I said were $1. Not much to spend for a fun activity that my toddler will enjoy again and again. Don't you just love a bargain?
During my Montessori training, an instructor commented that Montessori could be done using sticks and stones. She even went so far as to bring in these natural items for us to create lessons from. It was an important reminder about how Montessori is less about the materials and more about the philosophy (and I will add: the attitude & approach of the adult).
Remember, we adults set the tone for young children.
(If you are enthusiastic about sorting chip clips, they will be too!)
Remember those potato prints? Well, because of a lack of time this is the best we could do:
But my nine year old was able to make window clings also, which were more fun for him anyway. Has anybody made them before? It was new to me and I have to say, a very smelly project. Unfortunetly, I don't have a photo to share but they are made from a kit:
Everyday KOLOR and took two days to dry.
I gave my boys stuffed animals for Valentine's Day this morning and although my youngest was happy, my middle and oldest wanted candy. Oh well, they are sure to get some candy at school when friends exchange Valentines right? Okay, maybe not the ninth grader. Maybe I'll make brownies for dessert tonight?
My husband (in his usually sleepy state at 5am on his way out the door) saw me putting out the Valentine items and said, "What are those for?"
I guess I won't be getting roses today. Ha-HA
I hope your Valentines treat you well and your children have fun today.
Wednesday, February 13, 2008
I'm not perfect. No one is.
I gave up trying to be perfect years ago but some how I have still managed to present an unrealistic projection of myself on this blog. Although I personally feel that blogs that teach something or inspire people are more enjoyable to read than ones that are a daily vent of people's personal lives; I do feel like I want to share more about what being a parent means for me personally. It would bother me if people were reading my ideas and suggestions and thinking badly of themselves because they "should be doing more"with their children.
The point is this is not a competition, and we are all in this together. I became a mother very young and I often feel like my oldest and I have grown up together. I've learned allot from becoming a mother and from working with families.
Some things I've had to learn the hard way:
- pretzel rods are not a toddler friendly food
- If you don't encourage your child to learn to swim when they are small (and often afraid) they really won't want to learn when they are older.
- fighting with your spouse in front of your kids is not a good idea.
- too much TV can be harmful.
- your mother in law will inevitably learn how you really feel about her if you vent to your 5 year old.
- when you have more than one child, eating out is no longer an option
Considering there is no test that a person must pass in order to become a parent I think we all do what we can with the tools we've been given. In my case (being that I am an over achiever) I was given a 'tool box' from my own parents and when I became a parent I began trying to fill my tool box with new and improved tools and any that I hadn't received. My husband did the same thing and soon our tool boxes were quite full. And I've also discovered that a parent can never really fill their tool box because there is always more to learn.
Out of all the teachers and mentors I've had the privilege of knowing and learning from, it has been my children who have taught me the most. The hardest lessons and the most rewarding and beautiful ones too:
- Spanking doesn't work
- If I swear they will swear too
- Fast food is not good for growing bodies
- Reading out loud is entertaining for everybody if the book is Harry Potter
- Halloween doesn't have to be scary
- whoever it was who invented Legos was a genius
- whoever it was who invented the kazoo never had children
- words can hurt MORE than sticks and stones
- Daddies can kiss boo-boos and take bad dreams away, sometimes BETTER than Mommy
- my heart can love more than one baby
Thank you for reading my blog and for trying some ideas with your children. I'm not trying to impress you, I'm trying to connect with you and learn from you. I enjoy this medium for communicating but recognize it can be one dimensional, the real Mom in me is 3D.
Tuesday, February 12, 2008
This Number Line was made using poster board folded in half (so it would stand), writing the numbers 1 to 10 and covering with contact paper.
A Number Line can be found in the math area of the Montessori classroom. It is a handy tool for young children to use when learning their numbers. When counting items the items can be laid out in front of the Number Line and when identifying the number symbols it can be used as a guide for 1 to 10 counting. When a child is writing their own numerals, the Number Line can again be used as a reference.
In the photo the little girl uses the Number Line when discovering the mystery number of hearts.
We have a Number Line here at home also and over the years my boys have used it many, many times. Having a visual guide when learning new information is very helpful (especially for visual learners). This is also something an older child could make for a younger child.
Here is a well loved story stretcher for 3 to 6 year olds. Extending the 5 Little Monkey song, provide props for your children to act out the song game. The Mama monkey is a sweet finger puppet I picked up locally at Hobbledeehoy Toys in Belfast Maine, the doll bed came with another set of doll house furniture years ago, the monkeys were part of a counting set, and the book I believe was purchased at Borders Books (again years ago).
If finding the items is a challenge you could also extend this story into an activity, using cut-outs or drawings, felt monkeys...use your creative imagination.
In the Montessori classroom this activity could be found in either the language area OR the Math area. The children enjoy making the monkeys jump on the bed and subtracting one each time. This is a nice two person work, one friend being the little monkeys, another being the Mama monkey, and then they can switch and do it again.
Enjoy and have fun!
Saturday, February 9, 2008
Guidelines for Teachers in a Montessori Classroom:
1.) Good general health and emotional stability
2.) Appears attractive
3.) Possesses personal internalized sense of order
4.) Moves gracefully
5.) Speaks with a quiet, well modulated voice
6.) Uses neither rough nor excessive affectionate physical handling of the children
7.) Exemplifies grace and courtesy to the children
8.) Teaches on child's physical and mental level
9.) Links child with the apparatus
10.) Gives varied lessons to all age levels
11.) Respects the dignity of children and teachers and parents
12.) Responds to children's physical, mental and emotional needs
13.) Draws upon community resources to enrich program
14.) Helps prepare environment consistent with maturation of sensitive periods of the class
15.) Maintains classroom orderliness and cleanliness
At the bottom of the paper it says: Source: Adapted from the AMS Guidelines 1986
Phew! What a list huh?
I gotta tell you, they left a few things off it. I've added some below.
16.) Possesses a willingness to be thrown up on if the need arises
17.) Provides a shoulder to cry on for: all children, co-teachers and parents when needed
18.) Demonstrates an ability to think on her(his) feet, is very flexible
19.) Patience, patience and more patience
20.) Talented musically (well, LOVES to sing anyway)
21.) Peaceful conflict resolution EXPERT
22.) Capable of being yelled at, even hit by a child having a tantrum and remaining calm
23.) Will work for little pay and even less recognition from society
24.) Has genuine interest in learning about EVERYTHING
25.) Doesn't mind repeating one's self
26.) Did I say possesses amazing amounts of patience?
27.) Abilities include but are not limited to: unclogging toilets, pronouncing dead fish, shoveling snow, detangling jumpropes, organizing and maintaining peace and safety on a sledding hill, comforting hurt feelings, making playdough, finding lost mittens...oh there just isn't enough space here.
28.) Capable of leaping tall buildings in a single bound!
just kidding about that last one...
These people are amazing! I substituted yesterday in a 3-6 class and left feeling not only exhausted, but completely and totally in awe of my fellow teachers. How do they do it? Day in and day out arriving with a smile and gently reminding small people of often the same things they gently reminded them of the day before. As a mother of three I often go to bed feeling drained of all patience and energy. This is a hard job being a parent, no other job will ever be as challenging; this I know to be true. Being a care giver of children however, comes close. These amazing people I have the privilege of working with are all also mothers. They come to work and care for and love 16+ children each day only to return home and continue that role AND make dinner? Wow! It can be a thankless job also, if you loose sight of the small rewards through-out your day. Which is easy to do when you are tired on a Friday afternoon.
So, I would just like to say, to all you teachers out there:
Thank you, thank you for loving and learning along side our world's children. Thank you for giving and giving and giving more. Thank you for comforting hurts, sharing in discoveries, working through conflicts, providing opportunities for growth and learning, and for being safe, gentle and kind. Our world is a more beautiful place because of you.
~~with admiration and in appreciation
Friday, February 8, 2008
I spent the day at the Montessori school today. And it was obvious that Valentine's Day is coming. Children were busy snipping and sticking, making beautiful handmade notes of friendship for one another. At a rug one child counted hearts into a basket at a table near by, two friends cut red play-dough into heart shaped 'cookies'. This spooning activity caught my eye and I had to share it with you all. Beautiful things draw you to them. That's what it comes down to really. These hearts are begging to be transfered from one place to the other on this small red spoon.
Thursday, February 7, 2008
Here is a somewhat tricky tweezing work for small hands to try. Red pom-poms, chop sticks, a recycled chocolate container and a heart shaped dish make this Practical Life work complete.
My favorite question with this work is:
"Where did all the chocolates go?"
Kids are so smart.
*Note: to make this activity easier for young threes, a spoon or another tool could be used in place of the chop sticks.
Here is today's Art & Play project for those of you who couldn't make the class due to snow, you can easily do this one at home: Potato prints!
- large baking potatoes
- tempera paints
- paper plate or recycled container to hold paint
- kitchen knife (for parent use only)
- metal cookie cutters
Press a small cookie cutter into the potato and gently cut away background.
Dip potato stamps into paint and print them on paper.
My 3rd grader and I are going to make Valentines this afternoon from these, I'll let you know how they turn out.
*Obviously if you prefer to draw and cut your own design or image, go for it. The cookie cutters worked and were easy from me to make the several stamps needed for the art group. Try stamping on colored paper, mixing paints, overlap images, or printing on clothing with fabric paints! Most of all have fun and enjoy your time together.
Wednesday, February 6, 2008
At morning circle, when one of my students was out sick, we would light a special candle and send a "Healing Hug" to our absent friend. As a group we would wrap our arms around our own bodies (in a hug) and close our eyes and send love and well wishes up and into the air by lifting our arms to the sky. When we extinguished the candle we would say the name of our missing friend(s) and "we hope you feel better".
When children who had been home from school sick would return, they would inevitably ask, "Did you send me a healing hug when I was out?"
and I would always say
"Of course we did, we miss you when you are not here."
Their little face would light up feeling loved and missed by their classroom family.
It started as a community building tool, but it became more than that.
Please send my Little One a 'Healing Hug' if time allows. It's been a long week and it's only Wednesday.
Monday, February 4, 2008
In the Montessori classroom (3-6) we introduce the Pink Tower to the three-year-old as part of the sensorial work to help develop the sense of visual discrimination. The Pink Tower stands prominently in the classroom-ten pink colored cubes, the largest measuring 10 centimeters on each side, and the smallest a one-centimeter cube. When Dr. Montessori designed them she painted them pink to draw the children to them. And yes it does!
To work with the Pink Tower, the child carries, with both hands, one block at a time to a work rug. Ten trips over and ten trips back get all the blocks to the rug. This activity builds concentration and memory. As the child works with the Pink Tower, the child's body and mind are absorbing information that will help in future math activities. At the simplest level, the Pink Tower is a groovy set of pink building blocks. But really it is so much more.
When working with the Pink Tower your child develops:
- independent decision making skills
- beginning math concepts of square and cubes
- visual discrimination of 1/2 centimeter
- hands-on experiences with geometric progression
- understanding of physical concepts that aid in later work in algebra and higher mathematics
In addition, many children enjoy drawing the Pink Tower. The Pink Tower lends itself to artwork and challenges the child to figure out how to draw a cube, how to maintain the proportion of the tower, how to shade and more!
The beauty of the Pink Tower is that there are multiple physical concepts embedded in the material, whether we are cognizant of them or not. And it's FUN to build a tower!
A young friend of mine once told me he was done building with the Pink Tower.
"Done?" I asked him. "You use the Pink Tower everyday and you seem to enjoy it. You don't want to build with it anymore?"
"That's right." he said, "I've built it every way you can build it, I've drawn it on paper, I've painted it, I've built it with the brown stairs, and I think I'm done." he said sadly.
"Well," I said, "you can certainly move on to other works whenever you want, it's your choice. I'm wondering however, have you ever looked at the Pink Tower from the floor?"
He looked at me and tilted his head curiously, "From the floor?"he asked.
"Yes, from the floor, the Pink Tower looks very different when you lie down and look up at it from the floor."
"I've never done that!" He exclaimed.
And off he went to build his beloved Pink Tower again and when he was done building, together we lay on the floor and looked up at the pink tower. And using our magic imaginations we saw a plane fly by and a rainbow arch above us. Soon other tall towers were being constructed. The knob-less cylinders made colorful additions to his city, the red rods ran like a fence around the kingdom.
I am happy to share that my young friend is five now and still builds with the Pink Tower. He returns to it after more challenging works are completed. Like a trusted friend he finds comfort in the familiarity of it. And this budding artist has created many drawings of his imaginary city of towers. Many stories have been told about dragons that perch high above the kingdom balancing on one silver toenail on the tiniest pink cube.
I don't think he will be 'done' with the Pink Tower any time soon.
Enjoy your adventures in block play!
*credit Maren Schmidt M:magazine
Saturday, February 2, 2008
1.) Name one thing you do everyday:
Read: Goodnight Moon
2.) Name 2 things you wish you could learn:
How to speak a foreign language
How to Time Travel.
3.) Name 3 things that remind you of your childhood:
Having to sit in the backseat
4.) Name 4 things you love to eat but rarely do:
Box Lunch John Alden sandwich
5.) Name 5 things/people that make you feel good:
Getting cards in the mail
When my house is clean
Drawing with my children
Baking things for other people
6.) List 6 facts about yourself:
I love tea parties but don't care much for tea.
I've never gotten a speeding ticket but I have been pulled over for going too slow.
I met my husband in kindergarten.
I pray every day.
I'm a Reiki Master.
I know every word of Goodnight Moon :)
Friday, February 1, 2008
So, I thought my little one would enjoy a new sensorial experience, and I was right! He just jumped right in. My friend Paula loaned me this wonderful red bin, I planned to fill it with sand or water. Because I did not have sand and fearing my little boy might climb in thinking it was bath time, I opted to fill the bin with cotton balls instead. I provided cups for filling and dumping and demonstrated how to do this new activity. Then I left the room briefly and returned to find my little one IN the bin and most of the cotton balls out of the bin.
When he looked up and saw me, he said very clearly,
"IN MAMA!" well yes, he was in wasn't he?
Best laid plans. I am reminded by this whole body exploration, that a toddler's learning is through self discovery. I need to give him the freedom to explore with his senses.
Snow is cold, water is wet, the cats are soft...
to touch and feel it, to smell it, to taste it, to hear it, to see it
For him to learn what it is, understand and grow.
This is his work. And obviously it's fun!
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Vehicle Suspension Systems
Almost all railway vehicles use bogies (trucks in US parlance) to carry and guide the body along the track. Bogie suspension design is a complex and difficult science which has evolved over many years. Some of the significant steps in progress are described here. See also Wheels and Bogies, Bogie Parts and Coach Parts pages.
It was recognised very early in the development of railways that the interface between vehicle body and wheel needed some sort of cushion system to reduce the vibration felt as the train moved along the line. This was already part of road coach design and took the form of leaf (laminated) steel springs mounted on the axles, upon which the vehicle body rested. Railways in the UK used the same principle, as shown here.
The spring consisted of a set of different length steel plates arranged with the longest at the top and the shortest at the base of the set. They were held together with a steel strap in the centre. This strap formed the point of contact with the axlebox. The laminations or "leaves" of steel gave rise to the "leaf spring" name more commonly used today. They were also referred to as"elliptical" springs, on account of the curved shape they often formed.
The top steel plate of the spring was secured to the vehicle underframe by having the ends wrapped round steel pins. The pins, two for each spring assembly, were fixed to the underframe. When mounted on the wheelset, the vehicle body weight was transmitted through the pins and the laminated steel spring to the axlebox.
The axlebox was only allowed vertical movement, since it was restrained by two "horns" extending down from the underframe. The horns had "horn guides" (not shown) to ensure security and to prevent twisting.
Plate Frame Bogie Primary Suspension
The natural progression from the rigid framed vehicles used in the early days of European railways to a bogie vehicle brought with it a more sophisticated suspension system. This system was based on a steel plate framed bogie with laminated spring axlebox suspension, much as seen on the first vehicles, and with a secondary suspension added between the car body and the bogie. First, we look at the primary suspension.
The diagram above shows a plate framed bogie with the primary, axlebox suspension. The secondary, bolster suspension is left out for simplicity. The bogie carries half the car weight which is then divided roughly equally between the two axles. If we said the whole vehicle weight was 30 tonnes, each bogie would carry 15 tonnes and each axle 7.5 tonnes. For a civil engineer wanting to know the stresses on his structures and track, we would tell him we had a 7.5 tonne axle load. Of course, we would include the carrying load of passengers and freight in this calculation.
Returning to the primary suspension design, we see that the laminated axlebox spring is fitted with two "spring hangers" attached to the outer ends of the longest spring plate. Each hanger passes through a hole in a bracket attached to the bogie frame and is screwed into another bracket at the bottom end. Between the two brackets is a steel or rubber spring. The weight of the bogie on the axlebox is transmitted through the steel laminated spring and the two spring hangers. Each spring hanger and its associated spring carries 1/16th of the total car weight. The height of the bogie relative to the rail level could be adjusted by using the screwed spring hangers. The adjustment allowed for small variations in wheel diameter.
Plate Frame Bogie Secondary Suspension
The secondary suspension of the bogie is mounted crosswise (transversely) in the centre. End on, it looks as shown below:
The bogie has a pair of transverse members called "transoms". They are riveted or welded (depending on the design) to the bogie side frames. A steel "swing link" is hung from each end of each transom and a spring plank is laid across the bogie between them. A side view of the bogie below shows the way the spring plank is supported by the swing links.
The spring plank rests on bearer rods suspended between the swing links. This arrangement allows the spring plank to rock from side to side and it will act in opposition to sideways movement of the bogie frame. The spring plank, as its name suggests, carries springs, as shown in the next diagram.
A pair of steel coil springs (shown in red) rest on each end of the spring plank. On top of them sits the bogie bolster. The bolster carries the vehicle body. The body is located by a centre bearing, using a pin fitted to the underframe of the body and steadied by two side bearers. The side bearers are flat to allow the body to slide on the bearer so that the bogie can turn about the centre pin.
This type of arrangement began to be replaced by more modern designs from the 1960s but it is still common around the world and there are many variations. Nevertheless, the basic principles of primary and secondary suspension on bogies are standard throughout.
Cast Steel Bogies
In its simplest form, as used under the standard American freight car, sprung suspension was only provided for the bolster. The bogie consisted of three main parts - the bolster and the two side frames. The basic arrangement provided for a set of steel coil springs provided inside an opening in each side frame of the bogie. The bogie bolster (truck bolster in the US) was mounted on top of these springs and held in place by guides cast into or bolted onto the bolster. The axleboxes were not sprung and merely slotted into the frame, which rested directly on them. The ride wasn't soft but it was adequate. Some later versions of this truck have axlebox springs - simple coil springs inserted between the top of the axlebox and the truck frame.
Of course, nothing is a simple as it looks as first sight. So it is with the US freight truck, which is actually a bit more complicated than seen above. If you bear in mind that a freight car can become five times heavier when it is loaded than when it is empty, it becomes clear that the suspension must be stronger to carry the load. The US type has a second set of bolster springs as shown left.
The second set of springs only comes into contact with the truck bolster when it is depressed by the extra weight loaded on the vehicle. The loaded springs are stiffer than the empty springs so that the stability is maintained regardless of the load applied. These loaded springs are normally fitted with friction blocks (not shown for simplicity) on top to allow proper alignment and to regulate the reaction of the spring to the load.
Freight bogies in Europe and UK are also fitted with load compensation systems using double springs and friction damping devices but they are usually more complex than the simple US design.
Equaliser Bar Suspension
The side frame of the bogie was usually of bar construction, with simple horn guides attached, allowing the axleboxes vertical movements between them. The axleboxes had a cast steel equaliser beam or bar resting on them. The bar had two steel coil springs placed on it and the truck frame rested on the springs. The effect was to allow the bar to act as a compensating lever between the two axles and to use both springs to soften shocks from either axle. The truck had a conventional bolster suspension with swing links carrying a spring plank. In a reversal of British practice, the equaliser bar truck had leaf springs supporting the bolster and coil springs acting as the primary suspension.
Steel springs provide a solid and reliable cushion for vehicle suspension but steel is heavy and requires maintenance because of wear and rust. Rubber however, if it could be produced with sufficient strength and durability, could perform the same function and it was used for minor parts of steel suspension systems from the late 19th century. Then, in the 1950s, some EMU trains were equipped with rubber packs replacing the steel in both primary and secondary suspension positions.
The axlebox is specially shaped, as shown here, to allow the fitting of rubber packs at an angle which will allow the forces to be transmitted to the bogie frame. In some designs used by the London Underground for many years, a cast steel yoke was provided to carry the axlebox and rubber chevrons which formed the suspension packs. The yoke was adjustable (not shown) relative to the bogie frame to permit some variation in its position to compensate for wheel wear.
Bolster suspensions were also redesigned at this time to allow rubber to be used instead of steel. Angled rubber packs, shaped like chevrons like the axlebox suspension, replaced the traditional steel springs and were quite successful until they were superseded in later designs by air springs.
Although successful in lighter applications, rubber suspensions can require careful design to be an effective and reliable alternative to steel because sometimes strange effects on other parts of a train can appear. One well documented case, in London Underground, describes how the performance of traction motor brushes deteriorated when rubber suspension was introduced in the early 1960s. Extensive trials were needed before the cause and the cure, a modified form of motor brush tension spring, was finally discovered.
It was only a matter of time before trains began using compressed air in their suspension system. They first appeared in the 1960s and were considered somewhat of a novelty at the time but, nowadays, air suspension is a standard fitting for passenger vehicles.
Apart from the provision of a better ride, air suspension has one additional feature rare on conventional steel or rubber suspension systems - the ability to provide an accurate load/weight signal which can be used to modify the acceleration and braking of a multiple unit train. A diagrammatic arrangement of an air sprung bogie is shown below.
The weight of the car body (well, half of it, since the other half is carried by the other bogie) rests on the air bag, which is mounted on the top of the bogie frame. Compressed air is fed into the air bag through a levelling valve attached to the underside of the car body. The valve is operated by a lever attached to one end of a link, whose other end is fixed to the bogie frame. Any vertical movement between the car body and the bogie is detected by the lever which adjusts the levelling valve accordingly.
When the load on the car is changed at a station by passengers boarding and alighting, the weight of the body changes and the levelling valve adjusts the air pressure in the air bags to match. The effect is that the car body maintains almost a constant height from rail level, regardless of load. I say almost a constant height because the primary springs will depress to some degree with the additional load. If the car load is reduced, the levelling valve will allow excess air pressure to escape. This can sometimes be heard as an intermittent gentle hissing from under the cars at a terminus as all the passengers alight from a modern coach.
In this transverse view of a car with air suspension, the two air bags provided on a bogie can be seen. Inside each is a solid rubber suspension pack sufficiently strong to carry the suspension load, retained in case the air bag should burst or the air supply is lost.
One other feature of air suspension systems is that they can only alter the air bag pressure when the train is stationary. Constant changes of vehicle height would cause excessive bouncing if the system operated while the train was running. The levelling valve is automatically locked out of use when the train is moving or when the doors are closed - depending on design.
This type of arrangement often uses a bolsterless truck or bogie, as shown is the diagrams above. It is a very simple design where the bogie frame is fabricated, usually in welded box-sections, into the form of the letter H. The crossbar of the H is where the bolster would be. It is called the transom. Instead of being suspended on springs it is solid with the side pieces. The car body (secondary) suspension is through the air bags mounted on the ends of the "crossbar" of the H. This type of bogie is now popular on passenger rolling stock. | <urn:uuid:f62fe886-44d5-4771-b7d7-8f98209ed029> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.railway-technical.com/suspen.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00047-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967926 | 2,521 | 3.734375 | 4 |
Omega Centauri Tracking Test
Omega Centauri is the most luminous globular cluster in our Galaxy. As the name indicates, it is located in the southern constellation Centaurus and is therefore observable only from the south.
The image shown here was obtained with the VLT on May 16, 1998, in red light (R band), i.e. while the mirror was still uncoated. It is a 10-minute exposure of the center of Omega Centauri and it demonstrates that the telescope is able to track continuously with a very high precision and thus is able to take full advantage of the frequent, very good atmospheric conditions at Paranal. The images of the stars are very sharp ( full-width-at-half-maximum (FWHM) = 0.43 arcsec) and are perfectly round, everywhere in the field. This indicates that the tracking was accurate to better than 0.001 arcsec/sec during this observation.
At a distance of about 17,000 light years, this cluster is barely visible to the naked eye as a very faint and small cloud. When Omega Centauri is observed through a telescope, even a small one, it looks like a huge swarm of numerous stars, bound together by their mutual gravitational attraction.
Most globular clusters in our Galaxy have masses of the order of 100,000 times that of the Sun. With a total mass equal to about 5 million solar masses, Omega Centauri is by far the most massive of its kind in our Galaxy.Credit:
About the Image
|Release date:||27 May 1998|
|Size:||1356 x 1356 px|
About the Object
|Type:||Milky Way : Star : Grouping : Cluster : Globular|
|Distance:||17000 light years|
Colours & filters
|Very Large Telescope|
Exposure time: 600s | <urn:uuid:d7eae59f-3b74-4d72-a28c-68e8b7a03eca> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso9820a/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00111-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915314 | 382 | 3.109375 | 3 |
• Mother Ship gives education and comfort to lonely camps
Editor’s note: The MV Tiglax’s work as a research ship enables U.S. Fish and Wildlife scientists and other agencies to get to remote parts of Alaska that would otherwise be inaccessible. First-time discoveries emerge from the Alaska National Maritime Refuge based in Homer, making it a world class research facility. This is the first in a series of articles to describe that work.
By Naomi Klouda
The M/V Tiglax left its Homer harbor for the second and last time of the season on peaceful tinfoil waters leaving Kachemak Bay, destined for field camps dotting thousands of miles of coast. It would go as far north as St. Matthew Island before heading back south, hugging the Aleutian Chain.
The research ship under the employ of the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge is so clean the safety lesson given by First Mate Dan Erickson includes a warning about no stockinged feet on the shiny sliding galley floor. “Wear foot wear at all times,” he tells the six passengers aboard this voyage. He points to the first berth just off the galley. “Ship hit bad seas and one guy flew all the way across to there and dislocated his shoulder.”
Polished wood paneling and every plate, cup, tea bag, book and movie is tucked away into cabinet spaces made especially for them. A lab off the back deck gleams with stainless steel tables meant for calibrating rat traps to rid that evasive species from islands where they have sucked the life out of bird colonies. The steel table are meant for processing science specimens from tiny plankton to giant sea lions. The lab housed Aleutian cackling geese en route back to their native islands.
The wheelhouse where Capt. Billy Pepper has piloted the ship many years looks hand polished, its gleaming instruments Capt. Cook would envy, housed alongside the latest in digital mapping. This is the home-away-from home of some of the most important refuge research done currently by the federal government in America’s holdings.
“We count everything. That’s our motto,” Capt. Pepper says in his Boston accent. “Every whale we see, what kind is it, where it was on the horizon, what day, what time, every sea bird, every sea lion where it is found, we count it.”
Aboard are two teens from the Youth Conservation Corp, Axel Gillam and Katherine Dolma, with
their supervisor, bird scientist Ingrid Harrald, taking them to the Priblofs where they will count birds and conduct a camp for young people.
“A lot of times, these kids have never been away from their parents. And it’s a big deal for them, because they can’t call home. It’s a big deal for the parents as well, to make sure they are okay,” Harrald said.
Gillam,and Dolma worked shifts to swab decks, help inflate the Zodiaks for the camp trips, or to scrub sea bird guano off the crane lift from a frightening height.
Biologist-naturalist Rich Kleinleder is aboard to count birds en route to St. Matthew, where he plans to then switch to an arctic fox inquiry with his former UAF biology professor and father-in-law, Dr. Dave Klein.
En route, he spends the voyage’s days on the top deck in a place especially outfitted for bird scanning and entering data into a custom program on an all weather computer provided for the purpose. It is the most exposed part of the ship to elements of rain and mist. The computer is housed inside a special cubby designed by Eric Nelson, who has been the ship’s engineer since it rolled off the shipyard in 1986.
Cindi Jacobsen, the assistant deputy regional director of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in Alaska, also is aboard to observe. She is involved in national budget cut debates at a time when the multi-trillion dollar budget deficit must be brought in line with reality. The Cornell University PhD is along to learn about the science programs underway in the refuge.
“We’re looking at ways to economize. About 10 percent reduction, that’s what we are told is needed. We’re looking for efficiencies,” Jacobsen said. “Studying a surrogate species might supply some answers. By looking at just a few harbingers of change we can deduct what is happening with a management area,” she said.
A NOAA maintenance manager also is aboard, Marc Hoover. He contracted the Tiglax to carry tons of building materials needed for NOAA facilities in St. Paul and St. George.
The federal government in the late 1800’s built the sea-side structures for processing millions of fur seals when the territory of Alaska was supervised by federal marshals overseeing harvests that claimed 30,000 pelts a year. Hoover is in charge of placing bronze statues, weighing 2,000 pounds each, to commemorate 75 years since the Seal Act began to protect them from over harvesting, one for St. Paul and one for St. George. Though not set to be unveiled until next year, the Tiglax is needed to transport the statutes.
“I’m thinking we need a really good foundation for them, something respectful, in a circle, more color than just concrete,” he tells Capt. Pepper. He outlines a method he has in mind that would incorporate native stones.
Art of navigation
Axel Gillam stands in the wheelhouse of the Tiglax the first full day out of Kachemak Bay. Fin whales surface in the distance and porpoises swim close. As the ship passes by the Kodiak Island village of Karluk, Pepper shows Gillam how to calculate the ship’s distance from Kodiak Island in nautical miles. He picks out a landmark.
“What’s that rock jutting straight up, sharp and jagged?” Pepper asks, indicating a stoney tooth sticking out the water at end of Kodiak mainland.
Part of the objective of being on this trip for the YCC youth to learn even navigation. Gillam goes to work looking at the plot chart depicted on the monitor in front of him. He double checks the distance on radar. He consults a paper chart, using a protractor.
“About 8 miles,” Axel said, judging from both the plot chart reading and the trusty 80-year old radar technology, which ships still use despite GPS and modern tools for its accuracy. “Tombstone Rock?”
“That’s it,” Pepper enthuses. “Tombstone Rock, it’s eight miles, confirmed twice.”
This is the third season the Refuge has offered this internship for teens.
“What we had in mind was to show them all the facets of the ship, whether it be navigation or bird observation, maintenance or cooking and cleaning, each crew member shows a portion of their work and gives them a duty in their work,” Capt. Pepper explains.
The Refuge is benefiting from funding to hire two teens, who do a lot of useful tasks along side the crew.
“The program has three components: educational, maintenance and biology,” said Harrald.
Before leaving the Homer Harbor, the teens did a gruesome amount of shopping.
“It was two and half days of frantic shopping, because you don’t want to forget something on the list,” Harrald said. “I was at a camp once where we wouldn’t be re-supplied for a month, and they forgot the dairy – the cheese, the milk. Another time, they forgot the fresh produce. I thought ‘how can people be this way?’”
At the end of Dolma and Gillam’s efforts, careful Harrald’s shopping list provided 10 heaping grocery carts sorted into more than 30 boxes to be divided between Choweit Camp, Aiktak Camp, St. Paul, St. George and St. Matthew. The boxes were loaded into the hold of the Tiglax and filled the lab’s floor.
“The point is to give as many youth as possible the opportunity. There needs to be a level of experience and maturity because they will be aboard a ship. It might be the first time they are away from their parents,” Harrold said.
The entire 1,000 mile journey, all crew and passengers aboard the Tiglax are out of cell phone range and cannot access Internet to email family and friends. Remote camps along the route from Homer to Umigak Island to the Priblof Islands are far from communication towers.
Katherine Dolma’s time in “captain training” with Capt. Pepper followed roughly the same kind of lessons, only on this afternoon as the ship treaded quiet waters under a partially sunny sky to its first remote bird monitoring station on Choweit Island in the Semidi group, she was given a lesson in reading the weather.
The Tiglax receives a weather fax four times a day, raw data showing the wind direction and barometric pressure. Dolma determines the wind is expected to blow southwest 20. Rain and fog is in the forecast.
Pepper shows her the Beaufort Scale, illustrated in a booklet: 0-1 is flat calm. Up more violently turbulent waters, say scale 34, would be “Deadliest Catch” conditions. Even worse, hurricane force goes up to Nos. 53-56.
From the wheelhouse, as the Tiglax rides through open sea en route to the Semidi Islands, the water lies flat as silver. Swells increasingly skip along the surface, rippling toward caps.
“I think it’s 0-1,” Dolma tells him.
“Sounds right,“ Pepper tells her. “My job is to know when to slow down and when to speed up. Weather plays a big part of our season. It tells us where we can and where we can’t land. Looking ahead is how we know.”
Since they’ve been trading off duty times, Gillam ends the day in the wheelhouse with Pepper. A rare Right whale is reputed to be in these waters, offering a small chance for a sighting. Pepper has him scanning the horizon with binoculars.
Down in the galley, a movie is waiting for Gillam, a chance for the two YCC workers to sit down and relax for probably the first chance since getting underway. “Do you think I can go now?” he asks Pepper, referring to the movie.
“No,” Pepper surprises him by answering. “You can watch movies any time, but how often do you get to watch for a Right whale?”
Gillam smiles, and returns to scanning the waters.
Comments are closed | <urn:uuid:7c5de03a-3484-427f-9788-22628d9ce5fe> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://homertribune.com/2012/09/tiglax%E2%80%99s-work-a%E2%80%88ship-for-marine-research/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948807 | 2,343 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Lesson: Hanukkah, the Festival of Lights
The Jewish holiday Hanukkah literally lights up the home. The eight-day, 2,000-year-old holiday, also called the Festival of Lights, celebrates God's glory, an ancient victory of the Jews over their enemies, and the freedom Jews enjoy today.
The story of Hanukkah begins in strife. Antiochus, a Greek who was king of Syria, marched with an army of soldiers into the kingdom of Judea, home to many Jews. He insisted that the Jews worship the Greek gods rather than the one God they worshipped. When the Jews refused to worship the Greek gods, the soldiers attacked the Temple in Jerusalem and killed countless Jews. They stole holy objects. They even stole the sacred lamp, called the menorah, that stood before the altar. The lamp's flame, which always burned brightly, went out. That had never happened before. Special oil stored in small containers called cruses was always used to keep the flame alive. The soldiers dumped the oil all over the floor. As a last insult, they let pigs roam in the Temple.
The king returned to his own country, but the soldiers stayed on. They did not respect the Jewish Temple. They brought food and drink in, played noisy games, and shouted and laughed there. Jews could not say their prayers in the Temple.
One old man, Mattathias, wanted to fight to take back the Temple. He went with his five sons into the wilderness, where other families joined them. The men began to fight the enemy anywhere and in any way they could.
Mattathias became sick. He named one of his sons, Judah the Maccabee, the leader of the fighting band. For two years the Jews fought their enemy. Then one night they attacked Jerusalem, the enemy stronghold. Judah the Maccabee and his followers camped outside Jerusalem all winter. When the people inside had little food or water left, they attacked and overwhelmed the enemy. The Jews were free!
One of the first tasks of the Jews was to clean up the Temple. They restored the holy lamp -- the menorah -- but found only enough clean and holy oil to last one day. Yet the flames of the menorah burned steadily for eight days. With each passing day, the flames grew brighter.
From then on, every year at that time, Jews have celebrated with the Festival of Lights. Candles are lit at sundown for eight nights in a row. Today's menorahs have nine branches; the ninth branch is for the shamash, or servant light, which is used to light the other eight candles. (See image above, courtesy of Roy Lindman.)
People eat potato latkes, exchange gifts, and play dreidel games. And as they gaze at the light of the menorah, they give thanks for the miracle in the Temple long ago.
Hanukkah activities across the curriculum
Language Arts. Listening. Invite students to listen as you read aloud the above story of Hanukkah. Then ask the listening comprehension questions below to find out how well they understood.
Read aloud. Read aloud from one of the popular children's books about Hanukkah.
Art. Create a Noah's Ark Hanukkah Card. Adapted from Hanukkah Crafts: A Holiday Craft Book by Judith Hoffman (Corwin Franklin Watts, 1996).
You will need: a pencil, an 8-1/2- by 11-inch sheet of white paper, a fine-line black marker, colored pencils or markers, and a piece of ribbon or yarn.
Culture. Play the classic dreidel game that is often played during Hanukkah. A dreidel is a kind of top. The four letters on the four corners of the dreidel refer to the Hanukkah miracle.
Write and perform a radio show. Use the story of Hanukkah above and/or a book or two from the Resources list below. Arrange students in small groups to focus on a different but related aspect of Hanukkah. (An example would be a scene where the victorious Jews clean up their Temple and light the menorah again.) Have students rehearse their scripts and then do performances of radio broadcasts in the classroom. Tape record their broadcasts.
Article by Sharon Cromwell
Copyright © 2002, 2015 Education World | <urn:uuid:b867870b-b794-4cf8-950e-321fa579c864> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.educationworld.com/a_lesson/lesson040.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00155-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960879 | 909 | 3.703125 | 4 |
To prevent the overgrowth and spread of disease in a shrub, regular pruning is required. Pruning is also necessary to encourage flower and fruit development. Early in a shrub's life, pruning trains the plant to grow only to a certain height, and encourages horizontal growth. To maintain the beauty and shape of your shrub and ensure the plant's longevity, it is essential to prune properly, making the cuts at the right angle and in the correct places.
Prune suckers from the bottom of young shrubs, cutting the sprout at the point of growth recommends the University of Minnesota Extension. Suckers draw nutrients from the larger plant, and usually grow at the shrub grafting point, or from the soil.
Remove branches that are dead or diseased, cutting 1/4 inch above a healthy node (where a leaf is growing) at a 45 degree angle advises Clemson University Extension. Make sure the pruning shears are sharp to prevent crushing the branch instead of cutting.
Prune away branches that are crossing or rubbing against each other, according University of Minnesota Extension
Thin out shrubs in the spring by cutting branches or twigs away from the shrub at its point of origin, either at the parent stem or at ground level. This reduces the growth of side branches growing and increases air circulation throughout the plant, according to Texas A & M University Extension.
Remove the oldest and tallest of shrub branches at the ground level to rejuvenate a shrub and to maintain the shape of the plant advises Texas A&M. Cut back to within 6 to 12 inches of the soil level, according to Clemson Extension. | <urn:uuid:6152cbec-3b95-42f6-8e91-408789f90a04> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gardenguides.com/116204-proper-pruning-shrubs.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.924038 | 337 | 3.5 | 4 |
`For during the Second Punic War (218-201 B.C.) the Roman youth of military age having been drained by several unfavorable battles, the Senate, on the motion of the consul Tiberius Gracchus (consul in 215 and 213), decreed that slaves should be bought up out of public moneys for use in repulsing the enemy. After a plebiscite [(a vote of the Consilium Plebis] was passed on this matter by the people through the intervention of the Tribunes of the Plebs, a commission of three men was chosen to purchase 24,000 slaves, and having administered an oath to them that they would give zealous and courageous service and that they would bear arms as long as the Carthaginians were in Italy, they sent them to the camp. From Apulia and the Paediculi were also bought 270 slaves for replacements in the cavalry... The City, which up to this time had disdained to have as soldiers even free men without property added to its army as almost its chief support persons taken from slave lodgings and slaves gathered from shepherd huts.'
Citizens of Rome. I am Spurius Ligustinus, of the Tribe Crustumina, and I come of Sabine stock. My father left me half an acre of land and the little hut in which I was born and brought up. I am still living there today. As soon as I came of age, my father gave me his brother's daughter to wife, who brought nothing with her save her free birth and her chastity, together with a fertility which would be enough even for a wealthy home. We have six sons, and two daughters (both already married). Four of my sons have taken the toga of manhood; two are still under age. I joined the army in the consulship of Publius Sulpicius and Gaius Aurelius (Cotta) [200 B.C.], and I served two years in the ranks in the army which was taken across to Macedonia, in the campaign against King Philip [V, of Macedonia who died in 179]. In the third year Titus Quinctius Flamininus promoted me, for my bravery, to be centurion of the 10th maniple of hastati. After the defeat of King Philip and the Macedonians, when we had been brought back to Italy and demobilized, I immediately left for Spain as a volunteer with the consul Marcus Porcius [CATO, consul in 195 B.C.]. Of all the living generals, none has been a keener observer and judge of bravery than he, as is well known to those who through long military service have had experience of him and other commanders. This general judged me worthy to be appointed centurion of the 1st century of hastati. I enlisted for the third time, again as a volunteer, in the army sent against the Aetolians and King Antiochus. Manius Acilius [Glabrio, consul of 191] appointed me centurion of the first century of the principes. When King Antiochus had been driven out [Battle of Thermopylae] and the Aetolians had been crushed, we were brought back to Italy. And twice after that I took part in campaigns in which the legions served for a year. Thereafter I saw two campaigns in Spain, one with Quintus Fulvius Flaccus as Praetor [182, continued in office in 181 and 180], the other with Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus [father of the Gracchus brothers] in command . I was brought back home by Flaccus with the others whom he brought back with him from the province for his Triumph, on account of their bravery. And I returned to Spain becaus eI was asked to do so by Tbierius Gracchus. Four times in the course of a few years I held the rank of Chief Centurion. Thirty four times I was rewarded for bravery by the generals. I have been given six civic crowns. I have completed 22 years of service in the army, and I am now over 50 years old. But even if I had not completed my service, and if my age did not give me exemption, it would still be right for me to be descharged, Publius Licinius, since I could give your four soldiers as my substitutes...' There was an official vote of thanks, and the Military Tribunes, on account of his bravery appointed him First Centurion of the First Legion. The other centurions withdrew their appeal and obediently responded to the call for conscription.
John Paul Adams, CSUN | <urn:uuid:452a16da-92fd-417e-9074-7acf43a5ba82> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.csun.edu/%7Ehcfll004/soldiers.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00157-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.984954 | 968 | 2.75 | 3 |
Tampa, Fla. (May 19, 2008) - The current issue of CELL TRANSPLANTATION (Vol. 17:4) features a number of publications by researchers seeking new ways to treat Parkinson's disease (PD), a neurological disease characterized by muscle rigidity, tremor and slowed physical movements related to insufficient levels of dopamine (DA) in the basal ganglia of the brain, by using primate models to examine the potential therapy role of transplanted cells.
One research team looked at the ability of human neural progenitor cells (hNPCs) as a potential therapy when hNPCs were engineered to produce glial derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) in the brain following hNPC transplants.
"Localized delivery is essential for aiming therapeutic molecules when treating neurodegenerative disorders," said Maria Emborg, PhD, of the University of Wisconsin-Madison. "There are currently a number of clinical trials underway using direct gene therapy approaches to deliver potent trophic factors throughout the basal ganglia."
Emborg and colleagues report that hNPCs genetically modified to over-express GDNF were able to survive transplant and produced GDNF for three months, and that functional recovery in test animals increased while no obvious negative side effects from the transplant procedure were observed.
An international team of researchers from the University of Kentucky Medical Center and the Shandong Provincial Hospital, Shangdong, PR of China, are studying the neurorestorative effects of the exogenous protein neurturin (NTN), another member of the GDNF family. They found that the protein may have beneficial effects on PD as their results showed some restorative influences after cell transplantation.
"Tissue distribution of trophic factor is a critical variable to achieve optimal effects on dopamine function and promote behavioral improvement," said corresponding author Richard Grondin, PhD of the University of Kentucky. "The volume of GDNF distribution in the trophic factor recipients significantly correlated with motor function improvements. Tissue distribution may not have been optimal with NTN, but the overall effects of NTN on motor and dopaminergic function suggest potential therapeutic uses."
According to Zhiming Zhang, M.D. corresponding author and colleagues from the University of Kentucky College of Medicine, the need is great for longitudinal noninvasive, highly sensitive imaging techniques to monitor treatment for PD. Their study reports on attempts at monitoring GDNF-induced functional changes in the basal ganglia using pharmacological MRI (phMRI) to measure response to dopamine. The aim is to eventually be able to visualize changes in the living brains of PD patients.
"Our hypothesis was that phMRI techniques combined with selective dopaminergic agents could monitor PD treatment," said Zhang. "GDNF has been proven to halt or reverse progressive degeneration of the nigrostriatal DA system in models of PD. The ability to reliably monitor therapeutic effects would provide valuable information in assessing the progression of PD."
In their study, Zhang, et al found that phMRI "showed its potential" by detecting functional changes before and after infusion with GDNF. These changes were also accompanied by improvements in motor function.
Transplantation of dopamine neurons as therapy for PD has been tested recently. Researchers sought to answer questions about where to place the transplanted neurons to gain the best environment for the optimal effect. One research team found that grafted dopamine neurons could "extend neurites toward a desired target over several millimeters through the brain in animal models..." which favors the prospect of "circuit reconstruction from grafted neurons placed at appropriate locations in the neural circuitry."
According to corresponding author John Sladek, PhD of the University of Colorado School of Medicine, there have always been questions about the regenerative capacity of mammalian neurons. One point at issue was the need to provide a "neuronal microenvironment that would be more conducive for regulated neurological control of DA production and release by the grafted neurons," said Sladek.
Test results suggested that substantia nigra grafts could send targeted DA neurons to a location where they could survive and extend neurites over longer distances.
"Survival of the grafts and extension of the axons is of importance because it positions the DA neurites to grow in a trajectory toward the striatum, using the striatal grafts as an attractant," concluded Sladek.
"Taking these four papers together we can see that primate studies are helping to elucidate the likelihood of favorable outcomes following stem cell transplantation with respect to route of administration, possible modes of action and the ability to track the effects." said Jeffrey Kordower, PhD of the Rush University Medical Center, Chicago and guest editor of this special meeting issue of CELL TRANSPLANTATION.
The editorial offices for CELL TRANSPLANTATION are at the Center of Excellence for Aging and Brain Repair, College of Medicine, the University of South Florida and the Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine. Contact, Paul Sanberg, PhD. DSc., at email@example.com or Camillo Ricordi, MD at firstname.lastname@example.org. | <urn:uuid:312f6619-2e6f-49ed-9071-94c1e1518fe3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-05/ctco-nct051608.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932649 | 1,059 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Coping With COPD
COPD is a group of chronic lung diseases previously referred to as emphysema and chronic bronchitis. The name COPD was given to the disease process because emphysema and chronic bronchitis usually exist at the same time in most patients. COPD is the fourth leading cause of death in the United States and a significant cause of disability.
COPD is a progressive disease which means it gets worse as times go by. While COPD cannot be cured, there are certain interventions and medications that can be put in place to slow the progress of the disease.
Physical changes in the respiratory system that occur making it more difficult to breathe include:
- Less elasticity of the airways, so there is less expansion to make room for the air you breathe in
- Destruction of tissue walls between the air sacs (or alveoli) which means there is less ability to take in oxygen from air
- Swelling of your airways due to irritation of the lining
- Production of a greater amount of mucus, which then makes it harder to breathe
Many people are not diagnosed with COPD until the disease process is advanced. Generally anyone with shortness of breath should be evaluated by their physician.
Common symptoms of COPD are:
- Cough. Cough is a major symptom in those who have chronic bronchitis along with emphysema
- Coughing up sputum. Sputum is the thicker mucus that is made in your lungs.
- Tightness in the chest
- Body pains. Nearly 25 percent of COPD patients report generalized aches and pains.
- Difficulty sleeping
- Heart failure
- Swollen legs or feet
- Weight loss
- Loss of muscle strength
- A bluish tint to your lips or fingernails if you are not getting enough oxygen
Maintain a safe environment
Maintaining a safe environment is an important part of COPD management and should be moved to the top of your priority list. Safety, both inside and outside the home, will help to preserve your health and assist you in carrying out activities of daily living in a safe manner. Things that you can do to foster safety around your home include:
- Remove all throw rugs from the floors
- Place safety bars inside bathrooms, showers and bathtubs and along walkways both inside and outside the home
- Use a raised toilet seat
- Remove all cords and other debris from pathways inside and outside the home
- Ensure adequate lighting
- Use non-slip slippers or shoes when moving about the home
- Discard any medication expired or not in use in a safe place
- Do not allow yourself to be near anyone who smokes (especially if on oxygen).
- Write down emergency numbers and place in a visible place
Most of us take our ability to communicate with others for granted. But, with COPD, communication may become difficult due to extreme shortness of breath. It is important for you to know that it is OK to take your time speaking. Talk in short phrases or sentences and pause in between to rest if necessary.
Conserve your energy
Breathlessness is the most frightening aspect of COPD. Unlike healthy people, breathing for a COPD patient can be quite a struggle, involving a real conscious effort. Practicing energy conservation techniques will help you pace yourself in your daily activities so you don’t get so winded:
- Controlling your breathing: Breathing control techniques can help you fight fatigue and feel less short of breath. When you are performing any kind of activity, be sure to exhale during the most difficult part of the activity using pursed-lip breathing. If you are short of breath, stop and rest for a moment before resuming your activity.
- Avoid unnecessary activities: Avoid any unnecessary activities that will cause you to expend more energy. For example, wear a terry cloth robe after your bath or shower to save yourself the effort of drying off. Allow the dishes to dry by air instead of drying them by hand, or better yet, use the dishwasher. Sit instead of stand to do your hair, shave or put on your makeup. According to the Canadian Lung Association, sitting uses 25% less energy that standing.
- Organize your activities: Plan your most strenuous activities at the beginning of the day when you have the most energy. Alternate between tasks that are difficult and those that are easy. Plan out your rest periods and don’t feel bad if you need more rest on one day than another.
- Organize your closets, shelves and drawers: If you place the items that you use most frequently between waist and shoulder level, you won’t have to do alot of bending or stretching to reach them, thus conserving energy. Keep all items in the area that you use them to avoid extra walking to find them.
- Maintain good posture: If you use your body properly, you will save more energy. Avoid excess bending or lifting. Use proper body mechanics when trying to move items by pushing, pulling or sliding the item. Instead of carrying things, get yourself a little wagon or cart to wheel them.
- Practice relaxation: When you relax, you help restore energy to your body. Make sure to schedule relaxation periods during your day and when doing so, concentrate on relaxing all your muscles and slowing down your breath.
If you are getting short of breath while trying to eat, you are not alone. It is a problem and one of the most important to overcome, as malnutrition is one of the more common complications of COPD. You may also be trying to restrict your fluid intake to avoid unnecessary trips to the bathroom that may leave you breathless. The following guidelines may help:
- Eat small, frequent meals throughout the day
- To have more energy, rest before eating
- Chew your foods completely and eat slowly
- Allow yourself plenty of time to eat
- Avoid foods that force you to chew excessively
- Purchase a commode chair to avoid all those extra toilet trips
In addition, since many people who suffer from COPD frequently eat less, try focusing on eating foods that are high in calories to maximize your caloric intake. You can also supplement your diet with liquid-meal preparations, like Boost or Ensure. If your appetite is less than normal, avoid drinking fluids until after you are finished eating.
Exercise is an essential part of our daily lives. For those with COPD, it is even more important. Implementing simple stretching and breathing exercises or a daily walk will help you maintain your physical and emotional well being. Many benefits of exercise are important to your health:
- Improving your quality of life: Exercise gives you a feeling of control over your life and helps you to maintain your independence.
- Helping you use oxygen more efficiently: Exercise strengthens the muscles you use for breathing as well as your other muscle groups causing you expend less energy.
- Helping you maintain or lose weight: Carrying more weight around than you should makes it harder to breathe. Exercise helps you control your weight, making it easier to breathe.
- Improving your mood: Exercise is associated with alleviating depression and helps you relax thus causing you to use less energy.
- Improving your sleep: If you sleep better at night, you will have more energy during the day. Exercise helps all of us sleep better.
Most important thing that someone can do for themselves is utilize good hand-washing techniques. Infections in those with chronic disease processes can be detrimental in those already compromised. Handwashing technique attached | <urn:uuid:aeaae641-2be3-4084-be5c-0412cb857758> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://bestcarehomecare.com/coping-with-copd/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00159-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947281 | 1,563 | 3.234375 | 3 |
JEKUTHIEL BEN JUDAH HA-KOHEN (YaHBI ; known also as Jekuthiel ha-Naḳdan and Zalman ha-Naḳdan):
Grammarian of Prague; lived in the second half of the thirteenth century. Baer claimed to have seen a manuscript which gave 1171 as the date of Jekuthiel's death ("Orient. Lit." xii. 6), but according to Steinschneider ("Cat. Bodl." col. 1381) the date refers to Jacob Tam (comp. Gross, "Gallia Judaica," p. 117). Jekuthiel occupied himself chiefly with the Masorah and its punctuation, hence his surname "ha-Naḳdan" (the punctuator). With the help of six ancient Spanish manuscripts he prepared a correctly vocalized and accented text of the Pentateuch and the Book of Esther. His rules of punctuation are explained in his "'En ha-Ḳore," in which he quotesthe ancient grammarians Ben Naphtali, Ben Asher, Ibn Janaḥ, Ibn Ezra, Jacob Tam, and others. In ancient texts of the Pentateuch his work is indicated by the initials . It is quoted by Abraham de Balmes in his "Miḳneh Abraham," by Elijah Levita in his "Masoret ha-Berit," and by Solomon Hanau in his "Ẓohar ha-Tebah." Heidenheim published the preface of the "'En ha-Ḳore," and many extracts from it, in his editions of the Pentateuch ("Me'or 'Enayim") and the Seder Purim. It was Heidenheim's opinion that Jekuthiel lived before David Ḳimḥi.
- Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 669;
- Fürst, Bibl. Jud. ii. 53;
- Zunz, Z. G. p. 115. | <urn:uuid:e2fb6ebe-dae8-45a6-93c4-7e7761901157> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8577-jekuthiel-ben-judah-ha-kohen | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00188-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964665 | 434 | 2.546875 | 3 |
In 1974, chemists Mario Molina and Frank Sherwood Rowland published a landmark article that demonstrated the ability of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) to break down the ozone layer, the atmospheric region that plays a vital role in shielding humans and other life from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation.1 It marked the opening salvo of a decade-long fight to phase out and ban the use of these widespread industrial compounds. The period between Molina and Rowland’s article and the establishment of an international agreement to regulate CFCs was remarkably similar to current climate change politics. It included calls for scientific consensus before moving on the issue, industry push back, fears over economic chaos, claims of inadequate chemical substitutes, difficulty in getting industrialized nations to the table, and debates and diplomacy over how to get developing nations to agree to regulate a problem predominantly caused by the industrialized world. Together, these issues created a political climate that was anything but conducive to an agreement for avoiding environmental catastrophe.
And yet an agreement was reached. CFC production was greatly curtailed and disaster was averted. The Montreal Protocol—initially signed by 24 nations in 1987 and now ratified by 196 countries2—bound nations to a set of policies that would rapidly reduce the use of CFCs. It became the first global environmental treaty to implement the precautionary approach, mandating strong actions now to avert future damage.3 The protocol has since become, in the words of former UN secretary-general Kofi Annan, “perhaps the single most successful international environmental agreement.”4 It can also be called the first climate change treaty, since ozone-depleting substances are potent greenhouse gases. Lessons from the fight and eventual ban of CFCs can illuminate our current struggles to regulate greenhouse gases and provide guidance toward creating a strong treaty necessary to stave off another environmental disaster.
For more than 40 years, the generally nontoxic and nonflammable compounds known as CFCs were widely produced and used in refrigerants, propellants, and solvents. They were first manufactured as a safe alternative to ammonia and sulfur dioxide in refrigeration in the early 1930s.5 Their widespread success, due to their unique and seemingly miraculous chemical properties, propelled an $8 billion industry that employed 600,000 people directly and was reaching new heights of manufacturing at the time of Molina and Rowland’s discovery.6 As CFC production swelled to meet the global demand for aerosol and refrigeration, so too did the release of these ozone-depleting compounds into the atmosphere.
Unlike carbon dioxide, CFCs are a foreign element in the atmosphere.7 When released, CFC molecules rise and reach the ozone layer where they encounter UV radiation. The strong radiation breaks down these molecules into their simpler parts, most notably chlorine atoms.8 Molina and Rowland realized these now free chlorine atoms could react and deplete the ozone layer. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates that one chlorine atom can destroy 100,000 ozone molecules.8 Continuing to produce CFCs at such high levels would inevitably have depleted more of the ozone layer and would have led to greater harm to humans from UV rays. Further studies concurred with Molina and Rowland’s findings and predicted losses of ozone that would have greatly increased cases of skin cancer and eye damage.9 Other detrimental impacts included reduced productivity in plants and crops and harm to marine life and air quality.10
The findings provoked wide-ranging reactions. Emboldened by the passage of the Clean Air and Clean Water Acts in the United States, the science and environmental communities wanted the U.S. government to ban production and use of CFCs. They saw the depletion of the ozone layer as a grave, imminent threat that needed to be met with decisive action. The CFC industry, led by DuPont, which accounted for nearly 50 percent of the market, attacked the theory as unfounded, arguing that no stratospheric ozone loss had been observed.9 DuPont and other CFC manufacturers lobbied extensively to prevent states from passing bills banning CFC use. They also embarked on an advertising campaign to undermine the idea that CFCs damaged the ozone layer, while simultaneously arguing that any hasty restrictions would have a disastrous impact on businesses, jobs, and the economy.9 DuPont’s chairman, Irving Shapiro, announced to several major newspapers that “the ‘ban-now-find-out-later’ approach thrust upon an $8 billion segment of industry, both in the headlines and in many legislative proposals, is a disturbing trend. Businesses can be destroyed before scientific facts are assembled and evaluated. … The nation cannot afford to act on this and other issues before the full facts are known.”9
Public-health concerns, however, trumped industry arguments, and consumers began boycotting aerosol sprays. Pressure from environmentalists and consumer groups resulted in a ban on aerosol sprays in 1978.11 In the end, though, the ban turned out to be only a partial victory for both sides. Nearly all sprays were banned, but numerous putatively “essential” uses of CFCs in air conditioners and refrigerators remained unregulated.
The United States was the only major CFC-producing nation to voluntarily eliminate CFCs in aerosols, although relatively minor producers such as Canada, Denmark, and Sweden soon followed suit. And while European nations today are at the forefront of promoting climate change legislation, in the 1970s and 1980s, CFC-producing giants like England and France were reluctant to impose restrictions.6
After these initial efforts by individual nations, progress toward an international CFCs agreement ground to a halt in the early 1980s. This was largely because protecting the ozone layer produced an unprecedented problem for human society. The public and governments were being told that the impacts of a thinning ozone layer would not be seen for decades. Yet in order to prevent much higher risks of skin cancer and cataracts, it was essential to act now and begin phasing out CFCs. Manufacturers continued to resist, arguing that in the absence of suitable substitutes, curtailing CFC production would result in significant job losses and a large reduction in the supply of air conditioners and refrigerators. They argued that action on CFCs would harm both the developed and developing world. On top of this, almost all nations would have to agree on a coordinated phase out and eventual ban of the industrial compounds since the release of CFCs by any one nation would have a global impact.
Producers of CFCs continued to wage a public battle against further regulation. Skeptics stepped up their public-relations campaigns disputing the evidence, finding scientists to argue persuasively against the threat, and predicting dire economic consequences.12 The doubt did nothing to change the scientific consensus around CFCs and ozone depletion, but it helped to delay implementation of limits on CFCs for many years.6
While special interests were fighting it out in the public square, diplomacy was taking place behind the scenes. Domestic and international workshops were assessing the CFC-ozone connection while proposing various regulations, compromises, and deals to get major CFC-producing nations and developing nations to the table to begin talks toward an international agreement.6 The United States and the UN Environment Programme played leading roles. The fruit of this diplomatic labor was the Vienna Convention of March 1985, which produced a framework agreement in which states agreed to cooperate in research and assessments of the ozone problem, to exchange information, and to adopt measures to prevent harm to the ozone layer.13 But the accord fell far short of mandating actions to limit CFC production or of establishing a timetable to phase it out. Much like the current climate change debate, it looked as if action on the issue was about to be stymied by a lengthy political struggle.
Two months later scientists discovered the Antarctic ozone hole. From a climate change perspective, this would be comparable to a large ice sheet breaking off from an ice shelf, melting overnight, and causing a small rise in sea level, thereby warning the world of the potential consequences of unchecked climate change. Scientists discovered that ozone levels over the Antarctic had dropped by 10 percent during the winter and an ozone hole had begun to form.8 The ozone hole is an area with extremely low amounts of ozone, not an actual hole. But the discovery, the first startling proof of the thinning ozone layer, was an alarming wake-up call that human activities can have dire consequences for the atmosphere and in turn major health implications. Intense media attention galvanized public opinion and sparked fears that ozone holes might form over populated cities around the world.6 The EPA estimated that if CFC production continued to grow at 2.5 percent a year until 2050, 150 million Americans would develop skin cancer, leading to some 3 million deaths by 2075.6
After the momentous discovery of ozone depletion, the balance shifted toward regulation. Industry at first still lobbied in private but eventually began to change its position as scientific evidence of ozone depletion continued to mount. In the summer of 1987, as preparations were under way for the Montreal Conference on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, the Reagan administration publicly came out in support of international limits on CFC production.9 This effectively put a stop to industry opposition and propelled an agreement among industrialized nations to reduce CFC production by 50 percent by 2000. The resulting Montreal Protocol included a ten-year grace period and a fund for developing nations in order to get them to agree to regulate a problem largely generated by the industrialized world. The Multilateral Fund has since provided $2.7 billion to developing nations for transitioning to better technology and CFC substitutes and for meeting phase-out obligations.14 The fund was the first financial instrument of its kind and is the model for the UN-REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) program, in which industrial nations use carbon offsets to provide developing nations with an incentive for conserving their forests.
Since 1987, the Montreal Protocol has been strengthened with the addition of more ozone-damaging substances to the list and the compliance of nearly 200 countries. Ozone-depleting substances in the atmosphere hit their peak in 1997–98 and have been falling ever since.8 Action on account of the ozone layer has greatly improved air quality while reducing the future risk of skin cancer, cataracts, and blindness.10 Furthermore, the treaty has done more than any other to reduce climate change by stopping 135 billion metric tons of CO2-equivalent emissions from escaping to the atmosphere in the last two decades.15 Due to the nature of CFCs, however, the ozone is still thinning in certain places.16 This may well continue until the middle of the twenty-first century, at which point the ozone layer should begin to recover.
The true significance of the international agreement is best illustrated by a NASA simulation of what would have occurred had CFC production continued at its pre-Montreal rate. By 2020, 17 percent of global ozone would be destroyed. By 2040, the ozone thinning would affect the entire planet. And by 2065, atmospheric ozone drops to 70 percent below 1970s levels.17 As a result, there would have been a threefold increase in the amount of harmful UV radiation reaching the planet’s surface, resulting in tens of millions of skin cancer and cataract cases and trillions in health care costs.4 Luckily, it is a fate we managed to avoid.
The first and foremost lesson to take from the fight to ban CFCs is that it was successful. The discovery that human activity was harming the atmosphere influenced public opinion and consumer buying power enough to change national policy and provide momentum toward an international agreement that enacted regulations to prevent a future catastrophe. Nations agreed to take precautions that would cause some short-term difficulties in order to head off a long-term disaster.
Secondly, health concerns were the driving motivator behind public and government action. Peter Morrisette argues that the passage of a meaningful ozone treaty relied on four key factors: ozone depletion was viewed as a global problem; there was strong scientific understanding of the causes and effects of ozone depletion; there were public-health concerns about skin cancer, which were amplified by the ozone hole discovery; and substitutes for CFCs were available.6 Climate change is also viewed as a global problem and there is a nearly universal consensus among climate scientists over the causes.18 Some argue that the major difference between obtaining a treaty back then and what hinders today’s agreement is a lack of readily available substitutes in the form of alternative energy (wind, solar, electric) to take the place of fossil fuels. Yet the claim that no cost-effective, efficient substitutes were available was also made during the CFC debates. It was not until after the ozone hole discovery, at which point an international agreement seemed likely, that industry announced that substitutes could be made available under the right market conditions and policy incentives. CFC producers used the ensuing protocol as a mechanism to develop and market substitutes.6 Might not a similar situation unfold today if governments enforced greenhouse gas reductions and policy and market conditions fostered alternative energies?
It seems the major difference between a successful ozone treaty and an out-of-reach climate agreement is the weak connection made between climate change and human health. Where ozone depletion was primarily thought of as a human health issue, climate change is an environmental issue. Until that narrative is altered, an agreement on climate change could be elusive.
Encouraging signs toward that end are emerging, none more so than the U.S. EPA declaration that greenhouse gases jeopardize public health. The declaration paves the way for the EPA to regulate greenhouse gas emissions from coal plants and other facilities.19 The regulatory route seems the most feasible way to reduce greenhouse emissions in the United States, as any climate change legislation has been killed in Congress. The Supreme Court ruling in favor of the EPA gave the agency judicial approval to use its authority to regulate such gases under the Clean Air Act.19 Just as measures to protect the ozone layer have benefited the climate, so too will EPA action on regulating greenhouse gases provide important health benefits by cleaning up the air. It is important to communicate that climate change mitigation will have the added benefit of reducing air pollution and improving respiratory health. It will also reduce the use of fossil fuels like oil and coal whose extraction processes—from mountaintop removal, which clogs streams and pollutes water supplies, to offshore drilling spills, which can contaminate seafood—have direct human health implications.
While regulation at the national level is a good start, an international agreement—perhaps a stronger version of the Kyoto Protocol—will be necessary to achieve global cooperation on climate change. For this to happen, the public will need to voice greater concern and take more action, as it did during the CFC threat. Ozone depletion was framed as an international human health issue, which amplified the public’s demand for accelerated government action. A similar approach may work for climate change. The question that remains is whether a catastrophic discovery similar to the ozone hole will be necessary to spur global concerns over climate change and push governments to act. If so, the consequences may prove to be far more disruptive—economically and ecologically—than the ozone problem of the previous century.
- Molina, M & Rowland, FS. Stratospheric sink for chlorofluoromethanes: chlorine atom-catalyzed destruction of ozone. Nature 248, 810-812 (1974).
- UN Environment Programme Ozone Secretariat. Status of Ratification (2011)[online]. http://ozone.unep.org/Ratification_status.
- Benedick, R. Montreal protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer. Encyclopedia of Earth (2007). www.eoearth.org/article/Montreal_Protocol_on_Substances_that_Deplete_the....
- UN Environment Programme. Key Achievements of the Montreal Protocol to Date (2010) [online]. http://ozone.unep.org/Publications/MP_Key_Achievements-E.pdf.
- Plummer, LN & Busenberg, E. Chlorofluorocarbons. Environmental Tracers in Subsurface Hydrology (Springer, New York City, 1999).
- Morrisette, PM. The evolution of policy responses to stratospheric ozone depletion. Natural Resources Journal 29, 793–820 (1989).
- Molina, M in Global Sustainability: A Nobel Cause (Schellnhuber, HJ, Molina, M, Stern, N, Huber, V & Kadner, S, eds), Climate change—learning from the stratospheric ozone challenge (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007).
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Ozone Science: The Facts Behind the Phaseout [online]. www.epa.gov/ozone/science/sc_fact.html.
- Velasquez, M. Business Ethics: Concepts and Cases (Pearson Prentince Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2006).
- UN Environment Programme Ozone Secretariat. The 2010 Assessment of the Scientific Assessment Panel [online]. http://ozone.unep.org/Assessment_Panels/SAP/Scientific_Assessment_2010/i....
- Cohn, J. Chlorofluorocarbons and the ozone layer. BioScience 37, 647-650 (1987).
- Masters, J. The skeptics vs. the ozone hole. The Weather Underground [online]. www.wunderground.com/resources/climate/ozone_skeptics.asp.
- Weiss, EB in Engaging Countries: Strengthening Compliance with International Environmental Accords (Weiss, EB & Jacobson, HJ, eds), The five international treaties: a living history (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1998).
- Secretariat of the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol. Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol [online]. www.multilateralfund.org/default.aspx.
- Gray, CB. Montreal protocol: a climate change model. Washington Post (November 24, 2009).
- Black, R. Ozone hole has dried Australia, scientists find. BBC (April 21, 2011).
- Carlowicz, M. The World We Avoided by Protecting the Ozone Layer. NASA Earth Observatory [online] (2009). http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/WorldWithoutOzone.
- Oreskes, N. Beyond the ivory tower: the scientific consensus on climate change. Science 306, 1686 (2004).
- Eilperin, J. EPA lays out timetable for regulating greenhouse gas emissions. Washington Post (February 23, 2010). | <urn:uuid:b570f307-6724-4c5e-b857-687f31d00195> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thesolutionsjournal.com/node/982 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00022-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935164 | 3,882 | 3.5 | 4 |
Creator: Leslie's Weekly magazine
Context: This 1862 engraving illustrates the sinking of a Union warship by the CSS Virginia, the first ironclad ship produced by an American navy. Leslie's Weekly was an illustrated magazine that became popular in part because of its large number of illustrations.
Audience: Leslie's Weekly was an extremely popular magazine among the American middle and working classes.
Purpose: To illustrate and dramatize a naval battle for the American public.
Historical Significance: This drawing shows how most Americans received their news about the Civil War. The growth of the American newspaper and magazine industries meant the public received information during these years more quickly than it ever had before. | <urn:uuid:8e7b723f-5e65-4172-aaa8-07064865039f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.learner.org/courses/amerhistory/interactives/museum/grid_item-3000.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.976039 | 143 | 3.4375 | 3 |
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