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How Vision Impacts Literacy:
An Educational Problem That Can Be Solved
Harvard Graduate School of Education
April 17, 2001
by Kathleen Gillespie
"Although our nation's school systems are no longer physically segregated, inequalities still exist which have been created by poverty's continuous assault on neurological integrity and development and the barriers it creates to academic achievement."
- Rochelle Mozlin, Associate Clinical Professor of Optometry, State University of New York
On Tuesday, April 4, 2001, optometrists and educators came together at HGSE to share their findings on how visual problems associated with poverty affect children's ability to read, and to discuss solutions.
A day-long conference on Visual Problems of Children in Poverty and Their Interference with Learning was capped off by an Askwith Education Forum focused on the policy implications of research on vision problems in poor children and adolescents. "It's time we had a discussion between people concerned about vision and people concerned about education," said moderator Gary Orfield, Professor of Education and Social Policy at Harvard University.
Professor Gary Orfield welcomes the panelists, including Robert H. Duckman (seated)
An Epidemic of Vision Problems
Antonia Orfield, an optometrist specializing in vision therapy at the Harvard University Health Services Eye Clinic and chief investigator of the Boston Mather School Inner-City Vision and Learning Project, led off by emphasizing the epidemic proportions of visual problems in urban poor children. She noted that 53% of the children tested at the Mather School had visual problems that could affect their ability to read.
Traditional school visual acuity screenings pick up a relatively small percentage of the children with vision problems because they don't screen for far-sightedness or visual tracking, Orfield continued. "We need to test [children's] visual function at near for reading and writing, rather than just their visual acuity at distance for looking at blackboards," asserted Orfield. She recommended modifying current school screenings to better identify visual problems like far-sightedness and visual tracking problems that affect reading, and to make free eyeglasses and visual therapy available to all children who need them.
Rochelle Mozlin, Associate Clinical Professor of Optometry at the State University of New York
Turning Diagnosis into Treatment: A Difficult Task
Rochelle Mozlin, Associate Clinical Professor of Optometry at the State University of New York, spoke about her research on vision problems among urban adolescents at risk for dropping out of school, and the difficulties in delivering treatment. In two inner city high schools, 52% of the students tested failed Mozlin's vision screening, which was more stringent than the usual elementary school screening.
Because Mozlin's project focused on students deemed at risk for dropping out of school, 58% of the students tested were in special education; of these, 56.6% failed their vision test. But turning diagnosis into treatment proved difficult, because parents and students usually failed to follow-up in spite of repeated offers of free services. In the end, only 17 of the 62 students designated as priority cases received the vision care they needed.
Robert H. Duckman, Professor of Optometry at the State University of New York and a specialist in pediatric optometry, discussed his research on vision problems in foster care children in New York City. The results were sobering:
Dr. Duckman said that it is clear that the screening now being provided to this population is not sufficiently identifying children with moderate or severe visual problems.
- Only 16.5% of the 351 children he tested had no visual problems at all
- Duckman identified a total of 676 visual dysfunctions, with 29.5% of the children each having three to seven visual problems
- 34.6% of the children had vision problems which had previously gone undiagnosed but which Duckman determined had probably existed at the time of their last vision screening
Rick Weissbourd, HGSE Lecturer and ReadBoston Founder
The Public Policy Perspective
Rick Weissbourd, a lecturer at HGSE and founder of ReadBoston, brought a public policy perspective to the discussion. He noted that vision problems in learning need to get on policymakers' radar screens: "In my experience, policymakers [concerned with]...reading don't talk about vision much; practitioners do." Weissbourd suggested that researchers gather more solid evidence that test scores will improve if children are given glasses and visual therapy as needed, and that addressing visual problems would be a better or more efficient use of resources than other strategies to improve student achievement and learning.
The forum ended with a wide-ranging Q&A and policy discussion. Among other topics, participants discussed how providing adequate visual correction services to more students might reduce the number of children in special education, and how certain services and research projects might be funded through Medicaid and Title I funds.
Gary Orfield concluded by noting that while research findings suggest that making visual services more readily available would reduce achievement and learning difficulties in poor children, stronger data was necessary to convince skeptics. He urged concerned constituencies to work together to bring that data to the attention of policymakers. "Today's event has been a good step in that direction," Orfield said.
About the Conference
The Visual Problems of Children in Poverty and Their Interference with Learning conference was sponsored by the Harvard Graduate School of Education, the Massachusetts Society of Optometrists, and the New England College of Optometry. The conference papers will be published soon by the Journal of Behavioral Optometry and the Journal of Optometry and Vision Development. For more about the conference, contact Gary Orfield.
For More Information
The Forum was sponsored by GSE's Askwith Education Forum series. Visit the Askwith Education Forum page for a schedule of upcoming Forums.
News & Views,
Harvard Graduate School of Education
© 2001 President and Fellows of Harvard College.
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How to Supervise People
Effective supervisors aren’t just born. Life experiences and persistence are major contributors in the developmental process of any supervisor. If it is your goal to improve your skills then you need to begin by developing the areas of your personality that are holding you back. For example, if you don’t feel like you are a people person, consider attending some classes or reading books on empathy. Anyone can become an effective supervisor if they set their mind to it. The key is knowing where to start and taking action.
Supervisor Values and Principles
Whether you refer to yourself as a manager, supervisor, lead person or foreman you are a leader or at least have the capability to be a leader. People aren’t born leaders they learn the skills required and develop values and principles that guide them throughout life. Values such as;
du-ty (noun) – Done from a sense of moral obligation rather than for pleasure.
- Be Proficient in your job, both technically and as a leader.
- Make sound and timely decisions.
- Ensure that tasks are understood, supervised, and accomplished.
- Develop your workers for the future.
re-spect (noun) – A feeling of deep admiration for someone or something elicited by their abilities, qualities, or achievements.
- Know your workers and look out for their well-being.
- Keep your workers informed.
- Build the team.
- Employ your workers in accordance with their abilities.
in-teg-ri-ty (noun) – The quality of being honest and having strong moral principles; moral uprightness.
- Know yourself and seek improvement.
- Seek responsibility and accept responsibility for you actions.
- Set the example.
Common Traits of an Effective Supervisor
Over the years psychology has contributed to the field of business by helping determine what it takes to be an effective supervisor. The list of characteristics can be used for developmental purposes to help supervisors gain insight and develop their skills. Read more… 10 Traits of an Effective Supervisor | <urn:uuid:72b016c1-35cb-4dc9-8469-4bc21917863b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://myinfosource.biz/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00110-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927547 | 425 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Blindness as a public health problem in China
Global Initiative for the Elimination of Avoidable Blindness
China accounts for about 18% of the world's blind. The country is estimated to have the largest number of blind people in the world around 5 million. By definition, these people cannot walk about unaided.
Against the background of a huge population, estimated by the UN at some 1267 million people, these figures do not look impressive. Indeed, the current prevalence of blindness in China the total number of blind people at any given time expressed as a percentage of the total population -- is around 0.4%. However, in absolute terms, the country's ever-increasing blind population has already surpassed the total population in such countries as Denmark, Finland or Norway.
In China, blindness is not only a public health and social problem. Apart from the unspeakable suffering and hardship that it has brought upon these millions of people and their immediate families, this condition is a serious drain on the national economy. However, any attempt to arrive at the total direct and indirect costs of blindness to the Chinese economy will be guesswork. Such statistics do not exist in the country.
For comparison, in 1990, the total cost of blindness to the federal budget in the USA was estimated to be around US$4.1 billion. It was also estimated that if all the avoidable blindness in persons under 20 and working-age adults were prevented, a potential saving of US$1.0 billion per year would accrue to the federal budget.
In a study from India in 1989, such costs, including a minimal subsistence allowance for the blind, were estimated at some US$4.6 billion per year.
Globally, the aggregated costs of blindness to the world economy were put at some US$25 billion.
Causes of blindness
The major causes of blindness in China include cataract, cornea diseases, trachoma, glaucoma and a number of factors contributing to blindness in children.
The main cause of blindness in China today is cataract -- a condition that refers to a clouding of the crystalline lens of the eye. It is predominantly a disease associated with ageing. Cataract is responsible for approximately 50% of the country's blind, or around 2.5 million people. Each year, around 400 000 people become totally blind because of cataracts alone.
Trachoma is still endemic in certain parts of China. Of the thirty-one provinces in the country, the disease is reported in eight. Trachoma blindness prevalence of 0.1% is reported in the Henan Province. The disease is the second cause of blindness after cataract in the Shandong Province and the third one in the Hunan and Yunnan Provinces. It is also considered a public health problem in the Fujian and Hebei Provinces. Trichiasis surgeries are still performed in the Anhui and Gansu Provinces.
Blindness in Chinese children is mainly caused by vitamin A deficiency, measles, conjunctivitis in the newborn, congenital cataract and retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). Of an estimated 1 million blind children in Asia, some 400 000 probably live in China.
According to the UN and WHO, vitamin A deficiency remains a public health problem in China. It will remain so even after the year 2000 the target year for the elimination of blindness resulting from vitamin A deficiency, which was ambitiously set by the World Summit for Children in 1990. ROP blindness is emerging as a problem in the country because of the ever-increasing survival of low and very low birth weight infants.
In 1949, when the Peoples' Republic of China came into existence, the principal causes of blindness were infectious eye diseases (mainly trachoma), vitamin A deficiency, trauma and glaucoma. The prevalence of trachoma a disease associated with poor housing, sanitation and hygiene -- was as high as 50%, reaching 90% in remote rural areas of China.
From its inception the new State and the national authorities at all levels made great efforts to prevent and treat trachoma, which was declared a public health priority.
Ophthalmologists throughout the country responded enthusiastically and actively participated in these nationwide efforts. As a result, in the 1960's the prevalence and severity of trachoma was significantly reduced throughout the country. However, during the ten years of the Cultural Revolution, blindness prevention efforts in China were discontinued. They were reinitiated only in the 1980's.
In 1984, blindness prevention in China received a new impetus. The Government established a National Steering Group for the Prevention of Blindness that has subsequently developed a "Nationwide Working Programme for Blindness Prevention and Primary Eye Care, 1991-2000". In 1996, at the initiative of the Ministry of Health, supported by other ministries, June 6 was declared to be the annual National Eye-Care Day, a move that has played a significant role in mobilizing the public at large and national authorities at all levels for blindness prevention.
An epidemiological survey in the early 80s was the first to suggest that the principal cause of blindness in China was no longer trachoma but cataracts.
Blindness prevention and treatment projects, which focused on screening and surgical intervention for cataracts, were initiated in all parts of the country. The China Disabled Persons' Federation an influential nationwide organization catering for the needs of an estimated 20 million people with disabilities -- began promoting cataract surgery throughout the country.
In 1988, the State Council approved the "Five-year Working Programme of Activities for China's Disabled Persons". The Programme set a target of 500 000 cataract surgeries in the five years that followed. The Outline of the "Eighth Five-year Plan of Activities for China's Disabled Persons", approved by the State Council in 1991, stipulated for 600 000 cataract operations between 1991 and 1995.
The goal of the Chinese Ministry of Health over the coming years is to reduce the prevalence of blindness in the country to less than 0.3%, i.e. almost by half. Special emphasis in the prevention of blindness in China is placed on improving the quantity and quality of cataract surgeries, as well as on intensifying efforts to avoid eye injuries in the workplace (within an occupational health programme) and among children (within a school health education programme).
Cataract, human resources and eye care delivery
Cataract blindness in China reflects the overall problems the country is facing in the eye care delivery.
At present, China has some 126 million people over 60 years of age. The country is also estimated to have the highest growth rate of the elderly population in the world. By 2020, the group of older people is projected to increase by 90% and reach 240 million people. This estimated increase would place China on top of the list of five developing countries that are expected to have the largest elderly populations in the world by 2020.
Age-related conditions in China, such as vision loss due to cataract, will increase accordingly if no preventive actions are taken. The Chinese Ministry of Health estimates that if the current trends remain unchanged, the number of people blind from cataract alone will more than double, reaching over 5 million by 2020, while the overall number of China's blind will increase four times.
The number of cataract operations per million population per year (Cataract Surgical Rate or CSR) is illustrative of the delivery of eye care in any country. Today, an estimated 360000 cataract operations are performed in China, giving the average national CSR of 290 per million population per year.
This rate is higher than in Africa (200) but particularly low if compared to the established market economies, where it ranges between 3000 and 5000. On the other hand, the CSR in China is steadily on the rise. It was estimated to be 136 in 1994 and 192 in 1997. In certain provinces, the CSR is already considerably higher than the average national rate.
Lack of adequately trained eye care practitioners seems to be the main bottleneck. There is an estimated 22 000 eye doctors in China, who have different levels of training and experience. About 50% of them practice cataract surgery. This means that the country probably has only around 5-7 cataract surgeons per million population or 1 per 150 000 -- 200 000 population.
In addition, the distribution of surgically active ophthalmologists is very uneven. Most of them are found in urban settings, while more than 70% of the population lives in the rural areas.
On average, of the 2400 county hospitals scattered throughout the country, 45% do not have a trained cataract surgeon. In some provinces, such as Xinjiang, Tibet and Hunan, this percentage is even higher, often reaching 75%. The situation at the county level is frequently further complicated by the lack of appropriate equipment and supplies.
Nevertheless, from 1988 to 1996, an estimated 1.75 million sight-recovering cataract surgeries was performed in China. However, two randomized sample surveys (in the Shunyi District, Beijing, and in the Doumen County, Guangdong Province) carried out in 1996 revealed that in more than 10% of these cases the outcome of the operation was poor. In the operated patients, the sight was either not restored, or they continued to have low vision. The surveys showed that the lower than expected quality of cataract surgery was not an isolated phenomenon.
One of the reasons is the lack of practical knowledge about and supply of intraocular lenses, which are successfully used in cataract surgery in developed countries.
As a result, the cataract surgical coverage in China chronically lags behind the expected needs by some 80%. The current backlog of urgent cataract cases, which require surgical intervention, exceeds 2 million.
WHO has always recognized blindness and visual impairment as a public health problem in many countries, both developed and, particularly, developing. However, for a long time, the magnitude of the problem could not be assessed, and meaningful global and regional prevention activities could not be initiated for lack of epidemiological data.
The first task faced by the WHO Programme for the Prevention of Blindness (PBL), created in 1978, was to prepare reliable estimates of prevalence of blindness and visual disability worldwide. In response to this challenge, PBL developed internationally acceptedsimple population assessment methodologies to measure prevalence of visual loss and identify its causes. Standard low-cost field surveys, designed by WHO and conducted mainly by trained non-specialist staff, provided the badly needed epidemiological data and helped arrive at national blindness estimates.
On the basis of national data, regional and global estimates were prepared and used in the development of the WHO Global Data Bank on Blindness, an indispensable tool for planning international action to prevent or treat blindness.
PBL started its work in China in 1981. It supported and assisted the Chinese health authorities in epidemiological surveys on blindness and its causes in many provinces. As a result of these collaborative efforts, the true picture of blindness in the country began to emerge. In 1986, a WHO Collaborating Centre was established at the Institute of Ophthalmology in Beijing. Thus, the foundation was laid for further collaborative research and training activities.
At the same time, in cooperation with leading scientists, institutions and collaborating organizations, WHO continued to develop strategies and technical standards for control of specific blinding diseases. Scientifically sound, field-tested and regularly updated, these strategies were gradually gaining worldwide acceptance.
For example, the "SAFE" strategy for the elimination of trachoma is of special relevance to China, where foci of the blinding disease persist in a number of provinces. "SAFE" stands for Surgery for trichiasis (inturned eyelashes), Antibiotics, Facial cleanliness and Environmental improvement. It consists of a combination of public health interventions, which seek community participation and involvement.
A WHO Alliance for the Global Elimination of Trachoma (GET 2020) was established in 1997, which constitutes an integral part of Vision 2020.
WHO-developed strategies have been adopted by governments, international agencies, nongovernmental development organizations, as well as Foundations in their every-day work to prevent and treat blindness.
Nongovernmental development organizations (NGDOs)
NGDOs have been playing an increasingly important role in blindness prevention worldwide. In developing countries, the NGDO network is currently spending an estimated US$80 million per year on blindness prevention and treatment.
At present, there are 12 NGDOs actively collaborating with WHO and the Ministry of Health and supporting eye care delivery in 19 of the 31 provinces in China. Among them (in alphabetical order):
- Amity Foundation (China)
- Asia Foundation for the Prevention of Blindness (Hong Kong, China)
- Christoffel-Blindenmission (Christian Blind Mission International (CBM), Germany)
- Foresight (Australia)
- Foundation for Eye Care Himalaya (The Netherlands)
- The Fred Hollows Foundation (Australia)
- Helen Keller International (USA)
- The Lions Club International (USA)
- ORBIS International (USA)
- Singapore National Eye Centre (Singapore)
- Seva Foundation (USA)
- Tibet Vision Project (USA)
With rare exceptions, all these NGDOs have agreed to work together within Vision 2020 towards the common goal of eliminating avoidable blindness in China by the year 2020.
There are other NGDOs, like Health Hong Kong Foundation, which are working independently with the Ministry of Heath.
The NDGOs working within Vision 2020 will concentrate on developing model projects for delivery of high-volume, good quality and affordable cataract services and eye care at the county hospital level. Such efforts will require programmes to train Chinese cataract surgeons and provide assistance to the Chinese Ministry of Health and China Disabled Persons' Federation with appropriate equipment and technologies. These organizations will also continue to support the delivery of cataract operations.
Training activities will be carried out with emphasis on counties without a cataract surgeon, where trainee ophthalmologists will be identified on the understanding that they will return to work in their own county. A uniform certification of competence for cataract surgery will be developed in consultation with the Chinese Ministry of Health.
Some of the NDGOs will continue to be involved in the prevention and treatment of trachoma and vitamin A deficiency. | <urn:uuid:b2f9cd26-4d34-4ee0-bf4e-1f0546794fcf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs230/en/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00040-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950694 | 2,983 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Pelican Ride 2013 - March 2nd to 15th 2013
Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge (PINWR) - On March 14, 1903, without fanfare, President Roosevelt signed an executive order establishing Pelican Island as the first federal bird reservation. He would establish a network of 55 bird reservations and national game preserves for wildlife - the forerunner to the national wildlife refuge system. But Pelican Island was the first time that the federal government set aside land for the sake of wildlife.
This Awareness Ride has been created to celebrate the history of Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge (PINWR) and the National Wildlife Refuge System. PINWR is Celebrating 110 years and we want to spread the word about this occasion and the importance of the Wildlife Refuge System.
The ride will take 14 days- the same number of days it took for the idea of a bird sanctuary to go through the government channels to land on President Roosevelt’s desk and become our First Refuge. | <urn:uuid:f292f30f-02e7-4644-9cfd-5eea4621df10> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://pelicanride.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00063-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.931254 | 198 | 2.984375 | 3 |
Lesson 1 (from Prologue)
Jacob is introduced here, as well as the idea that a murder has taken place. Discuss this with students.
1) Discuss characterization. Have students define character and character traits. Have students discuss the characters introduced in the prologue and list their characterizations. Discuss the scene described in this prologue. Ask students what is implied about the death Jacob witnesses in this scene. Discuss Jacob's decision not to speak of this death for so many years. Ask students what this decision suggests about Jacob's feelings for Marlena.
2) Divide students into small groups. Have each group pick a character from the prologue and write a short description of that character. Each group should pick a person to present the description to the class without giving a name. The class should attempt to decide what person is being described.
1) Have students write a short essay that describes...
This section contains 6,933 words
(approx. 24 pages at 300 words per page) | <urn:uuid:0a820aef-a196-4159-80a9-fd31393b28c7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bookrags.com/lessonplan/water-for-elephants/lessons.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00087-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938836 | 206 | 4.09375 | 4 |
Just mere months after God liberated the slave-nation Israel from centuries of bondage to Egypt through awesome and terrifying displays of power, capping their redemption by dividing the Red Sea and drowning their captors in its waters, they reconfigured the nature of Almighty God into the form of a bull! One has to ask, what were they thinking as they cried, "This is your god, O Israel, that brought you out of the land of Egypt!"?
Is this not similar to what one may discover on the world scene today? People have created gods in their own image. They interpret God according to their own cultural biases, as well as what family, educational, and business associations have predisposed them to believe. They then attribute His favor to their political parties, athletic teams, motivations, and prejudices. All this is done with precious little careful study into, meditation upon, and especially wholeheartedly believing of His inspired revelation of Himself in the Bible.
At the worship service held in the National Cathedral in Washington, D.C., a few days following the attack of September 11, clergy from Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and Muslim faiths participated. Which clergyman represented God? Which did God hear? Can they all be His representatives, even though they all believe differently? Do these differences not matter to Him? They must matter to those men; otherwise, they would not advocate their brand of faith. Certainly, God hears just as surely as He sees what is going on. He makes very clear that no one comes to Him except through Jesus Christ, eliminating two of those faiths immediately.
He also makes clear that those who approach Him with favor must be subject to His government. In other words, they must keep His commandments. The remaining two faiths keep none of His Sabbaths, and in fact, they tell people they do not have to keep the commandments—in other words, they need not be subject to His government in daily life—because His law is "done away."
Might God, as an act of mercy, nonetheless hear and respond by delivering us from future destructions planned for us? He might. It has happened before, for instance, when God mercifully forgave Nineveh after it repented at the preaching of Jonah, and He delivered Israel a number of times. Yet when that happened, it was accompanied by a wholehearted repentance that God was willing to accept. Have we as a nation repented? How deep must the repentance be? How many must repent before it tips the balance of God's judgment so that He moves in our behalf? In Genesis 18:32, God tells Abraham He will spare Sodom if He finds ten righteous people in it. Is God using the same standard of measurement for America today?
John W. Ritenbaugh
Is God to Blame? | <urn:uuid:1a9bffe3-e6e2-4f3a-844e-f57134b7d4fb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bibletools.org/index.cfm/fuseaction/Topical.show/RTD/CGG/ID/2254/Molten-Calf.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00117-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973408 | 570 | 2.65625 | 3 |
There has been no growth in greenhouse gas emissions in Australia over the last decade, despite economic growth of 31% over the same period, a new report has found.
The findings show that conversion to a green economy need not be painful and is already underway in Australian industry.
The report, released today by Monash University research unit ClimateWorks, said stable emissions levels despite economic growth was achieved through reduced deforestation, increased tree-planting, a big boost in industry energy efficiency and sharp drops in power emissions.
However, a lot more needs to be done if catastrophic climate change is to be avoided, the study found.
Despite the progress so far, Australia is on track to achieve only about 40% of the reductions needed to meet its minimum national target of reducing domestic emissions by 5% below year 2000 emissions levels by 2020.
Report co-author and head of research at ClimateWorks, Amandine Denis, said previous climate science research has found that Australia should reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by at least 25% below year 2000 levels by 2020 to keep levels of atmospheric greenhouse gases 450 ppm carbon dioxide equivalent or lower.
Keeping atmospheric greenhouse gases at that level provides a chance to limit the global increase in temperature to 2°C, previous projections have shown.
“What our analysis has found is this is achievable in Australia with domestic activity with technology available today. We can do more than what is currently being aimed for,” said Ms Denis.
The researchers identified potential for nearly three times more emissions reduction activity than is currently being observed.
“The large areas of potential abatement are mostly in the power and land sectors: by replacing further coal generated power plants with renewables and gas, reducing deforestation and increasing afforestation further and increasing energy efficiency in the building sector,” she said.
Emissions stable – now, to reduce them
Pep Canadell, Global Carbon Project executive-director at CSIRO, welcomed the report.
“The report brings good news and shows that the implementation of key energy and land use policies are beginning to pay off, and that it is possible to decouple economic growth from emissions growth,” said Dr Canadell, who was not involved in the study.
“There is an opportunity to explore in detail which policies have worked and which haven’t based on their contributions to the stabilisation of emissions and economic growth. It is important to realise that, ultimately, we need to achieve the complete decarbonisation of the energy system, and this requires the continued development of new policy to address the increasingly harder components of the transformation required.”
Chris Riedy, Associate Professor at the University of Technology, Sydney’s Institute for Sustainable Futures, said the findings align with data from Australia’s National Greenhouse Gas Inventory.
“Australia’s total emissions have been relatively stable over the last decade. Reductions in emissions from land clearing and waste have offset ongoing increases in emissions from other sectors. The recent decline in electricity demand and associated emissions has been really important in halting the overall growth in emissions,” said Associate Professor Reidy, who was not involved in the new study.
“Now that Australia has successfully halted the growth in its total emissions, it’s time to start actually reducing emissions. The report shows that Australia has the potential to aim higher than its current target of a 5% reduction in emissions by 2020. A commitment to a 25% reduction in emissions by 2020 is feasible, is more consistent with what climate scientists are telling us is needed and would reinvigorate international climate negotiations.” | <urn:uuid:ab7ff71d-2df6-4dbf-bced-24f0dd9b9300> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://theconversation.com/greenhouse-emissions-stable-over-decade-as-gdp-grew-31-16463 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952861 | 741 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Reef Fish Larvae Development
Table of Contents
Although reef fishes fill specialized feeding niches as adults, their diets are very different during their early life. At this time, almost all coral reef fish species have a pelagic stage, which is spent in the surface waters of the open seas, away from the reef. The larvae live among the plankton, feeding voraciously and growing rapidly.
What do the larvae eat?
Newly hatched larvae are extremely small — angelfish measure only about one-tenth of an inch (2 mm) when they first emerge from the egg. At this size the fish are limited by the size of their mouths and can only tackle the very smallest foods, including phytoplankton such as diatoms and dinoflagellates. As they grow, so does their ability to overcome larger prey and they switch to zooplankton, such as copepods and amphipods.
How do larvae hunt?
Theoretically, the tiny size of larval fish makes it difficult for them to move around in their environment. At just a few millimeters long, pushing through the water must be like swimming through molasses. Nevertheless, size for size, these larval fish are the fastest swimmers in the fish world, covering up to 20 body lengths per second as they pursue the drifting zooplankton. Their mouths are often huge in relation to their bodies, far larger than when compared to the adults. These huge mouths allow them to hunt the most profitable prey to pack on weight — many grow by as much as a third of their own body weight each day.
The ability to hunt well is crucial; at this size, fish are extremely vulnerable to almost all predators and can only escape this threat by growing. Moreover, tiny fish have virtually no fat reserves and even a short period without food can be fatal. Living in the midst of a huge food swarm means that this is not usually a problem; studies suggest that starvation is not generally a difficulty encountered by free-living fish larvae. In the aquarium, managing to feed captive-bred larvae was once the greatest obstacle to propagating fish successfully, but the increasing availability of specialist products in aquarium shops means that the problem is rapidly becoming a thing of the past.
How does the diet change when larvae settle onto the reef as juveniles?
As the larvae migrate onto the reefs and begin the transition to juveniles, their diets generally change quite substantially, moving from zooplankton to a wide range of benthic foods. Some species, including butterflyfish that subsist entirely on coral as adults, switch immediately to a diet of coral polyps, even at this early stage.
Juveniles of related butterflyfish species, such as the raccoon butterflyfish (Chaetodon lunula) and the threadfin butterflyfish (Chaetodon auriga), prey on the tentacles of polychaete worms before making the transition to coral eating. Some herbivores continue to eat invertebrates after settling and then switch to algae as they grow. In addition, juvenile fish predators often augment their diet with a range of smaller reef invertebrates until they are sufficiently large to hunt successfully for fish.
In the early years of the tropical marine aquarium hobby, breeding reef fishes successfully was a major problem. Many newly hatched fishes have virtually no reserves and quickly starve if unable to find food. | <urn:uuid:abe8b327-cc52-42e4-8a2a-c8ab24f7f71b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://infolific.com/pets/coral-reef-life/reef-fish-larva-development/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00164-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969975 | 697 | 3.953125 | 4 |
What is a Chiari malformation?
A Chiari malformation is a congenital (present at birth) defect in the area of the back of the head where the brain and spinal cord connect. The condition is also called Arnold Chiari malformation. There are four types of Chiari malformations, including the following:
- Type I – this is the most common type of Chiari malformation. Commonly goes unnoticed until problems arise in the adolescent or adult years of life. In this condition, the base of the skull and the upper spinal area are not formed properly.
- Type II – In this condition, part of the back of the brain shifts downward through the bottom of the skull area.
- Type II Chiari malformations are typically seen in infants who are born with spina bifida, a neurological condition that causes a portion of the spinal cord and the surrounding structures to develop outside, instead of inside, the body.
- Type II Chiari malformations can also be associated with a condition known as hydrocephalus. Hydrocephalus is a condition in which there is an overproduction or lack of absorption of the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) that is found inside of the ventricles (fluid-filled areas) inside of the brain. The increased fluid causes the pressure inside of the head to increase and the skull bones to expand to a larger-than-normal appearance.
- Type III – the back of the brain protrudes out of an opening in the back of the skull area.
- Type IV – the back of the brain fails to develop normally.
What causes Chiari malformation?
Although the exact cause of Chiari malformation is unknown, it is thought that a problem during fetal development may cause the abnormal brain formation. Chiari malformation may be caused by exposure to harmful substances during fetal development or associated with genetic problems or syndromes that may have a tendency to run in families.
Theories suggest that the following may predispose the fetus to problems that affect the normal development of the head during pregnancy:
- exposure to hazardous chemicals/substances
- lack of proper vitamins and nutrients in the diet
- prescription or illegal drug and alcohol consumption
What are the symptoms of a Chiari malformation?
The following are the most common symptoms of a Chiari malformation. However, each child may experience symptoms differently. In infants and older children born with this condition, symptoms may include:
- stiffness or pain in the neck or back of the head area
- poor feeding and swallowing
- decreased strength in the arms
- decreased sensation in the arms and legs
- rapid, back and forth, eye movement
- developmental delays
- weak cry
- breathing problems
The symptoms of Chiari malformation may resemble other conditions or medical problems. Always consult your child’s physician for a diagnosis.
How is a Chiari malformation diagnosed?
If a Chiari malformation occurs with other congenital (present at birth) defects, the diagnosis may be made at birth. Other times, the diagnosis is made after the onset of specific signs and symptoms, and after diagnostic testing. The physician obtains a complete prenatal and birth history of the child and may also ask if there is a family history of any medical problems. The physician will also ask about developmental milestones, such as the age the child sat up, crawled, or walked since a Chiari malformation can be associated with other neuromuscular disorders. Developmental delays may require further medical follow up for underlying problems.
During the examination, a measurement of the circumference of the child’s head is taken and compared to a scale that can identify normal and abnormal ranges.
Diagnostic tests that may be performed to confirm the diagnosis of a Chiari malformation include:
- magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) – a diagnostic procedure that uses a combination of large magnets, radiofrequencies, and a computer to produce detailed images of organs and structures within the body.
Treatment for a Chiari malformation:
There are many ways to treat Chiari malformations, but all require surgery. The basic operation is one of uncrowding the area at the base of the cerebellum where it is pushing against the brainstem and spinal cord. This is done by removing a small portion of bone at the base of the skull deep to the neck muscles as well as often removing a part of the back of the first and occasionally additional spinal column segments. The operation is often modified if there is a syrinx present or if the child has hydrocephalus. Most children who have the surgery do quite well and have improvement of their symptoms.
At the Children’s Hospital of New York, we have been collecting information since 1998 using intraoperative electrophysiological monitoring to help determine whether opening of the dura (a thick membrane that surrounds the brain and spinal cord) is a necessary component of surgery for children with Chiari I malformation. We discovered that most of the improvement in nerve impulses through the brain and spinal cord occurs after removal of the bone. However, we did not see any further improvement after opening the dura, suggesting that children may not require this additional step of surgery. Accordingly, for the past four years we have performed a less invasive operation where the dura is not opened during surgery. At this time, we have seen excellent clinical and radiographic results without any significant operative complications after bony decompression without dural opening. This is important because the complication rate after surgery has been reported to be nearly 4 times higher if the dura is opened during surgery.
In addition, the use of endoscopes has allowed for this procedure to be performed through smaller incisions, which helps in the reduction of post operative pain and speech recovery.
Specific treatment for a Chiari malformation will be determined by your child’s physician based on:
- your child’s age, overall health, and medical history
- the extent of the condition
- the type of condition
- your child’s tolerance for specific medications, procedures, or therapies
- expectations for the course of the condition
- your opinion or preference
Medical management consists of frequent physical examinations and diagnostic testing to monitor the growth and development of the brain, spinal cord, skull, and backbones.
Some types of Chiari malformations may require surgery to relieve increased pressure inside the head or neck area, or to help drain excess cerebral spinal fluid from the brain. Very severe Chiari malformations may be life threatening.
Parents are instructed to watch for any changes that may affect the child’s neurological status, including the following:
- breathing problems
- degree of alertness
- speech or feeding problems
- problems walking
- uncoordinated movement
Life-long considerations for a child with a Chiari malformation:
The full extent of the problems associated with a Chiari malformation are usually not completely understood immediately at birth, but may be revealed as the child grows and develops. Children born with a Chiari malformation require frequent examinations and diagnostic testing by his/her physician to monitor the development of the head as the child grows. The medical team works hard with the child’s family to provide education and guidance to improve the health and well-being of the child.
Genetic counseling may be recommended by the physician to provide information on the recurrences for Chiari malformation and any available testing. | <urn:uuid:53663aa9-d03f-4af1-9e40-4b219e90e1cb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.columbianeurosurgery.org/conditions/chiari-malformation/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934876 | 1,534 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Extent of Disease
Common Metastatic Sites
|Intracavitary Spread||Pancreas—direct extension to duodenum, stomach, spleen.
Gallbladder—abdominal carcinomatosis with ascites; direct extension into liver, pancreas or diaphragm
Extrahepatic bile ducts—liver, pancreas, ampulla of Vater, duodenum, colon, omentum, stomach, gallbladder.
|Lymphatic Spread||From gallbladder peripancreatic along body and tail of pancreas.|
|Hematogenous Spread||Pancreas—lungs, liver, bone
Gallbladder—lungs, pleura, diaphragm
Liver—lungs, bone, other organs
Bile ducts—distant metastases are unusual
Extent of Disease Evalation
(Parentheses enclose the names of the organs for which the diagnostic study is useful.)
Key words/possible involvement:
Terms which indicate possible involvement by tumor. Common terms are provided, but the list is not all-inclusive.
Other words/no involvement:
Other terms seen in reports which indicate an abnormality but do not indicate a neoplastic process. Common terms are provided, but the list is not all-inclusive.
information to look for in the report of the study. Key information helps define the extent of disease. | <urn:uuid:2db7a6f4-93f8-4b4f-8a73-669d2c360ab3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://training.seer.cancer.gov/biliary/abstract-code-stage/extent/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00157-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.797457 | 312 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Shields and colleagues have found that early intervention and long-term treatment with electrical stimulation, which causes muscle contraction and exerts mechanical loading on the targeted bone, can significantly reduce the loss of bone mineral density (BMD) in SCI patients.
Virtually every SCI patient develops severe osteoporosis and muscle atrophy after injury. The bone thinning, which occurs very rapidly -- an average loss of 30 percent in BMD in just three years -- makes the paralyzed limbs particularly vulnerable to fracture.
"The question is will an 18 year old injured today be a good candidate for that cure or repair if their bone is so brittle that it can't bear weight or their muscles are virtually useless?" Shields asks.
In addition, secondary complications, including multiple fractures leading to amputation, and kidney problems caused by excess calcium leached from the bones into the blood, can seriously impair the health of SCI patients. Thus, maintaining the integrity of bone has important implications for improving health of SCI patients.
"The long-range issues relate to helping people injured now remain good candidates for a future cure. The short-term effects are improving the patient's health quality and preventing secondary complications," Shields said.
Muscle contraction exerts forces greater than body weight to bones and is the best way to apply therapeutic stresses to keep the skeletal system (bone) healthy. This simple biomechanical principle comes into play whenever exercise is used to strengthen bones and muscles.
The UI team used a computer-controlled device to deliver defined, measurable doses of load (about 1.5 times body weight) to the tibia (lower leg bone) in one leg of each participant. The electrical stimulation protocol followed normal exercise principles, training the targeted muscle and bone 20 to 30 minutes each day, five days a week.
By the end of the three-year studies, BMD for the stimulated limbs was, on average, 32 percent greater than the untrained limbs. In addition, the cross-sectional area of trained muscles averaged 30 percent larger than untrained muscles, and trained muscles could generate about 50 percent more force than untrained muscles. The studies appear in the January 11 issue of the Journal of Neurophysiology and the March 1 issue of Spine.
Because the training device recorded the amount of electrical stimulation delivered to the muscle and only recorded data when it was in contact with the patient's skin, the researchers were able to accurately quantify how much stimulation patients' muscles and bones received. Patients initiated the stimulation by attaching electrodes to their skin and pushing a button to start the program. No study participant was below 70 percent compliance with this training protocol and average compliance was 80 percent.
"That would translate to someone going to the gym four days a week rather than five," Shields said. "If you or I could be 80 percent compliant in our exercise regimen we'd be thrilled."
Several aspects of the UI work examining the effect of loading on preserving the integrity of the musculoskeletal system are unique. These studies were the first to intervene with mechanical loading very early after SCI - all participants started the protocol within six months of the injury. Also, the studies were long-term, with patients receiving the stimulation for three years, which covers the period of most rapid BMD loss in SCI patients. Finally, the experiment was very focused, with only one muscle and bone examined and only in one leg of each participant, thus the effects could be clearly observed.
The results showed that this quite straightforward intervention was sufficient to produce significant results. Shields noted that it should be feasible and easy to translate this finding directly into useful treatments.
"This research emphasizes that early intervention is a critical consideration in efforts to preserve the musculoskeletal system after SCI and that future studies must address efficient methods to deliver these therapeutic stresses to the entire lower extremity," Shields said.
The results may also be useful for astronauts who experience bone loss and muscle wasting similar to SCI patients due to long periods spent in low gravity.
The research was funded in part by the National Institutes of Health, the Christopher Reeve Foundation and the Sam Schmidt Paralysis Foundation.
In addition to Shields, UI researchers who participated in the studies included Shauna Dudley-Javoroski, Laura Frey Law, Ph.D., Preeti Deshpande, Anish Ganju, Melanie House, Masaki Iguchi, Andrew Littman, Sangeetha Madhavan, and Mike Shaffer. Sheila Schindler-Ivens, Ph.D., now an assistant professor of physical therapy at Marquette University and Ya-Ju Chang, Ph.D., now an adjunct lecturer at National Taiwan University, also were part of the research team.
University of Iowa Health Care describes the partnership between the UI Roy J. and Lucille A. Carver College of Medicine and UI Hospitals and Clinics and the patient care, medical education and research programs and services they provide. Visit UI Health Care online at www.uihealthcare.com.
STORY SOURCE: University of Iowa Health Science Relations, 5135 Westlawn, Iowa City, Iowa 52242-1178 | <urn:uuid:1bd96941-a792-4200-bcfe-2b0b30faec7a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-04/uoi-ura040506.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00191-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945575 | 1,053 | 3.359375 | 3 |
The Great Seal of South Carolina
South Carolina's Great Seal was authorized by resolution of the General Assembly on April 2, 1776.
The seal is made up of two distinct elliptical areas, linked by branches of the palmetto tree.
The image on the left is dominated by a tall palmetto tree and another tree, fallen and broken. This scene represents the battle fought on June 28, 1776 between defenders of the unfinished fort on Sullivan's Island, and the British Fleet. Of course, the standing tree represents the victorious defenders, and the fallen tree is the British Fleet. Banded together on the palmetto with the motto "Quis Separabit?" ("Who Will Separate?"), are 12 spears that represent the first 12 states of the Union. Surrounding the image, at the top, is "South Carolina", and below, is "Animis Opibusque Parati", or "Prepared in Mind and Resources".
The other image on the seal depicts a woman walking along a shore that is littered with weapons. The woman, symbolizing Hope, grasps a branch of laurel as the sun rises behind her. Below her image is the word "Spes", or "Hope", and over the image is the motto "Dum Spiro Spero", or "While I Breathe I Hope".
|| STATE MAPS
Site designed exclusively for NETSTATE.COM by NSTATE Copyright © 1998-2008 by NSTATE, LLC | <urn:uuid:fc5d8cc0-876f-418a-9972-87f52a756fa4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.netstate.com/states/symb/seals/sc_seal.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00027-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934833 | 304 | 3.359375 | 3 |
Howe, Mark L. (2008) What is false memory development the development of? Comment on Brainerd, Reyna, and Ceci (2008). Psychological Bulletin, 134 (5). pp. 768-772. ISSN 0033-2909Full text not available from this repository.
In this commentary, assumptions about the nature and development of children's false memories as described in a recent article by C. J. Brainerd, V. F. Reyna, and S. J. Ceci (2008; see record 2008-04614-001) are reviewed. Specifically, questions are raised about what drives the development of false memories in fuzzy-trace theory (FTT). Recent studies that challenge a core assumption of FTT, that false memory illusions increase across development as children learn to establish meaningful connections across items (i.e., establish gist), are discussed. An alternative conceptualization of the development of false memory illusions, associative-activation theory (AAT), is presented. AAT provides as viable an account of the development of false memory illusions as does FTT and anticipates a unique set of outcomes that have recently appeared in the developmental literature on false memory illusions.
|Journal or Publication Title:||Psychological Bulletin|
|Subjects:||B Philosophy. Psychology. Religion > BF Psychology|
|Departments:||Faculty of Science and Technology > Psychology|
|Deposited By:||Prof Mark L. Howe|
|Deposited On:||07 Jul 2008 14:34|
|Last Modified:||24 Jun 2016 01:02|
Actions (login required) | <urn:uuid:29fce5a4-3c43-4a29-8d6b-df9675bfc1d4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://eprints.lancs.ac.uk/10130/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.847906 | 336 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Brazil World Cup Games Powered by Solar Energy
With the World Cup Games around the corner in 2 years Brazil plans on being the ultimate Eco- host by stepping up their renewable energy. Their plan is to set a higher standard being a sustainable country by powering several of its stadiums with solar power along with saving almost $4 million per year in utilities. This energy will be used in changing rooms, restrooms,lighting and many more.
Stadium's will sport an array of solar PV panels that support 2.5 MWp of capacity and expected to provide the stadium with about 50% of its power needs. Brazil chose 12 stadiums for this event to achieve a minimum sustainability standard, of 10 out of 12 hoping to encourage other countries to step up and follow a progressive lead. One of the stadiums in Brasília, seeks to use LEED Platinum status, which would make it the first soccer stadium in the world to achieve such a feat. This solar array project is expected to surpass the stadium’s power needs and will feed electricity back into the grid during peak energy consumption. | <urn:uuid:47cee85f-0d35-4339-9583-7d519cedb2df> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wearepowershift.org/blogs/brazil-world-cup-games-powered-solar-energy?quicktabs_2=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94842 | 216 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Chris at PyroElectro built this simple Arduin-controlled IR pair that can be used to measure the RPMs of a CPU fan.
A tachometer is a useful tool for counting the RPM (rotations per minute) of a wheel or basically anything that spins. The easiest way to build a tachometer is using a transmitter and receiver. When the link between them is broken, you know that something is spinning and can execute some code that calculates the current RPM of whatever is spinning to break the transmitter/receiver link.
In this article we will explore how to use an IR transmitter and receiver break-beam pair similar to the PIC Tachometer project I built a few months ago, but because of popular demand, the Arduino system will be used for all the processing and break-beam interruption counting. The end result will be a 16×2 LCD displaying the RPM of some computer fans.
[via Embedded Projects] | <urn:uuid:359c9fee-a003-45ba-b935-30fb7bfe5985> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://makezine.com/2012/09/04/basic-arduino-tachometer/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00185-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.899555 | 193 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Definitions for exceedance
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word exceedance
(geology) the probability that an earthquake will generate a level of ground motion that exceeds a specified reference level during a given exposure time
"the concept of exceedance can be applied to any type of environmental risk modeling"
An instance where an action, activity or substance exceeds a limit set by medical or legal practice.
The numerical value of exceedance in Chaldean Numerology is: 5
The numerical value of exceedance in Pythagorean Numerology is: 6
Find a translation for the exceedance definition in other languages:
Select another language: | <urn:uuid:2784d887-262c-4cc6-ba4a-8cd94628c73f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.definitions.net/definition/exceedance | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.761461 | 137 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Physicists study how moral behaviour evolved
May 5, 2010 8 comments
A statistical-physics-based model may shed light on the age-old question "how can morality take root in a world where everyone is out for themselves?" Computer simulations by an international team of scientists suggest that the answer lies in how people interact with their closest neighbours rather than with the population as a whole.
Led by Dirk Helbing of ETH Zurich in Switzerland, the study also suggests that under certain conditions, dishonest behaviour of some individuals can actually improve the social fabric.
Public goods such as environmental resources or social benefits are often depleted because self-interested individuals ignore the common good. Co-operative behaviour can be enforced via punishment but ultimately co-operators who punish will lose out to co-operators who don't punish because punishing requires time and effort. These non-punishing co-operators then lose out to the non co-operators, or free riders. With free riders dominant the resource is depleted, to the detriment of everyone – a scenario known as "tragedy of the commons".
How, then, does co-operation arise? Some researchers have proposed that co-operators who punish could survive through "indirect reciprocity", the idea that working for the common good will enhance a person's reputation and ensure that they benefit in the future. Helbing's group, however, has shown that this is not needed for co-operation to flourish.
They came to this conclusion by focusing on how individuals behave with their nearest neighbours, rather than a wider group that is representative of the entire population. Like nearest-neighbour models of magnetism – which are often more realistic than mean-field approximations – they say that this approach captures "emergent" phenomena that would otherwise be lost.
Their game-theory-based model comprises a square lattice of tens of thousands of points, each representing an individual. Each individual could adopt one of four strategies – co-operate without punishing free riders; co-operate and punish ("moralist"); free ride; or free ride but also punish other free riders ("immoralist"). Initially, the four strategies are distributed randomly among individuals and the system evolves to find out which behaviour wins in the long run.
This evolution is influenced by three variables – the fines that penalize free riders; the cost of administering punishment; and the "synergy factor", which stipulates how much the sum of individual contributions is enhanced by collective action.
The computer program picks an individual at random and calculates how much it stands to gain relative to its four nearest neighbours, given the strategies employed by each neighbour. The exercise is then repeated for the neighbours themselves. The strategy employed by each individual was then modified in light of the success of their neighbours, so that individuals could imitate those who performed better than themselves.
Running the simulation for up to 10 million iterations yielded some intriguing results. As expected, if the punishment fine to cost ratio and synergy factor were low then everyone would eventually become a free rider, just as moralists would prevail if the fine was set high enough. However, they also found that moralists could win out over non-punishing co-operators even if the cost of administering punishment was relatively high. This was because imitation of better-performing neighbours soon led to small clusters of both co-operators and moralists in a sea of free-riders. With moralists better than co-operators at dealing with free riders they came to dominate, even though they would lose out if placed in direct competition with the non-punishers.
An "unholy collaboration" between moralists and immoralists was also seen whereby individuals adopting these strategies could coexist at the expense of both co-operators and free riders. This, the researchers found, would occur if the cost of punishment was low, the synergy not particularly high, and the fines moderately high. As they point out, this scenario is supported by the real-life existence of immoralists.
New type of collective behaviour
Helbing's colleague, Attila Szolnoki of the Institute for Technical Physics and Materials Science in Budapest sums up the work, "The contribution of statistical physics to this research field could be to realize that large numbers of players can result in a new type of collective behaviour that cannot be derived from two-player analyses. Computer models can therefore be considered as pre-experiments that help to design more sophisticated lab experiments."
The team is currently building a laboratory capable of carrying out game-theory experiments with up to 36 people, which should allow them to test the predictions of their model.
Herbert Gintis, an economist and game-theory expert at the Santa Fe Institute and Central European University in Budapest, believes that Helbing and colleagues are right to incorporate small-scale interactions into their model. But he says that they should also factor in genetic relations between people because individuals' behaviours depend on whether or not they are dealing with a close relative.
About the author
Edwin Cartlidge is a science writer based in Rome | <urn:uuid:10632eab-6e1b-4586-9218-ee150f0a8e9c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2010/may/05/physicists-study-how-moral-behaviour-evolved | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00051-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965067 | 1,038 | 3.140625 | 3 |
The newly released 2013 Survey of Consumer Finances reveals that the median family with a head who is under 35 years old earned $35,509 in 2013 dollars. When adjusted for inflation that amount is 6% less than similar families reported in the first survey like this one in 1989. Floyd Norris, writing for The New York Times, says that though young families are better educated, but they are earning lower incomes.
These surveys take place every three years and include questions concerning the families’ income, wealth, debt, education, and attitudes toward financial issues.
The results show that young families’ incomes are falling behind older families’ as time has passed. Families headed by people born after 1954, baby boomers, came up in a time of stronger economy and, for the most part, were not under the weight of school loan debts. Families headed by those born after 1984 have not done as well early in their careers and have had to battle the weight of student loans.
The newest survey covered 2012 incomes, which were being earned three years after the recession, and shows that the median income for all age groups, except those 35-44 group, declined from 2010-2013.
In 1989, the median income for families headed by young college graduates was twice as much as similar families headed by high school graduates who did not attend college. Now, the difference is just 52%. There are more college graduates in the group, but they have a lower median income than those before them. At this time, a little over a quarter of young families are in the top 40% of high-income families, and the age group with the income that has grown the most in the last quarter of a century are those aged 65-74.
This could be because of higher pension incomes or that people of this age are working well past retirement age of 65.
In a study by Beth Akers and Matthew Chingos, “Is a Student Loan Crisis on the Horizon?“, the data showed some surprising findings. Akers and Chingos discuss the findings in a Brookings Institution article that shows the increase in student debt is because of increased educational costs.
Next, increases in average lifetime incomes have paralleled increases in debt loads between 1992-2010. Third, the monthly payment faced by student borrowers stayed the same or lessened between 1992 and 2010. They also say that higher education is still a good investment, but this is not an excuse for high and rising college costs.
The Government Accountability Office (GAO), in a recent report, Survey of Consumer Finances, found that federal student loan debt for people 65 and older has ballooned from $2.8 billion in 2005 to about $18.2 billion in 2013. This group is relatively small, but the amount they owe is increasing to a point that is jeopardizing their financial security during their retirement years.
The number of households with heads ages 65 to 74 that have student debt increased about 1% in 2004 to 4% in 2010, according to the Association of Credit and Collection Professionals International (ACA). About 29% have some mortgage debt and about 27% may carry credit card debt. According to the report:
“Student loan debt held by older Americans can be especially daunting because unlike other types of debt, it generally cannot be discharged in bankruptcy,”
This means that it is possible for their Social Security payments to be garnished. Most Social Security recipients do not have access to a lot of money, according to Sandy Baum, a senior fellow with the Urban Institute. | <urn:uuid:40208afe-2cf3-4701-95f5-06467dd9449e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.educationnews.org/parenting/report-young-families-more-educated-but-earning-less/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00165-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.976672 | 722 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Structure and Preparation of Alkenes.
Dehydration of Alcohols
Reaction type: 1,2-
When heated with strong acids catalysts (most commonly H
), alcohols typically undergo a 1,2-elimination reactions to generate an alkene and water.
Also known as
since it involves the removal of a molecule of water.
Alcohol relative reactivity order : 3
Regioselectivity : major product is usually the more highly substituted alkene (alkene stability)
Stereoselectivity : trans- > cis- again controlled by stability
Reaction usually proceeds via an
which proceeds via a
, that can often undergo rearrangement.
Primary alcohols will proceed via an
since the primary carbocation is highly unfavourable.
Other common strong acids such as HCl, HBr or HI are less suitable catalysts as
nucleophilic substitution reactions
will probably interfere. | <urn:uuid:8033d6f2-0612-44da-b141-0fbad53886b5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://library.tedankara.k12.tr/carey/ch5-2.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00085-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.829389 | 198 | 3.25 | 3 |
Excitement in France
Echo de Paris States that the German Ambassador called on the Foreign Affairs minister and the communication transformed the Austro Serbian dispute into a European diplomatic conflict.
He read a note stating that the Berlin government approved of the Austro Hungarian note both in substance and form and hoped the 'discussion' would remain localised between Vienna and Belgrade adding however that intervention of a third state had given rise to tension between the two groups of powers.
The Petit Parisienne declares that since yesterday France and Russia took concerted action for the preservation of peace between Austro Hungary and Serbia. All the other papers discuss the ultimatum and dwell on the fact that a moment has been chosen when the Russian government is struggling with a formidable strike and the British government is in difficulties in Ulster, to bring its threats to a head.
Several newspapers believe the situation has not gone beyond a peaceful solution while recognising that it is one of the most serious that has ever arisen in Europe.
Montenegro's attitude Rome
The newspaper Piccolo do Trieste recalls the fact that the Montenegro prime minister in an interview with its representative before the presentation of the Austrian note to Serbia declared that Montenegro would stand by Serbia in any eventuality.
The Austro-Hungarian note to Serbia is regarded here as a violation to the latter's sovereignty and is consequently characterised as unacceptable. Reuter Bulgaria's attitude Sofia - The Austro-Hungarian note has produced a deep impression here by reason of the firmness of its language and the harshness of its demands. Well informed politicians declare that Bulgaria will observe an expectant attitude during the present crisis and will follow the development of the dispute with the deepest interest.
The ultra conservative Zemstchina [Russian newspaper] says that if Austria insists upon the fulfillment of all her demands then war is more than probable and anticipates the neighbouring states will be gradually drawn in.
The intervention of Russia it says will be followed by that of Germany resulting in a general upheaval such has not been experienced since the Napoleonic era.
Referring to the labour troubles, the journal denounces the Jewish and the other enemies of Russia and advocates that drastic measures should be taken to prevent the repetition of the occurrences of 1905.
(In the original Argus copy, 'Serbia' was spelt 'Servia' as was then the style). | <urn:uuid:9270c3ad-aa84-47f7-98ff-f239613abd36> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.southwalesargus.co.uk/news/11359577.WWI_ARGUS_ARCHIVE__Fears_Balkan_dispute_could_become_European_conflict/?ref=var_0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00128-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953507 | 486 | 2.625 | 3 |
Want your children to be healthier snackers? A new Cornell study finds that serving children combined snacks of vegetables and cheese led them to eat 72 percent fewer calories -- and be just as satisfied as those who were served only potato chips.
"Snack combos are fun to eat, and they take longer to eat than potato chips. This is why kids find them satisfying and why they eat so much less," said Brian Wansink, professor of marketing at the Charles H. Dyson School of Applied Economics and Management at Cornell University. In the forthcoming Pediatrics study, 201 elementary school students were given all of the potato chips, vegetables, cheese, or vegetables-and-cheese they wanted while watching an hour of television. Those given the cheese-vegetable combo ate 72 percent fewer calories than those given chips. This result was even stronger for heavier children.
Wansink and his co-authors, Cornell researchers Mitsuru Shimizu and Adam Brumberg, also found that children reported being just as satisfied after eating a vegetable-and-cheese snack as they did after eating chips. "That is really the key take-away -- that you can substitute the healthier snack without a total rebellion on the kids' part," Brumberg said.
"This was inspired by the White House's 'Let's Move' program to encourage healthier eating," said Wansink. The paper, "Association of Nutrient-Dense Snack Combinations With Calories and Vegetable Intake," is posted online in the journal, Pediatrics, and forthcoming in January. It was sponsored by Bell Brands of cheese, which were the single-served wheels and wedges used in study.
"There is no magic food or ingredient that will end childhood obesity, but learning to substitute certain foods -- such as choosing a combination snack of vegetables and cheese instead of potato chips or sweets -- can be an effective tool to induce children to reduce their caloric intake while snacking," Wansink said. "What's cool is this worked best for the heaviest, pickiest kids. Its fun to eat and it makes snack time last longer." | <urn:uuid:3fe57383-3791-461e-8a39-9cb33c8ba5b2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2012-12/cfb-coc121712.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974987 | 428 | 3.25 | 3 |
Skip to comments.Shuttle Tank Foam Warning Came Three Years Ago
Posted on 05/06/2003 3:11:28 PM PDT by Cincinatus
HOUSTON -- Nearly three years before Columbia launched, NASA engineers listed a host of potentially risky problems with foam insulation applied to shuttle fuel tanks at Lockheed Martin's factory near New Orleans, agency records show.
A list of "high risk" items was circulated among tank program officials in February 2000, including manufacturing processes at the Michoud Assembly Facility. That's where investigators are now probing whether application flaws caused foam debris to break away from Columbia's tank.
NASA investigators have zeroed in on wing damage from foam debris as the cause of the Feb. 1 accident that destroyed the $2 billion shuttle and killed seven astronauts. Today, the Columbia Accident Investigation Board will unveil its "working hypothesis" of what caused the ship to disintegrate after hearing testimony from a string of NASA witnesses.
(Excerpt) Read more at space.com ...
We saved the ozone layer, but destroyed the Shuttle. RIP, Columbia astronauts.
Challenger and two Titan III's were lost partially due to the replacement of asbestos-bearing putty with zinc chromate putty to seal the booster segments.
Also, the solvents and adhesives used in the booster mating procecures were changed, resulting in O-ring blowby similar to that which brought down the Challenger.
It continues to this day. NASA is a pitifull, helpless, giant...
& that Dollar under your Pillow REALLY came from the "Tooth Fairy"--
& the 6' piece of foam IMPREGNATED WITH atmospheric Water-Ice striking the Shuttle @ 260+ MPH did WHAT??--
The Columbia Crew was Doomed after Liftoff--& SOMEONE @ NASA KNEW IT!!
We SHOULD HAVE done better!
It MAY BE necessary to "Go Through" NASA "Like SH+T THROUGH A GOOSE!!"
HOW the H+ll can we go Back to the Moon--& ON TO MARS--if our "Best & Brightest" must LIE to us!!
IT IS IMPERATIVE that "W" gets "The Truth" from NASA, & IT IS IMPERATIVE that we GO BACK TO THE MOON & ON---EVEN IF "W" contain's &/or Defeats Terrorism; His Lasting Legacy will be the Human Conquest of The Moon & Mars.
Because of our current level of Technology, the Human Race MUST "GO OUT," or perish.
Despite our struggle against terrorism, "W 's" Legacy will be his willingness to fund & support Mankind's expansion to Space.
We MUST "Go to the Stars," or we Involute--& Perish!
I SINCERELY HOPE that "W" &/or his Cabinet eventually Grasp Their TRUE task in our Current Historical Context!
WE are the Culmination of "Earthlife!"
WE are the BEST CHANCE "EARTHLIFE" has produced (in known Historical Times) to establish TRUE, Self-Sustaining, off-world Colonies!
We have an HONEST SHOT at developing Self-Sustaining Colonies on the Moon & Mars!
ANY "Obstruction" to the above goals is a Ruthless attempt to END "The Human Race!!"
We Expand into Space, or we DIE!
I posted Bill Harwood's report on bonesmccoy's thread, there is a lot of good info in the preceding 3000 posts there too.
We have MUCH MORE "on the Boards" than our timid "managers" are willing to let Us Try!!
During the "Moon Launch," our Brightest Minds were allowed to overrule the "Management-Types;" I am Saying that Our Current Status Requires that We, once again, give "Free Rein" to Our "Best & Brightest;" Our Species Needs a Goal external to our current limited expectations!
According to snopercod, the Challenger and two Titan III's were lost partially due to the replacement of asbestos-bearing putty with zinc chromate putty to seal the booster segments. I imagine this was done to appease the squawking liberal enviro-scumbags who stain their panties when they hear the word "asbestos".
Snopercod also mentioned that the solvents and adhesives used in the booster mating procedures were changed, resulting in O-ring blowby similar to that which brought down the Challenger. Any bets that these changes were also made to appease these same liberal Democrat scumbags?
And then Environmental requirements required removal of freon from the process for spraying the foam insulation onto the tank. NASA admitted that the freon-free application method resulted in foam that initially did not adhere to the tank as well. They clamied that they were able to "strengthen" it, but they never claimed that they got it equal to what it was with the freon-based application. Another kowtow to the liberal Democrat scumbags.
The facts speak for themselves - - the scumbag Democrats and their environmental wacko sponsors killed seven astronauts. It's a shame nobody at NASA had the guts to tell the scumbag Democrats "no".
Now let's see if anybody at NASA or in the Republican Party has the guts to call the scumbags on the carpet for their deadly meddling.
I Believe you are EXACTLY CORRECT!! | <urn:uuid:4578c547-5c65-49ae-83ee-8864af4ba029> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/906724/posts | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00132-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942522 | 1,134 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Guest comment by Malte Meinshausen, Reto Knutti and Dave Frame
Yesterday’s BBC article on the “Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change” report of the Exeter meeting last year, carried two messages that have left some a little confused. On the one hand, it said that a stabilization of greenhouse gases at 400-450 ppm CO2-equivalent concentrations is required to keep global mean warming below 2°C, which in turn is assumed to be necessary to avoid ‘dangerous’ climate change. On the other hand, people are cited saying that “We’re going to be at 400 ppm in 10 years’ time”.
So given that we will exceed 400 ppm CO2 in the near future, is a target of 2°C feasible? To make a long story short: the answer is yes. | <urn:uuid:de2304d8-be1e-47f2-86d5-12b5fbbd0456> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2006/01/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00128-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.891381 | 179 | 2.578125 | 3 |
A publication of the Archaeological Institute of America
After the occupation of northern Cyprus by Turkish forces in 1974, looters stripped the region's churches, removing several dozen major frescoes and mosaics dating from the sixth to the fifteenth century, an estimated 15,000 to 20,000 icons, and thousands of chalices, wood carvings, crucifixes, and bibles. Recovery efforts by the Church of Cyprus and the Republic of Cyprus have resulted in the return of some pieces through acquisition, trial, and seizure.
A major break came this past October when Munich police arrested 60-year-old Aydin Dikman, a central figure in the looting and selling of the church treasures. The cooperation of Dikman's former associate, Dutch art dealer Michel van Rijn, with Cypriot and German authorities made the arrest possible. By his own account, van Rijn, who claims descent from both Rembrandt and Rubens and has been convicted in France of forging Chagall's signature, had realized the error of his ways and wished to make amends by helping recover the artworks.
In apartments owned and rented by Dikman, police found Cypriot frescoes, mosaics, and icons, ancient coins, Precolumbian pottery, stolen paintings, and an unauthenticated Picasso. Police estimate the artworks and artifacts to be worth more than $60 million. If convicted of possessing and trafficking in stolen goods, Dikman faces up to 15 years in jail in Germany. Cyprus has requested his extradition.
Dikman's participation in the depredation of Cypriot heritage in the occupied part of the island was suspected as early as 1982, when reporter Mehmet Yasin, in the Turkish Cypriot weekly magazine Olay, identified him as an antiquities smuggler. It was not until 1989 that the extent of his role became somewhat clearer through testimony in the Goldberg case, a legal battle in federal court in Indianapolis over Byzantine mosaics from Cyprus. That nearly nine years passed before his arrest can be explained partly by Dikman's efforts to keep a low profile, working through dealers and seldom meeting directly with those who purchased items from him. Furthermore, those who knew that he was selling looted Cypriot artworks did not reveal his identity to authorities out of fear of personal retribution, concern that antiquities would be destroyed to do away with evidence, or unwillingness to jeopardize potential future acquisitions.
There have been three major recoveries of church treasures, and in each case the artworks, particularly the frescoes and mosaics, have been damaged and are in urgent need of conservation.
The first recovery came in the mid-1980s when the Menil Foundation of Houston, with Cypriot government and church authority approval, purchased from Dikman the thirteenth-century frescoes of Christ Pantokrator ("All Sovereign") and the Virgin with the archangels Michael and Gabriel from the Church of St. Themonianos near the village of Lysi. In June 1983 Dominique de Menil, Walter Hopps (then director of the Menil Collection), and Yanni Petsopoulos, a London dealer acting as an intermediary, met Dikman in Munich and examined two fresco fragments in one of his apartments. Dikman claimed the frescoes were from a ruined church in southern Turkey that was bulldozed during construction of a resort. They suspected that Dikman was lying, and in late June, the foundation engaged Herbert Brownell, a former United States attorney general, to investigate the legality of the acquisition. Brownell sent an inquiry letter and photographs of the frescoes to eight countries in lands once part of the Byzantine Empire. On September 6, 1983, Cyprus replied, identifying them as coming from the Church of St. Themonianos. De Menil contacted Vassos Karageorghis, then director of Cyprus' department of antiquities. By November 11, an understanding was reached whereby the Menil Foundation would acquire and restore the frescoes on behalf of the Church of Cyprus, which would then lend them to the foundation for an extended period.
The fragments were sent from Munich to London, where conservator Laurence J. Morrocco worked on them. The fresco of Christ Pantokrator had been cut from the church dome in 26 pieces, the Virgin from the apse in 12. Restoring them was nearly impossible because there were no measurements of the original structure (the church, in a military zone in the occupied area, was considered inaccessible), and the fresco fragments had lost their original curvature. To reconstruct the dome and apse, it was first necessary to determine their exact size and shape, then the appropriate curvature could be restored to the fragments so they would fit together on the curved surfaces. The process took three and one-half years.
In November 1987, as the restoration was nearing completion, Morrocco traveled to occupied Cyprus and surreptitiously visited the church to measure the dome and apse. He described what he found in a 1991 account of his work:
It was very strange for me to see the place where the frescoes had come from. It was as if it had just happened: the saw cuts were still visible in the plaster left behind when the fragments were ripped off. I could see how the thieves had cut crudely around the circumference of the base of the dome, leaving the angels' ankles and feet on the wall. Small pieces of the fresco lay scattered around the floor amidst dirt, straw, and sheep droppings.
Once the frescoes were reassembled, decisions had to be made about treating the damaged areas. The saw cuts were restored as invisibly as possible, but the larger missing areas, such as those around the base of the dome and in the lower part of the apse, were filled in with a dark color.
In April 1988, the reconstructed dome and apse frescoes were packed into large crates for the flight to Houston. In November 1997, nearly 14 years after they were bought from Dikman, the restored frescoes, housed in a specially constructed chapel consecrated by Archbishop Chrysostomos I, were put on display. According to a deposition taken for the Goldberg trial, Petsopoulos had offered the frescoes to the foundation for $850,000; the final price has not been disclosed. The conservation costs, according to Cypriot sources, were about $1 million.
During their 1983 trip to Dikman's apartment in Munich, Hopps and Petsopoulos had noticed a mosaic rondel that the latter subsequently identified as coming from the Church of the Panagía Kanakariá at Lythrankomí. The Kanakariá mosaics, depictions of Christ, the Virgin, archangels, and the apostles decorating the church's apse, were created ca. 525-530. They are among the few sixth-century works to have escaped an eighth-century iconoclastic period during which such images were systematically destroyed in the Byzantine Empire. The church, in northern Cyprus, was stripped between the summer of 1976, when the priest was expelled, and 1979, when an English tourist reported to Cypriot authorities that it had been looted. According to Hopps' deposition for the Goldberg trial, Petsopoulos told him that later in 1983 he had urged Dikman to return the mosaic. According to Petsopoulos, Dikman gave him four rondels, some small pieces of mosaic, and a sack of loose tesserae, swearing that that was all he had. The mosaics were returned to Cyprus on November 30, 1984. Two rondels proved to be modern fakes, but the other two, depicting St. Bartholomew and St. Luke, and several fragments of the surrounding decorative frieze, were from Kanakariá. Badly damaged, these were placed in the Byzantine Museum in Nicosia after two years of conservation.
In 1988, Indianapolis art dealer Peg Goldberg bought four Kanakariá mosaics--the archangel Michael, the upper half of Christ as a child, and the apostles Matthew and James--from Dikman, van Rijn, and American dealer Robert Fitzgerald for about $1 million. Goldberg attempted to resell the mosaics to museums in the United States for $20 million, but J. Paul Getty Museum curator Marion True alerted Karageorghis. The Church of Cyprus and the Republic of Cyprus sued for their return in federal court in Indianapolis and won. In her testimony, Goldberg described the mosaics when she first saw them in person at the Geneva airport:
They were very dull and it was very apparent that they...had numerous fissures, or splits, in them, that they were just marginally held together with glue...they were so fragile that when I bent down to start to touch them, thinking maybe I was going to lift it up to look at the back, literally a piece...separated in my hand.
Conservators Catherine Sease of the Field Museum and Danaë Thimme of Indiana University, asked by the Cypriot church and government to assess their condition, concluded that the mosaics had been damaged in five discrete phases, beginning with their removal from the apse. The facing--a fabric and adhesive layer applied to a mosaic or fresco to reinforce it during removal, had been ripped off without dissolving the adhesive--loosening many tesserae and pulling off the surfaces of others. The mosaics cracked as they were flown, inadequately packed, from Munich to Geneva and then to Indianapolis. Restoration work, commissioned by Goldberg in an effort to make the mosaics salable, did further damage. Sease and Thimme's assessment, published in a 1995 article, is damning:
The restorer clearly did not understand the materials he was working on.... He knew nothing about the technology involved and does not seem to have felt that an understanding of it might have proved helpful in choosing a restoration treatment. Thus, the most fundamental aspect of the appearance of the mosaics, namely that they had all been mounted on curved walls, and therefore were meant to be curved, was ignored. Much time and effort went into producing as flat and rigid a surface as possible.
After this restoration, the mosaics were sent, in attempts to sell them, on flights across the Atlantic and within the United States, causing hairline cracks along earlier mends. In 1991, after Goldberg's appeal failed, they were returned to Cyprus. They are now in the Byzantine Museum in Nicosia.
In February 1997, van Rijn approached Tasoula L. Georgiou-Hadjitofi, honorary consul of Cyprus in The Hague and representative of the Church of Cyprus for stolen art, offering to help buy back mosaics and frescoes. Van Rijn's first effort yielded the mosaic rondel of St. Thaddeus from Kanakariá, which he brought to the Cypriot consulate in The Hague on September 5. The following day he purchased, via intermediaries, 25 frescoes from Dikman for $75,000. Athanasios Papageorghiou, an authority on Byzantine art and advisor to the Church of Cyprus, identified the frescoes as coming from the Church of Christ Antiphonitis near the village of Kalogrea in northern Cyprus. Built in the twelfth century, it was decorated in the fifteenth century with frescoes of the Tree of Jesse (a pictorial genealogy of the Virgin) and the Last Judgment. In 1976, an English reporter informed the church that the frescoes had been removed; this was confirmed by an Anglican priest in 1979. That same year a diplomat brought to Cypriot authorities pieces of cloth from the church to which fresco fragments adhered, evidence of failed attempts to remove some of the paintings. Van Rijn then purchased an additional seven Antiphonitis frescoes for $49,000.
Having recovered 32 frescoes and one mosaic, Georgiou-Hadjitofi decided to move on Dikman. On October 10, police struck, raiding two apartments and arresting Dikman. Police hit a third apartment, rented by Dikman under a false name, on November 26. Among the artworks seized were more Antiphonitis frescoes and the St. Thomas Kanakariá mosaic.
The 32 Antiphonitis frescoes and the mosaic of St. Thaddeus recovered by Georgiou-Hadjitofi, which were temporarily exhibited in The Hague, were returned to Cyprus on December 22, 1997, and put on display in the Byzantine Museum. Conservation and possible reconstruction of the Antiphonitis frescoes is on hold until the additional pieces seized in Munich are released by German police. According to Papageorghiou, once the mosaic of St. Thomas is returned, the apse of the Panagía Kanakariá church may be re-created in the Byzantine Museum to give visitors an idea of what the mosaics looked like in their original setting.
Mark Rose is managing editor of ARCHAEOLOGY. | <urn:uuid:b989edb4-5fa5-49c0-b508-13c78f4f443e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://archive.archaeology.org/9807/etc/special.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00110-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977641 | 2,714 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Free will in its simplest element is the ability to make choices. It is the freedom of self determination and the ability to take action Independent of external factors. A persons choice is free if it is consistent with a person's desires and nature. Often in debates in the Arminian and Calvinist camps Arminians with excerpt that Calvinism states that people do not have free will. This is not true Calvinism never states this exertion. People have free will to make choices that are with in their ability to choose from but not outside the nature of their ability to choose. There are two main categories with in free will Compatibilism and Libertarian.
Compatibilism free will is the position in which man’s free will is restricted by his sinful nature and as a result he can only make choices that his sinful nature will allow him to make. This view of free will means that he can not choose God on his own because he is enslaved to his sinful nature (Roms 3:10-12; 1Cor 2:14; Roms 6:14-20). This view is held by those holding to Reformed theology.
Compatibilism is the biblical view of Free will and what we hold to hear at Empowered by Christ.
Libertarian free will is the opposite of Compatibilism and means that man’s free will is not restricted by his sinful nature. In other words man is not restricted by his sinful nature and that he is freely able to choose God or reject God on his own accord. This view is held by those who hold to the Arminian theological view point and is loosely justified by the use of John 3:16 and John 3:36. | <urn:uuid:82c6370e-2d37-4777-b9ca-a930661f6696> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.empoweredbychrist.org/free-will.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00147-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977876 | 351 | 3.359375 | 3 |
21/05/14 – Air pollution is costing advanced economies plus China and India an estimated USD 3.5 trillion a year in premature deaths and ill health and the costs will rise without government action to limit vehicle emissions, a new OECD report says.
In OECD countries, around half the cost is from road transport, with diesel vehicles producing the most harmful emissions. Traffic exhaust is a growing threat in fast-expanding cities in China and India, as the steady increase in the number of cars and trucks on the road undermines efforts to curb vehicle emissions.
“The price we pay to drive doesn’t reflect the impact of driving on the environment and on people’s health. Tackling air pollution requires collective action,” said OECD Secretary-General Angel Gurría, presenting the report at the International Transport Forum’s 2014 Summit in Leipzig, Germany (Read the full remarks).
The Cost of Air Pollution: Health Impacts of Road Transport calculates the cost to society across the OECD’s 34 members at about USD 1.7 trillion, based on the value people attach to not having their lives cut short by cancer, heart disease or respiratory problems. It puts the cost at nearly USD 1.4 trillion in China and nearly USD 0.5 trillion in India.
More than 3.5 million people die each year from outdoor air pollution. From 2005 to 2010, the death rate rose by 4 percent worldwide, by 5 percent in China and by 12 percent in India.
Deaths from outdoor air pollution by region in 2005 and 2010
The report underlines the fact that there is no public policy case for applying preferential tax treatment to diesel. It also supports taking action to reduce road transport pollution which could include tightening emission standards, expanding urban bicycle-sharing and electric car programmes and extending road charge schemes to reduce congestion.
“There is no environmental justification for taxing diesel less than petrol. Air pollution is destroying our health and the planet. Phasing out tax incentives on diesel would be a step towards reducing the costs to both and in fighting climate change,” said Gurría.
For further information, or to speak to one of the report’s authors, journalists are invited to contact the OECD Media Division on +33 1 45 24 97 00.
More OECD work on "greening transport": www.oecd.org/environment/greening-transport/transport-and-environment.htm | <urn:uuid:c1173f5a-56ae-43ac-8a54-c54b2c179276> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.oecd.org/health/rising-air-pollution-related-deaths-taking-heavy-toll-on-society.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.919119 | 502 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Latent Capacity Proliferation Model
Latent Capacity Proliferation Model
The model used of latent capacity used in this presentation was developed by
Dr. Stephen Meyer of MIT (Meyer, 1984) and modified by
Dr. Richard Stoll of Rice University.
A country is said to have a latent capacity when it has sufficient
technical, industrial, material, and financial resources to support a
wholly indigenous weapons program. Even though a state may have a latent
capacity, it must still make an explicit decision to develop the
particular facilities necessary to create weapons. However, once
a state has a latent capacity, it is very difficult --
perhaps impossible -- to deny it nuclear weapons, since it is in
essence self-sufficient. It may still be possible to alter the
motivations of the state so as to persuade it not to proceed.
There are ten major indicators in the model, all of which are necessary
conditions for the production of nuclear weapons. These resources cover
the entire production process, from refining the uranium ore to building
the mechanism itself. The ten indicators are:
Previous National Mining Activity
- To efficiently extract uranium, the country should have some
experience with mining activity. The presence of this experience is
assumed if some fraction of the country's labor force has at some time
been engaged in mining activity.
Indigenous Uranium Deposits
- Uranium is a critical element in the production of both uranium-
and plutonium-based nuclear weapons. Meyer taps this aspect of latent
capacity by indicating the presence of known uranium deposits within
the country. Beginning in 1970, however, Stoll drops this requirement
due to the ease with which any country may purchase a supply of
uranium on the world market. Thus, after 1970, all countries
are granted this prerequisite.
- Some experience with metallurgy is necessary to process uranium.
The training necessary to process uranium can be learned in a few
months by a knowledgeable metallurgist. The presence of a corps of
trained metallurgists is indicated if the country produces steel in
- Steel is necessary to build both weapons facilities and parts of the
weapons themselves. Indigenous steel production is required if the
country is to perform the heavy construction required for weapons facilities
without importing materials.
Construction Work Force
- To build the specialized industrial facilities necessary for a
weapons program, a corps of workers (less than one thousand) must be
familiar with construction involving both steel and cement. A country
is listed as having the necessary construction work force if it
produces both steel and cement.
- Chemical processing and conversion is an important part of latent
capacity. The surrogate measure for the presence of this body of
knowledge is an indigenous capacity to produce one of several acids.
This ability is indicated by the domestic production of either nitric
acid or sulfuric acid.
- Nitric acid is used in the weapons production process. An
ability to produce nitric acid is indicated by the domestic production
of nitric acid, or if the country produces both sulfuric acid and
non-organic nitrogenous fertilizer.
Electrical Production Capacity
- Meyer assumes that the electrical power demands for a latent
capacity are under 10 megawatts. Since the development of this
capacity is supposed to occur without imposing a significant hardship
on the country, Meyer assumes that no more than five percent of the
country's electric power production capacity can be diverted for the
weapons program. Consequently, the country has the requisite
electrical power capacity if it has an installed capacity of at least
Nuclear Engineers, Physicists, and Chemists
- Trained and experienced personnel with these specialist skills
are necessary to have a latent capacity; in particular a sufficient
pool of these skills is necessary to assemble a critical mass to
produce a fissile explosive. The presence of these skills is
indicated if the country has sufficient experience in the operation of
research reactors. This level of experience is defined as three
reactor years (i.e., one reactor in operation for three years, three
reactors in operation for one year, or any other combination totaling
to three years).
Explosives and Electronics Specialists
- A country with a latent capacity needs a group of specialists
that are knowledgeable in the design and construction of electronic
ignition devices; this would allow for the design and construction of
the fusing and detonator system for a bomb. These types of skills are
similar to those required for automobile ignitions and radio or
television production. These skills are indicated if the country
manufactures motor vehicles, or assembles motor vehicles and
manufactures radios or televisions.
Shortcomings and Omissions
The United States and the Soviet Union are not included in the data
set. It is assumed for presentation purposes that these nations both
have latent capacity in 1946. The data on uranium deposits in
Eastern Europe is incomplete, so some countries may have had this resource
prior to the indicated date. There is considerable dependence between
the ten resources listed, so these statistics should not be considered
completely independent of each other.
Meyer, Stephen M. 1984. The Dynamics of Nuclear Proliferation.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. | <urn:uuid:3f50cebf-8438-4fd7-ae7c-120646283d76> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://es.rice.edu/projects/Poli378/Nuclear/Proliferation/model.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00039-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.902156 | 1,097 | 2.75 | 3 |
Re: what does T3 T4 and TSH do in the body
The thyroid releases several hormones, the main ones are T4, or thyroxine, and T3, or triiodothyronine. T4 is a storage hormone that converts to T3, which is the active thyroid thyroid hormone that enters the cells to maintain metabolic function. T4 converts to T3 when an enzyme removes one of its iodine molecules and this happens mainly in the liver.
TSH is thyroid stimulating hormone, which the pituitary releases when it senses that there is a need for more thyroid hormones. When thyroid hormones levels are high in the body the TSH levels will be low and vise-versa. | <urn:uuid:dddf4860-0c08-4308-8c1f-ebc6a3b609a4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.healthboards.com/boards/thyroid-disorders/717026-what-does-t3-t4-tsh-do-body.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.904643 | 146 | 3.1875 | 3 |
Mule deer commonly share their range with other grazing animals such as domestic livestock, other big game (white-tailed deer, pronghorn antelope, elk) and/or exotic game species such as aoudads. An understanding of the diets of each of these herbivores is important in determining the potential for competition between different species of animals (Fig 6). Mule deer eat primarily browse and forbs with grass important only in the early spring. Cattle consume primarily grass, with forbs and browse as secondary but seasonally important components. Sheep eat more browse and forbs than cattle, but less than deer. Goats have essentially the same diets as do deer. Therefore, the potential for competition with deer is greatest from goats, less from sheep, and least from cattle. During dry years, however, all kinds of livestock tend to consume more browse, thus compounding the degree of competition with deer.
In some areas, elk and aoudads are also common neighbors of the mule deer. Elk and aoudads have broad feeding inches, consuming grass, forbs and browse as they are seasonally abundant. Therefore, these big game species can be quite competitive with mule deer for forage. A disconcerting fact is that elk and aoudads have the flexibility to shift their diets from forbs to browse to grass as the more preferred forage class becomes limited. Mule deer lack such flexibility in their diets. Pronghorn antelope have diets similar to domestic sheep, but tend to inhabit more open country than do mule deer; thus the potential for competition is minimal. | <urn:uuid:f00ab4dd-c12e-41e8-a7cb-d463e4efa792> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://agrilife.org/texnatwildlife/deer/managing-desert-mule-deerb-1636/interactions-with-other-herbivores/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00150-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963654 | 329 | 3.703125 | 4 |
Beaches and lagoons
St. Catherine’s River beach © Parks Canada/J. Sheppard
One of the most spectacular views in Nova Scotia awaits the visitor at Kejimkujik’s Seaside. From the Harbour Rocks trail, the sweeping curve of St. Catherine’s River beach is unveiled. The white sand is blinding on a sunny day. When dry, because of the uniform shape of the quartz sand grains, it “talks” as a person walks over it. This is one of the largest protected beaches in Nova Scotia.
The beaches are created by the action of current and waves that deposit fine sand in the sheltered coves of the Seaside. The sand is a product of the granite that lines the shoreline. Granite contains large amounts of quartz, a very hard and light coloured mineral. White sand, reflecting sunlight off the ocean floor is responsible for the unbelievable turquoise colour of the water. Darker patches are also present which represent those parts of the ocean floor that are covered in rock. Rocky areas are covered with seaweeds.
In some areas, the white sand contains unusual purple bands. This purple sand is actually very fine particles of garnet. This magnesium-rich mineral has been eroded from the surrounding rocks. It is very fine and less dense than the sand particles that make up the rest of the beach. Wave action is therefore able to move it to the highest part of the beach. Wind then collects and deposits it at the base of the dune grass or in other wind-traps.
Marram grass © Parks Canada
Just inland from the high tide zone on sandy beaches are wind-created dunes. Beaches are constantly being altered by the forces of the wind and the sea and can change dramatically over the course of a season. Winter storms can wash out, breach, or even move dunes around. Marram grass is the dominant plant on the dunes, holding the sand in place with its dense network of roots. The base of the dunes is critical nesting habitat for the endangered Piping plover.
Heading inland, older dunes are more stable with their carpet of Marram grass, rose, Bayberry, Poison ivy, and even the occasional white spruce. Beach pea, Starry false-Solomon’s seal, and Seaside goldenrod also grow here. Few animals live permanently on the dunes but deer and raccoons do leave traces of their passage.
The most common birds seen on sandy beaches include Spotted sandpipers in the early summer and flocks of Semi-palmated sandpipers, Least sandpipers, Sanderlings, Willets, and Semi-palmated plovers later on. These shorebirds run back and forth between the breaking waves on the beach picking up morsels of food like sandhoppers or sideswimmers. Common terns nest on the tip of St. Catherine’s River Beach. Many of these birds are migratory and make use of the Seaside’s beaches on their way to somewhere else. These beaches are therefore directly connected to coastal areas in the southern United States, the Carribean, and as far away as Antarctica.
Greater yellowlegs, Herring gull and Semi-palmated plover
© Parks Canada/P. Hope
Shells and scattered pebbles help make this beach ideal for Piping plover nests because they use these bits of flotsam to help camouflage their shallow nest depressions in the sand. The presence of the plovers and the importance of the Marram grass, which is sensitive to foot traffic, in holding down the sand, makes these dunes very special places. Avoid walking on dunes and respect beach closures where indicated.
Lagoon © Parks Canada
Beaches like St. Catherine’s River Beach and Little Port Joli beach create a sheltered body called a lagoon in behind their sandy barrier where fresh and salt water intermingle. Tides rush in through the narrow opening created by the barrier beach, flooding tidal flats and surrounding small islands with an influx of fresh, cold salt water. The lagoons experience high and low tides about every 6 hours. The fine mud which collects here is rich in nutrients and absorbs lots of heat during low tide. Fine algae grows on the mud and it can be baked into a bleached cardboard-like substance by the sun. Many types of insects and crustaceans seeks shelter from the drying sun under these mats. Eel grass provides a rich grazing ground for many shorebirds, ducks, and geese. Eagles, osprey, and herons regularly fish in the lagoon shallows. Lagoons are important nurseries for many types of fish, including the Mummichog and the Stickleback. Large numbers of marine creatures such as Soft shell clams, periwinkles, and Macoma clams are common. Raccoons come down to the lagoon’s edge to feed on these shellfish. Salt marshes, with their cordgrass and rushes fringe the lagoon.
Return to Coastal Habitats menu | <urn:uuid:b96f9a50-f9ad-462d-b556-994e001eac43> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pc.gc.ca/pn-np/ns/kejimkujik/natcul/nat/nat4/d/5.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00069-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93174 | 1,060 | 3.5 | 4 |
Winston Churchill calls for a "kind of United States of Europe" in a speech at Zurich University.
France, UK and the Benelux countries decide to set in place a Council of Europe.
Robert Schuman, the French Foreign Minister, proposes that France, Germany and any other European country wishing to join pool coal and steel resources.
Treaty of Paris signed by the Six (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands), establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).
Treaties of Rome establish the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom).
First session of the European Parliamentary Assembly held in Strasbourg, France. Robert Schuman is elected President of the Assembly.
July, seven countries of the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC) – Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK – decide to establish a European Free Trade Association (EFTA).
UK applies to join the Community.
The Parliamentary Assembly changes its name to the European Parliament.
General de Gaulle declares that France doubts the political will of the UK to join the Community.
The Treaty merging the executives of the three Communities (ECSC, EEC, Euratom) is signed in Brussels; enters into force on July 1, 1967.
UK re-applies to join the Community.
Referendum in Norway on joining; majority votes against.
January: Denmark, Ireland and the UK join the European Communities.
April: foreign secretary James Callaghan makes statement to the Council on the new Labour government’s policy on the Community. Calls for major changes in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), "fairer methods of financing the Community budget" and solutions to monetary problems.
December: the Community’s heads of state or government decide to hold meetings three times a year as the European Council, agree direct elections to the European Parliament, resolve to set up the European Regional Development Fund and establish economic and monetary union.
June: British referendum shows 67.2 per cent in favour of UK remaining a member of the Community.
European Council establishes the European Monetary System based on a European currency unit (the ECU) and the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM). The Ecu has some characteristics of a real currency and is used in travellers’ cheques and bank deposits. ERM gives national currencies a central exchange rate against the Ecu. All the community’s members apart from the UK join the ERM.
First direct elections to the European Parliament.
January: Greece becomes 10th member of the European Community.
February: draft Treaty on the establishment of the European Union passed by the European Parliament.
June: European Council in Fontainebleau agrees on the amount of rebate to be granted to the UK.
European Council in Luxembourg agrees to amend the Treaty of Rome and to revitalise integration by drawing up a Single European Act.
1 January: Spain and Portugal join the Community.
February: Single European Act signed, aiming to create a Single Market by 1992, and reforming the legislative process to speed this up.
May: the European flag, adopted by Community institutions, flown for the first time in front of the Berlaymont building, HQ of the Commission in Brussels.
Turkey formally applies to join.
European Council held in Rome launches two Intergovernmental Conferences, one on Economic and Monetary Union, the other on Political Union.
February: Maastricht Treaty on the European Union is signed, leading to creation of the euro, and the "pillar" structure of the European Union: the European Community (EC) pillar, the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) pillar, and the Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) pillar.
June: in a referendum, Denmark votes against ratification of Maastricht Treaty.
January: Single European Market enters into force.
May: in a second referendum, Danes vote in favour of Maastricht.
January: Austria, Finland and Sweden join the Union, bringing membership to 15.
March: Schengen Agreement comes into force between Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain, lifting border control.The UK and Ireland stay out of the agreement due to fears of terrorism and illegal immigration.
Amsterdam Treaty signed, emphasising citizenship and the rights of individuals, more powers for the European Parliament, the beginnings of a common foreign and security policy (CFSP).
Establishment of the European Central Bank.
Entire Commission led by Jacques Santer resigns following report by the Committee of Independent Experts on allegations of fraud, mismanagement and nepotism.
September: Danes vote against joining the single currency.
December: formal proclamation of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.
February: Treaty of Nice signed, reforming the institutional structure of the European Union to allow for eastward expansion.
June: Irish vote against the Treaty of Nice in a referendum.
January 1: euro coins and notes enter circulation in the 12 participating member states: Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain.
October: in a second referendum, the Irish people vote in favour of Nice.
May: European Union’s biggest enlargement ever as 10 new countries join - Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, the Slovak Republic, and Slovenia.
October: the Heads of State and Government and EU foreign ministers sign the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe.
May: French voters reject ratification of the European Constitutional Treaty.
June: Dutch voters reject ratification of the Treaty.
January: Bulgaria and Romania join the EU, bringing membership to 27.
June: Ireland’s voters rejected Lisbon Treaty.
June: European Parliament elections, the biggest transnational elections in history, with 736 MEPs elected to represent 500 million Europeans
October 2: Irish vote again on Lisbon | <urn:uuid:f06140cb-d070-401a-8d68-14b6219b5038> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/6181087/Timeline-history-of-the-European-Union.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00085-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.90587 | 1,244 | 3.109375 | 3 |
What are Stem Cells?
A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell that has the potential to divide and differentiate into any of the 220 types of cells in the human body.
Depending on where they are harvested, their potential will be different.
Embryonic Stem cells can be harvested from 4 or 5 day old embryos left over after in vitro fertilization or specifically prepared by cloning using the patient’s DNA. At this stage of development the embryo is no more than a ball of cells and it is the 30 or so cells known as the inner cell mass that are extracted and cultured in the lab. In this way, the 30 cells can divide into millions of stem cells each with the capability of becoming any type of cell.
Embryonic Stem Cells are the most powerfully regenerative cells tested to date. Embryonic Stem Cells prepared with the patient’s DNA by cloning can be introduced directly into the patient's organ to replace the damaged cells and make them the best body repair kit.
Our Embryonic Stem Cells are grown without animal feeder layers and thus do not present any contamination danger.What is Stem Cell Therapy?
Stem Cell Therapy (SCT), is a treatment that provides putting stem cells in the part of the body where it is needed in order to assist in the healing and regeneration of its damaged organs.
Depending on the conditions, stem cells can be delivered through the blood stream or directly to the organ that is in need of treatment. Within 30 minutes of their delivery, the body starts to repair its damaged organs and the healing process can be observed up to 10 days after the injection. Several injections might be needed depending on the severity of the conditions and the expected results. | <urn:uuid:2c6cb768-af06-4ca6-a607-e1344ca54b83> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.stemaid.com/page.php?2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00169-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938538 | 354 | 3.859375 | 4 |
NEWS RELEASE--FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE Date: July 16, 2014
Contact: Niki Forbing-Orr
Public Information Officer
Wildfires cause unhealthy air quality in central Idaho mountains
Outdoor activities should be limited in those areas
Air quality in Garden Valley and the Idaho City area has reached an “Unhealthy” designation, and the Idaho Department of Health and Welfare’s Division of Public Health is alerting people to limit outdoor activities. Because of wildfires and weather patterns, air quality conditions are not expected to significantly improve through this week.
People exposed to smoke may experience symptoms such as coughing and shortness of breath. Older adults, infants, children and people with medical conditions such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and heart disease are often more affected. People who use inhalers for asthma or other conditions should keep them close at hand. Everyone experiencing uncontrolled coughing, wheezing, choking, or difficulty breathing after moving back indoors should seek medical treatment.
To reduce your exposure to smoke and protect your health, public health officials advise:
Not all areas of the state have air quality monitors, so people are encouraged to be cautious if visibility is affected because of smoke and particulates from wildfires. If visibility is reduced to less than eight miles, sensitive groups should limit activity. If visibility is reduced to less than three miles, air quality is considered unhealthy for everyone.
For more complete information about wildfires in your area, daily updates on air quality conditions and more resources, visit the Idaho Smoke Information Blog. | <urn:uuid:714a2d49-7a64-4cdd-bdf6-b6a6cae71c47> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.healthandwelfare.idaho.gov/AboutUs/Newsroom/tabid/130/ctl/ArticleView/mid/3061/articleId/1770/Wildfires-cause-unhealthy-air-quality-in-central-Idaho-mountains.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00002-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937942 | 313 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Scientists believe a new treatment, shown to be effective in mice, could halt the growth of tumours in patients with prostate cancer.
Pioneering research, by academics at the Universities of Bristol, Nottingham and the University of the West of England (UWE Bristol), shows that a specific compound can inhibit the activity of a molecule which is key to how tumours form new blood vessels. The vessels are essential for the cancer cells to survive and multiply.
The findings, published today [10 November] in the journal Oncogene, show that targeting a molecule called SRPK1 could stop progression of prostate cancer.
SRPK1 plays a vital role in 'angiogenesis' - an essential process through which tumours are able to form blood vessels and obtain necessary nutrients to fuel their growth.
This process is mainly regulated by VEGF - vascular endothelial growth factor - which can activate or inhibit vessel formation depending on how the gene is controlled by a cellular process called 'alternative splicing'.
By analysing samples of human prostate cancer, researchers observed that SRPK1 increases as the cancer gets more aggressive.
Dr Sebastian Oltean, the study's co-author from the University of Bristol's School of Physiology and Pharmacology, said: "We reasoned that inhibition of SRPK1 activity could stop cancer progression. Indeed, we show in this paper that if we decrease SRPK1 levels in prostate cancer cells, or in tumours grafted into mice, we are able to switch VEGF splicing and therefore inhibit tumour vasculature and growth."
Researchers showed that drugs known as SPHINX compounds, designed to inhibit specifically the activity of SRPK1, are able to decrease tumour growth in a mouse model of prostate cancer when given three times weekly by injections.
Professor David Bates, co-author from the University of Nottingham's Division of Cancer and Stem Cells, said: "Our results point to a novel way of treating prostate cancer patients and may have wider implications to be used in several types of cancers."
Biotech company Exonate, a spin-out drug development company from the University of Nottingham, aims to develop SRPK1 inhibitors as treatments for diseases with abnormal vessel development such age-related macular degeneration and cancer.
This study has been funded by Prostate Cancer UK, the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) and Richard Bright VEGF Research Trust.
Dr Matthew Hobbs, Deputy Director of Research at Prostate Cancer UK, said: "There's no denying that there are too few treatment options for the 40,000 men that face a diagnosis of prostate cancer every year in the UK - especially for those with advanced disease. Prostate cancer continues to kill over 10,000 men annually and there is an urgent need for new treatments if we are to significantly reduce this figure.
"Although it's early days, each finding like this represents a crucial block in building up our understanding of what can slow down and stop the progression of prostate cancer. This understanding will give us the foundations needed to develop new targeted treatments for those men in desperate need."
'Serine arginine protein kinase-1 (SRPK1) inhibition as a potential novel targeted therapeutic strategy in prostate cancer' by Athina Mavrou, Karen Brakspear, Maryam Hamdollah-Zadeh, Gopinath Damodaran, Roya Babaei-Jadidi, Jon Oxley, David A Gillatt, Michael R Ladomery, Steven J Harper, David O Bates and Sebastian Oltean in Oncogene. | <urn:uuid:30245758-293b-4b24-bf22-43645ba50cb3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-11/uob-mbc110614.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00073-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943492 | 741 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Pagan Music Project: Risky Material From the Forbidden Library
Learn how Classical Music harbors subliminal and not-so subliminal Pagan messages.
Have you ever wondered who the high priestess of Artemis was? it was Atalanta; a virgin huntress who could outrun just about everyone she met and protected the MEN she was with! According to Theoi.com, Atalanta was also a cross-dresser and her story carries overtones of transgendered and homosexual identity.
In Greek Mythology, Atalanta is a young woman who transgresses the boundaries of sex and gender roles by joining men in the capacities of war, athletics, and hunting. Her father, having wanted a son instead, exposed her on the Parthenian hill to die. She was suckled by a she-bear until hunters found her. She landed the first shot on the Calydonian Boar, and on the advice of the oracle, remained a virgin and wary of marriage. She was a favorite of Artemis, and dedicated herself to the Goddess. Her name means "Of equal weight," meaning that she was of equal weight with boys, could do the things boys could do, etc.
In George Frederic Handel's opera, Atalanta is a high-ranking Princess who runs away to the woods to avoid being courted, for which she is not ready. She conceals her identity under the assumed name "Amaryllis." Meleagro follows her to the woods, and assumes the name Thyrsis. Meleagro takes up with Nicandro and Irene. Irene is being courted by Aminta, of whom she is unsure of his love and pretends to disdain him in order to make him prove himself. Atalanta, as Amaryllis, is hunting a boar, and Meleagro wishes to come to her aid, but she won't let him. She kills the boar on her own.
After that, the plot winds around Irene's deception of Aminta; she pretends to love Thyrsis (Meleagro), and attempts to command him. He of course, resists. However, as Meleagro realizes his love for Amaryllis (Atalanta), he buys into Irene's deception in order to make Atalanta jealous enough to speak her mind on whether or not she loves him back. Aminta, at a loss for what to do with Irene's behavior, decides to declare his love for Amaryllis, claiming that Amaryllis is not nearly as cruel as Irene. Atalanta, meanwhile, is nursing an injury from hunting the boar, and knows that she is in love with Thyrsis (Meleagro), however, will not be able to select him as a mate, since he is a shepherd and she is a Princess and it would simply not work for them to be together. Just when the scene becomes too unbearable, Nicandro appears, and reveals that Thyrsis is really Meleagro, a king. Atalanta is now free to love him as she wishes. As luck would have it, Irene has also had enough of her own deception, and admits to Aminta that she really does love him, and that loving another man was just a game. Mercury comes down from above to make a speech, and then the opera ends happily ever after.
So, our major differences in the plots of the two stories are that in the original story, Atalanta was raised in the wild, and in the opera, she was raised in civilization, retreating to the woods to avoid marriage. The original also states that Atalanta kept herself a virgin, and when she reunited with her father (after winning a race), she agreed to marry the man to beat her in a footrace, and those who lost to her were to be put to death by her. In the opera, Atalanta marries Meleager after a boar hunt and silly love games, whereas in the original story, Meleager dies shortly after the boar hunt, and it is Hippomenes to beat her in the footrace. Having been given three golden apples by Aphrodite, Hippomenes drops them at critical moments as Atalanta is gaining on him. They are so beautiful that she picks them up, and thus loses the race.
As in many love stories, Atalanta keeps marriage at a distance. However, she is not afraid of it. In the original myth, she had been cautioned by an oracle to be careful in keeping her virginity, and also told to be wary of marriage, marrying the right person only. In the opera, she runs away to the woods, and it is revealed that Meleager had been seeking her hand in marriage. (In many operas, the reason that women avoid the marriage is because they simply don't know the person to whom they are going to be tied to for the rest of their lives.) It is not until Atalanta finds love in her heart that she decides to marry him. Whereas for the original Atalanta, marriage was not an issue of loving someone; it was more important to be sure that the husband was a fit life partner.
There are a number of operas titled Atalanta, and we shall see in the future which ones adhere more closely to the original story. For now, let this indicate that Eighteenth-Century opera had a favorable disposition towards Paganism, though if this work is any indication, love stories may just find themselves wound into the original mythological plots. We shall see!
Please login first in order for you to submit comments | <urn:uuid:ae8109b8-c9d9-4c0a-b5b4-8c011955ac5c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.witchesandpagans.com/pagan-studies-blogs/pagan-music-project/atalanta.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.982603 | 1,177 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Swimming Water Quality
The map below provides a summary of monitoring results from more than 80 popular coastal, river and lake recreation sites around the Bay of Plenty. Sites are monitored for faecal contamination (bacterial monitoring) from October to March each year and for toxin-forming algae species (algal bloom monitoring) from October to June each year. Click on the area of interest for more detailed information.
You should avoid swimming in rivers for 48 hours (two days) after heavy or prolonged rain. This is because the water can be contaminated by farm and urban run-off.
If you suspect an algal bloom is present, don't swim or take part in an activity that may result in accidental consumption or exposure to water affected by algal blooms.
The Three Tier System for Swimming Water Quality
Highly likely to be uncontaminated. 'Suitable' for bathing, but requiring water managers to continue surveillance or routine monitoring.
Potentially contaminated. 'Potentially unsuitable', requiring water managers to undertake further investigation to assess suitability for recreation.
Highly likely to be contaminated. 'Highly likely to be unsuitable', requiring urgent action from water managers, such as public warnings.
- For further information on microbiological water quality monitoring, visit our monitoring information page.
- For further information on toxin-forming algae species visit our algae page.
- For more information on the health impacts and symptoms from accidentally coming into contact with contaminated water, please go to the Toi Te Ora - Public Health website.
- Visit the Rotorua Lakes Lake Health Warnings page for information on algal blooms in our lakes and our Rivers Health Warnings page for information on algal blooms in our rivers, or contact us on 0800 884 880. | <urn:uuid:55a93a44-08d4-4772-abef-364831bb6e00> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.boprc.govt.nz/environment/water/swimming-water-quality/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00115-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.91129 | 367 | 2.859375 | 3 |
© Parks Canada / Rhonda Markel
Vuntut National Park protects a representative example of the Northern Yukon Natural Region. It encompasses 4,345 sq. km. of wilderness in the northwestern corner of the Yukon Territory. The park is bounded by the height of land and Ivvavik National Park to the north, the international boundary and the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge to the west, Black Fox Creek to the east and the Old Crow River to the south.
Vuntut, along with Ivvavik and the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge represent an international effort to protect a major northern ecosystem defined in part by the Porcupine Caribou Herd -- one of the largest caribou herds in North America.
Old Crow Flats
Old Crow Flats© Parks Canada / Ian McDonald
A vast wetland complex of shallow lakes and small streams dominates the southern third of Vuntut National Park. This network is the northern extent of the Old Crow Flats - a significant area both ecologically and culturally.
In 1982, the Old Crow Flats were designated under the Ramsar Convention as a wetland of international importance. Half a million birds use the flats each year as a place to breed, moult and/or stage before starting their fall migrations. Muskrats are also plentiful, inhabiting the numerous shallow lakes and ponds found throughout the flats. In addition, the area maintains healthy populations of moose, black and grizzly bears, marten, wolverine, lynx, foxes, and wolves. The flats are also part of the annual range of the Porcupine Caribou Herd.
The northern two thirds of the park is made up of the rolling hills and peaks of the British Mountains. Here, sparse spruce forests and shrub stands are found in the valley bottoms and the southern-most slopes, while rocky tundra dominates higher elevations and grassy tundra is present in the broad, wet, gently sloping valleys.
British Mountains© Parks Canada / L. Sumi
Caribou are common in this terrain during the annual migrations to and from their calving grounds. Large predators such as grizzly bears, wolves and wolverines often follow them closely. Muskox are also becoming more common in this tundra environment. | <urn:uuid:6e26499d-ebf5-4892-b925-092bda7abe8b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/pn-np/yt/vuntut/natcul/1.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00057-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.919145 | 471 | 3.484375 | 3 |
This is a site that would bear further investigation. The top of Barretstown Hill is surrounded by a ditch and bank close on a kilometre in circumference. The bank and ditch are overgrown with hawthorn trees.
An archaeological survey of Co. Kildare mentions four round barrows here but it's hard to make them out. Are they inside the enclosure? Would that be likely, presuming that the enclosure was a habitation site? They're marked on the map as being at the south end of the top of the hill and this puts them inside. However, there are a great many earthworks to the north of the hill, scooped out quarries with small, barrow-like mounds that may be of a more modern vintage.
Barretstown Hill is the highest point for miles around and would have been easily defended. So where are the barrows? | <urn:uuid:506624f9-1a06-40c4-b58d-8aa472f4f134> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/site/10467/barretstown_hill.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00178-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978206 | 181 | 2.5625 | 3 |
British military sources report that up to 30 oil wells are burning in southern Iraq, near the city of Basra. Once an oil well catches fire, how do you put it out?
No two well fires are alike, so procedures vary depending on the type of oil, the volume of the flow, the local availability of water, and any number of factors. But according to Mark Badick of Safety Boss Inc., one of the companies that extinguished the infernos set by Iraqi troops during the first Gulf War, there are four basic steps to controlling a well fire.
1. Clear debris from the well. Firefighters need access to the flames, so they spray a curtain of water at the blaze, and then send in heavy machinery to cut away any obstructions. Removing a fence might take half an hour; removing a burning well head, the metal structure that houses the series of valves used to control the flow of oil, might require days. When Saddam ordered his men to burn to Kuwaiti oil wells, they set explosive charges on the well heads, which destroyed the machinery and ignited the oil released from underneath it. The explosions also left shards of metal at the mouth of the well, which can redirect oil flow in dangerous directions.
2.Get the flow of oil to rise straight up into the air. Ideally, once the obstructions are removed, the oil will shoot straight up like a geyser. That gives firefighters access to the flames from all angles; it also prevents oil from pooling on the ground near the well head, which might allow the blaze to spread along the ground.
3. Put out the fire and cool the surrounding area. Firefighters attack flames with 3,000-pound extinguishers that spray dry potassium bicarbonate powder (known as Purple K) at a rate of 200 pounds a second. Then, using steady streams of water in conjunction with the dry chemical extinguishers, they put out the flames. If oil has pooled on the ground, firefighters may spray it with foam that breaks the oil down at the molecular level. Once the fire is out, firefighters spray the surrounding area with water, carefully avoiding the still-flowing oil geyser; they don't want to knock the oil down to hot spots on the ground and reignite the blaze.
4. Cap the well. Once the surrounding area is cool, firefighters cap the well to shut off the flow.
There are a handful of businesses that specialize in controlling well fires, and they'll probably be called in to combat any blazes in Iraq. Safety Boss Inc., one of those companies, has been inundated with job applications in recent weeks, but they're not hiring.
Explainer thanks Robert Ebel of the Center for Strategic and International Studies and Mark Badick of Safety Boss Inc. | <urn:uuid:d9372248-d080-4095-9d26-da976f2a8186> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2003/03/how_do_you_extinguish_an_oilwell_fire.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00118-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954839 | 570 | 3.125 | 3 |
The US is the world's greatest per capita emitter of carbon dioxide with each US citizen responsible for 20 tonnes of gas annually - the world average is less than four.
Climate change protestors are upping the pressure on the US
As global warming campaigners increase pressure on the White House to cut emissions, policymakers in the US have other concerns: they say there is a threat not just from climate security but from what is known as energy security.
"We're expending tens of billions of dollars annually on the purchase of oil from other countries," explained Congressman Rich Boucher, a member of Congress's Energy and Commerce Committee.
"Most of those dollars flow to places that are not particularly friendly to the United States. This would be the Middle East primarily.
"I think our national security is affected because we simply can't offend; we have to encourage the continued flow of oil to this country."
Congressman Boucher believes it is vital the US achieves a higher degree of energy self sufficiency for security and economic reasons.
America has a plentiful source of domestic energy - coal. Half of the US's electricity comes from coal-fired power stations, but amid the political debate over climate change the fuel is not seen as eco-friendly.
The solution, according to Congressman Boucher, could be liquid coal - a type of oil produced by heating the mineral to high temperatures to squeeze out the oil.
It is a tempting prospect for politicians to use a home-grown fuel source to replace imported oil, and keep cars on the road, planes in the air.
The US Air Force wants coal-to-liquid to replace jet fuel in its fleet.
As might be expected, the coal producers and mining unions are lobbying hard.
Corey Henry, a lobbyist for the Coal-to-Liquid Coalition, highlighted its appeal.
"The way you sell this idea is by asking members of Congress if they want to gamble on letting America continue to grow ever more reliant on imported oil that, as everyone knows, can occasionally come from areas of the world that present some difficulties for the United States."
But green groups are horrified.
Kert Davies, from Greenpeace, said coal-to-liquid is one of the dirtiest energy sources available, pointing out that the only country currently using it on a large scale is South Africa. The technology was developed under apartheid when the country was starved of oil by sanctions.
"It [liquid coal] has double the greenhouse gas emissions of gasoline because of the tremendous energy involved in the process," he added.
Another green campaigner, Jennifer Morgan, of lobby group E3G, is optimistic that the debate is shifting in the US, with energy efficiency and renewable sources being looked at in a new light.
But she added: "The danger is that you are also trying to include coal and do coal-to-liquid programmes.
"One of the key goals has to be that climate security wins out against the coal-to-liquid goal otherwise we have no chance to avoid the worst impacts of climate change."
Meanwhile supporters of liquid coal such as Congressman Boucher admit its green limitations.
The coal-to-liquid plant in South Africa is said by some to be the world's greatest point source of CO2 emissions.
The congressman agrees that carbon sequestration technology would be essential to capture and store the carbon and reduce damaging emissions. However, he concedes that the technology to do that has yet to be developed.
The coal lobby is pinning its hopes on federal research funding for an experimental project.
"We are conducting research programmes and demonstration programmes to accelerate the day when it will be available in the United States - even the most optimistic estimates say that year is probably 2025," said Congressman Boucher.
In the meantime, he argues, America has to go for coal whatever the climate risks: "It is the foundation for about half the electricity generation in the US today and we don't have other readily available fuel alternatives."
Inside The Climate Change Talks will be broadcast on 0906 GMT, Tuesday 6 November 2007, 7 November and 8 November on the BBC World Service European Service. | <urn:uuid:7332ab19-8cdc-4c8f-9d59-953efaa0e0fc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/7079318.stm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403825.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961502 | 841 | 2.796875 | 3 |
The accounts of the Arab prophet Salih and his people, the Thamud, are found in numerous passages in the Quran. Muslim exegetes tend to locate the Thamud and the activites of Salih in the modern city of Mada'in Salih (i.e. "cities of Salih) in the Hijaz. Mada'in Salih is the classical Hegra (medieval "Hijra") and was the site of many monumental tombs and mountain shrines (Jabal Ithlib) in the Nabataean period.
The tomb of Salih is said to be located in Mada'in Salih, Mecca, or in the Hadhramawt. According to the local people in the Hadhramawt, Salih was the father of the prophet Hud, corresponding to the biblical Shelah father of Eber. Both Hud and Salih are said to have been giants, thus accounting for the extraordinary length of their tombs.
This black and white photograph was taken by W.H. Ingrams in the early twentieth century and published in the account of his travels to visit the tombs of Salih and Hud in the Hadhramawt. Ingrams reports that this tomb is 64 feet long. See: W.H. Ingrams, "Hadhramaut: A Journey to the Sei'ar Country and Through the Wadi Maseila," Geographic Journal 88 (1936): 524-51, esp. p. 535.
Bibliography on the Arab Prophets | <urn:uuid:4d4b7b6f-0fa3-482a-b659-e34631ed65f9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.usna.edu/Users/humss/bwheeler/salih.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00169-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935163 | 324 | 3.171875 | 3 |
Tsingy de Bemaraha National park
limestone seabed rose to create a plateau around 200 million years ago,
was little by little eroded by heavy rainfalls until it became its
shape. This massif is delimited to the east by the abrupt Bemaraha
which rises some 300 to 400m above the
The spectacular "tsingy" of Bemaraha
© Madagascar Travel Guide
The flora has a high local endemism rate. The western part is principally covered by deciduous dry forests, which are particularly well adapted to the extreme changing climate conditions of the area. The eastern section is formed by grassy savannas and lowland bushes. Inside the canyons we find small areas of dense tropical forests and lianas, since it is very humid among the tall tsingy formations.
can spot 11 lemur species, including for Decken's sifaka, red-fronted
lemur, fat-tailed dwarf lemur, grey mouse lemur or the Cleese's woolly
the Sambirano lesser bamboo lemur, which only occur here. Other
mammals are the small carnivorous falanouc and ring-tailed mongoose,
More than 100 bird species have been catalogued at present inside the National Park, including the critically endangered Madagascar fish eagle and crested ibis, Madagascar wood-rail, giant coua or Coquerel´s coua.
The 45 reptiles and amphibians which are found here are all endemic. Some significant species which only occur in Bemaraha are the
Generally most visitors coming to the park usually stay over three nights to explore this unique and amazing place. A recommended plan would be:
- Petit tsingy: this circuit of 4-5 hours of duration passes through a labyrinth of limestones and two view points over the impressive pinnacles. There are some good chances to spot the Decken’s sifaka and red-fronted brown lemurs.
- Manambolo gorge: It is a canoe trip along the gorge combined with an easier path through caves, stalactites, stalagmites and the famous family tomb of the Vazimba tribe.
- The big Tsingy: This is probably the most rewarding half-day trip within the park as it goes deep into the limestone forest passing through several hanging bridges with the impressive karstic formations below your feet. The trail is not technically difficult and even children can cope with it, but you certainly should not suffer from vertigo! The look down from the hanging bridge is something to avoid for the easily fainted.
A two day trek with camping within the park is also possible (Anjohimanintsy trail). This circuit is a combination of several shorter treks up and down across the Tsingy formations visiting an underground cave and discovering the different plants and animals sharing the different ecosystems.
|Dizzy-making bridge over the tsingy © Madagascar Travel Guide|
The Park is only opened during the dry season from April to November, since it is inaccessible during the rainy season (mid-end November to mid-end May). The Grand Tsingy are only accessible between June and the beginning of November.
The access to Tsingy de
If you are travelling by car, follow the road RN8 from Morondava until Belo-sur-Tsiribihina and once you have managed to cross the river (this can take longer than expected!) continue northwards along a bad secondary road until the
Starting in Tana, take the road RN1 until Tsiroanomandidy. Once here you can reach Bekopaka driving trough very bad roads passing by the villages of Morafeno and Antsalova.
There is a daily taxi-brousse conection between Morondava and Belo-sur- Tsiribihina and several days a week another one from Belo to Bekopaka.
A popular way of reaching Belo sur Tsiribihina is of course, descending the
The reserve can also be reached with a charter aircraft
The entry price costs Ar 25,000 for one day and Ar 37,000 for two days. The guide fees will depend on the route chosen.
Several tour operators in Morondava (where most of the organized trips to the Tsingy start off if you have not opted to take the tour on the Tsiribihina from Antsirabe) offer 4x4 for hire. A recommendable one is Madaconnection (www.madaconnection.com).
There is a local Park Office in Bekopaka when you will be informed about the different activities within the park. The well prepared guides speak just a little English!
three camping places, two on the north shore and one on the
south.The ANGAP camping is the cheapest one. The shared facilities
very simple and you need your own equipment. The practical thing is
that you do not need to cross the river to visit the tsingy.
Camping Manambolo lies next to the ANGAP one. You can put up your own tent or just lend one. The facilities are basic and the meals really tasty. The views are nice and the atmosphere really friendly. Prices are almost as cheap as in the ANGAP camp.
Camp Croco is located just opposite the ANGAP camp. The tents are large and comfortable, there are some showers with hot water and shared toilets. The restaurant serves very good food. You can put up your own tent as well.
Price for two people in a big tent 40.000 Ar
* All prices from 2010
Ibrahim (Aubergue de Tsingy)
Tel: 95 523 18
7 basic, clean and welcoming bungalows with shared facilities. Friendly atmosphere and nice staff. The best option for budget travellers.
Price for two people 15000 Ar
Relais de Tsingy
Tel: 261 32 02 049 48
8 high standard, very comfortable bungalows not far from Bekopaka village. The views over the lake and the tsingy are really terrific. The restaurant serves very good food anf full board is compulsory (20 € per person and day).
Price for a double bungalow 33 €, a familiar bungalow with two rooms 45 €
Tel: + 261 (0)32 07 202 46 / + 261 (0)32 05 21 605
Mail: email@example.com firstname.lastname@example.org
Brand new set of 20 comfortable, beautiful and high standard bungalows and different kind of rooms built on a hill with great views over the Manambolo river. Good bar-restaurant with panoramic views serves delicious meals and a new pool.
Basic room with shared facilitiesd for 12 €, double bungalow for 44 €, double room 36 €, familiar rooms for four people 52 €, room for 8 people 88 €, room for 12 people 120 €
Orchidees du Bemaraha
Phone: +261 (0)32 50 898 79
Opened in 2007, this is a new set of 18 high standard and comfortable bungalows, 6 new rooms with private facilities and 10 big tents with beds and shared toilets for 18 € by a beautiful lake.
Double bungalow for 42 €, familiar for four persons 74 € and for six persons 100 €, room for 26 €
Tel: 032 02 226 62
8 nice and comfortable bungalows with shared facilities from 12 to 22 € and tents. Friendly atmosphere and nice staff. Trips to the park organised. You can book through Les Bougainvilliers in Morondava. Very good price-quality relationship. Recommended!
Tel: 033 11 507 56 / 032 41 051 00
New bungalows complex run by a Malagasy couple. All bungalows build with traditional materials: modest, clean and really charming. Quiet and beautiful location. It is a great example of ecotourism. The traditional food is excellent and the atmosphere makes you feel at home. Recommended.
Prices between 12 and 16 € depending on facilities
do not forget: whenever you are in the park pointing with
is a serious taboo! | <urn:uuid:baf070fb-7e92-443c-8773-8df7284bfbd8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.travelmadagascar.org/PARKS/Tsingy-Bemaraha-National-Park.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.903629 | 1,737 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Details about Benthic Suspension Feeders and Flow:
This book is about those animals found on the sea floor that live by filtering microscopic particles carried by water currents. Its purpose is to review what is known about the biology of suspension feeders in relation to their flow environment. The book includes the larval biology, physiology, ethology, and ecology of suspension feeders interacting with water flow. It will be of value to marine scientists beginning research in the new, interdisciplinary field of hydrodynamics and benthic biology, and it is the first attempt to provide a comprehensive overview of this synthesis from the biological viewpoint.
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Rent Benthic Suspension Feeders and Flow 1st edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by David Wildish. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Cambridge University Press.
Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our Plant-Biology tutors now. | <urn:uuid:8ece265f-95e4-4f32-9c19-73b48964802c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chegg.com/textbooks/benthic-suspension-feeders-and-flow-1st-edition-9780521445238-052144523x | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00123-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93357 | 212 | 2.84375 | 3 |
The African leaders of the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) have clearly indicated that among their priorities are infrastructure and agriculture; the two have an interface (see Text Box 5 for the NEPAD link). Adequate and well-functioning infrastructure is essential for agriculture to be competitive due to reduced costs of delivering inputs to it and of taking produce out to markets, including any storage that this may entail; energy infrastructure is essential for development of agro-industries; information infrastructure is vital for timely technological information to farmers and agro-industrialists but also between producers and markets; water infrastructure is a precondition for irrigation and water-based power generation is the key to adequate and affordable power for Africa. In implementing agricultural development programmes, NEPAD will need to take advantage of major transport corridors for location of production and processing if it is to reach distant markets competitively; in turn, in planning major infrastructure projects, NEPAD will need to include agricultural development opportunities among the economic benefits that will make transport, power, and water investments profitable.
The share of Africa in world agricultural exports has dropped steadily, from 8 percent in 1971-80 to some 3.4 percent in 1991-2000, and reversing this decline will require increased efforts by the African countries, with the assistance of the international community, to surmount the hurdles, including domestic supply-side constraints. The latter can broadly be divided into structural constraints, which are particularly prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa, and policy-induced constraints resulting from trade and macroeconomic policies that have biased the structure of incentives against agriculture and exports. Typical structural constraints are the high dependence on a limited number of export commodities; weak technological capacities; inadequate legal and regulatory institutional frameworks; limited access of farmers to credit; and inadequate transport, storage and marketing infrastructure.
Rural infrastructure is one of several subsets of activities that are essential elements for African rural transformation. The existence of poor quality or inadequate infrastructure will inevitably impact negatively on the competitiveness of African agriculture through increasing internal transport costs, reducing levels of value-added at origin and lowering transaction efficiencies in the marketing chains, be they national or international. The provision of adequate and cost-effective rural infrastructure will clearly, therefore, underpin the development of agriculture in general and, in particular, facilitate lower-cost production and marketing to enable countries in the region to respond to both national and international market demand.
The provision of basic rural infrastructure is also a pre-requisite for enabling African countries to stimulate economic growth and to reach the targets for economic recovery and poverty alleviation by 2015: through increasing and diversifying agricultural output and employment, promoting domestic market activity and market integration, and facilitating and developing access to export markets. In addition, complementary actions will be required to improve the market access conditions facing African agricultural (including livestock and fisheries) exports in developed country markets.
This document builds on a companion FAO paper21, first presented at the 22nd FAO Regional Conference for Africa held in Cairo, in February 2002. The document sets out estimates of complementary investments in rural infrastructure that are required to support the growth in agricultural production due to the land and water developments foreseen. Such infrastructure includes rural roads, storage facilities for crops, livestock and fish products, and related processing and market facilities. Due to the range of country conditions and the lack of precise, up-to-date information regarding the current stock of rural infrastructure in any particular country, the estimates should be viewed as providing preliminary and indicative orders of magnitude only.
At the request of NEPAD, the African Development Bank prepared and released in May 2002 the draft document "NEPAD Short-term Action Plan: Infrastructure". The document, which presents a series of programmes and projects of continental or regional significance, covers the fields of energy; water and sanitation; transport; and information and communications technologies (ICT). The NEPAD Infrastructure Action Plan has the overarching goal of reducing poverty. It is driven by the belief that Africa needs to exit from international economic marginalisation through development and that such development cannot occur without trade while trade in turn cannot occur without infrastructure. The leaders of NEPAD believe that regional infrastructure is important because African economies are typically too small to generate the necessary economies of scale to reduce transaction costs and so improve competitiveness.
Energy: Although Africa has 13% of the world's population and produces of the world's energy, it consumes only 3% of global commercial energy. Africa is said to be the continent where residential connections are fewest; in 1991, it is reported that fewer than 22% of African households were connected to [electricity] networks. This state of affairs is a symptom of the low degree of modern economic activity. NEPAD aims to develop fully all forms of Africa's energy resources so as to deliver affordable energy services for development. Of the projects and programmes proposed, only one has potential for direct impact on agriculture, especially on rural industrialisation. It is a US$3 million study (proposed for 2003-2005) on "Co-operation in Rural Energy Networks".
Water: For water, the Action Plan refers to agriculture specifically, viz. "...the available resources have to be harnessed to meet the growing basic needs of water supply... contribute to food security through use of water for irrigation, and also be able to tap the available renewable hydropower potential of the continent." The Action Plan also states: " ... despite widespread and deteriorating food insecurity on the continent, and the fact that agriculture is the main user of water in most African countries, in two-thirds of them, less than 20% of the irrigation potential has been utilised .... To complicate the situation, degradation of water catchments is becoming a widespread environmental hazard with serious ramifications on water quality and on the continent's ability to feed itself." Noting that in the world, about 30-40% of food comes from the irrigated 16% of total cultivated land, the Plan sees this as an area of opportunity and observes that:
The Action Plan blames the combined effect of intensive agriculture and deforestation for degradation of river basins and also is concerned at the adverse impacts of drought, desertification and the associated deforestation, over-grazing, soil erosion, and overexploitation of underground water in arid zones such as the Maghreb and the Sahel.
Transport: Africa is the continent with the greatest number of landlocked countries. Consequently, many countries face extraordinary costs in accessing global markets. Indeed, the Action Plan quotes UNCTAD data showing that in a number of countries, the share of transport cost in value of trade is staggering: for example, transport and insurance payments as a percentage of the value of exports is: Malawi (55.5%); Chad (51.8%); Rwanda (48.4%); Mali (35.6%); Uganda (35.5%); CAR (32.8%). Clearly, this level of costs would be particularly damaging for agricultural trade where primary products are often of low value and great bulk. This situation can have many implications for agriculture, including:
Sources: Adapted (with implications for agriculture added) from: a) NEPAD Short-term Action Plan: Infrastructure. May 2002 (prepared in co-operation with the African Development Bank); b) UNCTAD, Document TD/LDC/AC.1/17, 13 June 2001
Rural transport infrastructure consists of the network of rural roads and tracks on which the rural population travels by means of walking or using non-motorised and motorised vehicles. This network includes the intra-village tracks (both informal and formal) as well as local government networks that link the rural population to the rest of the economy and the outside world. Other rural infrastructure elements - storage facilities for crops, livestock and fish products, and related processing and market facilities - are clearly more closely linked to activities in the agricultural sector and have evolved over time in extent, sophistication and modalities of ownership and operation, depending on socio-economic conditions and country policies. In the latter respect, it can be noted that there have been cases of inappropriate, and often uneconomic, investments in Africa in the past. Indeed, in some countries, there is already an abundance of crop storage facilities operated by more-or-less defunct grain marketing boards which is not necessarily being made available to the private sector. A possible exception to this is storage for food security reserves. However, in most cases, there is a need to carry out an inventory of available stores, rehabilitate them and then seek means to involve more the private sector. With regard to post-harvest activities, clearly the days of expensive government involvement in most agro-processing facilities are past, and future emphasis will probably be very much on commercial investment by the private sector.
Rural infrastructure plays a critical role in poverty reduction, economic growth and empowerment for the African rural poor. The lack of adequate and reliable infrastructure touches the life of every rural African family daily; investments in rural infrastructure, particularly rural roads, storage, processing and market facilities, will therefore be required to support the anticipated growth in agricultural production and improve competitiveness. Family efforts to escape poverty and lift themselves above subsistence levels are limited by the present poor access to markets, supplies and vital information. Local roads and tracks are often impassable making it difficult, if not impossible for rural families to access the rural economy.
Apart from North Africa, which is reasonably well endowed, Africa's rural infrastructure is generally inadequate by almost any measure: Africa's people face the longest distances to the nearest large markets; a fifth of Africa's population is landlocked -less than a third of Africans live within 100 km of the sea compared to over 40 percent for other developing regions; rail freight in Africa is under 2 of the world total, marine freight capacity 11 percent and air freight less than 1 percent; and power generation capacity per capita in Africa is less than half of that in either Asia or Latin America. The poor state of Africa's infrastructure reflects neglect of investment. External investment in economic infrastructure22 in the period between 1990 and 1996 for Sub-Saharan Africa was US$26.7 billion, compared to US$41.4 billion for Latin America and the Caribbean and US$101.9 billion for Asia, of which some US$71.9 billion for East Asia alone.
With the exception of the Mahgreb countries in North Africa, Africa's road network is particularly underdeveloped. It is clear that many Sub-Saharan African countries face a significant handicap in terms of rural road infrastructure, and they compare unfavourably with both North Africa and other parts of the world. For example, local road densities in a sample of representative countries in Sub-Saharan Africa show a mean density of 0.86 km per thousand head of population, while the equivalent density in Tunisia is 2.6 km/1 000 persons, and in South Asia is some 1.8 km/1 000 persons; for middle-income countries, the density is 8.5 km/1 000 persons. Africa has the lowest density of paved roads of any of the world's regions, which hinders access to markets. For example, there are an estimated 1.8 million km of roads in Sub-Saharan Africa, of which only 284 000 km (16 percent) are paved (Table 11). Poverty and remoteness are particularly associated in Africa where the combination of scarce and poor roads results in high transport costs and make parts of the economy only semi-open. For example, recent studies in Burkina Faso, Uganda and Zambia have shown that walking is the principal means of transport for 87 percent of rural households23. Table 10 gives details of the current provision of road infrastructure for each of the major Africa sub-regions.
The few available data on rural roads also point to an African handicap relative to other developing regions (Tables 11, 12) which provide comparative data among regions of the world. Table 13 compares data from the early 1990s on the existing rural road network for African countries in the Humid and Sub-humid Tropics with those of India in 1950 (about 15 years before the green revolution period) - adjusted for population density. To the extent that adoption of high-yielding varieties depends on infrastructure, the extent of the handicap of many African countries becomes clear.
Africa is also deficient in port infrastructure, a situation partly associated with the fact that it has very modest international trade that could justify necessary investments, and partly due to the fact that most of them were built during the colonial period. Levels of traffic at many African ports, both marine and air, are quite low in relation to the heavy investments incurred; accordingly they represent outlays with low rates of return and may be a drain on treasuries while failing to be fully productive assets to the economies they serve. World-class ports are only found in South Africa and Egypt, with lesser ones in East Africa. Existing port facilities were often built for broad commercial objectives and failed to take into account the special needs of specific sub-sectors such as fisheries, livestock, forestry etc.
A similar picture prevails for airports that could facilitate exports of high-value perishables. While many airports have runway capacity to handle large cargo craft, there is neither the volume of exports nor the cold storage chain to support their contribution to exports. Notable activity is restricted to a few airports such as Johannesburg, Nairobi, Cairo and one or two other hubs.
Good quality infrastructure is a particularly important contributor to competitiveness and growth in agriculture. Many agricultural commodities are either bulky or perishable (or both), and costs of transporting both inputs and products can account for a high share in the value of final products where infrastructure and physical market access conditions are inadequate (e.g. 40 percent difference between margins for food grains in Kenya and Malawi and those in Bangladesh and Indonesia)24. In these cases, markets may remain effectively insulated, even if all trade barriers are lowered or removed. Current information on market accessibility underscores the importance of good quality infrastructure, with nearly all landlocked countries in the world currently being poor, and regions linked to coasts by ocean-navigable waterways being strongly favoured in development terms relative to their hinterlands. Poor infrastructure provision is detrimental to the vitality of agriculture in the continent and thus to prospects for poverty reduction. High transport costs reduce marketing margins, raising consumer or border prices and effectively closing off more remote regions. High transport costs effectively make much of African agriculture "semi-closed": any efficiency gains in production may be eroded by the high cost of transport and of other related transactions, which create a wedge between commodity prices at the farm-gate and border, and ratchet up prices of imported inputs.
Information on the current state, distribution and availability of livestock infrastructure is very scarce and somewhat anecdotal; there is clearly a need to review at national levels the state of this stock before proceeding with significant investment programmes in support of the sector. A 1996 study25, while underlining the serious problems of inadequate infrastructure in the under-developed communal areas of Southern Africa, observed that - in general terms - the commercial sectors were generally more favourably endowed. In summary, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mauritius had adequate infrastructure, while other countries of the region had some or serious problems.
The fishery sector in Africa is characterised by a dualistic structure with an industrial sub-sector, composed by large boats operating on a purely commercial basis targeting high quality/high value fish to serve northern markets and a high degree of vertical integration from fishing through storing and processing up to marketing in northern markets. Most value added is therefore kept by the company itself and very little left within the country, as post-harvest infrastructure, where existing, is limited to storage capacity and very little processing. On the other side is the artisanal sub-sector, composed by African fishermen engaged mainly for subsistence and the local market, using labour-intensive technology. Among the major constraints are access roads, appropriate landing facilities, and availability of adequate gear and other inputs. Future developments in the sector, aimed at promoting a locally-owned industrial fleet, and to create conditions for investments in processing infrastructure within the continent, would have to include ports suitable to the needs of the sector, strategically located with respect to the fishing areas and with the required handling facilities.
As of now, markets for artisanal fishery products are also extremely important in the African continent for both coastal communities, whose livelihood strategies are heavily dependent on fisheries, and inland populations, for which fish represents usually a cheap source of protein and nutrition compared to other sources. Improvements to market infrastructure coupled with investments in connecting rural roads would reduce transaction costs with likely beneficial effects on both producer incomes (higher producer prices) and increased accessibility to fish and fish products for consumption by the general population (with lower consumption prices). Being built for general purposes, many African ports fail to meet the needs of artisanal fisheries, where the construction of small fishing jetties and docks could serve the many communities and villages along the African coast, thus creating poles of development that could easily link with national and regional markets.
Africa faces trade challenges at many levels: the farmer faces non0-remunerative markets and loses the incentive to produce; the nation-state fails to find rewarding markets both within the region and globally; Africa as a region is marginalised as well as being often uncompetitive in the international marketplace; furthermore, Africa continues to offer mostly unprocessed produce, for which prices are static or falling. Responses to these issues pose challenges that NEPAD will need to address at the appropriate level.
In terms of trade and market access, the importance of domestic markets should not be neglected. A strong domestic market is a building block for export markets and there should be broad participation in domestic markets: e.g. small farmers, women, etc. But to tap their potential requires strong institutional capacities and the implementation of relevant policies (e.g. competition, tariff policy, financing, market development, etc.).
Rural people in Africa, especially the poor, often say that one reason they cannot improve their living standards is that they face difficulties of accessing markets where they can obtain agricultural inputs and consumer goods and sell their produce. Until a decade or so ago, for smallholder farmers, major markets were organised by governments, and exchanges were not critically influenced by farmer knowledge and organisation. Nearly everywhere the situation has changed radically. Smallholder farmers no longer face an assured market for their produce at fixed, pan-territorial prices that often represented a large tax on the value of their produce. Similarly, they no longer face a predictable supply situation for inputs and, in today's world, they may not be able to afford to buy what becomes available. A market environment which was far from perfect, but at least offered farmers some degree of security, has been replaced by a new one which is highly uncertain, and in which prices, whether for selling produce or purchasing inputs, are now largely negotiated. New commercial relations must be struck with a myriad of suppliers and buyers.
For some farmers - particularly those producing export crops in areas enjoying good communications, this has created major new opportunities. For others - particularly those trying to produce and market staples at the agricultural margins, it has created major problems. Market access has become a critical determinant of farmers' production systems: those who live close to better roads and have more frequent and direct contact with the market are willing to produce more systematically for the market, while those with poor market access have little incentive to produce crops other than those required for domestic consumption. Put another way, improved market access is a prerequisite to increased farmer incomes.
By and large, smallholder farmers are ill equipped to extract the maximum from the new market relations that they face. They confront not only an uncertain production environment, but also enormous constraints in physically accessing markets - they are typically distant and transportation costs are high, and in many cases, there are few buyers of produce. Poor farmers in Africa are also constrained by lack of information about the markets, lack of business and negotiating experience, and lack of a collective organisation which can give them the power they need to interact on equal terms with other, generally larger and stronger, market intermediaries. The result is poor terms of exchange and little influence over what they are offered. Remunerative markets are an essential element in progressively making African agriculture entrepreneurial; income from well-functioning markets, when combined with credit, can offer the real prospect of sustainable farmer investments needed for productive agriculture in future.
The situation is often no better on the other side of the market equation - that is, for the wholesalers who purchase farm surplus and those who sell technical inputs and provide finance to smallholders. In the wake of a history of limited "space" for the operation of private traders and the absence of adequate sources of investment finance an efficient private sector does not spring up overnight. The lack of basic infrastructure in many areas further discourages the entry of efficient and competitive private sector services and results in high transaction costs, which together translate directly into low prices to farmers. Restrictive or non-supportive government policies - or the local and inappropriate application of policies, further increase the cost of doing business and constrain the development of a new private sector. Neither the poor nor rural economic growth is served by an uncompetitive market structure.
African governments and their development partners have an important role to play in this area of market development, with three objectives in mind: speeding up the rate of market development; removing or reducing barriers to market access, both by special support in places where markets are slow to develop spontaneously and by easing market participation of poorer producers; and establishing a more equitable set of market relations between producers and markets intermediaries. They can make a difference in several ways:
The export of agricultural products is essential for African economic growth as agriculture plays a major role in the continent's overall economy. On the world stage, the value of Africa's agricultural exports, which amounted to US$14 billion in 2000 is growing extremely slowly, having been US$12 billion in 1990. The share of Africa in world agricultural exports has dropped steadily, from 8 percent in 1971-80 to some 3.4 percent in 1991-2000, and reversing this decline will require increased efforts by the African countries, with the assistance of the international community, to alleviate their domestic supply-side and other constraints. These can broadly be divided into structural constraints, which are particularly prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa.
The constraints concern the countries' high dependence on a limited number of export commodities, weak technological capacities, inadequate legal and regulatory institutional frameworks and insufficient transport, storage and marketing infrastructure, and policy-induced constraints resulting from trade and macroeconomic policies that have biased the structure of incentives against agriculture and exports. According to a recent meeting organised by IFAD in relation to NEPAD,26 farmers lack the necessary skills to access markets, the information on market opportunities and prices. Furthermore, physical access to markets is poor, transaction costs are high, and these factors, combined with farmers' lack of organisation, results in low producer prices. On the national and local levels, the withdrawal of governments from direct involvement in marketing has left large gaps which the private sector is not yet able to fill; while the global conditions have created an inherently unfavourable environment for smallholder producers to enter markets - declining prices and heavy industrial country agricultural subsidies among them.
Africa's failure to produce enough domestically has contributed to progressive growth in food imports in the last years of the20th century, with Africa spending an estimated US$ 18.7 billion in 2000 - significantly more than the value of exports. Africa's shares of total agricultural imports in 1998 were 4.6 percent (world), 16.3 percent (developing countries). Agricultural imports account for about 15 percent of total African imports. It is of particular concern that the share of gross export revenues needed for importing food has increased from 12 percent to over 30 percent in East Africa. It is against this background that a major thrust to promote exports and market access is justified for Africa.
Trading opportunities for African agricultural exports are dominated by developed country markets27, and their conditions of access are of critical importance. Despite progress made in the implementation of the Uruguay Round Agreements, support to agriculture in developed countries continues to be high ($311 billion in OECD countries in 2001), tariff peaks still persist in several products (e.g. sugar, meat and horticultural products), and tariff escalation (higher tariff on more processed products which are given greater protection to the processing industry of the importing country) still prevails in several important product chains (e.g. coffee, cocoa, oilseeds, vegetable, fruit and nuts and hides and skins). The new WTO negotiations on agriculture aim to achieve substantial multilateral improvements in market access, the reduction of all forms of export subsidies and in trade-distorting domestic support.
At present, access of African agricultural exports to the developed country markets is governed largely by trade preferences they receive from several developed countries. These include in particular, preferences under the generalised system of preferences (GSP), the EU ACP agreements, the Euro-Mediterranean Free Trade Areas and the US African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA). However, the most significant development in trade preferential arrangements is the EU's ("Everything but Arms") initiative of duty-free and quota-free entry for all products (except arms) in favour of LDCs, 34 of which are African countries. This suggests that access to the EU markets for agricultural products may no longer be a major problem for African LDCs. A number of factors, however, may impede the ability of African countries to utilise the preferential access. These include, for example, rules of origin and standards such as sanitary/phytosanitary requirements and other technical barriers to trade.
Globalisation was expected to offer opportunities for growth and development, but in the case of Africa, the hopes and promises attached to rapid liberalisation of trade and finance have not so far been fulfilled. Export patterns continue to be characterised by a small number of primary (often plantation-based) commodities and dependency on preferential access to a few developed-country markets. An important reason for this is the supply-side constraints in the countries themselves. But others have their origins elsewhere. For example, under agricultural and trade policies of industrialised countries in 2001 alone, total subsidies to agriculture by OECD countries were estimated at over US$311 billion (For a topical development on this see Text Box 6). This gives a major competitive edge to the agricultural sectors of these countries (adding to the superiority of technology they already enjoy) that poorer countries cannot match. Expenditure on agricultural subsidies for the few in developed countries dwarfs official development assistance for the many countries in Africa, and the negative impact on the poor is quite clear. It is an irony that many African countries have largely internalised the perspective that a dynamic and sustainable agricultural economy cannot be based on subsidies; yet their agricultural systems continue to be undermined by the subsidies paid out in precisely the developed countries that are the main proponents of liberalisation.
High tariffs and non-tariff barriers continue to be a major obstacle to regional African trade and regional integration will contribute to providing economies of scale and improved international competitiveness. However, the liberalisation of African markets is probably the key to optimising economies and to creating social wealth. The Africa Group has clearly indicated to WTO its commitment to further domestic tariff reduction in agriculture, linked to substantial progressive reduction of both domestic support and the level of export subsidies in developed countries. However, developing countries will need the assurance that improved market access conditions will not be exploited by highly subsidised products from developed countries. A further consideration is that trade and market access can only increase in a conducive environment for investment (infrastructure development, financial structures, strong national regulatory authorities to implement, information, and market development).
The case for reform in agricultural trade is being made ever more strongly; real structural change/reforms are necessary in developed countries to ensure that developing countries can equally participate in international trade and that production takes place in line with comparative advantages and not in accordance with the availability of financial resources to support agricultural production. To this effect, African regional interaction in related international standard setting fora needs to be strengthened - both in Geneva, as well as on a regional basis in Africa, in particular the WTO meetings on SPS and TBT Agreements, and the IPPC, Codex, OIE, etc. The Africa Group has submitted a firm proposal for the second phase of the WTO-mandated negotiations on agriculture and this needs to be concretised and taken forward in the Doha negotiations process. This should lead to increased market access, a substantial reduction in trade and production distorting support, and the elimination of export subsidies. However, differential treatment should be extended to developing countries and should form an integral part of the negotiations.
With export markets that African farmers need so heavily distorted, and prices for many of their products similarly working against them, liberalisation and globalisation are often for them more a poverty trap than a path to development. Small farmers in Africa gain scanty rewards for their efforts and so their progress towards development will remain meagre unless the situation improves.
Only some 31 percent of African agricultural exports are currently shipped to developing countries and a significant potential exists for South-South trade if conditions for market access are improved. Intra-Africa trade may offer particular opportunities, given the political will in this direction. However, there are significant constraints, including: inadequate physical infrastructure, unstable market opportunities related to production variability, relatively small markets, lack of current market information and trading skills, uncertain policy environments, and rapidly changing trade regulations. Solution of these will require countries to develop regional or continent-wide technical standards for various sectors including plant protection and fisheries. A continent-wide approach, starting at regional level, may facilitate both the harmonisation of standards and the improvement of infrastructure and enforcement mechanisms - all in the context of compatibility with international recommendations in order to avoid adoption of norms that would create confusion, distort markets and, potentially, conflict with WTO agreements.
It may be noted that Africa is urbanising and so creating large concentrated markets that may offer a focus for entrepreneurial agriculture in future. IFAD recently observed for Western and Central Africa28 that by 2030 most people in that sub-region will be urban: this may create major opportunities for markets development due to spiralling urban demand.
The reality that NEPAD market access will face is that it remains uncertain whether developed countries will reduce farm subsidies or, if they will, how fast. The adoption of the US "Farm Security and Rural Investment Act, 2002" is a case in point. A recent review indicated that the Bill:
Source: Questions & Answers - US Farm Bill: http://www.wtowatch.org/library/admin/upt (23/05/02).
Meeting technical standards for export products, in the context of the WTO, SPS and TBT Agreements, remains a major challenge for all African countries. The gap in these standards between the African and richer countries is already high, and may grow wider unless a massive effort is undertaken to raise standards. The gaps tend to be higher precisely on those value-added, processed products where global demand is elastic, as against primary agricultural products. Because of their limited capacities in scientific research, testing, conformity and equivalence, they face difficulties in meeting international safety and quality standards. The task is even more daunting when the developed countries, on risk assessment grounds, adopt higher standards than those currently recognised by international standard-setting bodies. Moreover, rising consumer concerns in the affluent countries over food safety and quality compound the difficulty of the African countries in meeting ever-higher standards.
To overcome these handicaps will require large amounts of investment in both facilities and human resources. Overall, African countries face many impediments to spur diversified agricultural growth and to gain from trade, despite the implementation of the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture. But this also means that the scope for reforming the global trading system is immense. However, in order to take advantage of new trading opportunities Africa needs to strengthen supply-side capability.
Most of the African countries to be included come within the Least Developed Country (LDC) category and, as such, have been exposed to years of fiscal austerity programmes. Austerity explains part of the decline in funding but other contributors include failures to find alternative sources of income to replace declining revenues from weaker terms of trade in their traditional markets; the drop in ODA; and reduction in private finance for infrastructure. With regard to ODA: in 1990, Africa received 30 percent of global agricultural ODA, but its share declined to 21 percent in 1998. Moreover, the total flow of official development assistance to primary agriculture declined over the same period from US$11 billion to only US$7.4 billion. The lack of funding has contributed not only to insufficient infrastructure construction but also to a lack of appropriate maintenance - hence there are also substantial needs for rehabilitation.
Thus, the strategy to address rural infrastructure requirements both to complement the projected expansion in areas benefiting from land and water developments and the requirements of the other major agricultural sub-sectors (particularly livestock and fisheries but in some countries also forestry) will clearly depend on the country concerned and would have the following main elements:
Institutional support will be required for capacity building and training in support of all levels and types of institutions responsible for the planning, design, construction and continuing operation, maintenance and management of rural infrastructure; these would range from central to local level/decentralised government entities, representative bodies, private sector actors, NGOs and CBOs, etc.
Clearly, the way forward will be influenced by the fact that current assets of productive and rural infrastructure differ from country to country not only in terms of scope, extent and coverage, but also in the way that they are owned, managed and financed. In the last decade, such infrastructure has come to be seen not so much as a public asset, but rather as a stream of demand-driven services involving the State, the private sector and, particularly, the users themselves. In the future, in the relative absence of a strong private sector, rural infrastructure in Africa will have to be financed by a larger proportion of concessional loans and grants and be more community-based, provided the appropriate capacity can be built. An appropriate mix of financing from public sources (both domestic resources as well as international loans and grants) and private resources will also have to be considered, in line with the capacity of the existing stock and its conditions, country policies, institutional capacities and private sector interests including the interests of rural communities.
Prospects for export growth in Africa are more promising in new crops and processed products than in traditional primary commodities and several non-traditional agricultural commodities, particularly, but not exclusively, horticultural products, would appear to offer important opportunities for some African countries. The developments in water and land infrastructure, with complementary investments in rural infrastructure would underpin such market diversity.
Actions in support of improving African countries' access to external markets will also include a number of policy and institutional related themes. For example, developed countries could improve access to their own agricultural markets by, inter alia: (i) granting duty-free and quota-free market access, similar to those provided by the EU to LDCs; (ii) easing rules of origin criteria; and (iii) providing assistance to African countries to meet SPS/TBT standards. In addition, technical and financial assistance will be required to help build capacity in African countries to face the challenges and take full advantage of the opportunities flowing from the multilateral trading system, and to participate fully as equal partners in the new WTO negotiations on agriculture. Finally, assistance will be required to help countries address the weaknesses in their food safety and quality control systems, and the associated institutions.
While these actions may improve the trading environment for exports, they will not necessarily result in an expansion. There is a clear need to diversify the production and export base (both horizontally and vertically) from low value-added to high value-added products. The challenge for African countries is to initiate and sustain the momentum of modernisation and diversification of their agriculture in order to realise the considerable potential that exists. This will require substantial investments for upgrading the marketing, transport and communication infrastructure; irrigation improvements and modernisation; improving the efficiency of financial institutions; strengthening research and extension for developing and adopting relevant technology; and establishing a fair and open regulatory framework. A large part of these investments have been incorporated in the section on rural infrastructure. The investment provision under "trade-related capacities for improved market access" therefore focuses on enhancing safety and quality standards, marketing and promotional services, and strengthening trade-related institutional capacities.
In order to assess in broad terms the requirements for investments in storage, processing, market facilities and rural roads, the following steps have been taken:
The general assumptions used in developing these estimates are as follows:
Data for 1999 from the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) sources for total roads (rural and non-rural) have been used for establishing the baseline situation (2001) for the current stock of roads, by country. This stock of rural roads has been derived by assuming that 20 percent of paved roads and 90 percent of unpaved roads are rural. With this baseline, minimum mean targets for 2015 have been applied, equivalent to a level of 5 km/1 000 persons and 25 percent of paved roads, to obtain an estimate, by country, of the requirements for new roads. In addition, it was assumed that 70 percent of existing rural roads require rehabilitation - see below. Rehabilitation would involve regrading and re-forming the road base and gravel surface as well as repairs to cross-drainage structures, as appropriate. Clearly, specifics can only be given after suitable feasibility and design studies have been undertaken.
Average unit costs for rural roads - rehabilitation and construction - have been applied, as follows:
Requirements for annual investment costs of the categories of rural infrastructure are derived, as follows:
Estimates of the rehabilitation and construction requirements for rural roads, by region, are shown in Table 14.
The estimated total investments in rural infrastructure required to support the increases in agricultural crop production arising from the land and water developments foreseen by the year 2015, together with supporting infrastructure for the livestock and fisheries subsectors, amount to some US$91 billion, distributed as follows: crop storage infrastructure 9 percent, crop marketing facilities 7 percent, processing facilities 14 percent, livestock and fisheries infrastructure 3 percent, and rural roads 68 percent. Table 17 provides details of the estimated total investment costs for each category, by region; Table 18 offers the annualised costs for each category, including both investments and operation/maintenance.
The total costs required for improving countries' access to external markets are estimated at some US$2.79 billion. To these totals must be added allocations for maintenance, calculated at nearly US$37 billion. Annual incremental investment requirements during the period 2003 - 2015 would clearly not be uniform but would depend largely on countries' absorption capacity in institutional, financial and technical terms, and their access to additional sources of finance. Over the period, average annual increments would range from some US$5 to 8 billion. Immediate investment requirements (2002-2005) would amount to some US$24 billion, while short-term requirements (2006-2010) would amount to some US$37 billion and medium-term requirements would total some US$33 billion.
In addition, operation and maintenance requirements31 for all categories of rural infrastructure are estimated to reach annually, by the year 2015, some US$3.72 billion; equivalent to an overall expenditure throughout the period of some US$36.9 billion.
These estimates will need to be refined and confirmed, on a country-by-country basis. An overall breakdown, by sub-region, of rural infrastructure investment requirements is shown in Table 17.
Projections for the distribution of public private financing within this overall envelope must remain, at this stage, highly conjectural and will require specific country conditions to be taken into account. However, to facilitate this initial global analysis, a possible scenario is presented in Table 19. This indicates that, overall, the distribution of financing for rural infrastructure could be - public US$60.5 billion, private US$30.4 billion, equivalent to a 2:1 ratio. The likelihood of private sector participation to this degree will need country by country assessment, given that historical involvement has been weak except in a few countries. Regarding the apportionment of investment by external and African sources, Table 20 offers one estimate, which also would eventually need case by case review. In the first place some activities appeal to external partners better than others and in the second place, the specific beneficiary country affects external investor willingness to proceed. Both Tables 19 and 20 reflect significant optimism about private sector participation which may be seen in the context of more conservative expectations of possible progression of all-Africa shares of public and private funding given in Table 3.
Benefits arising from investments in rural infrastructure and improved market access will clearly need some time to materialise in terms of impact on productivity, agricultural growth and consequent poverty reduction. However, available evidence points to an increase of 1 percent in GDP per caput in developing countries for every one- percent increase in the stock of infrastructure per person. For Africa, this impact is likely to be larger due to the constraints placed on the region's competitiveness by geography and the resulting difficulty of accessing markets. In particular, Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest percentage in the world of land-locked populations and the lowest share of population with access to coast or river. Proper rural infrastructure is therefore necessary to make up for at least part of the region's geographical handicaps, especially in the face of increasingly integrated world markets.
There are also a number of other direct benefits that can arise in the short- and medium-term, which will contribute to stimulate economic growth. First, construction of rural infrastructure directly stimulates output and employment and, in African economies where labour is relatively abundant, increased impact occurs due to the multiplier effect. Second, good quality infrastructure promotes domestic market activity and market integration by lowering both transaction costs and the costs of inputs. In addition, it expands the size of the market for domestically produced goods and services by facilitating access to regional international markets.
Clearly, the projections of rural infrastructure requirements need to be placed in their specific country-based policy and socio-political frameworks, with consideration also taken of the countries' physical conditions and socio-economic settings. Investments will need to be judged in a strategic manner so that the benefits of diversification and intensification of agricultural production are fully realised and can respond to the changes in market conditions. The proper identification of rehabilitation needs and priority investment requirements will necessitate a broad and multi-sectoral approach, involving several sect oral ministries within each government as well as a range of civil society actors.
After full agreement has been reached on both the strategy and broad content of the national programme, full investment formulation that meets the needs of domestic or external (multilateral and bilateral) funding sources will have to be carried out. Overall, a flexible, participatory approach will be needed, with full national and local involvement and commitment. International partners, including FAO, could initially assist NEPAD in this process in four ways:
21 FAO Support to The New Partnership for Africa's Development: Quantitative Estimates of Investment Potential for Land and Water Development in Africa.
22 Including communications, energy, transport, water, sanitation. Sources: UNCED Secretariat; Euromoney 1997/98 Annual report.
23 Barwell, I. 1996. Transport and the Village. World Bank, Discussion Paper No. 344. 1996.
24 IFAD. 2001. Rural Poverty Report.
25 FAO. 1996. Livestock and Meat Trade in the SADC community.
26 Regional Workshop on Poverty Reduction and Rural Growth in Eastern and Southern Africa. Dar-es-Salaam, 23-24 May 2002. Provisional Summary of Proceedings.
27 Currently receiving more than 70 percent of African agricultural exports.
28 IFAD Strategy for rural poverty reduction in Western and Central Africa. http://www.ifad.org/operations/regional/2002/pa/pa.htm
29 FAO. World Agriculture: Toward 2015/30 (AT 2015/30).
30 Based on 1996 WFS estimates for costs of storage, marketing and processing facilities, adjusted for inflation.
31 Including allowances for both institutional strengthening and the recurrent costs of the organisations responsible for operation and maintenance. | <urn:uuid:e584a89b-0c2f-43a3-82ae-c40266c258c8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y6831E/y6831e-04.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00154-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944873 | 9,101 | 2.828125 | 3 |
The uneven distribution of rainfall has often threatened human welfare, livelihood and economic development. The growing scarcity of water is due to the rapid growth of population, rising demand for food and cash crops, increasing urbanisation and rising standard of living. All these have increased the acuteness of the problem of water scarcity in future.
For efficient water conservation and management, the following points are to be kept in mind:
1. To aware people about the necessity of water and its conservation.
2. To involve people in all the activities of water management.
3. To make people aware that treated water should not be used in gardening, washing toilets and wash basins and so on.
4. Drying up of underground aquifers should be prevented.
5. Water-bodies should be kept pollution-free.
6. Different measures for specific area should be adopted for efficient water management, and active cooperation of the local people should also be sought in every measure. In spite of the fact that irrigation facilities in the country have improved considerably since independence, two-third of the cropped area is still rained. Increased use of tube wells and wells in recent years has lowered the water table and has caused depletion of underground water resources.
Water shed is a physiographic unit that can be used conveniently for integrated development or small natural unit areas. It is the basin of a tributary. It is developed taking into consideration the land capability and the local needs of the people. | <urn:uuid:df3a87a5-2f62-43df-b3ba-fe31aacf5923> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.preservearticles.com/201104215620/conservation-and-management-of-water-resources.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00140-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951656 | 300 | 3.4375 | 3 |
In this section you will learn how to create and delete the database in MySQL. MySQL provides the both commands. In this section you can learn the following things :
Once you enter the command prompts then ready to access the database. Before creating a database firstly check the currently existing database in the server by SHOW statement.
|mysql> SHOW DATABASES;|
SHOW statement shows you a list of databases. This statement does not show you those database for which you don't have the privilege for.
Creating And Selecting a Database
|mysql>CREATE DATABASE search
This statement is used for creating a database by the
name of search. But if the administrator is creating a database for you then you
have to setting up the permission before using it. Else create it yourself.
Creating a database does not mean that it is select for use, you have to select it explicitly by the USE command.
|mysql> USE search|
You have to create the database only once but if you want to access this database then you have to select it to each time by using USE statement.
MySQL Creating Table
Creating a database is very easy part but at this point you want the list of tables by SHOW TABLES statement it shows empty.
|mysql> SHOW TABLES;
Empty set (0.00sec)
The most important part is deciding the structure of the database means what tables you are required and what type of column you should have in each table. By the following example you can learn about the creation of table :
|mysql>create table Emp (fname VARCHAR(20), lname VARCHAR(20), city VARCHAR(20), ->sex CHAR(1), bod DATE);|
If you want to show the structure list of your table then use DESCRIBE statement. like :
After creating the table you need to load the data in this table, you can do this by using the INSERT statement. Following example is helps you to teach the INSERT statement.
|mysql>INSERT INTO Emp VALUES('Amar', 'Patel', 'Delhi', 'M', '14-02-2004');|
After inserting the data into the table, now we discuss about retrieving the data from the table. For retrieving the data we used the SELECT statement. The general syntax of SELECT statement is :
|SELECT column_names FROM table_name WHERE condition_to_satisfy|
colum_names means what you want retrieve. It can be column names or * that means all columns data. table_name means table name from that you want to show the data But WHERE clause is optional. It is used where you want to put some condition for retrieving the data.
|mysql> SELECT * FROM Emp;
mysql> SELECT fname,lname FROM Emp;
mysql> SELECT * FROM Emp WHERE fname='Amar';
In above table first statement is used to retrieve the full list of table Emp. But from the second statement you get the only fname and lname column of whole table. And by the third statement you will get the only row that match with the fname equals to 'Amar'.
If you need to delete the database then you have to use the DROP statement. Example -
|mysql> DROP DATABASE search;|
CREATE USER Syntax :
Create user syntax is :
CREATE USER user_name [IDENTIFIED BY[password]
Create User statement is used to create a new MySQL account. For using this statement you must have the global CREATE USER privilege or the INSERT privilege for the mysql database.
MySQL drop User syntax:
The DROP USER statement is used to delete the one or more MySQL accounts. But you must have the global CREATE USER privilege or DELETE privilege for the mysql database. The general syntax to drop user is :
|DROP USER user_name;|
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Internal parasite (worm) control
In most sheep production areas, internal or gastro-intestinal
parasites (i.e. worms) are usually the primary disease affecting
sheep and lambs. Sheep are more susceptible to internal parasites
than most other types of farm livestock for several reasons. Their
small fecal pellets disintegrate very easily thus releasing the
worm larvae onto pastures.
They graze close to the soil surface and to their feces. They
are slow to acquire immunity. It takes 10 to 12 months for most
lambs to develop immunity to parasites. Sheep also suffer a loss
of immunity at the time of lambing, which does not restore itself
until approximately four weeks after lambing.
Heavy stocking rates and insufficient pasture rest periods
further contribute to the incidence of parasitic disease in
sheep and lambs. Internal parasites tend to be much less of
a problem under range-type conditions where sheep do not graze
the same pasture twice in the same grazing season. They are
also less of a problem in arid regions, because parasites require
moisture for their development.
In the past, sheep producers relied heavily on anti-parasitic
drugs, called "anthelmintics" to control internal
parasites in their flocks. But the long-time use and in some
cases misuse of these drugs has resulted in parasites that have
become increasingly resistant to anthelmintics. Drug resistance
has been documented in all three drug families and is most commonly
reported with ivermectin and the benzimidazoles.
In the U.S., few anthelmintics are FDA-approved for use in sheep
and lambs, and no new drugs are likely to be developed. As a
result, producers must develop more integrated programs for
controlling parasites, which do not rely exclusively on drug
Gastro-Intestinal Worms (roundworms, nematodes, stomach
In warm, moist climates, the parasite that causes the most problems
to sheep and lambs is usually Haemonchus Contortus, better
known as the "barber pole" or wire worm. The barber
pole worm is a blood-sucking parasite that pierces the lining
of the abomasum (the sheep's fourth or "true" stomach),
causing blood plasma and protein loss to the sheep.
Females are identified as barber pole worms because their white
ovaries are wound around their red blood-filled intestine. Male
worms are red. The barber pole worm is the largest and most
deadly stomach worm.
The symptom most commonly associated with barber pole worm infection
is anemia, characterized by pale mucous membranes, especially
in the lower eye lid; and "bottle jaw," an accumulation
(or swelling) of fluid under the jaw. Infections with barber
pole worm rarely result in diarrhea (scours). The other worm
species are more likely to cause diarrhea. The barber pole worm
is difficult to control because it has a short, direct life
cycle and is a prolific egg producer.
A female barber pole worm can produce 5,000 to 10,000 eggs per
day. The barber pole worm is also capable of going into a "hypobiotic"
or arrested state when environmental conditions are not conducive
to its development and resuming its life cycle once environmental
conditions improve. Some worm larvae are able to survive on
pastures over the winter.
The stomach worms usually of secondary importance are Trichostrongylus
spp. and Teladorsagia (Ostertagia). Their importance is usually
as an additive effect in mixed infections with haemonchus. However,
in warmer sub-tropical areas, Trichostrongylus spp. are
important pathogens in grazing ruminants. Teladorsagia
appears to be much less important in the United States than
in cooler parts of the world such as Northern Europe and the
In the southern United States, Ostertagia circumcincta
is of no real significance in small ruminants because the hot
and often dry summers are hostile to the survival of its pre-parasitic
stages In the western U.S. particularly the cooler, wetter,
coastal areas of Washington, Oregon and Northern California,
Teladorsagia is the dominant nematode of sheep
Nematodirus is not usually a primary pathogen in ruminants
in North America. However, Nematodirus battus does cause
significant disease in lambs in Britain because of its unusual
hatching requirements. Cooperia infections are usually secondary
contributors to parasitic disease.
Tapeworms (Moniezia spp.)
Because tapeworm segments can be seen in sheep feces, they often
cause alarm to producers. Experts disagree about the importance
of effects of the parasite. Although dramatically large numbers
of tapeworms may occupy the small intestine, damage to sheep
is generally much less than that done by the gastrointestinal
nematodes such as Haemonchus and Ostertagia.
In extreme cases, tapeworms may cause intestinal blockages.
There is some evidence that lamb growth rates may be affected
when large numbers of tapeworms are present. Tapeworms have
an indirect life cycle. They require pasture mites to complete
their life cycle. Only certain anthelmintics (benzimidazoles)
are effective against tapeworms.
Lungworms (Dictyocaulus filaria, Muellerius capillaris)
Wet, low-lying pastures and cool, damp weather favor the development
of lungworm disease in sheep. Lungworm eggs are passed in the
feces. After the eggs hatch and are ingested by the sheep, they
travel through the sheep's tissues to the lungs (trachea and
bronchi). Only in severe infestations do lungworms produce clinical
disease, causing fever, coughing, nasal discharge, rapid breathing,
and poor performance. Secondary infection by bacteria may cause
Liver Flukes (Fasciola hepatica)
Liver flukes can cause death in sheep and lambs or liver damage
in sub-acute cases. In the U.S., they are primarily a concern
in California, the Gulf States and Pacific Northwest. Liver
flukes require snails as an intermediate host. Two drugs are
available in the United States for the treatment of liver flukes:
Clorsulon and Albendazole.
Meningeal Worm (Paralaphostrongylus tenius)
The meningeal (deer or brain) worm is an internal parasite of
white tailed deer. The life cycle of the meningeal worm requires
terrestrial snails or slugs as intermediate hosts. Sheep are
unnatural, dead-end hosts for the parasite. When sheep ingest
snails containing infective larvae, the parasite moves into
the brain and/or spinal cord causing often fatal neurological
The neurological signs observed in infected sheep depend upon
the number of larvae present in the nervous tissue and the portion
of the brain or spinal cord that has been affected. A mild infection
may produce a slight limp or weakness in one or more legs, while
a more severe infection may cause an animal to be partially
or completely paralyzed.
Meningeal worm infection cannot be diagnosed in the live animal.
Treatment usually involves high, repetitive doses of anthelmintics,
along with steroids and other supportive therapies. Preventative
measures include fencing off areas which receive high deer utilization
and removing sheep from pastures before weather turns cool and
Fencing sheep away from likely snail and slug habitats (e.g.
ponds, swamps, wetlands, low lying and poorly drained fields,
and woodlands) may also help to prevent the problem. In high
risk areas, monthly deworming has been advocated.
Coccidia (Eimeria spp.)
Coccidia are single-cell protozoa that damage the lining of
the small intestine. They are host-specific, meaning the species
that affects cattle, swine, and poultry does not affect sheep
and vice versa. Coccidiosis is very common in sheep, especially
young, growing lambs. Older sheep serves as sources of infection
for young sheep.
Lambs in lambing pens, intensive grazing areas, and feedlots
are at greatest risk. Transmission of coccidiosis to lambs favors
warm, wet environmental conditions. Stress often induces outbreaks
of coccidiosis. Coccidiosis often follows weaning or shipping
Clinical signs include diarrhea (sometimes containing blood
or mucous), dehydration, fever, weight loss, loss of appetite,
anemia, and death. The coccidia organism does not respond to
the standard deworming products. Medications used to treat clinical
coccidiosis differ from medications use to prevent it.
Outbreaks of coccidiosis are usually treated with sulfa drugs
and amprolium (Corid). These drugs must be prescribed by a veterinarian.
Feed additives for the prevention of coccidiosis in lambs are
currently in use by the sheep industry. They include two FDA-approved
products, lasalocid (Bovatec®) and decoquinate (Deccox®),
and one non-approved product, monensin (Rumensin®). Rumensin®
is very toxic to horses. Bovatec® and Deccox® should
not be fed to horses or other equines.
Monensin requires a veterinary prescription. Preventive medications
such as monensin, lasalocid, and decoquinate, are collectively
referred to as coccidiostats, meaning that they slow down the
shedding of coccidia into the environment. They are only effective
in preventing disease if they are added to the feed before lambs
become exposed. On the other hand, treatment medications such
as sulfa compounds and amprolium are coccidiacidal, meaning
that they actually kill the coccidia organisms in the intestine
of the treated animal.
Integrated Parasite Management (IPM)
Internal parasite control starts with good management and common
sense. Sheep should not be fed on the ground. Feeders which
cannot easily be contaminated with feces should be utilized
for grain, hay, and minerals. Water should be clean and free
from fecal matter. Pastures and pens should not be overstocked.
When new sheep are acquired they should be isolated from the
rest of the flock for 30 days and aggressively dewormed to prevent
the introduction of drug-resistant worms.
Use of Clean or Safe Pastures
Clean or safe pastures are pastures which are not contaminated
with the worm larvae that affect sheep. Examples of clean pastures
include pastures that have not been grazed by sheep or goats
for the past 6 to 12 months; pastures which have been grazed
by horses or cattle; pasture fields in which a hay or silage
crop has been removed; pasture fields which have been rotated
with field crops; and pastures than have been recently established
or renovated by tillage. While burning a pasture will remove
worm larvae, there are no pasture treatments that will effectively
eliminate or reduce worm larvae.
Pasture Rest and Rotation
It is a common misconception that rotational grazing helps to
control internal parasites in sheep. Intensive rotational grazing
may actually contribute to parasitic problems. This is because
rotating large groups of ewes and lambs through small paddocks
concentrates livestock and infective parasite larvae onto the
same small area.
Researchers in the Netherlands found that it takes three months
of rest for an infected pasture to return to a low level of
infectivity. Researchers at Langston University (Oklahoma) determined
that a 65-day rest period was sufficient (for goats). Rotational
grazing is an effective management tool for managing parasites,
but only if pasture rest periods are long enough (i.e. 60 days
or more). On the other hand, better nutrition provided by rotational
grazing may offset the effects of higher parasite loads on the
Approximately 80 percent of the worm larvae can be found in
the first two inches of grass. Therefore, sheep grazing taller
forages will have fewer parasite problems. Sheep should not
be allowed to graze forages shorter than 2 inches in height.
Sheep that browse also have fewer parasite problems. Another
grazing strategy is to wait until the dew has lifted from the
grass or grass has dried after a rain. Dry conditions force
parasites to stay at the base of the plants where they are less
likely to be consumed by the livestock.
Sheep (and goats) are generally not affected by the same internal
parasites as cattle and horses. Consequently, pastures grazed
by cattle and horses are safe(r) for sheep (and goats) and conversely.
Sheep can be co-grazed with cattle and/or horses. A leader-follower
system can be utilized or pastures can be alternated between
sheep and cattle and/or horses.
There are numerous other benefits to multi-species grazing.
Each species has different grazing behavior that complements
one another. For example, sheep prefer to eat weeds and short,
tender grasses and clover, while cattle prefer to eat taller
grasses. Cattle may offer some protection from predators.
Some pasture plants have anthelmintic properties, such as those
containing condensed tannins. Research has shown that sheep
grazing tannin-rich forages have lower fecal egg counts than
animals grazing traditional grass pastures. The tannins may
also decrease the hatch rate of worm eggs and larval development
Forage species which contain high levels of condensed tannins
include sericea lespedeza, birdsfoot trefoil, and chicory. Sericea
lespedeza is a warm, season legume. Birdsfoot trefoil is a long-lived
perennial legume. Chicory is a low-growing, leafy perennial.
Generally speaking, trees and shrubs contain higher levels of
tannins than pasture grasses, and tropical legumes contain more
condensed tannins than temperate legumes./////
Earthworms have been shown to ingest worm eggs and larvae, either
killing them or carrying them below the soil surface. Certain
types of fungi will trap and kill parasitic larvae. Dung beetles
ingest and disperse manure, thus keeping eggs and larvae from
developing. Anything that is done to maintain soil health and
promote these types of organisms will aid in parasite control.
Scientists are examining the possibility of feeding nematophagous
fungi to livestock to kill larvae in manure piles.
Supplemental feeding should not be overlooked as a means to
control parasites. Sheep and lambs on a higher plane of nutrition
mount a better immune response to internal parasites than animals
whose nutritional status is compromised. Animals on low protein
diets are more susceptible to infection because they produce
less IgA (immunoglobulin). Higher levels of protein have been
shown to improve the pregnant ewe's immune response to parasites
after lambing. Lambs receiving protein supplementation have
reduced fecal egg counts.
Keeping sheep and/or lambs in confinement (i.e. "zero grazing")
is a means of reducing parasitism and preventing reinfection.
Under a zero grazing situation, sheep and/or lambs do not have
access to any vegetation for grazing. They are housed in a bedded
barn, dirt lot, or facility with slotted floors. Feed should
be fed off the ground in feeders. Watering containers should
be kept free from fecal matter. Slotted floors offer the best
protection against internal parasites because sheep generally
do not come into contact with their feces.
Genetics is probably the best long term weapon against internal
parasites in sheep. Some sheep breeds are more resistant and
resilient to internal parasites. They include the Florida (or
Gulf Coast) Native and the hair sheep breeds: St. Croix, Barbados
Blackbelly (and its derivatives), and Katahdin. Grazing resistant
breeds of sheep with susceptible breeds, may act to sweep
pastures and reduce contamination to susceptible animals.
Regardless of the breed raised, producers can also breed sheep
which are more resistant to parasites by culling ewes that are
persistently affected by parasites and favoring parasite resistant
ewes and rams in their selection programs. Both fecal egg counts
and FAMACHA© scores can be used to identify sheep with
resistant and susceptible genetics.
In New Zealand, it is possible to select rams that shed 60 to
70 percent fewer parasite eggs than historical averages. Scientists
are currently looking for genetic markers for worm resistance
so that a DNA test could be used to show producers which of
their animals are resistant to internal parasites.
Proper Anthelmintic Use
Anthelmintics are still an important part of parasite control.
However, they must be used properly to ensure effectiveness
of treatment and slow down the rate by which worms develop drug
resistance. To start with, the weights of sheep and lambs must
be known or approximated accurately in order to calculate the
proper dosage of medicine. Underdosing results in the survival
of worms which are resistant to the anthelmintic used.
Flocks should be divided into groups for deworming or drenching
equipment should be calibrated for the heaviest animals in the
group. Oral drenching is the recommended method of treatment
for sheep. Oral medications should be delivered over the tongue.
If the medicine is deposited into the mouth to stimulate the
closure of the esophageal groove and bypass the rumen.
If an anthelmintic is more slowly absorbed in the gut, drug
levels are prolonged and the treatment may be more effective.
Thus, fasting sheep for up to 24 hours may improve efficacy
of dewormers, especially when using benzimidazoles and ivermectin.
However, water should not be restricted.
Using the same anthelmintic or drugs from the same chemical
family will increase the rate at which worms become resistant
to the drugs. To lessen the effect, anthelmintics (or drug groups)
should be rotated on an annual basis. On the other hand, anthelmintics
should not be rotated after each use; otherwise, worms will
develop resistance to each drug simultaneously.
If you do not deworm your animals much (e.g. < 3 times per
year), you might not have much of a drug resistant problem.
But if you introduce new animals to your flock, you could introduce
drug-resistant worms. This is especially true if you purchase
animals from a farm that deworms frequently.
To prevent the introduction of drug-resistant worms, you should
deworm newly purchased animals with drugs from at least two
of the three anthelmintic families. Moxidectin should be favored
over ivermectin due to its superior potency. Levamisole should
probably be the other choice, since widespread resistance is
believed to exist in the benzimidazole group of dewormers. After
deworming, the animal(s) should be released onto a wormy pasture
to help dilute any "super-resistant" worms that may
remain in his system.
Anthelmintics (dewormers) available in the U.S.
|Prohibit®, Levaso®l, Tramisol®
Rumatel®, Nematel®, Strongid®
|Only Valbazen® drench, Ivomec® drench, Prohibit® drench, and Cydectin® drench are FDA-approved for use in sheep in the United States.
Currently, there is a lot of interest in using "natural"
products as an alternative to chemical control of parasites.
Such products include herbal dewormers and diatomaceous earth.
Unfortunately, there is no research to indicate that any of
these products have a substantial effect on internal parasites
in sheep, only testimonials. However, this is an area of increasing
research interest and hopefully recommendations will be forthcoming
in the years ahead.
Copper oxide particles (administered as a bolus) have been
shown to reduce barber pole worm infections in sheep. Copper oxide is available
for cattle as a supplement to alleviate copper deficiency and
has been used in sheep for the same purpose.
Worms in "refugia" are those which have not been exposed
to drug treatment. They include free-living stages on pasture
and worms in untreated animals. Refugia are being viewed as
an important tool to slow down anthelmintic resistance. To increase
refugia, it is suggested that a portion of the flock not be
Fecal egg counts and FAMACHA© scores can be used to identify
which animals do not require deworming. Another strategy for
increasing refugia is to return treated animals to a wormy pasture.
The reason for this recommendation is because if treated animals
are moved to a "clean" pasture, the only worms that
will be on that pasture will be resistant to anthelmintic treatment.
Fecal Egg Analysis
Fecal egg analysis is an important part of an internal parasite
control program. Primarily, a fecal analysis tells you how contaminated
your pastures are. Fecal analysis can also be used to make selection
and culling decisions by identifying animals with both high
and low egg counts. Probably the most valuable use of fecal
egg analysis is determining drug resistance.
The test to determine drug resistance is called the fecal egg
count reduction test (FECRT). To conduct a FECRT, animal are
weighed and dewormed with the anthelmintic you wish to test.
Fecal samples are collected twice: first at the time of deworming
and second, 7 to 14 days later. Six or more (ideally 10 ) animals
should be tested for each anthelmintic. Fecal samples should
also be collected and analyzed for a similar group of untreated
For an anthelmintic to be considered effective it should reduce
fecal egg counts by 90 percent (ideally 95%). There is severe
drug resistance if treatment fails to reduce egg counts by more
than 60 percent.
To do your own fecal analysis, you need a microscope, flotation
solution, mixing vials, strainer, stirring rod, slides, and
cover slips. You do not need an elaborate microscope. 100X power
is sufficient. You can purchase flotation solution from veterinary
supply companies or make your own by mixing a saturated salt
or sugar solution. Your mixing vials can be jars, pill bottles,
film canisters, test tubes, or something similar. You can use
a tea strainer or cheese cloth to strain the feces. The stirring
rod can be a pencil or popsicle stick.
If you want to count eggs, you want to get a McMaster Egg Counting
slide available HERE. The McMaster slide has chambers that making
egg counting easier. The Paracount-EPG Fecal Analysis
Kit with McMaster-Type Counting Slides is available for $40
from the Chalex Corperation.
Identifying Worm Eggs. "Strongyle-type" eggs (Haemonchus,
Teladorsagia, and Trichostrongylus) are elliptical or oval, with
smooth, thin shells. Nematodirus eggs are the largest strongyle-type
eggs, but eggs of the species in the group cannot usually be
identified precisely. Worming recommendations can be based on
the quantity of strongyle eggs.
Since fecal counts only estimate the parasite load, there is
no clear cut level at which worming is indicated. As a general
guide, a level of about 500 eggs per gram of feces would indicate
that worming is needed for sheep. A more effective way of deciding
when to treat would be to monitor fecals every 4-8 weeks and
deworm when there is a dramatic rise in egg counts.
Tapeworm eggs are square or triangular. Tapeworm (Moniezia sp.)
eggs may be seen in fecal examination but they are in no way
indicative of the level of infection. Since lungworm eggs hatch
before being passed in the feces the eggs generally are not
seen by the flotation method. Nematode larvae, when present
in the feces, are indicative of lungworm. F
luke eggs are oval and have a smooth shell with a cap or operculum
at one end. Liver flukes are prolific egg producers, but egg
counts are not necessarily a good indication of infection levels.
Coccidia eggs are very small, about a tenth the size of a Strongyle
egg. Coccidia oocysts are passed in the feces of most livestock.
Oocysts are only a moderate indicator of level of infection.
The FAMACHA© system was developed in South Africa due to
the emergence of drug-resistant worms. The system utilizes an
eye anemia guide to evaluate the eyelid color of a sheep (or
goat) to determine the severity of parasite infection (as evidenced
by anemia) and the need for deworming.
A bright red color indicates that the animal has few or no worms
or that the sheep has the capacity to tolerate its worms. An
almost white eyelid color a warning sign of very bad anemia;
the worms present in the sheep's gut are in such numbers they
are draining the animal of blood. If left untreated, such an
animal will soon die.
The FAMACHA© chart contains five eye scores (1-5), which
have been correlated with packed cell volumes (percentage of
blood made up of red blood cells, also called haematocrit).
Animals in categories 1 or 2 (red or red-pink) do not require
treatment whereas animals in categories 4 and 5 (pink-white
and white) do. Animals in category 3 may or may not require
treatment depending upon other factors.
Mature sheep in category 3 (pink color) probably do not requiring
treament, whereas lambs or other susceptible animals should
be treated if they are in category 3. The frequency of examination
depends upon the season and weather pattern, with more frequent
examination usually necessary in July, August, and September,
the peak worm season. | <urn:uuid:53b4f226-4555-442e-a7c5-873fd099cb22> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sheep101.info/201/parasite.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.892924 | 5,746 | 3.46875 | 3 |
Space Exploration and Higher Education Will Both Benefit From New Partnership with NASA, Industry, and HBCU Communities
GREENBELT -- While many college students have started applying what they are learning at school in summer internships, ten students and three professors from two Historically Black College and University (HBCU) institutions are now at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. The final results of their efforts may one day be orbiting above the Earth or flying off into deep space.
An agency-wide effort, the NASA Science and Technology Institute for Minority Institutions, or NSTI-MI, is a three-year competitive program designed to enhance the science, technology, engineering and math capabilities of HBCU students. The unique nature of Goddard's arrangement is that it also involves a partnership with two private commercial companies.
NASA Goddard, Alabama A&M University in Huntsville, Tuskegee University, Ala., along with Mentor Graphics in Wilsonville, Ore. and Triad Semiconductor of Winston-Salem, N.C., have entered into this innovative collaboration. The goal is to have these university professors knowledgeable in microelectronics and computer science work with their students to build a library of electronic designs that can be rapidly and affordably built and used to design electronics for future spacecraft and instrument control.
"One of the challenges in undergraduate education is to have relevant and real design-and-build projects for students," said Lucy McFadden, chief for higher education at Goddard. "With efforts such as this, we have a ready structure to motivate students and give them a real learning environment with an exciting outcome."
Microelectronics design for space missions is demanding. Being able to optimize the size, weight and power of electronics is a mission-critical activity for all projects. At the same time, outer space presents a harsh radiation environment requiring electronics to operate under extreme conditions.
The researchers will utilize a design environment provided by Triad known as ViaDesigner™. ViaDesigner is a new electronic design automation tool that enables system-level engineers, who have no previous integrated circuit design experience, to create their own application-specific integrated circuits. ViaDesigner is based on the Mentor Graphics SystemVision® design environment. Prior to the students' arrival at Goddard, Mentor Graphics provided training with their SystemVision tool.
"Using a virtual prototype to try out a design instead of waiting for physical hardware to be built is so natural for the upcoming generation of engineers," said Darrell Teegarden, Director of System Modeling & Analysis Business Unit, Mentor Graphics. "Our SystemVision environment is perfect for NASA engineers to design and integrate Triad Semiconductor devices into a larger system -- including off-the-shelf components, sensors and actuators, and other real-world effects."
"Triad is excited about NASA's evaluating VCA technology and ViaDesigner as a potential way to develop mixed-signal integrated circuits," said Reid Wender, vice-president, marketing and technical sales at Triad Semiconductor. "As evaluation and development proceed, the goal will be to create a design flow that supports mission requirements across a number of NASA flight programs while reducing development time, cost and improving reliability."
For more information about each of the organizations involved, visit:
› Goddard website
› Triad Semiconductor
› Mentor Graphics
› Alabama A&M University
› Tuskegee University
Goddard Release No. 12-053
NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md. | <urn:uuid:c695261d-3e0e-4993-9c2b-53c99e17bd5c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/releases/2012/12-53.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00019-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.918765 | 731 | 2.65625 | 3 |
|Scientific Name:||Acipenser gueldenstaedtii|
|Species Authority:||Brandt & Ratzeburg, 1833|
|Red List Category & Criteria:||Critically Endangered A2bcde ver 3.1|
|Assessor(s):||Gessner, J., Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M.|
|Reviewer(s):||Pourkazemi, M. & Smith, K.|
The species is now very rare in the Black Sea basin where almost all of the species' spawning sites have been lost due to dam construction, except in the lower Danube river where some spawning still exists (see Juvenile Spawning Index) but individuals are rare. The Caspian basin has lost 70% of spawning grounds since the 1950s mainly due to hydroelectric power stations; flow regulation of the Kuban has led to the loss of 140,000 ha and damming of the river Don removed 68,000 ha spawning ground (CITES 2000).
The last natural population still migrates up the Danube and the Rioni (last recorded in Rioni in 1999), where the sturgeons are heavily overfished and poached. The Caspian populations are also under massive pressure from overfishing and loss of spawning habitats. Almost all migrating spawners are poached below the Volgograd dam. The Ural river still has spawning individuals.
It is estimated that the species' wild native population has undergone a massive population decline of over 90% in the past three generations (estimated at 45 years). This is based on the 88.5% decline in global catches of the species in just 15 years despite large levels of stocking (average global catch from 1992-1999 was 1,531.75 tonnes; from 2000-2007 it was 175.37 tonnes), the 92.5% decline in estimated spawning stock biomass in the Volga from 1961-65 to 1998-2000, the 88% decline in the average number of spawners entering the lower Volga from the 1962-75 average to the 1992-2002 average, and the decline in the Juvenile Production Index from Romanian Danube.
This decline is predicted to continue as illegal fishing at sea, and in rivers, for caviar will soon result in the extinction of the remaining natural wild population. In the immediate future, survival can only depend on stocking.
|Previously published Red List assessments:|
|Range Description:||This species is known from the Caspian, Black and Azov Sea basins. Aquaculture has resulted in intentional and accidental introductions throughout Europe.|
It is currently only known from the Caspian Sea, where it spawns in the rivers Ural and Volga, and the Black Sea where spawning occurs in the lower Danube and Rioni rivers (last recorded in the Rioni in 1999 (Kolman & Zarkua 2002)). There is no native spawning population remaining in the Sea of Azov, only introduced (stocked) individuals. The species reproduction within the Kura is debated (Vecsei 2001).
Native:Azerbaijan; Bulgaria; Georgia; Iran, Islamic Republic of; Kazakhstan; Moldova; Romania; Russian Federation; Serbia (Serbia); Turkey; Turkmenistan; Ukraine
Regionally extinct:Austria; Croatia; Hungary
|FAO Marine Fishing Areas:|
Mediterranean and Black Sea
|Range Map:||Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.|
|Population:||The species wild native population has undergone major decline which is currently occurring. But due to the large levels of stocking (particularly Russia and Iran) the exact levels are unknown. According to CITES (2000) Russia released 25 million fingerlings into the Vologa between 1979-80, 35 million between 1981-85, 40.8 million between 1986-90, 42 million between 1991-95 and 28 million 1996-98; Iran released 300,000 fingerlings in 1994 which has risen nearly every year to 960,000 in 1999.|
Despite this level of stocking, fisheries catches have fallen, particularly from the early 1990s in the Caspian. According to FAO fisheries statistics (FAO 2009) global catches fell from 4,250 tonnes in 1992 (first available catch data) to 67 tonnes in 2007 (last available catch data), a decline of 98% in 15 years. The average catch from 1992-1999 (8 year period) was 1,531.75 tonnes, whereas the average catch from 2000-2007 (8 year period) was 175.37 tonnes, a decline of 88.5%.
Data from the Caspian Sea (Khodorevskaya et al. 2009) shows similar declines: catches were between 6,000 and 9,000 tonnes per year in the 1960s to a peak of around 14,500 tonnes in the late 1970s early 1980s to less than 1,000 per year from 2000 to 2008. The estimated spawning stock biomass in the Volga has also drastically declined, from 13,200 tonnes (1961-65) and 22,200 tonnes (1966-70) to 1,000 tonnes (1996-97) and 1,000 tonnes (1998-2002). Average number of spawners (1,000 individuals) passing fishery zones to the spawning grounds in the lower Volga (per year) has declined by 88% from the 1962-75 average to the 1992-2002 average.
Romanian catch data (Danube) shows that in 2002, 3,726 kg was caught; in 2003, 1,499 kg; in 2004, 440 kg; and in 2005, 37 kg, showing a 99% decline in just four years (Paraschiv et al. 2006). A Juvenile Production Index (evidence of breeding) for the Danube (Romania) also shows a decline: CPUE was just over 0.7 in 2000, < 0.2 in 2001, 0.3 in 2002, 0 in 2003, < 0.1 in 2004, 0.1 in 2005, 0 in 2006, < 0.05 in 2007 and 0 in 2008. (CPUE = number of Young of the Year - number of < 1 year olds caught - from natural recruitment captured in one netting (Suciu 2008, pers. comm.; Paraschiv et al. 2006; Knight et al. 2010).
|Current Population Trend:||Decreasing|
|Habitat and Ecology:||Habitat: At sea, shallow coastal and estuarine zones. In freshwaters, in deep parts of large rivers with moderate to swift current. Spawns in strong current (1-1.5 m/s) in large and deep rivers on stone or gravel bottom. |
Biology: Anadromous and freshwater populations (freshwater populations existed in the Danube and Volga - both are now extinct). A complicated pattern of spawning migrations includes spring and autumn runs. Individuals migrating in spring enter freshwater just before spawning; they tend to spawn in lower reaches of rivers (320-650 km in the unregulated Ural). Individuals migrating in autumn overwinter in rivers and spawn the following spring further upstream (900-1200 km in the Ural).
Males reproduce for the first time at 8-13 years, females at 10-16. Generation length (average age of parents of current cohort) is estimated to be 15 years under natural circumstances, but due to the impacts this species is facing the generation length ranges from between 12 years in the Caspian Sea to over 20 in the Danube. Females reproduce every 4-6 years and males every 2-3 years in April-June, when the temperature rises above 10°C. Larvae drift on currents; juveniles then move towards shallower habitats, before migrating to the sea during their first summer. They remain at sea until maturity. The Russian Sturgeon feeds on a wide variety of benthic molluscs, crustaceans and small fish.
|Generation Length (years):||10-16|
|Movement patterns:||Full Migrant|
|Use and Trade:||
This is an aquarium species (250,000 exported from Hungary annually (Gessner pers com.)). Skin and as a leather. Caviar is used as cosmetic and medicinal purposes. Cartilage used medicinal use. Intestine use as sauce (food) and to produce gelatine. Swim bladder used as glue.
Source of specimens in commercial trade:
25% Captive bred
50% Other = Stocking - wild brood stock collected from wild. They are used to produce fingerlings which are grown and then released into wild or kept ex-situ and harvested (for caviar/meat).
Most spawning sites have been lost due to dam construction. The Caspian basin lost 70% of spawning grounds since the 1950s, mainly due to the construction of hydroelectric power stations; the Ural is now the only river in the basin with unregulated flow. Flow regulation of the Kuban River has led to the loss of 140,000 ha, and damming of the river Don has removed 68,000 ha spawning ground. For example, in the Yugoslavian section of the Danube, the annual catch dropped from 14,636 kg in 1983 to 1,636 kg in 1985 (a decline of just under 90%), this is believed to be due to the construction of the Djerdap (Irongate) II dam which was constructed in 1984, leaving no accessible spawning grounds for the species in the upstream reaches and in former Yugoslavia (CITES 2000).
Poaching and illegal fishing, which appears to be increasing, is also a threat to the species. Enforcement of legislation regulating the fishery for the species appear to be lacking. In the Caspian Sea and Sea of Azov the illegal sturgeon catch for all species was evaluated to be 6 to 10 times the legal catch (CITES 2000). Bycatch is also a threat to the species (in both marine and freshwater).
High levels of pollution (from oil and industrial waste), in both the Black and Caspian Sea basins have altered hormonal balance, and increased the number of hermaphroditic fish. Pollution levels are now decreasing since the break up of the Soviet Union (Levin, 1977 in CITES 2000). In 1990, 55,000 sturgeon were found dead on the shore of the Sea of Azov as the result of pollution.
Genetic pollution is also a potential threat as stocks are moved to different locations (e.g. Caspian stocks moved to Sea of Azov).
The Allee affect is also a potential threat to the species.
Restocking measures are ongoing, however stocks are continuing to decline. In the early 1990s, between 30-55% of the Caspian stock reportedly originated from hatcheries (Barannikova 1995 in CITES 2000, Khodorevskaya et al. 2000). In Russia, between 1991 and 1998, 70 million fry of A. gueldenstaedtii were released in the Volga river and just over 32 million fry into the Sea of Azov.
The species is not fully protected in any range state, though licenses are required in most countries and Iran has banned private sturgeon fisheries. Overall, however, enforcement measures seem to be lacking. Fish lifts and artificial spawning grounds have been introduced to parts of the Caspian region (CITES 2000) without much success. This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.
Gene bank of live specimens and cryopreservation is ongoing in Russia and Iran.
|Citation:||Gessner, J., Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M. 2010. Acipenser gueldenstaedtii. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2010: e.T232A13042340.Downloaded on 01 July 2016.|
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New Lakes Discovered on Titan
October 12, 2007: Newly assembled radar images from the Cassini spacecraft are giving researchers their best-ever view of hydrocarbon lakes and seas on the north pole of Saturn's moon Titan, while a new radar image reveals that Titan's south pole also has lakes.
Approximately 60 percent of Titan's north polar region (north of 60o latitude) has been mapped by Cassini's radar. About 14 percent of the mapped region is covered by what scientists believe are lakes filled with liquid methane and ethane:
Above: A false-color mosaic of Titan's north pole. [More]
The mosaic image was created by stitching together radar images from seven Titan flybys over the last year and a half. At least one of the pictured lakes is larger than Lake Superior.
"This is our version of mapping Alaska, the northern parts of Canada, Greenland, Scandinavia and Northern Russia," says Rosaly Lopes, Cassini radar scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. "It's like mapping these regions of Earth for the first time."
Lakes and seas are very common at Titan's high northern latitudes where winter is now underway. Scientists say it rains methane and ethane there, filling the lakes and seas. These liquids also carve meandering rivers and channels on the moon's surface.
Now Cassini is moving into unknown territory: the south pole of Titan. On Oct. 2, the spacecraft excecuted a flyby in which a prime goal was the hunt for southern lakes. Lopes explains: "We wanted to see if there are more lakes present there and, sure enough, there they are, three little lakes smiling back at us."
Above: Two of three newfound lakes near Titan's south pole. [More]
"Titan is indeed the land of lakes and seas," she adds. "It will be interesting to see the differences between the north and south polar regions." It is now summer at Titan's south pole. A season on Titan lasts nearly 7.5 years, one quarter of a Saturn year, which is 29.5 years long. Monitoring seasonal changes in the lakes will help scientists understand the processes at work there.
They are already making progress in understanding how the lakes may have formed. On Earth, lakes fill low spots or are created when the local topography intersects a groundwater table. Lopes and her colleagues think that the depressions containing the lakes on Titan may have formed by volcanism or by a type of "karstic erosion" which leaves a depression where liquids can accumulate. Karstic lakes are common on Earth. For example, in parts of Minnesota and central Florida there are hundreds of such lakes.
"The lakes we have seen so far vary in size from the smallest observable, approximately 1 square kilometer, to greater than 100,000 square kilometers, which is slightly larger than the Great Lakes in the Midwestern U.S.," Hayes says. "Of the roughly 400 observed lakes, 70 percent of their area is taken up by 'seas' greater than 26,000 square kilometers."
Future radar flybys will map terrain even closer to the south pole. Stay tuned for more lakes!
|more information Â|
Cassini -- mission home page
Rainbows on Titan -- (Science@NASA)
NASA's Future: The Vision for Space Exploration | <urn:uuid:d25113b0-7aa1-4427-b791-2fb08316ca81> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2007/12oct_titan/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00104-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942572 | 685 | 3.578125 | 4 |
Killer Quakes on Rise With Cities on Fault Lines: Roger Bilham
Is the world falling apart? Surely it isn’t, though this year’s frequent earthquakes and the occasional volcano have left an exceptional path of ruin and misery, raising concerns that something very unusual is occurring.
Three strong earthquakes hit the Solomon Islands in early January, followed only weeks later by the 7.0 quake that leveled part of Haiti, leaving more than 1 million people homeless and killing more than 200,000. Korea and Japan were rocked. Then Chile was hit by an 8.8 earthquake, one of the biggest ever measured. More seismic events followed in Japan, Mexico, Sumatra and most recently western China.
Violent temblors across the globe during the past decade killed about 650,000 people -- more than any decade in history.
What could explain this apparent burst of seismic energy? And is worse to come?
The Earth, in fact, is behaving quite normally. A “major” earthquake is one measuring greater than magnitude 7.0. They release enough energy to produce considerable shaking. On average the world has been shaken by 16 major earthquakes annually since 1900. Six major quakes have occurred in the past four months. In other words, if the trend continues for the rest of the year, we will be only slightly above the average. In some years, such as 1986 and 1989, we have recorded only six major quakes while 32 of them occurred in 1943.
People may also believe this year’s rash of quakes is unusually severe, as indeed they are. That’s because they have all shaken large populations. Seismologists call these “significant” earthquakes. They range in size from those with trivial magnitudes of 4.0 that wake a million people at night in Illinois or Oklahoma, to those that break records for their savage destruction of cities, or for the long reach of their tsunami.
This year’s combined death toll from these natural disasters is almost 250,000 people, and we are only in April. Quakes that killed as many people as the one in Haiti are rare. A quake in China in 1556 killed 834,000 while another one there in 1976 left 255,000 dead. The Sumatra earthquake and tsunami of 2004 killed 228,000 people.
The difference between a major earthquake and a significant one is whether it occurs near a population center. Seismic events that people feel are newsworthy, those that shake fish or cows are not. Those that collapse cities are especially destructive in lives and rebuilding costs.
Regrettably, there is little doubt the number of significant earthquakes will rise. This is because the world’s major earthquakes repeat over and over again at plate boundaries, where a large portion of the planet’s population lives. The plates are driven rather smoothly by radioactively produced heat deep in the Earth’s mantle, but when these plates grind past each other the result is spasmodic and violent.
The time between a major earthquake and its successor on your local neighborhood plate boundary varies from several decades to a few hundred years. But the world’s population has increased by a factor of 10 in the past 200 years. Most people now live in cities, and more than half the world’s largest cities are located on plate boundaries.
This is the big problem. Earthquakes that occurred 200 years ago shook villages that are now vast urban agglomerations. Take Los Angeles, for example. The Big One, a 7.9 earthquake that occurred in 1857 shook a rural population of about a thousand village dwellers. Its recurrence (pretty soon) will shake a population of 8 million, and half again as many in adjoining areas.
Not only have populations grown, the vulnerability of their dwellings has also increased. Concrete and steel multistory blocks have replaced wooden single-story constructions, and the quality of these new structures in developing nations is often appallingly poor.
Do earthquakes signal to each other, encouraging their neighbors to join in? Yes, sequences of earthquakes at plate boundaries do indeed occur. The 9.1 Indonesian earthquake of 2004 was the start of a great unzipping of the entire plate boundary from Myanmar to Bali and beyond that is still ongoing. A similar progression of major earthquakes was seen in northern Turkey between 1939 and 1999. The next one, if it follows the established pattern, will occur alarmingly close to Istanbul, where about 13 million people live.
In the past 500 years, the worst earthquakes have killed more than 12 percent of an urban population. Until 1950 no population center exceeded 8 million. In 2007 there were 17 cities with at least this many people, and more are added to the list each year as cities grow.
Fire and Ice
Never before has it been possible to kill 1 million people in a single earthquake, but cities are now big enough to make this possible. Prominent among them are Los Angeles and Tokyo, which are well aware of their seismic future and have made preparations, whereas Istanbul and Tehran, where building codes are known to be unevenly applied, are much more vulnerable.
What about volcanoes, and why is Iceland now splitting apart? Previous eruptions there occurred in 1600 and 1820, so today’s eruption 190 years later is almost on schedule. But whereas Iceland’s volcanic eruption was not triggered by any nearby major earthquake, the eruption of one or more dormant volcanoes in the months and years following major earthquakes is quite common. It happened after the 1960 Chilean earthquake and will no doubt occur after this year’s disaster. Scientists attribute many eruptions to the violent shaking of volcanic subsurface magma chambers and the subsequent opening of conduits to the surface.
So the statistics of earthquakes and volcanoes shows the Earth to be going about her business as usual. The only difference is that its occupants have become recently aware of how busy the Earth actually is.
(Roger Bilham is a seismologist at the University of Colorado. The opinions expressed are his own.)
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To contact the writer of this column: Roger Bilham at firstname.lastname@example.org | <urn:uuid:9bf3fdfe-a74a-427f-aa8c-51b8ef522145> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bloomberg.com/news/print/2010-04-16/killer-quakes-on-rise-with-cities-on-fault-lines-roger-bilham.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00087-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964728 | 1,286 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Fish Shrimp Extract
This delicious CRUSTACEAN is America's favorite SHELLFISH. Most of the shrimp in the United States comes from bordering waters, notably the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and the Gulf Coast. There are hundreds of shrimp species, most of which can be divided into two broad classifications-warm-water shrimp and cold-water shrimp. As a broad and general rule, the colder the water, the smaller and more succulent the shrimp. Shrimp come in all manner of colors including reddish- to light brown, pink, deep red, grayish-white, yellow, gray-green and dark green. Some have color striations or mottling on their shells. Because of a heat-caused chemical change, most shrimp shells change color (such as from pale pink to bright red or from red to black) when cooked. Extract The distilled or evaporated oils of foods or plants (such as nuts, seeds, fruits, vegetables, herbs, spices, bark, buds, roots, leaves, meat, poultry, seafood, fish, dairy foods, or eggs) that are dissolved in an alcohol base or allowed to dry to be used as a flavoring. Food extracts as they are often labeled, are used to add a concentrated flavor to many food dishes, especially baked goods and desserts, without adding additional volume. Available in solid (cubes, granules or powdered), liquid or jelled form, extracts may be labeled as pure, natural or artificial. Pure and natural extracts are governed by laws in many countries that require compliance with procedures that take the extract ingredients directly from the named flavor, such as extracting oils directly from the vanilla bean to make pure or natural vanilla extract. Artificial extracts are flavors that do not necessarily use any ingredients directly from a source named for the extract but instead used combinations of ingredients to arrive at a flavor representative of the named food extract, such as artificial lemon extract. Some of the most widely used extracts include vanilla, almond, anise, maple, peppermint, and numerous solid or jelled extracts such as beef and chicken bouillon or meat demi-glaces. As an example of how the pure and natural extract is made, vanilla extract is created by soaking vanilla beans in water and an alcohol-based solution where it ages for several months, during which time the vanilla flavor is extracted from the bean. Anise extract, a sweet licorice tasting flavoring, is produced by dissolving the oil of anise seeds into alcohol. Grape extract is produced to assist with the wine making process. Compounds from the skin of grapes are extracted and added to the wine in order to impart tannin, color, and body into a wine. The characteristics of the wine can be changed dramatically by the amount of time the wine is in contact with the skins. If the grapes are in contact for too long, the resulting wine may be too potent, or what is sometimes called “over-extracted�. Juices of fruits and vegetables are often extracted as juice extracts to be used similar to other food extracts, as a flavoring when preparing foods. A common utensil for the purpose of extracting lemon juice is available to assist with home recipes requiring a lemon flavoring. | <urn:uuid:1dbee138-4958-4776-9000-f40461eb28a4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.foodfacts.com/ci/ingredientsoverlay/fish-shrimp-extract/9072 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00120-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948812 | 662 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Mounted Rifle Tactics.
Definition - Principles underlying tactics - Definitions - Cavalry - Mounted infantry - Mounted riflemen - Mobility and fire effect - Subdivision of subject - The offensive spirit - The bayonet - Missions of mounted riflemen - General Langlois the Boer War - Von der Goltz - Summary.
Tactics, to use the definition contained in a former textbook and followed by the late Colonel Henderson, are "the methods by which a commander seeks to overwhelm an opponent when battle is joined," having previously endeavoured by his strategy to place his own forces, with the eventual combat in his mind, so that they may deal with the enemy with the best probability of defeating him.
Tactics, then, are battle methods, and may be grand tactics, or the art of generalship on a large scale as practised by independent commanders; minor tactics, or the detailed manoeuvring of all arras on the battlefield, which concern all officers of each arm; and, I would add, the special tactics of each arm, for, though the tactics of each arras must be based and developed on the understanding that close combination with other arms is the general mode of their application, they are decided and formed in view of advantages and limitations peculiar, either in degree or nature, to each branch of the combatant forces. Many principles are, of course, common to all tactics, and guide the tactical employment of all arms, but it is only with a constant attention to the advantages and limitations to which I have referred that each can be used with the greatest effect and on sound lines.
These chapters are not put forward with any idea of teaching those who are thoroughly competent judges of the tactics which we shall consider, but with the object of stating the principles which underlie those tactics and their application.
With the material at hand I think we may say that, properly handled, the mounted rifleman of South Africa should be the equal of any soldier of that arm in the world. We must, however, remember that many of the natural conditions which have been factors in the production of the practical frontier soldier of the past are vanishing, or at least diminishing, with a more general civilization, and that the South African citizen soldier of the immediate future will be far less versed in war conditions than his predecessors.
To teach him properly, it is not enough merely to say that such and such a line should be adopted, but he will ask the reason for each feature of the tactics he is called upon to employ, and why these have proved successful. It is therefore essential that those on whom the responsibility of training the citizen troops of South Africa is to rest in varying degree should be ready with arguments to force our points home, and convince the younger soldier that the methods which are recommended are universally admitted to be sound as the result of investigation and experience.
The tendency is to accept the result of successful tactics without taking the trouble to investigate the causes and circumstances which were contributory to the success. Climatic conditions - such as rain, mist, and wind - must be taken into consideration, and it must be decided to what extent such circumstances influenced the course of an action and its consequence. The temper of the troops on either side may have had great influence on the combat. Can we be sure that the troops will always display the same resolution or weakness? Stupidity on the part of an opponent may have had its effect on the good result of a venture. Would it have succeeded had the opposing commander met our attack with different and more effective counter-measures? In short, tactics must be critically analyzed, and then systematically taught on uniform principles, and this means care and thought and study. What follows represents an effort to analyze mounted rifle tactics, and to state the various principles which should govern them.
What is a mounted rifleman? He is not a cavalryman, and he is not a mounted infantryman.
Cavalry are mounted soldiers trained primarily for shock tactics-that is to say, for the charge with an arme blanche. They are also taught fire tactics, but the main tactical action of cavalry, for which the most careful preparation of men and horses alike is necessary, and to which by far the larger portion of their period of training is devoted, is the charge with the lance or sword.
Mounted infantry are foot soldiers mounted on horses to give them increased mobility, which is, and always will be, strictly limited by the fact that they are not thoroughly trained horsemen. The terms of mounted riflemen and mounted infantry are far too loosely applied by military writers, but a mounted rifleman should never allow any one to confuse his arm with mounted infantry. Civilly, but firmly, he should point out that he is the former, and not the latter, for to regard himself as a mounted infantryman is to lose sight of the sole reason of his arm being regarded as distinct from any other.
A mounted rifleman is a horse soldier, enlisted and trained as a mounted man, to whom expert horsemanship is as vital as it is to a cavalryman. His horse is not trained to the perfection of regulated and controlled pace, which is essential to the cavalry (being indispensable to the effective delivery of the charge), and creed only be a well-broken, active, strong animal, which can be led without any difficulty. His horsemanship and horsemastership, however, must be every whit as finished and sound as that of the cavalryman; his weapon is the rifle, and he fights on foot.
Broadly stated, his special advantage is the mobility conferred by expert horsemanship and an active, well-controlled mount. At the same time this may fairly be regarded as his main tactical limitation, for the safety of the horses, which supply his great advantage, and the necessity for always thinking of them in action with the object of maintaining mobility, are frequently serious problems, which govern the whole question of the tactical employment of the arm.
To gauge accurately the potentialities of mounted rifle tactics, the performance of good horsemen, such as the American mounted troops in the Civil. War, and the Republican forces in 1899-1902, should be studied and criticised. I say American mounted troops advisedly, and not cavalry, for, with the exception of a relatively small number, they were not cavalry as I am using the term, nor do they ever meet cavalry in action.
General De Wet says "a Boer without his horse is half a man"; the tactical value of mounted riflemen whenever they are in the same plight (that is to say, when their horses have been taken from them) bears exactly the same relation to their proper fighting value - it is at least halved.
Mobility and fire effect sum up the essence of mounted rifle tactics. I would always place the former before the latter, as the two are inseparable, and the fact that this is so is sometimes overlooked in the excitement and interest aroused by the fire fight. It will be found that if mobility is always insisted upon, many doubts as to the right course to pursue will vanish. The action of mounted riflemen, in whatever circumstances they may find themselves in war, must always take full advantage of their great mobility, either in actually using it or retaining the power of doing so, or fall short of what might be achieved.
I propose to consider in subsequent chapters:- Attack, defence, protection, night work, and reconnaissance, when we will go into details more fully. Here it will suffice to say that having, by our training, assured mobility by producing confident horsemen; active, bold, and well-trained horses; and a good system of caring for them; we should never forget the fact that mobility is all that distinguishes a mounted rifleman from an infantryman, and that it should therefore be the constant endeavour of a mounted rifleman to make the best use of it.
There is one most important matter to which I should like to refer. Offensive action is essential to effective tactics, and a desire for the offensive must animate any force which is to be successful in war. We may all have our views as to the value of shock action by cavalry in these days, but we must all admit that the cavalry spirit is the expression of the spirit of war; "the first-born son of war," Clausewitz calls it. It does not matter whether two hostile armies face each other equipped with every modern warlike appliance that human ingenuity has devised, or whether two men propose to settle a quarrel with nature's weapons; let one general or adversary realize that his opponent is mainly concerned to save his troops from slaughter or his skin from damage, and the former will at once take liberties, and, ignoring chances of retaliation by the latter, will defeat him. The spirit of the offensive is necessary to every combatant arm.
The "march, fight, and pursue" of Napoleon, then "move quickly, strike vigorously, and secure the fruits of victory" of Stonewall Jackson, mean, if they mean anything, that it is the force which is inspired by the desire to strike its opponents, and not that which is chiefly concerned to avoid being struck, which wins battles. As Field Service Regulations say, "The action of a force which is content with warding off the enemy's blows is not considered as 'an aspect of the battle." The artillery of all armies has over and again manifested its offensive and self-sacrificing spirit; the cavalry lives for the charge; the infantry, after establishing a dominant fire, looks to the assault with the bayonet.
"What," ask critics, "is the equivalent of this offensive spirit in other arms, this desire to close with the enemy and do him harm, in the final object of tactical action by mounted riflemen? Is there not a danger that, in the absence of an understanding that close grips are aimed at, the offensive spirit, which we all admit to be indispensable to any efficient combatant arm, may be absent in the case of mounted riflemen?"
This question is put, and has been put to me, and I think that those of us who have experience of mounted rifle tactics will admit that the danger exists, and that the horse may become liable to be regarded more as a means of moving rapidly to another position, if that occupied becomes uncomfortable, than of quickly pushing forward and endeavouring to get to close range.
It has been suggested that stress laid on the use of the bayonet may supply an incentive to offensive action. I do not agree with this. We find an addition to the new South African Mounted Riflemen Training to the following effect -
"Though the use of the bayonet to the extent to which it is employed by infantry will probably be extremely rare in the case of mounted riflemen, the latter should be expert in its use on foot. For example, in such work as small expeditions by night, for which the mobility of the mounted rifleman specially suits him, the bayonet will be of the greatest value, and, as it is a weapon carried by mounted riflemen, they should be expert in handling it."
That the mounted rifleman should be expert in the use of his bayonet must be insisted upon, but that the weapon will be used, except very rarely, to the extent of delivering bayonet charges on foot on a large scale, is most unlikely. Its use in defence I will touch upon in its place. If the hostile force is composed of mounted riflemen, it will hardly wait to be charged, and if it is infantry, it can probably be better dealt with by fire at close range. Again, a force of mounted riflemen, which becomes committed to a bayonet charge dismounted, is engaged on work which will seriously impair its power of pursuit, which must be retained if the fruits of victory are to be assured. It will probably involve making the horses immobile (i.e., with less than one man to four horses), which should only be done very grudgingly, and in exceptional circumstances, as it means loss of mobility. Our own regulations say that the deliberate form of attack will seldom be undertaken by mounted riflemen, and even the British Yeomanry and Mounted Rifle Training, 1912 (which, it is well to remember, has to consider European conditions of warfare), says nothing of the bayonet in the deliberate attack. The bayonet, therefore, is not enough to produce the offensive spirit in mounted riflemen, though it may contribute to it.
What are the main tactical duties of mounted riflemen? South African Mounted Riflemen Training says that the chief duties of the arm are as follows:
To seize promptly for dismounted action successive important positions from which to deliver an effective fire.
To reinforce rapidly at a critical time other arms which may be overmatched, or assist them in making sure of success.
To carry out enveloping movements.
Reconnaissance and scouting.
To form rallying points for cavalry in the case of a reverse.
To cover retreats of other arms during a retirement.
All these demand offensive action, so that the tactical employment of mounted riflemen will almost invariably be offensive.
Why, then, does this danger exist? I think it is because the vital importance of keeping the horses in a more or less constant position of handiness to their dismounted riders in action is insufficiently recognised. I have often seen horses of mounted riflemen engaged in dismounted fire action in war remain for hours in the same spot, without communication with the firing line, which had moved out of sight and out of the ken of those who were in charge of the horses. I have also constantly noticed on peace training with citizen forces that the horses are similarly left, and brought up hurriedly and in confusion, because the situation suddenly demanded their presence.
The following extract from the Memorandum on Training, 1911-12, of the Australian Military Forces is of interest here:
"The disposal of led horses was often faulty, and attempts were not made to keep the horses as close up to the dismounted men as possible, taking advantage of cover not necessarily immediately in rear of the dismounted troops; long advances were made on foot, resulting in a loss of mobility."
If the close and constant association of mobility and fire is rigidly insisted upon, the position of led horses will become variable as the fight develops, almost automatically, and the knowledge that the horses are, as a matter of course, as near as possible to their riders in action will go far to counteract the desire to get back to them, in the fear that they may have been left too far behind, which tends to destroy aggressive action.
Fire from the saddle, and the development of what is called, wrongly, as I believe, the “mounted rifleman charge," to both of which I shall refer later, will tend in the same beneficial direction, and, finally, as it is well put in the British Yeomanry and Mounted Rifle Training, 1912:
“Commanders must endeavour to foster in their men an aggressive spirit, and they must teach them that a determined enemy will not be beaten or driven off his ground merely by long range fire."
In Lessons from Two Recent Wars, a book translated into English by the General Staff in 1909, General H. Langlois says in his introduction:
“The false doctrines which sprang up after the Anglo-Boer War have deeply affected our (the French) officers. Our officers are beginning to lose the spirit of the offensive."
Here is the expression of the fear that the tactics of mounted riflemen may tend to the defensive and to the detriment of bold and vigorous action. General Langlois adds, however, in criticising the action of Nicholson's Nek, which was settled by the rifle fire of dismounted mounted riflemen, that success was achieved "because a continuous fire covered the advance of a rush, and, finally, and above all, because that fire was extremely accurate." He goes on to say, with reference to this attack, which was practically frontal, " an attack can be made, and successfully, given a superiority of fire. This superiority of fire can be gained not only by a superior number of rifles, but also by good shooting and by determination." This is the secret of offensive action - determination. Though the tactical action of the mounted rifleman and his weapon are not, when compared with the equivalents in the case of other arms, eloquent in themselves of offence, I see no reason why consistent teaching of the need of the offensive spirit should not produce it in the arm, and why the teaching should not be reflected in vigorous action on the battlefield.
As von der Goltz says, "The elements of the offensive are rapidity and vigour." The rapidity is in the power of the mounted rifleman, and surely his training can be such that he shall be vigorous.
In conclusion, we may state generally that the tactics of mounted riflemen depend for their successful application on mobility conferred by horsemanship, which enables them to make- up for their numerical inferiority of rifles in the firing line by surprising the enemy and by the rapid seizure of the positions; on accurate shooting; and, as in the case of every combatant arm, determination to adopt vigorous and offensive action. | <urn:uuid:c8737945-a5b4-4ec8-8291-480ea87558af> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://alh-research.tripod.com/Light_Horse/index.blog?from=20091127 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00163-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97569 | 3,528 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Causes of acid erosion
When tooth enamel is exposed to acids (from food, beverages or the stomach), it temporarily softens and loses some of its mineral content. Saliva will help neutralize acidity, restore the mouth's natural balance and slowly harden the tooth enamel. However, because the tooth's recovery process is slow, if the acid attack happens frequently, the tooth enamel does not have the chance to repair.
Some fruit juices, wine and various fruits can be acidic and therefore potentially damaging to teeth. Acidic foods should not and cannot easily be avoided, but care needs to be taken as to how they are consumed.
It is not just what is consumed that causes acid erosion, but also the way that acidic foods and drinks are held within the mouth. Holding or retaining acidic beverages in the mouth prolongs the acid exposure on the teeth, therefore increasing the risk of tooth enamel erosion. Swishing an acidic beverage, for example, can increase the beverage's contact with the tooth or teeth, increasing the risk of tooth erosion.
Tooth erosion can also result from intrinsic acids e.g. as a consequence of bulimia (vomiting) or indigestion (regurgitation/gastric reflux). | <urn:uuid:df01cee1-c4e0-4dc6-8629-c26ef918ce31> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dental-professional.com/Conditions_AcidErosion.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00057-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938344 | 257 | 3.578125 | 4 |
Information presented in this publication is intended to provide a general understanding of the statutory and regulatory requirements governing special waste. This information is not intended to replace, limit or expand upon the complete statutory and regulatory requirements found in the Illinois Environmental Protection Act and Title 35 of the Illinois Administrative Code of Regulations.
Illinois regulates many different types of waste, including special waste. Because you generate waste, it is your responsibility to figure out what type of waste you generate. This can be a confusing process! This fact sheet will help you understand what special waste is and help you determine whether you generate a special waste. Special waste needs to be managed and disposed of properly to protect our environment. To understand what kind of special wastes you may generate, ask yourself the following questions in the order presented below, then follow the flowchart below to figure out if you generate a special waste. If you have additional questions, please call the Office of Small Business at 1-888-EPA-1996.
Special waste includes hazardous waste, potentially infectious medical waste (PIMW), industrial process waste, and pollution control waste.
A hazardous waste is (1) listed on the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency hazardous waste list which can be obtained from the Office of Small Business or (2) has the characteristic of ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity (determined by generator knowledge or analytical testing in a laboratory).
Generator knowledge and analytical testing of the waste are used to determine if your waste is a hazardous waste. Generator knowledge means the business that generates the waste has sufficient information to determine if the waste is hazardous based on its understanding of the waste generating process and the raw materials used in the process. Analytical testing of a sample of your waste is done by a laboratory.
PIMW is generated in connection with the diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of human beings or animals; medical research; and biological testing. The businesses that typically generate PIMW are hospitals, nursing homes, medical or veterinary clinics, dental offices, clinical or pharmaceutical laboratories, university or research facilities, and other such facilities.
An industrial process waste is any liquid, solid, semisolid, or gaseous waste generated when manufacturing a product or performing a service. Examples include cutting oils, paint sludges, equipment cleanings, metallic dust sweepings, used solvents from parts cleaners, and off-specification, contaminated, or recalled wholesale or retail products. The following wastes are not industrial process wastes:
A material safety data sheet (MSDS) is a document available for most commercial products and chemicals that presents information on the materials such as hazard classification and proper disposal.
A pollution control waste is generated directly or indirectly when businesses remove contaminants from air, soil, or water. Examples include baghouse dust, landfill waste, scrubber sludge, and chemical spill cleaning material.
If your industrial process waste or pollution control waste is any one of the following, it is a special waste:
The following questions will help you understand each of these industrial process or pollution control wastes.
Because used oil is often recycled or reused, used oil has its own management requirements. For more information on how to manage your used oil, see the "Managing Your Used Oil!" factsheet or call the Office of Small Business.
Liquid waste is any waste material that is determined to contain "free liquids." Used cutting oil is a typical liquid waste. For sludges or other wastes that you cannot easily determine is liquid, you can use the paint filter test. The test requires pouring the waste through a specific filter to determine if the waste contains "free liquids." For further information about this test, please call the Office of Small Business.
Asbestos waste regulated under the Clean Air Act is (1) any waste that contains commercial asbestos and (2) any asbestos waste generated during demolition or renovation. Examples include insulation, fireproofing materials, and packaging contaminated with commercial asbestos.
PCBs are typically found in old transformers and other electrical equipment. A PCB waste is a waste that contains any monochlorinated or polychlorinated biphenyl or any mixture that contains one or more of them. This includes equipment, solids (including empty containers) and contaminated liquids.
To protect the environment and reduce your regulatory requirements, minimize the amount of waste you generate. For more information, call the Office of Small Business.
A delisted hazardous waste is excluded from the list of hazardous wastes when the Illinois Pollution Control Board grants a petition filed by a business.
A decharacterized hazardous waste is a hazardous waste that has been treated to make it nonhazardous or the hazardous characteristic, ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity, has been removed.
When autos and trucks are shredded to reclaim metals, a significant amount of other materials are generated such as upholstery and plastics (auto fluff). This material is often contaminated during the recycling process and must be managed as a special waste.
Yes, in some instances you may certify that your waste is not a special waste by following the procedures on page 4.
This flow chart can assist you in determining if you generate a special waste.
Any industrial process wastes and pollution control wastes that are not hazardous and not liquid may be certified as nonspecial waste in Illinois and may be disposed of with your general refuse. In addition to these wastes, the containers that once held them may also be excluded from the definition of special waste if:
If you determine that the industrial process or pollution control waste that you generate is a "nonspecial waste", you may prepare a nonspecial waste certification. This certification must be made in writing and must be provided when requested by Illinois EPA, the waste transporter, the disposal site, and any one else involved in managing the waste. If you do not make this written certification, the waste is still considered a special waste and must be managed as a special waste.
The information contained in this certification must include (as applicable):
If the process that generates the waste changes or the raw materials change, you must complete a new certification. Certifications must be signed, dated, and kept for at least 3 years after you stop operating the process that generates the certified nonspecial waste. The law provides stiff penalties for false certification.
No specific form is required for nonspecial waste certifications. Some example certifications are provided below.
John's Auto Body
123 Main Street
Roscoe, IL 61073
I certify that masking materials used when spray painting vehicles in my shop, including paper, plastic, and masking tape with paint overspray are not hazardous, not liquid, do not contain PCBs or asbestos, are not formerly hazardous , are not shredded recyclable metals, and are not special wastes. I determined that my wastes are not special wastes by looking at my MSDS. I also certify that discarded paint cans are empty and no longer contain any liquids. MSDS for paints are attached.
John R. Karr
Mike's Machine Shop
2616 N.E. Adams St.
Peoria, IL 61611
6 Nov. 1997
I certify that grit from grinding and metal grindings, shavings, turnings, and scrap resulting from machining various components are nonhazardous and nonliquid; do not contain asbestos or PCBs; are not formerly hazardous waste rendered nonhazardous; are not generated by shredding recyclable metals. Therefore, these are not special waste.
Michael W. Thomas
(Analytical results attached)
Now that you have determined whether you generate a special waste, if you need additional assistance, please call the Office of Small Business at 1-888-EPA-1996 for more information about requirements that may apply to you. | <urn:uuid:fc75524a-ce34-452c-a684-5223ead4c50d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.epa.illinois.gov/topics/waste-management/waste-disposal/special-waste/do-i-have/index | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00091-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.911296 | 1,584 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Boys at the beginning of the century continued to be dressed in dresses
until 5 or 6 years old. After enmerging from dresses they were atired in minature
versions of their father's clothes. In the early 18th century men's coats were
made with fuller skirts, and the sleeves were
made with wide cuffs. The sleeved vest be-
came shorter and was often richly embroi-
dered ; after a time the vest was made without
sleeves. Another 18th-century addition to male
costume was the buckled knee breeches.
It was in England in the first quarter of the century when someone
had a novel thought, that boys might be dressed in distinctive
juvenile clothes, in this case long trousers or pantaloons.
Someone had the inspiration that boys might wear sailors' trousers.
Men and boys at the time wore knee breeches. English
seamen (not officers) had, however, been dressing in pantaloons since
the seventeenth century and English boys adopted trousers a half
century before their fathers did.
English children were the first to be emancipated, little girls
changing to soft, unlined frocks in the 1770's with France and
the Colonies following next.
Some well-known writers had taken the age to task for its manner of
confining infants' bodies in tight clothes, among them John Locke,
the English philosopher (1632-1704), who was probably the big
influence in the change. He was followed by Jean Jacques Rousseau,
the French philosopher (1712-1775), who carried on the crusade and
was forced to flee Paris for England because of his revolutionary
The French Revolution which erupted in 1789 had a major impact on fashion. The changes brought by the revolution affected all areas of French life
including fashion. The middle class provided the firmest support for the
Revolution and had the most to gain from the changes. When the Sans Culottes
(without knee breeches) first appeared in 1792, the costume consisted of a
pair of trousers and a Carmagnole, a short jacket based on naval working
dress. Suspenders were worn for the first time. The Sans Culottes wore also
the red cap of shame symbolizing the new found liberty and freedom. Knee breeches
lasted into the next century, but soon men would dress in longs. It wouldd take
a few more years before the transition of boys into knee pants would take place.
The change over to trousers began late in the period,
knee breeches were still worn for dress as can be seen in
portraits and well know historical figures, such as American Revolutionary
The French Revolution
brought about a number of changes in the
costume of women, including the "Directoire"
dress which had a high waistline, a low neck-
line, puff sleeves, and a long, tight skirt. The
"Empire" dress, which succeeded the Directoire, was much like it except for the skirt,
which was full. These changes in womnen's fashions were paralleled in changing dress for men. Civilian dress for men during
this period consisted of a waistcoat over which
a long-skirted coat was worn, and the pantalon, breeches that closely fitted the thigh and
reached to the ankle.
The writings of the Age of Reason were having an effect
in putting children into comfortable-clothes, the trouser costume
known as the English sailor's dress being a short little jacket v • an open-necked blouse, a waistcoat without skirts and the long breeches.
The little girl's frock was usually a sheath of muslin with round
neck and short or long sleeves. From the 'seventies on, the
floor-length skirt slowly shortened to the ankles revealing the soft
little slippers of kid or fabric instead of the earlier, heavy buckled
Infants' swaddling clothes lasted well into the eighteenth century.
The baby also owned a complete set of dress clothes which were worn
for the christening ceremony and any other public occasion. Such
garments were exquisitely made and beautifully embroidered. The
skirts attached to
the tiny bodices were invariably a good four feet in length. Yellow
was the traditional color for the christening dress with embroidery
in silk, or gold for an "upper class baby."
Navigate the Historic Boys' Clothing Web Site:
[Introduction] [Chronologies] [Style Index] [Biographies] [Bibliographies] [Contributions] [Boys' Clothing Home]
Navigate the Historic Boys' Clothing Web chronological pages:
[1500s] [1700s] [1800s] [1840s] [1880s] [1900s] | <urn:uuid:a8268fd8-a43c-429a-924f-e419879d2c14> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://histclo.tripod.com/c1700.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00101-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962869 | 1,023 | 3.546875 | 4 |
nounchiefly North American
A pattern in the air above an airport of permitted lanes for aircraft to follow after take-off or prior to landing.
- Become more aware of your surroundings; an airport traffic pattern can get extremely busy.
- Most first solos are no more than a couple or three circles around the airport traffic pattern, but it's a big moment in a student pilot's training.
- I had it happen once in the traffic pattern approaching a landing and had to open the canopy in order to see.
For editors and proofreaders
Line breaks: traf|fic pat|tern
Definition of traffic pattern in:
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed. | <urn:uuid:90959534-4ab0-4ec7-90a4-f10e2e4ebecf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/traffic-pattern | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92517 | 163 | 2.609375 | 3 |
I recently finished taking an Ethnoecology summer course at the University of Victoria. At the beginning of the course, we were divided into groups of three, and each group was assigned to a hunter-gatherer tribe or community that was being exploited by governments or corporations, or both. Each person in the groups was designated a different viewpoint from which to argue – Indigenous, Environmental, or Corporate. As the class was an environmental studies class, no one wanted to be corporate, including myself, but the lottery wasn’t kind. I was the corporate rep for governmental-oil conglomerates in Western Siberia, where the Khanty people traditionally make their home.
As a corporate representative for the class debate project, it was my job to provide a rationale for corporate resource extraction, justify the annihilation of the Khanty’s cultural diversity, explain of the ideologies that govern modern global economic convention, and give solid reasons for the unrestrained liquidation of social and ecological capital for short-term economic capital.
The Khanty people are hunter-gatherers – taciturn, concentrated, quiet, thoughtful and industrious. The bulk of the Khanty population occupies the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug, or Khantia-Mansia, which is a federal subject of Russia. The traditional mainstay of the Khanty economy was hunting, which was not merely a means of sustenance, but an inextricably vital link to the development and maintenance of their way of life and culture. Indeed, images of hunting and fishing are extremely important to the culture and all hunting equipment, which was personally manufactured, was considered as the same substance as the person using the artifact. Aside from hunting animals for sustenance such as bear, moose, and wild reindeer, animals such as badger, fox and sable were hunted for fur. The Khanty also fished and gathered berries and mushrooms for sustenance. They lived in small groups separated by hundreds of miles in order to reduce the amount of environmental degradation. Like many other hunter-gatherer cultures, the Khanty worshipped and lived in balance with nature, as their livelihood was interconnected with the wilderness around them.
According the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug website, the majority of the oil produced in Russia comes from Khantia-Mansia, making the region of critical economic importance, both globally and nationally. According to numerous sources Khantia-Mansia is an ecological disaster area caused especially by intensive oil and gas extraction which began Western Siberia with Soviet drilling and has continued today. Khanty diet has deteriorated, diseases are spreading, the rate of homicide, suicide, and alcoholism is growing, the natural resources are declining, and the Khanty language, traditional culture and way of life are disappearing all in the name of short term corporate profit. In order to look at the issues surrounding resource extraction in Khantia-Mansia using from the corporate representative viewpoint, I had to familiarize myself with conventional corporate ideology. This wasn’t too hard, as it has been widely addressed.
As demonstrated by The Corporation, a Canadian documentary film, corporations, as legal persons, fully meet the diagnostic criteria of a psychopath. They feel no guilt, are self-interested, amoral, callous, deceitful, and anti-social. They breach social, legal, and environmental standards by ignoring, or externalizing, environmental and social damages in order to maximally profit from resource extraction, manufacturing, production and consumption, all the while masquerading as altruistic, empathetic and responsible.
The reason for this is can be demonstrated by what the American working-class press from the 1850’s called “…the new spirit of the age, gain wealth, forgetting all but sel." That is, corporations and people are supposed to be rational wealth accumulators, each acting as an individual to maximize their own wealth in the market. Caring for the environment or people (like the Khanty, who depend on pristine natural conditions) is out of the question because corporations are legally mandated to maximize profit. If corporations pay for the external damage they cause – not only environmental, but also social – then profit will not be maximized, and they will be held legally accountable. Furthermore, as Jim Harding demonstrates in his book Canada’s Deadly Secret, corporations are often not held legally accountable for breaking laws, or causing illegal damage, and so have limited motivation to uphold societal and environmental values when they will be punished for doing so.
The people most harmed externalizing environmental and social costs are often future generations and people who rely on intact ecosystems for subsistence, both of whom usually have very little say in corporate decision-making. Any corporate CEO that worries about anyone or anything but maximizing profit is being irrational because what the CEO is supposed to do is maximize the shareholder’s short-term interests, usually measured by wealth. Nothing else matters. So destroying the environment and disregarding the indigenous peoples and their unique and vibrant culture and ignoring the needs of future generations are rational policies based on global economic convention, but within a framework of institutional lunacy.
This is all despite the fact that corporate decisions result in a negative external affect on CEO’s or the shareholders. For example, weapons of mass destruction are described in the famous Russell-Einstein Manifesto as endangering all of humanity. Jim Harding outlines how uranium mining in Saskatchewan results in high-grade uranium ore, which, after used in nuclear reactors, is either contained in inadequate storage facilities, or it is sold in the nuclear weapons market. Despite the massive environmental implications and potential of a global nuclear holocaust, some powerful corporations and governments continue to support uranium mining to this very day, leading to increased proliferation and the possibility of ultimate doom as stated in Noam Chomsky’s book Hegemony or Survival. It was this dishonest framework, which regards the suffering others and even the suffering of the self with a sort of determined apathy, that I turned to the situation in Khantia-Mansia.
As a corporate representative, I can say that Survival International, a well-known human rights organization formed in 1969 that campaigns for the rights of indigenous tribal peoples, states on their website that the oil companies are a necessary factor in the survival of the Khanty. This statement portrays the corporation as a natural feature in the Khanty life way.
Of course, I neglect to mention that it was the corporations who degraded the Khanty life way and thus forced them to become dependent on the material wealth provided by advanced industrial societies, thus creating the conditions whereby the Khanty were basically economically enslaved. Such creative omissions are actually not lying, but just an example of dishonesty that can be used to make the corporations appear to be humanitarian in order to sustain whatever action they are undertaking. To the unfamiliar reader it may seem as though the oil companies would be doing the Khanty people a grave disservice by leaving them to their own devices, thus falsely legitimizing their presence.
Some oil companies appear to actually be truly helping the Khanty. According to its company website, LUKoil is making a substantial effort to support the indigenous people in Khanty-Mansia. It admits that exploration for oil and gas production and aggressive exploration of the subsoil may have a negative impact on reindeer breeding, hunting and fishing. It claims to promote relations during meetings of the management with representatives of the North Indigenous minority Population Assembly, heads of municipal entities and directly with indigenous peoples. It also signed agreements with public organizations such as “Save Yugra” and “Yamal for Future Generations.”
Also, according to Andrew Wiget of the New Mexico Heritage Center, in exchange for exploration and drilling rights, the Khanty were promised new winter and summer houses, snowmobiles and two tons of gas per year, 100,000 rubles per person per economic quarter, new clothes, paid university education, radio-telephone and electricity, and access to the very affordable company grocery store. Furthermore, decisions about taking mineral exploration are made by the okrug administration, in conjunction with the regional administration, after getting written consent for this taking from the landowner and positive results from the referendum of the Khanty and state environmental approval. This illustrates the participatory approach of exploring for oil reserves.
Once again, the dutiful corporate representative would omit that the items promised were rarely delivered on time, or not delivered at all. Sometimes these land deals were precluded by the gift of a bottle of vodka to the Khanty landowner, which had a definite affect on their judgment. Also ignored were claims that there are, “…recorded instances of licenses for exploration, territories being defined for tender, and territories being offered for tender, without the informed consent or even prior knowledge of the resident Khanty."
If none of this is mentioned, however, and the audience is unfamiliar with the situation, a premise of legitimacy is falsely established. From that I can argue that if indeed the indigenous way of life was so rich and sustaining, then why would the Khanty forsake their traditional hunter-gatherer ways other than for the realization of luxury and convenience provided by the material wealth introduced by the oil companies? In conversation with Phil Donahue, Milton Friedman, who won the Nobel Prize in Economics, said that, “In the only cases in which the masses have escaped from… grinding poverty are where they have had capitalism and largely free trade. If you want to know where the masses are worst off, it’s exactly in the kinds of societies that depart from that, so that the record of history is absolutely crystal clear; there is no alternative way, so far discovered, of improving the lot of the ordinary people that can hold a candle to the productive activities that are unleashed in a free enterprise system.”
This is exactly what is happening in Khantia-Mansia – the people are finally receiving the full benefits that civilization has to offer, replacing their cold, hard life of ceaseless labour and foraging in the wilderness with one of participation in the wider economy that results in comfort provided by safe, warm housing and readily available food, health provided by hospitals and modern medicine, and education and fulfillment provided by local schools.
It is worth noting that their participation in the wider economy was forced upon the Khanty through relocation, the murder of their shamans, and forced education as they attempted to deal with soil, water and air pollution which led to the wholesale destruction of their life way – the usual colonial combinations. Alcoholism and increased suicide rates are two tangible results of the lying, stealing and selfishness of the government during the Communist years, which was immediately taken up by Russian government and international corporations today. Khanty ties to the land were severed, rendering their traditions, culture and religion were disregarded in the face of economic profit. The land was no longer valued as nutritionally, culturally, ecologically spiritually, and socially (which is to say, holistically) important – it was only of economic importance.
This provides an illustration of one of the greatest shortcomings of modern economics, and many modern sciences – the dangerous tendency towards reductionism. To focus and place value on only one constituent part is to lose sight and disregard the value of not only the other constituent parts, but also their interactions, leads to a situation where the system as a whole is never taken into account, much less valued. It is this narrow-minded approach that has resulted in the scenario chillingly described by David Orr:
“If today is a typical day on planet Earth, we will lose 116 square miles of rainforest, or about an acre per second. We will lose another 72 square miles to encroaching deserts, as a result of human mismanagement and overpopulation. We will lose 40 to 100 species, and no one knows whether the number is 40 or 100. Today the human population will increase by 250,000. And today we will add 2,700 tons of chlorofluorocarbons to the atmosphere and 15 million tons of carbon. Tonight the Earth will be a little hotter, its waters more acidic, and the fabric of life more threadbare.”
Orr explains that everything everyone depends on for future health is in jeopardy: climate stability, the resilience, productivity and presence of natural systems, the beauty of the natural world, and biological diversity. Everything is being sacrificed for the endless growth of development fueled by the endless pursuit short term corporate profit. In the words of my favourite misanthropic environmentalist Edward Abbey, “Growth for the sake of growth is the ideology of the cancer cell.”
The Khanty, and many other hunter-gatherer peoples, were actually able to live sustainably on their lands for many generations – their concerns about growth were likely focused on the growth of plants, animals, and children. They did not seek to remove themselves from the consequences of their actions by passing on external costs to future generations as do modern economics. They sought, and in many ways achieved, integration into the larger ecological systems as they realized that they simply could not survive without respecting the land.
It does not take an intellectual leap of faith to recognize that everyone on the earth ultimately depends on viable, functioning ecosystems for their wellbeing. These ecosystems provide innumerable and invaluable services to all of humanity. I believe that we are on the cusp on one of the greatest calamities the beings on this planet have ever faced. David Orr’s description of a typical day on earth provides an illustration of the huge forces at work – destructive forces that are unleashed by corporate and governmental entities backed by the violently ignorant ideologies of modern economic convention.
This class project taught me a lot about the corporate point of view, and gave me some great insight in how to invalidate the main arguments underpinning most contemporary economic activity. It also demonstrated how instrumental the survival of the First Peoples of the world may be to the survival of the planet as a whole. With regards to environmental problems, I have yet to see anywhere in the mainstream media focus on anything other than partisan politics, technological fixes, and retroactive solutions. The sources of these problems –the endless pursuit of economic growth, and the disregard of people and ecosystems – are not being addressed. There must be an ideological shift from a short-sighted, cancerous lust for profit to a long-term, more gentle respect of all living things.
The unconventional, involved, and highly respectful traditional practices and ways-of-doing that characterizes the lives of hunter-gatherers such as the Khanty can provide real, sustainable ways of living that have withstood the test of time. As the land upon which they depend is degraded the people are assimilated, or disappear, or their land changes so much that they can no longer practice their traditions, and their Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Wisdom (TEKW) disappears as well. It is, of course, up to the First Peoples to determine whether or not they wish to share their knowledge, and with whom, to ensure that their TEKW is used in the manner it was given – with careful understanding and respect. TEKW held by people like the Khanty could prove to be one of the determining factors that will help bring about a global cognitive shift – a shift that is necessary if humanity has any desire for decent survival in the future. | <urn:uuid:c4d7721a-e362-4192-9ed7-bf999920d91f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://zcomm.org/zblogs/resource-extraction-in-western-siberia-through-the-eyes-of-a-corporate-representative-by-matt-loewen/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962242 | 3,148 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Some people think that persistent contrails (high altitude aircraft vapor trails) are unusual, and are evidence of some secret government plot to modify the weather, or spread some population controlling drug or toxin. This is based on a misunderstanding of how contrails form, persist and spread. It is also not a new misunderstanding.
Back in the 50’s in America, contrails were a fairly rare sight in many parts of the country. Air travel was a fraction of what it is now, commercial jet travel did not start until 1958, and military operations were generally limited to particular areas. So it was not surprising that when someone noticed a contrail for the first time, they might think it to be unusual.
This account from 1951 reads almost exactly like the misunderstanding of current contrails:
Mystery Veils Vapor Wreath in Gaveston’s Sunny SkiesIt wasn’t a sky-written soft-drink ad and the weatherman couldn’t offer an explanation either for the fat white streaks of vapor hanging motionless in Galveston skies around noon Saturday.
But it seems fairly certain that a six-engined B-36 left the heavy white trail in its wake as it circled over the city.
Neither municipal airport nor civil aeronautics authority official had a flight plan on the bomber. Both outfits however, believed that the jet-powered B-36 was on a training mission from Carswell Air Force Base in Fort Worth.
An Air Force spokesman at Carswell Base refused to comment on either the bomber or its “vapor trail” when contacted late Saturday by The News.
Mystery of the massive vapor streaks was their long steady persistence in breeze-stirred skies rather than their expulsion from the jet-powered plane. Airport officials commented that a vapor trail usually fades away swiftly, as in sky-writing.
They also said that planes may leave vapor trails when flying at high altitudes. But it was unlikely, they added, that the air would remain still enough to keep the vapor from fading swiftly.
Another odd thing – onlookers said the bomber engines rather than the jet exhausts were pushing out the vapor clouds.
The only thing certain about the vapor mystery seems to be that the B-36 was flying at altitudes between 10,000 and 25,000 feet when it circled Galverston.
There are several components of the misunderstanding. Winds at altitude differ significantly from winds on the ground. Sky-writing happens at a much lower altitude and is totally different. The B-36 was the largest American bomber EVER, 50% larger than the B-52, and could easily cruise at 40,000 feet. So estimates of its height over Galverston could easily be underestimated, if based on experience with more typical aircraft. The B-36 also did not use its jet engines at cruising altitude, only for takeoff and dash attacks.
Here’s a photo of B-36 contrails at 37,000 feet, from the Operation Teapot nuclear tests on 6th April 1955, in Nevada:
All the trails are from the same B-36 jet overflying the test site (it was an aerial test).
And here is an account of a B-36 leaving persistent contrails at 20,000 feet.
Another account from a year earlier (1950), where the vapor trails (contrails) are mistaken for some kind of UFO. Typical of the flying saucer craze of the time. This from the Waterloo Courier, April 16, 1950:
Here’s another from the San Mateo Times, Jan 12, 1950: | <urn:uuid:f11b7a3f-fe8f-4756-a2ed-f717e5fed63e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://contrailscience.com/contrail-confusion-is-nothing-new/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960776 | 741 | 2.9375 | 3 |
The cast of heroes and villains in Greece’s ongoing battle to save its economy varies depending on who’s telling the story. One simplified narrative depicts the German people as rich and callous overlords inflicting hardship on the downtrodden Greeks. The austerity measures they insist upon are essentially meant to punish the Greeks for spending too much on social programs for the sick and elderly.
In an opposing storyline, the Greeks have only themselves to blame: they lived beyond their means, evaded taxation, were generally corrupt, and irresponsibly piled up debts they simply could not repay. In this scenario the Germans are like parental figures administering discipline on the immature Greeks.
Neither of these narratives is accurate or helpful; rather than providing real insight, they merely serve to heighten nationalistic and xenophobic impulses in both countries. In order to make sense of what’s going on, we need to go behind the scenes to look more broadly at the underpinnings of the crisis.
It is widely assumed that the European Union was formed in order to prevent conflict. This notion can be traced to the aftermath of the Second World War, when well-intentioned statesmen promoted the notion that economic integration was a path to peace and harmony. And until this day many idealists support the EU for this reason. However, for many in my network – particularly in Scandinavia – it was clear from the beginning that the EU was primarily about big business.
Before countries were linked together into an economic union, Europe’s many regions were home to a great variety of cultures, languages and customs. But the Union erodes this rich diversity, which was born of human adaptation to different climates and ecological realities. The many borders, currencies, and differing regulations made trade difficult for big business, while the diversity of languages and cultural traditions put limits on mass marketing.
None of these were obstacles to businesses operating within their own countries – in fact, the borders and cultural diversity helped protect the markets of domestic producers from the predations of mobile capital, helping to ensure their survival. But for big corporations and financial institutions, diversity is an impediment, monoculture is ‘efficient’. For them, a single Europe-wide market of 500 million people was an essential step to further growth. Meeting that goal required a single currency, ‘harmonized’ regulations, the elimination of borders, and centralized management of the European economy.
The European Union is an extension of the Bretton Woods institutions – The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) – founded at the end of World War II. Their stated purpose was global economic integration in order to avoid another depression and to avert war. But the result was a form of economic development – based on debt, global trade and consumerism – that systematically favored corporate interests while hollowing out local economies worldwide. Sadly, many people still idealistically embrace the Bretton Woods institutions, as well as the European Union.
In the end, the economic problem in Greece is the product of a global system that puts the needs of corporations and banks ahead of people and the planet.
Neither the media nor academia has focused on the role of transnational banks and corporations in promoting this economic path. Instead they continue to reinforce the notion that European “economic integration” is about peaceful coexistence among countries that would otherwise be at war with each other. The benefits to big business, meanwhile, are hardly mentioned at all. It is no wonder that the public continues to be beguiled by this message, and that many statesmen have internalized the notion that centralization is in the public interest.
However, Greece reveals clearly where a centralized economy dominated by corporations and banks leads. In country after country, transnational corporations have been able to evade taxes by ‘offshoring’ their activities, and to bargain for lower tax rates and higher subsidies by threatening to move where even less in taxes will be demanded, and even more in subsidies provided. At the same time, governments must pay from their depleted treasuries to provide support for the growing ranks of unemployed, to retrain displaced workers, to mend the unraveling social fabric, and to clean up the despoiled environments left behind by deregulated, mobile corporations. Forced to go hat-in-hand to banks – which can create money out of thin air by issuing loans – countries can easily find themselves on a downward spiral, with interest payments consuming an increasing proportion of national output. It’s no wonder that so many governments today are struggling to stay afloat, while global corporations and banks are flush with cash.
In the end, the economic problem in Greece is the product of a global system that puts the needs of corporations and banks ahead of people and the planet. The same system is responsible for the polluted rivers and air in China, for the sweatshop conditions in Bangladesh, for the economic refugees from Africa desperately seeking asylum in Europe, and for the collapsing economies of Puerto Rico, Greece, and beyond. The internal logic of this global system favors no nation – not Germany, not even the United States – but only the footloose corporations and banks that dominate the global economy.
There is an alternative to starving our own people to enrich foreign banks: it involves moving away from ever-more specialized production for export, towards prioritizing diversified production to meet people’s genuine needs; away from centralized, corporate control, towards diverse, localized economies that are more equitable and sustainable. This means encouraging greater regional self-reliance, and using our taxes, subsidies and regulations to support enterprises embedded in society, rather than transnational monopolies.
Although the localization path is not yet visible in the media, more and more economists, environmentalists and social activists are embracing it. Awareness is growing, as people around the world recognize this simple truth: “we are all Greece.”
Byron Shire resident Helena Norberg-Hodge is founder and director of Local Futures (International Society for Ecology and Culture). A pioneer of the “new economy” movement, she has been promoting an economics of personal, social and ecological wellbeing for more than 30 years. | <urn:uuid:b7e6bd86-1dee-40eb-8d0c-97952bb0193d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.echo.net.au/2015/08/we-are-all-greece/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00039-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956464 | 1,268 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Category:Fijian terms derived from Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian
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Terms in Fijian that originate from the Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian language.
This category has only the following subcategory. | <urn:uuid:27143a0b-ee3a-4813-8ccf-d31623210c56> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://en.m.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Fijian_terms_derived_from_Proto-Eastern_Malayo-Polynesian | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.748984 | 124 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Theater in ancient Greece developed from the ceremonial worship of the god Dionysus (in which the death and rebirth of the god were celebrated) and was communal in nature. The focal point of the structure in which the ceremony took place was a level, circular space at the foot of a hill. Around this space, called the orchēstra, an auditorium rose in a large semicircle. Behind the orchēstra was the skēne, a building where the actors could change costume. Between the skēne and the orchēstra was a space called the proskenion, which later developed into the stage.
The original religious nature of Greek drama made audiences particularly receptive to the cosmic themes presented in classical tragedy. Greek actors performed in masks and stylized costumes (see mask). The chorus remained in the orchēstra throughout the play, performing intricate dances and chants while commenting on the dramatic action taking place on the proskenion. The date at which the proskenion became a raised stage is uncertain, but it had definitely achieved this status by the Hellenistic period (3d–1st cent. B.C.).
The years from the decline of classical Greece through the Hellenistic period to the Roman era saw the erosion of serious drama and a corresponding increase in the architectural grandeur of theaters. As the religious and thus the choral element diminished, the skēne became an elaborate structure and the orchēstra was increasingly reduced in size.
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The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
See more Encyclopedia articles on: Theater | <urn:uuid:fad880b9-1c9b-47b3-b2ca-c20c2d71f6c8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/entertainment/theater-ancient-greece.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00025-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95584 | 342 | 4.125 | 4 |
Most Americans carry around some sort of credit or debit card, embossed with a 15- or 16-digit card number on the front. But what exactly do those numbers mean? Are they sequential, random or do they follow some other type of pattern?
It turns out that there is meaning behind those numbers. Looking at the first number on your card: If it starts with 3, it is an American Express, Diner’s Club, or Carte Blanche; 4 is reserved for Visa, 5 for MasterCard, and 6 for Discover. The next five digits will indicate the card issuer such as the bank or credit union, as well as the type of credit card. So for example, all Citi AAdvantage Executive MasterCards will begin with 546616 with the 5 representing MasterCard, and the 46616 representing Citi as well as the fact that it is one of their American Airlines AAdvantage Executive cards.
The remainder of the 16 digits (or 15, in the case of American Express), represent both the cardholder’s account number as well as one or more “check digits.” A check digit is applied to an unusual formula that helps determine if your credit card number is actually valid. Using this formula, it takes only a fraction of a second for a computer to confirm that a credit card number is valid, but about a minute for someone with high school level math skills to do the same.
In addition, credit cards now have additional digits that are often required to process a transaction, especially when the card is not present, such as when placing a telephone or Internet order. These are the three-digit numbers on the back of MasterCard, Visa and Discover cards, or the four-digit numbers on the front of an American Express card. These codes were introduced in the late 1990s in response to the need to validate the growing number of Internet transactions.
How to Tell If a Credit Card Number Is Valid
You, too, can crack the credit card code to see if the number you’re looking at is a valid one. For 16-digit numbers, start with the first number on the left, and double each alternating number on the card. (For 15-digit numbers, start with the second number from the left.) Add any double-digit numbers so that they reduce to a single-digit number. (For example, if one of the numbers is 8, it doubles to 16, then you add 1 + 6 to get 7.) Next, add those together with the alternating numbers that you did not double. If the total you get is divisible by 10, the credit card number is likely valid. So clearly, the check digits are included to just to turn an otherwise random account number into a valid one.
Credit Card Numbers Versus Account Numbers
When your card is lost, stolen, damaged or expired, it will need to be replaced. Some card issuers, such as American Express, will replace expired cards with one that has the same number, while others will have a card printed with a new number.
To make matters more confusing, your credit card account number may be different from the number on your credit card. So if your new card has a new number, it can still be linked to your existing account number, which doesn’t change. For example, American Express issues separate credit card numbers for each authorized user within an account, but there is just one account number for the primary account holder.
Why Does This Matter?
While this system is very important to credit card issuers and merchants, it actually matters very little to the average credit card user. You will always want to protect your credit card number from being stolen, and it might be helpful to know that the first six digits are the same for everyone with the same kind of credit card you have. You can also think of these first six digits as the equivalent of the badges on your car indicating the make and model, and the remaining digits kind of like a license plate that is unique to your vehicle.
As credit cards continue to evolve, the EMV smart chips embedded on the cards will eventually replace magnetic strips as a means of transmitting credit card account numbers and verifying transactions, but the credit card number itself should still be with us for a long time.
More on Credit Cards:
- How to Lower Your Credit Card Interest Rates
- 6 Smart Credit Card Strategies
- How to Get a Credit Card With Bad Credit | <urn:uuid:47a08def-f034-4345-b982-41947d409703> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.credit.com/2014/09/what-your-credit-card-number-means-94136/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93348 | 913 | 2.859375 | 3 |
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While it is certainly true that CDs and DVDs look a great deal alike, there are a few significant differences that make each electronic device more appropriate for various functions. Here are a few examples of how the two data options are quite different from one another.
One of the first differences between CDs and DVDs to note is in the amount of data storage that is possible with each device. The typical DVD will provide in the range of seven times the capacity that is available on a compact disk. DVDs make use of a series of recording layers and also store data on both sides of the device, which makes a big difference in the storage capacity. The older technology associated with the CD does not allow for these same applications.
The equipment used to read the data on these two devices also is geared to accommodate the different configuration for each device. DVDs actually record data is smaller nonreflective holes, referred to as pits, that are located in the grooves of the surface. With compact discs, the laser that is used to scan the surface and retrieve the data is different in size and intensity that is required to read the DVD. This difference in the technology used to record and retrieve data makes it impossible for DVDs and CDs to be read on the same equipment.
A third difference has to do with the speed of the data retrieval from CDs and DVDs. The standard DVD will access stored data much more quickly than compact disks. Generally, the transfer rate for a CD is around 150KB per second. The typical DVD has a transfer rate that is roughly seven times greater.
One final important difference between CDs and DVDs is the type of data that can be stored. UDF or Universal Data Format technology underpins DVD recording capacity. That means the DVD can store data, video, audio, or any combination of the three. A CD, which does not comply with UDF standards, is not capable of the same storage ability.
Thanks for your explanation on the subject, which surely clarified the difference between CDs and DVDs for me.
Thanks again, Yasuko. | <urn:uuid:b0aa9eb6-14f7-464d-9dd1-66da7af0de9e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-difference-between-cds-and-dvds.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00178-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957511 | 424 | 3.09375 | 3 |
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Interestingly, "The House of Usher" is a double-entendre, meaning both the architectural structure that is the home of Roderick and Madeline and the lineage of the Usher name. This mansion, once structurally sound, aristocratic, aesthetic, now parallels the family of Usher in its decrepitude. Because the Ushers have kept their bloodlines too thin, Madeline and Roderick possess, mysterious illnesses; Roderick describes his malady as "a constitutional and a family evil " without remedy. In addition, the Usher line has ben reduced to Roderick and Madeline, who are twins, male and female counterparts of each other; Madeline, too, has a disease that "baffles the skill of the physicians." Twin that he is, Roderick senses Madeline's condition, and he fears being separated from her as though this separation will deprive him, too, of life.
Madeline dies, Roderick moves her to a vault hoping to preven her being examined in an autopsy, His behavior becomes erratic and bizarre like the fissures in the house. His is a "sensitive nervousness," mirroring the cataleptical condition of his sister in emotion. In hysteria the ailing Roderick says that his supersenative ears hear Madeline, and she is at the door. With preternatural energy he unbolts a door and in "death agonies" Madeline and he fall dead. Like the family, the decaying house crumbles.
Roderick, Madeline and the house seem to be bound together, at both literally and figuratively. When the narrator enters, he notices a large crack in the house. This reflects the crack or separation that has occurred between Roderick and Madeleine. Roderick informs the narrator that he and his sister are twins and that she is ill. Roderick himself seems to be suffering from illness, both physical and mental. The house is also "ill". It is run down and needs repairs. It is also surrounded by a dank or smelly tarn or moat. This suggests the separation between the Ushers and the outside world. As the story continues, the house begins to creak, strange sounds come from the cellar and the narrator begins to hear Madeline trying to escape the coffin in which she's been placed. All this occurs while Roderick sinks deeper into madness. At the end of the story, all three of the subjects, Roderick, Madeline and the house are destroyed. The crack in the house begins to split open, representing the madness and split in the minds of the Ushers. Finally, house ,which contains their bodies, slips into the dark tarn. Thus, they all share the same fate in the end--destruction and death as the narrator barely escapes.
We’ve answered 327,786 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question | <urn:uuid:b5d2d255-a4ea-4d6b-bf4d-6cc00003554a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-some-characteristics-characters-roderick-47157 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964761 | 599 | 3.03125 | 3 |
|Type of record:||Archaeology|
|Name:||The Murder Stone: a standing stone 150m NW of Cornfield Farm|
A standing stone erected on a ridge above the brook at Handley Fold. The stone is a triangular natural slab of local gritstone. It is earthfast and stands on the crest of the ridge affording good visibility in all directions except the north east where the view is obscured by higher ground. The stone measures 1.22m at its widest point and 0.44m deep. It stands 1.14m high. It is Grade II listed and a Scheduled Monument.
Prehistoric standing stones would have had some line of ceremonial or ritual significance. They are often sited near other significant monuments such as burial sites. They could have served as meeting places, route or burial markers.
|Parish:||LYME HANDLEY, MACCLESFIELD, CHESHIRE EAST|
- STANDING STONE (Bronze Age - 2350 BC to 801 BC)
|Protected Status:||Scheduled Monument 25701: The Murder Stone: A Standing Stone 150M North West Of Cornfield Farm; Listed Building (old) (II) 4/85: Title not entered| | <urn:uuid:b49d0169-565f-40b2-8e13-b49018802bb3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://rcp.cheshire.gov.uk/SingleResult.aspx?uid=MCH7153 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00201-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922364 | 261 | 2.546875 | 3 |
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versión On-line ISSN 1983-3288
Psychol. Neurosci. (Online) vol.2 no.1 Rio de Janeiro enero/jun. 2009
Olavo F. Galvão; Paulo S. D. Soares Filho; Hernando B. Neves Filho; Milena M. Nagahama
Theory and Research of Behavior Graduate Program, Federal University of Pará StateCorrespondence regarding this article should be directed to
Do capuchin monkeys respond to photos as icons? Do they discriminate photos of capuchin monkeys' faces? Looking for answers to these questions we trained three capuchin monkeys in simple and conditional discrimination tasks and tested the discriminations when comparison stimuli were partially covered. Three capuchin monkeys experienced in simultaneous simple discrimination and IDMTS were trained with repeated shifts of simple discriminations (RSSD), with four simultaneous choices, and IDMTS (1 s delay, 4 choices) with pictures of known capuchins monkeys' faces. All monkeys did discriminate the pictures in both procedures. Performances in probes with partial masks with one fourth of the stimulus hidden were consistent with baseline level. Errors occurred when a picture similar to the correct one was available among the comparison stimuli, when the covered part was the most distinct, or when pictures displayed the same monkey. Capuchin monkeys do match pictures of capuchin monkeys' faces to the sample. The monkeys treated different pictures of the same monkey as equivalent, suggesting that they respond to the pictures as icons, although this was not true to pictures of other monkeys. Subsequent studies may bring more evidence that capuchin monkeys treat pictures as depictions of real scenes.
Keywords: simple discrimination, conditional discrimination, matching to sample, iconic representation, photos as stimuli, Cebus apella.
Researchers de Waal and Pokorny (2008) reported that male chimpanzees respond differently to pictures of familiar and unfamiliar chimpanzees. The belief that chimpanzees respond to the pictures as icons is implicit. But do they? The problem of knowing the function of images for monkeys was first studied by Gallup (1970) measuring the reaction of apes to their own mirror image with a white mark on the forehead. Later, Inoue-Nakamura (1997) showed that Cebus apella present higher frequency of mirror observation and higher proportion of social behaviors directed to the mirror, compared to other primates. Anderson, Kuroshima, Paukner and Fujita (2008) reported that capuchin monkeys react to real-time movies of themselves, although without explicit acknowledgement that they recognize themselves, they prefer real-time to 1 s-delayed movies. While apes were the only primates that passed in Gallup's test of self recognition, the social behavior of capuchin monkeys in front of mirrors and movie-screens is evidence that the observer's mirror image is equivalent to the presence of an individual (Paukner, Anderson, & Fujita, 2004).
Pascalis and Bachevalier (1998) with humans and monkeys (Macaca mulata), and Dufour, Pascalis and Petit (2006) with humans, Tonkean macaques and brown capuchins, showed that the observation of a new face was predominant (longer) during the exhibition of a pair of faces (one previously shown) of the same species, and that this effect was restricted to faces of the same species. A remarkable aspect of these studies was the use of black and white pictures as stimuli. Another remarkable face recognition effect is the independent measurement of responses of temporal neurons that respond specifically to facial pictures and sketches (Sagiv & Bentin, 2001).
“Normal” humans respond to complex visual stimuli scanning the whole stimulus, and if part of the stimulus is hidden, they respond to the remaining as to the complete figure (Dube et al., 2003). In the context of delayed IDMTS, Dickson, Wang, Lombard and Dube (2006) demonstrated that individuals with learning disabilities may restrict the identity relation to parts of a complex stimulus, choosing the incorrect comparison when that part is added to the incorrect choice, for example. This performance is called over selectivity or restricted control.
Capuchin monkeys can show successful performances in simple and conditional discrimination studies with arbitrary visual stimuli (Barros, Galvão, Brino, Goulart, & McIlvane, 2005; Barros, Galvão, & McIlvane, 2002; Goulart, Mendonça, Barros, Galvão, & McIlvane, 2005), and photographs were used successfully with capuchins in simple discrimination studies (Beran et al., 2008; D'amato & Van Sant, 1988). Demonstration of recognition of photos of faces in an identity matching to sample format could be taken as evidence that they can respond to pictures as icons that are related to the conspecific individual photographed.
Similarly to the recognition studies, this paper intends to investigate some variables involved in using pictures as stimuli in identity conditional discrimination with capuchin monkeys. The use of pictures of conspecifics' faces in simple discrimination, repeated shifts of simple discrimination, and conditional discrimination (IDMTS) with capuchins with a history of generalized matching to sample with arbitrary black-gray-white drawings as stimuli is a preparation for the demonstration of equivalence between photographs and the items depicted in an object-picture matching procedure.
This study also addresses the possibility that capuchin monkeys may match by identity small parts of the nominal stimulus (over selectivity). Trying to verify this, after the IDMTS baseline was trained, the stimuli were partially covered to verify eventual restricted control.
The participants were three male adult capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella): M07, ET; M12, Cotoh; M15, Louis Dubois, living in the same facility but in separate cages. The monkeys had previous experience in simple discrimination and matching to sample with black-gray-white drawings.
The experimental sessions of subjects M07 and M15 were performed in a different experimental chamber and using a different software (EAM v. 4.0) from those used in the sessions of subject M12 (VAICOM). Each chamber was equipped with a touch sensitive monitor. A 190 mg pellet dispenser (MED Associates Inc ENV-203-190) provided one pellet per correct response. The software is available from the authors by request.
All the stimuli were in *.bmp format, with 24 bits of color and 93 x 93 pixels resolution. All of them were pictures of faces of conspecific monkeys (taken from monkeys that lived in the same animal house). Figure 1 shows the pictures used as stimuli grouped in four sets, corresponding to four baselines (A, B, C and D) of four stimuli trained separately. The alphanumeric code and the name of the monkey depicted are shown above each picture. There were different pictures of the same monkey. No pictures of the experimental subjects were used. The 5 x 5 cm stimuli were presented on a white background in any of nine locations in a 3 x 3 (three columns by three lines) matrix in the touch sensitive screen.
The sessions consisted of discrete trials separated by an inter-trial interval (ITI). Touching the correct stimulus (S+) twice was followed by delivery of a 190 mg pellet of the preferred flavor for each subject, and an ITI of six seconds followed. Responses (FR1) directed to any one of the incorrect choices (S-) produced only the ITI and the same trial was repeated (correction procedure). In the simple discrimination procedure two or four stimuli were presented simultaneously in each trial, in varying locations; sessions ended when the maximum number of trials was reached or when six consecutive correct trials occurred. When the criterion level was reached the correct stimulus was changed. In reversals of simple discrimination the S+ was changed in shifts. In the IDMTS procedure, a stimulus was presented in any of the nine positions in the monitor. Two touches on the sample were followed by the disappearance of the sample and the immediate presentation of the comparison stimuli, in varying locations. The number of choices in a given trial varied from two to four. After the learning criterion was reached, the partial mask procedure was introduced. One-fourth of both comparison stimuli was covered by a blank square.
The mask covered each of the four stimulus quadrants, A, B, C and D (Figure 2). In a given trial, all comparison stimuli had the same quadrant covered.
The procedure was divided in six phases. Participants M07 and M15 were exposed to all phases except for phases 6 and 8; participant M12 begun at phase 6 (see Table 1).
Phase 1 (reversal of visual simultaneous simple discrimination with two choices): Set A was divided in two two-stimuli sets (A1-A2 and A3-A4) for simple discrimination training. Each stimulus was the S+ in turns. When a stimulus was the S+, the other stimulus was the S-. Sessions ended with 36 trials or six consecutive correct responses, whichever came first. Phase 1 ended after two sessions with each S+ (A1, A2, A3, A4).
Phase 2: Same as Phase 1, except for a blank square substituting the S+ in one third of the trials and the S- in the other third of the trials (blank comparison probes).
Phase 3: Same as Phase 1.
Phase 4: Repeated shifts of simple discrimination (RSSD) with four choices using stimuli set A. In this phase, when a stimulus was the S+, the other three were S-.
Phase 5: Same as previous one plus Partial Mask a blank square covering one-fourth of the stimuli, in one trial the four stimuli had the same quadrant covered; in subsequent trials every quadrant was covered in turns.
Phase 6: Special procedure for participant M12 only. Consisting basically of repeated shifts of simple discrimination, but in a given session the S+ of the previous session was not used as S-; trials had three choices until all the stimuli were S+ twice. Sessions in this phase had 36 trials, and the criterion to move on to the next phase was six consecutive correct responses in each session.
Phase 7: IDMTS, four choices, zero delay, with stimuli sets A, B, C, D, successively. After training with set A, the first session with each new stimulus set had 24 baseline and 12 probe trials with stimuli from the next training set before training with the new set (insertion probe session). Sessions had 36 trials and the criterion to move on to the next phase was more than 90% correct responses, and less than two errors per trial type. Correct responses in the first trial, in each insertion probe trial, and more than 75% of correct responses in all the 12 probe trials were regarded as performances of generalized IDMTS.
Phase 8: Participant M12 only. IDMTS, zero delay, four choices with partial mask, successively with stimulus sets A, B, C, D. After reaching criterion with each stimulus set, a session with 12 trials with a partial mask and 24 baseline trials was performed before the insertion probe session with the next set.
Phase 9: IDMTS, zero delay, four choices. Sessions with trials of sets A, B, C and D, shuffled. In a given trial, comparisons were the four stimuli from the same set as the sample. Sessions had 48 trials; criteria to end the phase were at least 90% correct responses and less than two errors per trial type.
Phase 10: IDMTS sessions with trials of sets A, B, C and D, shuffled as in Phase 9, with partial mask probes in comparisons (32 trials with a partial mask, 16 without), as in Phase 5 in a given trial the partial mask was in the same quadrant on each comparison stimulus. Each partial mask position was presented four times. Probes were completed after eight 48-trial sessions, with 256 partial mask and 128 baseline trials.
In Phase 1 (two-choice simple discrimination reversals) participants M07 and M15 reached the criterion of ending two consecutive sessions with six consecutive correct trials for each S+ in 14 and 17 sessions, respectively.
In Phase 2 (probe trials with blank comparison substituting the S+ or the S-) inconsistent results were found. Baseline was maintained, but in 12 probe trials M07 never chose the mask, and M15 performance was close to chance performance (7 of 12 correct).
In Phase 3 (retraining of reversals of simple discrimination) M07 and M15 reached the criterion of ending the session with six consecutive correct responses in four consecutive reversals within four and 11 sessions, respectively.
In Phase 4 (four choices), M07 and M15 took five and seven sessions respectively to reach the criterion of four sessions ending with six consecutive correct choices.
In Phase 5 (four choices, partial mask), M07 and M15 took 22 and 23 sessions respectively to reach the criterion. Although reaching it, M15 was choosing A2 when A1 was S+ and vice versa when a partial mask was in quadrant C (Figure 3).
Phase 6: Exposed to repeated shifts of simple discrimination, participant M12 reached the criterion of six consecutive correct trials in all sessions, and took eight sessions to reach the criterion to end this phase.
In Phase 7 (IDMTS with sets A, B, C and D), training with set A, participants M07, M12 and M15 met the criterion of 90% correct responses respectively in 25, 11, and 13 sessions. Similar to the results in Phase 6, subjects M07 and M15 systematically chose A1 when A2 was the sample, and vice versa (Table 2). Because of these results, A1 was replaced by A5 for all participants (Figure 1). With stimulus set B, M07, M12, and M15 took seven, 25, and six sessions to meet the criterion. With stimuli set C, M07, M12, and M15 took 13, 10, and 13 sessions to reach the criterion; and to stimulus set D, M07, M12, and M15 took 10, 10, and seven sessions to reach the criterion. In the first session with 12 trials of the new set (insertion probe session), only M15 showed generalized IDMTS results with stimulus set D.
During IDMTS with set D systematic errors occurred when D1 and D3 were samples. M15 and M07 touched D3 when D1 was sample, and vice versa (see Table 3). These two stimuli were different pictures of the same monkey
In Phase 8 (IDMTS, stimulus set with partial mask), the performance of M12 in the trials with a partial mask was at 94% correct responses for set A, 68% for set B, 50% for set C, and 43% for set D.
In Phase 9 (stimulus sets A, B, C, D mixed in the same session), M07, M12, M15 reached the criterion in 15, three, and five sessions. After learning the conditional discrimination within each picture set, they maintained correct performances when trials of the four sets were interspersed in the same session.
In Phase 10 (IDMTS with stimulus sets A, B, C, D mixed in the same session with partial masks), the number of sessions planned was eight. Performance was above 90% correct in the four last sessions for all the three participants. In probe trials the overall performance was approximately 80% (See Figure 4).
Table 4 shows selected results of the four trials with partial mask for trial types with more than 50% of errors in the same stimulus. The “X” stands for incorrect choices and the “C” for correct choices, between parentheses are the stimuli chosen in incorrect trials.
Even with consistent errors in partial mask trials, there was no significant loss of performance in any of the participants.
Because all three participants reached performance criteria in repeated shifts of simultaneous simple discrimination and identity, zero-delay, conditional discrimination (IDMTS) with sets of four pictures of capuchins monkeys' faces, we can say that complex stimuli as photographs can be used in discrimination problems with capuchin monkeys. Further studies are necessary to determine the relation between stimulus control by pictures and the objects they represent.
In the probe trials with blank comparison substituting the S+ or the S- (Phase 2) it was not possible to infer about stimulus control, because incorrect choices occurred in both trial types, with mask on S+ and S-. Similar to the results of experiment 1 in Goulart et al., (2005).
Subject M15 showed generalized IDMTS in Phase 7, the first replication with pictures of Galvão et al. (2005) who reported generalized IDMTS with black and white drawings as stimuli. Concerning the confusion between two different pictures of the same monkey in Phase 7 (Bongo: D1, D3), which could be interpreted as indicative of iconicity, we need further investigation because the discrimination of different pictures of other monkey was unaffected (Newson: C1, C3, C4).
The use of partial masks covering one fourth of the pictures was intended to assess whether monkeys would exhibit restricted control in a picture discrimination task. Restricted control, i.e., responses under the control of part of the stimulus, is a phenomenon demonstrated in autistic individuals (Dickson, Deutsch, Wang, & Dube, 2006; Dube & McIlvane, 1999). The discrimination problems presented by subjects M07 and M15, between A1 and A2, can not be attributed to restricted control, because discrimination between pictures happened when the most conspicuous differences between the stimuli were presented. Discrimination problems occurred when the not covered parts were the most similar. This is a normal discrimination problem already demonstrated elsewhere (Sidman & Stoddard, 1967), a phenomenon that is different from the over selectivity reported in autism. Decrease in performance in conditional discrimination when a partial mask was in use in Phase 10, again, could not be interpreted as indicative of over selectivity, because general performance was still high and no consistent pattern of errors was found.
The insertion probes of sets B, C and D indicated that with the procedure used there was no immediate transfer of identity matching to the new pictures. Participant M15 showed a gradual improvement of performance, reaching the criterion for generalized identity with the insertion probe for stimulus set D.
The procedure used in this experiment can be used in the experimental approach to the study of symbolic behavior to describe the conditions that produce this kind of repertoire, and eventually to develop baselines for the analysis of pre-symbolic behavior at biobehavioral and neural levels (Galvão, Soares-Filho, Barros, & Souza, 2008).
Using sets with larger number of pictures and trials with more simultaneously presented pictures as comparison stimuli is a possible follow-up study to measure the discriminative potential of these stimuli.
Support to this research was provided by CNPq (Research Productivity Fellowship P. 15245-5/200 and undergraduate grants P. 485135/2006-0; P. 478821 2003-4), FINEP (FNDCT/CT-INFRA: EDITAL 002/03, Conv. FADESP 01.04.0200.00 02/2003), and NIH (Convênio 681 UMW/UFPA/FADESP, 2002).
Anderson, R., Kuroshima, H., Paukner, A., & Fujita, K. (2008). Capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) respond to video images of themselves. Animal Cognition, 11, 109-116. [ Links ]
Barros, R.S., Galvão, O.F., Brino, A.L.F., Goulart, P.R.K., & McIlvane, W.J. (2005). Variáveis de procedimento na pesquisa sobre classes de equivalência: contribuições para o estudo do comportamento simbólico. Revista Brasileira de Análise do Comportamento, 1, 15-27. [ Links ]
Barros, R.S., Galvão, O.F., & McIlvane, W.J. (2002). Generalized Identity Matching-to-Sample in Cebus apella. The Psychological Record, 52, 441-460. [ Links ]
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D'amato, M.R., & Van Sant, P. (1988). The person concept in monkeys (Cebus apella). Journal of Experimental Psychology, 14, 43-55. [ Links ]
de Waal, F.B.M., & Pokorny, J.J. (2008). Faces and Behinds: Chimpanzee Sex Perception. Advanced Science Letters, 1, 99-103. [ Links ]
Dickson, C.A., Deutsch, C.K., Wang, S.S., & Dube, W.V. (2006). Matching-to-sample assessment of stimulus overselectivity in students with intellectual disabilities. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 111, 447-453. [ Links ]
Dickson, C.A., Wang, S.S., Lombard, K.M., & Dube, W.V. (2006). Overselective stimulus control in residential school students with intellectual disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 27, 618-631. [ Links ]
Dube, W.V., Lombard, K.M., Farren, K.M., Flusser, D.S., Balsamo, L.M., Fowler, T.R., & Tomanari, G.Y. (2003). Stimulus overselectivity and observing behavior in individuals with mental retardation. In: Soraci, S., & Murata-Soraci, K. (eds.)._Visual information processing (pp. 109123). Westport, CT: Praeger. [ Links ]
Dube, W.V., & McIlvane, W.J. (1999). Reduction of stimulus overselectivity with nonverbal differential observing responses. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 2533. [ Links ]
Dufour, V., Pascalis, O., & Petit, O. (2006). Face processing limitation to own species in primates: a comparative study in brown capuchins, Tonkean macaques and humans. Behavioural Processes, 73, 107-113. [ Links ]
Gallup, G.G. (1970). Chimpanzees: self-recognition. Science, 167, 86-87. [ Links ]
Galvão, O.F., Soares-Filho, P.S.D., Barros, R.S., & Souza, C.B.A. (2008). Matching to sample as model of symbolic behavior for biobehavioral investigation. Reviews in the Neurosciences, 19, 149-156. [ Links ]
Goulart, P.R.K., Mendonça, M.B., Barros, R.S., Galvão, O.F., & McIlvane, W.J. (2005). A note on Select and Reject Controlling Relations in the Simple Discrimination of Capuchin Monkeys (Cebus apella). Behavioural Processes 69, 295-302. [ Links ]
Inoue-Nakamura, N. (1997). Mirror self recognition in nonhuman primates: a phylogenetic approach. Japanese Psychological Research, 39, 266-275. [ Links ]
Pascalis, O., & Bachevalier, J. (1998). Face recognition in primates: a cross-species study. Behavioural Processes, 43, 87-96. [ Links ]
Paukner, A., Anderson, J.R., & Fujita, K. (2004) Reaction of capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) to multiple mirrors. Behavioural Processes, 66, 1-6. [ Links ]
Sagiv, N., & Bentin, S. (2001). Structural encoding of human and schematic faces: Holistic and part based processes. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 13, 937-951. [ Links ]
Sidman, M., & Stoddard, L.T. (1967). The effects of errors on children's performance on a circle-ellipse discrimination. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 10, 261-270. [ Links ]
Correspondence regarding this article should be directed to:
Olavo F. Galvão
Trav. Castelo Branco, 1116, Apt. 1004, Belém, PA, Brazil, CEP 66063-000
Phone 55 91 32018475
Received 13 February 2009
received in revised form 23 March 2009
accepted 8 April 2009
Available online 29 June 2009 | <urn:uuid:dc36f24b-e413-47f5-bbb5-dce973555d44> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1983-32882009000100006&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=en | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00170-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.909588 | 5,339 | 2.578125 | 3 |
|Chapter 13: Spectroscopy|
Sample IR Spectra
By looking at IR spectra that contain known functional groups and comparing and contrasting them with other IR spectra, one can develop the skills required to be able to "interpret" an "unknown" IR spectra. Remember that for an organic chemist, the primary role of IR is to identify the functional groups that are present. A few examples reflecting some of the more important functional groups are provided below.
Compare them to try to appreciate the subtle differences, comparing frequency, intensity and shape.
In the first example, of the aromatic hydrocarbon, toluene, we can see both the aromatic and aliphatic CH stretches, and two absorptions for the aromatic C=C stretches.
Acetone (2-propanone) is the "classic" carbonyl containing compound with the obvious C=O stretch in the middle of the spectra. Note that the peak is a very strong absorption. Compare it with the C=C in the previous case which are weaker and sharper.
The characteristic absorption of the alcohol, 2-propanol, is the broad band due to the hydrogen bonded -OH group.
Carboxylic acids contain both C=O and OH groups. Note the broadness of both absorptions due to the hydrogen bonding and that the C=O is typically at slightly lower frequency than that of a ketone.
An ester has the follwoing key absorptions, the C=O and typically two bands for the C-O (not always easy to identify) since there are sp3 C-O and sp2 C-O bonds.
|© Dr. Ian Hunt, Department of Chemistry| | <urn:uuid:ff265999-34bf-42e7-a358-6964181fbcd9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chem.ucalgary.ca/courses/351/Carey5th/Ch13/ch13-ir-4.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00018-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929177 | 351 | 3.421875 | 3 |
For today's Medieval Monday snippet, I'm posting a few excerpts from the Pipe Rolls of King John.
There's a decent explanation of what these were at Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipe_rolls but basically it was to do with keeping a record of England's finances from year to year. They're a sort of glorified accounts book, but among the figures, you find various aspects of social comment.
On November 12th 1201, John wrote to his justiciar Geoffrey Fitzpeter, 'We lost our precious stones and jewels which we were wont to wear about our neck, which Bartholomew the bearer of these presents found and freely and faithfully brought us. For his service we have given him at Berkhamstead where he was born a rent of 20 shillings, and therefore we command you that you assign the rent of 20 shillings to him without delay.
On the pipe roll for Michaelmas 1202, this appears on the Berkhamstead account.
'Et Bartholomew qui invenit et rediddit Regi lapides pretiosos et jocalia que ipse amiserat xx s. quos ei R. in redditu assignauit. Which translates to: 'To Bartholomew who found and restored to the king the precious stones and jewels which he had lost, 20 shillings which the king has assigned him in rent.'
Concerning jewels again, there is in an enigmatic entry on this same pipe roll, the meaning of which has now been lost, but hints at John's usual secretive dealings.
'Episcopus Norwic' debet c m. quia tradidit R. unum anulum cum smaragdo quem R. ei tradiderat coram aliis. Which translates to: 'The Bishop of Norwich owes 100 markes "because he handed the king a ring with an emerald which the king had handed him before others." Make of that what you will. A hundred marks is a large sum of money. It would take an ordinary hearth knight on the pay of a shilling a day almost two weeks to earn a single mark.
In the pipe roll of 1209 there is another enigmatic entry. 'Episcopus Winton' tonellum vini boni. quia no reduxit ad memoriam R. de zona danda comitisse de Albemar'. The bishop of Winchester owes a tun of good wine 'because he did not remind the king to give a belt to the countess of Aumale.' This is interesting, since historian Sidney Painter believed that Hawise of Aumale was one of John's mistresses and that her son, ostensibly called William de Forz, should in actual fact be William FitzRoy. But why the Bishop of Winchester should be in trouble for not reminding him is a matter lost in time.
We get a glimpse of the prisoners taken at Mirebeau where Prince Arthur was captured - eventually leading to him never being seen again. On the Hampshire account £8 7s 4d were charged for the maintenance and carriage of prisoners taken at Mirebeau.
'Et in corredio et carriagio prisonum captorum apud Mirebel viij li. et vij s. et iiij d.
John's interest in books is shown by an entry on the 1203 pipe roll.
'Et Johanni de Kemesie xl11j s. et x d. ad cistas et carretas ad ducendos libros R. ultra mare.
John of Kempsey was paid for chests and carts to take the king's books across the sea.
He may also have liked his garden. There's an entry for enclosing his garden at Marlborough. Et pro claudendo gardino R. apud Merleberg x li et v s. et vj d.
The pipe roll of 1208 has an entry concerning the men of Cornwall who owed 500 marks 'for having a sheriff who will treat them justly and 200 that the king will remit his ill will towards them."
Marcher lord Walter de Clifford, sheriff of Hereford, paid John 1,000 marks to look the other way - for having his good will and that no enquiry should be made upon him touching his exactions on the county of Hereford.
'Walterus de Clifford M m. pro habenda benevolentia R. et ne inquisitio fiat super eum de prisis suis in comitatu Hereford.'
I could go on forever, but I have a novel to write! However, these snippets from above go to show how fascinating, fun and informative mining the primary sources can be! I'll post some more on another occasion.
Later this week, I'll be posting a couple of out-take chapters from A Place Beyond Courage. | <urn:uuid:9a073faf-8c35-46a0-8955-20817342cbf2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://livingthehistoryelizabethchadwick.blogspot.com/2010/08/medieval-monday-king-johns-accounts.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00143-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935764 | 1,021 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Weighing in at a staggering 108 carat, the Koh-i-Noor diamond is one of the most iconic gems ever discovered. Its name means “Mountain of Light” and legend tells it will bring great fortune and power to anyone who’s deemed worthy to wear it. It’s literally the crown jewel of British royalty, set in the crown that’s been worn by the former empire’s monarchs since the colonial era. Lately, the large gemstone has become part of a controversial ownership dispute between India and the United Kingdom, prompting a lawsuit for its return to Indian soil.
The demand to return the diamond was initiated by the All India Human Rights & Social Justice Front, a private association working to preserve the country’s legacy and historically important artifacts. This isn’t the first time the Koh-i-Noor has been the subject of international controversy. In 1976, British officials denied a request to give up the diamond, claiming the gem to be part of the original peace treaty signed by the English and Sikh in the middle of the 1800’s. Adding fuel to the fire, other countries are also claiming ownership. The Punjab region of the Sikh empire resides in an area that is now split between India and Pakistan. Before being gifted to the British queen Victoria in 1850, the gem was the property of Afghan royalty who, in turn, is said to have acquired the stone from the Persians.
The All India Human Rights & Social Justice Front states that the British stole the diamond from the Indian people, and wants the British government to cede the Koh-i-Noor along with an official apology for questionable conduct during their reign. However, as official records clearly indicate that the diamond was given freely to the British by king Ranjit Singh for coming to the nation’s aid during the Sikh Wars, the government of India and the Supreme Court have come to the conclusion that the diamond cannot be considered a stolen artifact. The famous jewel was a crucial object in the settlement between the British and Sikh empires, which laid down the foundation for what has grown into a mutual beneficial and prosperous relationship. Historical importance and extravagant beauty aside, a gem isn’t worth jeopardizing international relations.
It looks like the Koh-i-Noor will remain in British care, safely tucked away in the London Tower Museum as a symbol for the old alliance between East and West.
In the year of 2014, with the whole country celebrating the traditional festival of everlasting lights, India for the first time in modern days passed China in terms of average prosperity and economic growth. As the largest democratic nation on the planet, India’s rapid progress is the result of series of government-implemented policies with the mission to stimulate business development. With the Chinese market showing signs of slowing down even further in 2016, India is on the verge of permanently claiming the spot as the world’s second-largest economy.
How did this happen, you may ask? In this article, we closely examine the economic history of India as an independent nation.
As India became free from British colonial reign in the mid 90’s, the country was still largely a isolationist economy closed off to the outside world. When the British finally recognized India as a sovereign entity in 1947, they left behind a country engulfed in chaos. Major conflicts ravaged the different regions, with religious clashes and military skirmishes being an almost daily occurrence. Wealth distribution was at an all-time low, the education system in shambles and the domestic economy more or less in pieces. To get the nation back on track, the newly installed government issued a number of economic reforms designed to lessen India’s dependence on foreign products, while boosting key industry sectors. Like so many other newly liberated nations at this time, India adopted an old school socialist structure. Unfortunately, the system initially failed to produce desired results, and the country nearly succumbed to ineffective administration and widespread corruption. It wasn’t until the 80’s that India managed to secure its position as an economic power player. The isolationist approach prevented foreign companies from establishing a foothold in India, which ultimately hampered its development. On top of this, the nation had to suffer through the global oil crisis in the 1970’s, accompanied by hyperinflation. Nevertheless, international corporations started to recognize India’s potential and managed to cut heavily regulated deals with the strict government.
The early 90’s saw the final demise of the Soviet Union, depriving India of its biggest oil supplier. This, together with the wars in the Middle East, saw a drastic increase in oil prices. As one of the heaviest consumers of crude oil, India’s already struggling economy could not keep up and the country came close to the edge of ruin. At this point, political leaders saw the pressing need for a more open market and moved to once more change the country’s economic policies. By devaluating the currency, lifting the sanctions on gold imports and cutting down on international fees, India aimed to attract foreign investors with a less punishing financial climate. At the same time, the industry sector went through a series of reforms, making it easier for both foreign and domestic companies to provide their services.
Thanks to the foresight of the liberal government, India was transformed into a modern, capitalist nation. It didn’t take long to see the benefits as India’s economy quickly grew to become one of the largest markets in the world. In less than 20 years, India’s GDP increased more than four times and its financial reserves were fifty times larger than in the 1990’s. By 2011, the country’s annual exports were valued at a staggering $250 billion. In this booming economy came the rise of the country’s middle class and a ravenous appetite for consumption. Overall living standards were improving drastically, not just in major cities, but in the countryside as well.
In 50 years, India has gone from a mostly agricultural economy to an industrial giant, once again proving the adaptability and ingenuity of the cradle of civilization.
Gold has always been one of the most desired metals in the world, both for its attractive qualities and many practical uses. The constant demand for gold bars on the global market has also made gold a good investment opportunity for financial profit and security, especially during times of economic downturns. India is one of the biggest buyers of gold bars and its domestic gold market has grown so large that it affects international prices. Together with China and the United States, India’s gold consumption is what mainly determines the perceived value of gold bars for sale.
Because gold is a finite resource with a very limited supply in comparison to other financial assets, purchasing gold bars and keeping them in storage is a way to protect your personal finances from economic recession and stock market crashes. If the economy enters a stage of slowed growth, the price of gold bars for sale goes up as investors try to minimize their losses by transferring their money from paper assets to physical products with tangible value. As gold prices continue to go up due to an ever-increasing demand, you can sell your gold bars for a good profit. Indian gold investors are known for buying gold bars while the average price is fairly low in order to sell them to European buyers when prices eventually hit another peak. A couple of years ago, Indian investors started to back away from gold bars due to climbing prices in the wake of the Great Recession. They didn’t abandon gold for other assets other than in the short term as they were merely waiting for the rupee to recover and gold prices to fall. Once the spot price of gold bars for sale fell below a desired number in a rebounding economic environment, India started buying gold again in vast quantities, preparing for the next financial crisis.
This is how it should be done, but many western countries have yet to grasp this simple concept. With every gold bar sold, there’s one less available on the market and it cannot be replaced unless another is produced. It’s not like buying company stocks where the value purely depends on estimations and performance of services. Every year there’s less gold bars available on the market as the limited supply can’t keep up with the rising demand. Let’s picture a worst-case scenario where the US economy falls apart and the dollar is ultimately devalued. In this setting, India and China would hold an extremely important trump card thanks to their massive gold reserves. There’s still time for western investors to get in on the action, but one should act with haste. Locate a recognized gold company that provides gold bars for sale and start investing in physical gold assets today. You can visit Bright Golden Future to find high-quality gold bars for sale and financial tips for investors interested in rare commodities and precious metals.
As a gold investor, you generally have two options when making a purchase. You can have your gold bars delivered to your home for personal storage, or you can let your chosen custodian keep them in a secure vault in a retirement account backed by gold. This will be a self-directed IRA which lets you invest in tangible assets without any additional taxes or penalties. Since your retirement funds are supported by real gold bars, your wealth will stay protected from volatile market shifts. The spot price of gold may fluctuate due to unforeseen economic developments, but it’s still the one of the safest bets you can make as a private investor. People who put their savings in real estate or bonds saw their money disappear practically overnight when the housing market collapsed in 2007. The effect spread to other markets too, meaning a traditional IRA or 401k could become completely worthless since there was no real value backing them. Investors were artificially inflating market value under false pretenses, and when the bubble burst, it all came crashing down. It was good while it lasted, but when things took a turn for the worse, the entire global economy found itself fighting for its very survival.
Today, we find ourselves in a similar situation. The economy seems to be improving, but we’re still treading on thin ice. The last crisis was merely averted, not corrected. The Chinese market is in disarray and the US economy shows ever-decreasing growth in its GDP reports. In this fragile setting, investment banks are picking up where they left off last time, distributing risky financial products and bets on a mass-produced scale. There hasn’t even been a full recovery and we’re seeing the mutation of another bubble. A backlash is inevitable in this scenario and the only question is when, not if, it will hit us again. Central banks all over the globe are turning to gold as a way to insure their liquid capital, as do the market’s biggest exchanges. Gold bars are being used as currency in more contracts and transactions than ever before, and with the output from the world’s gold mines rapidly declining, we might see gold becoming the universal standard for all trade in the near future.
Investing in gold bars for sale is not the fastest way to grow your wealth. However, it is the most secure option if you’re concerned about the current economy. Placing your money in a personal supply of gold bars grants you the best of two worlds. On one hand, you acquire a universally valued asset with a historically proven performance record and strong profit projections. On the other, you give yourself an effective insurance policy that not only guarantees your financial security, but will vastly improve your leverage in the case of another economic disaster, as well.
Indian investors are fully aware of the importance of a portfolio diversified in gold bars and precious metals, and you should be, too.
India has always been a central hub for the global diamond trade. Lately, the country has seen a rapid increase in diamond purchases, and India is on its way to becoming the world’s largest market for both raw and refined diamonds. The De Beers Group, widely considered as the biggest diamond supplier, recently released a statement saying that the company is putting the Indian market as their number one priority for retail expansion. The main reason is a booming trend among India’s wealthy elite when it comes to diamond designs. The demand for exclusive luxury designs and jewelry is on the rise, with society women hunting down pieces that can’t be obtained elsewhere. A fancy dinner party in New Delhi would put the jewelry of old European kings and queens to shame.
It’s not just about showing off wealth, though, as the diamond industry is also fueled by market price fluctuations and the recent decline of currency value. The Indian rupee is quickly losing value in comparison to the dollar, making commodities like precious metals a tougher buy and sell on the domestic market. This would explain the drop in diamond prices. According to the international diamond trade index, average prices of high-quality diamonds have dropped almost 20 percent over the last few years, with the average price for a 1-carat diamond expected to drop below $8,000 before the end of 2016.
There are still some challenges for the growing diamond industry, however. The various degrees of cuts and qualities available make it hard to pinpoint a generally accepted value for Indian diamonds. Add to this the lack of an official rate for retailers and certified exchanges, combined with the absence of a daily updated spot price, and it’s clear that diamonds still have some hurdles to overcome before they can become a real favorite among private investors who trade in rare commodities on a day-to-day basis.
The biggest appeal for diamonds lies in its historical appreciation value. You would be a fool to underestimate the driving forces of tradition and sentimentality, and the Indian suppliers are no fools. The last years have seen an aggressive marketing campaign from the diamond industry to shift the traditional focus on gold towards purchases of the sparkling carbon. This investment has clearly paid off, because top suppliers such as De Beers are now showing a consistent annual growth of over 30 percent. And it just keeps getting better for them. The only question is: for how long? International companies and domestic retailers have also discovered this growing trend and the massive potential for profit that the Indian diamond industry holds. Local suppliers and jewelers are quickly becoming serious competitors for the top names, mainly focusing on appealing to the younger crowd with bolder and more contemporary designs.
The wedding market is the ultimate price, with diamonds slowly supplanting the exclusive use of gold that used to be common in wedding jewelry. It’s a long-standing tradition in Indian families for the parents of the bride to hand their daughter a set of customized jewelry as a wedding gift. This dates back thousands of years and its origins can be found in ancient religious ceremonies. The material used in these custom-made sets varies depending on the families wealth, with diamonds becoming the new status symbol and therefore the most desired precious gem for India’s elite.
The increasing demand for diamonds and its affect on the rare commodity market has made several financial experts concerned. They argue that a continued boom in India’s diamond industry will have a negative effect on the precious metal industry, which could see a severe economic backlash within the coming years. Regardless, there are no signs of the diamond craze to wane off any time soon among India’s bold and beautiful. | <urn:uuid:8c056a66-a461-412f-8cbb-20229e60df10> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sivaji-prabhu.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956269 | 3,139 | 3.140625 | 3 |
Identification Quiz. What Myiarchus Flycatcher is this?
There are 22 species of Myiarchus Tyrant-Flycatchers. In many places they present no problems in identifying as only or two species occur. However, in some areas various species overlap – and one also have to account for migrating species.
The thing to look for to help ID are general size, bill size, presence of rufous and the amount of rufous in the tail. Sometimes it is devilishly difficult to ID on looks alone. Fortunately, many of them are quite vocal. It pays off to learn the calls of the most common species by heart.
This particular one is still a mystery to me. I have seen it for two days in a row here in Paradise. I am on family holiday on Isla Palma – a Caribbean beautiful island with crystal clear water and white sand beach near Cartagena Colombia. It is not a birding holiday – and yet this bird is potentially a lifer for me.
Tomorrow, I plan to do a series of play-back experiments to see if I can ID it to 100%.
It is quite clear that the bird in question is either a Panama Flycatcher Myiarchus panamensis or a Venezuelan Flycatcher Myiarchus venezuelensis. They are practically identical.
Birds of Colombia doesn’t help much. The text of Panama Flycatcher says: “Essentially indistinguishable from Venezuelan and Short-crested Flycatcher. ” Short-crested, which I know very well, is out of range – and jizz-wise this bird feels very different from Short-crested. There is absolutely nothing crested about this bird.
The ranges of Panama and Venezuelan overlaps here in Sucre department – so right now I am stuck. Panama Flycatcher would be a lifer for me.
So what do you think? Panama or Venezuelan Flycatcher – or should it just remain as Colombian Mystery Flycatcher.
Click on the images for larger size. | <urn:uuid:92e97e1e-a687-4e2a-9579-8ac7ef26cbc1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://birdingblogs.com/2011/Gunnar/myiarchus-identificationproblems | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952411 | 430 | 2.6875 | 3 |
NASA's Cassini spacecraft has sent back dreamy raw images of Saturn's moon Titan that show the appearance of clouds around the moon's midsection. These bright clouds likely appeared because the moon is changing seasons and spring has arrived in Titan's northern hemisphere. The images were taken from about 2.5 million kilometers (1.5 million miles) away from Titan on Oct. 18, 2010, and also show the faint etchings of Saturn's rings. One of the new raw images also features a cameo from the icy moon Tethys, which looks smaller and brighter than Titan in the image.
For more raw images, visit: http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/photos/raw/ .
The Cassini-Huygens mission is a cooperative project of NASA, the European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory manages the project for NASA's Science Mission Directorate in Washington. The Cassini orbiter was designed, developed and assembled at JPL. The imaging operations center is based at the Space Science Institute in Boulder, Colo. | <urn:uuid:08fb1dd6-697d-44f0-ba48-510574aaa44c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/cassini/whycassini/cassini20101020.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925118 | 222 | 3.15625 | 3 |
When it comes to mallard bills, brighter is better: A bright yellow bill is duck-speak for “I’m healthy,” attracting more female ducks than dingy green ones. After discovering that avian semen has antibacterial properties, scientists then found that the semen of brighter-billed males killed more bacteria than the semen of darker-billed ones. It implies that by seeking out bright-billed males, female ducks are protecting themselves against bacteria-related sexually transmitted diseases.
In her experiment, University of Oslo researcher Melissah Rowe collected semen from ducks (a feat unto itself—the videos in this link are amazing, but watch at your own risk) of various bill colors, and then tested how well the semen killed bacteria such as E. coli. She found that ducks whose bills had more carotenoids—an organic pigment that brightens bills—also had semen that more effectively killed E. coli. However, they discovered that the semen’s effectiveness against the bacteria S. aureus wasn’t associated with bill color, possibly implying that this bacteria doesn’t pose much harm to ducks.
If you want to impress a female great bustard, going clean-shaven is probably the wrong approach. According to biologist Juan Carlos Alonso and colleagues at the Spanish National Museum of Natural Sciences, the size of a male bustard’s “whiskers and beard” is correlated with its reproductive success.
The great bustard is a beloved but endangered bird found in Spain and other locations scattered across Eurasia. Males of the species are possibly the heaviest flying birds in the world (rivaled only by the male kori bustard), and each sports whisker-like plumage on either side of its beak, along with neck feathers that resemble a beard. They also engage in showy mating displays, strutting about “like a vicar in a tutu,” according to naturalist Chris Packham in this BBC video. | <urn:uuid:3c855b42-e32d-4a8b-93a2-1c679c1ae9c5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/discoblog/tag/sexual-selection/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94882 | 411 | 3.296875 | 3 |
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Nanotechnology sometimes involves mixing something very small
into a larger, more conventional system. For example, mixing
carbon nanotubes into a conventional polymer gives it added
strength. Or, using a carbon nanotube as the channel between
two larger, source-drain contacts creates a transistor with
improved channel mobility. But simulating such systems becomes
a huge challenge. The smaller parts of the system must be
solved with great accuracy–for example, by simulating each
atom within a carbon nanotube. But the same approach can't
possibly be applied to the larger system–for example, to each
atom in the thousands of polymer molecules in a realistic
sample–or the whole problem would be too big to solve!
Multi-scale methods attempt to solve the problem by stitching
together smaller domains (where atomistic models apply) and
larger domains (where continuum models apply) into a coherent
Learn more about multi-scale methods from the resources on
this site, listed below.
Ionic Selectivity in Channels: complex biology created by the balance of simple physics
3.5 out of 5 stars
05 Jun 2008 | Online Presentations | Contributor(s): Bob Eisenberg
An important class of biological molecules—proteins called ionic channels—conduct ions (like Na+ , K+ , Ca2+ , and Cl− ) through a narrow tunnel of fixed charge (‘doping’). Ionic...
BNC Annual Research Review: An Introduction to PRISM and MEMS Simulation
0.0 out of 5 stars
04 Jun 2008 | Online Presentations | Contributor(s): Jayathi Murthy
This presentation is part of a collection of presentations describing the projects, people, and capabilities enhanced by research performed in the Birck Center, and a look at plans for the...
On the Rise of an Electronic Species: Thoughts on the Impending Singularity
29 Nov 2007 | Online Presentations | Contributor(s): Kerry Bernstein
The human brain is vastly more complex that our best supercomputers; yet it can be argued that both systems evolve towards common underlying solutions to fundamental compute problems....
Plastic Deformation at Micron and Submicron Scales
28 Nov 2007 | Online Presentations | Contributor(s): Marisol Koslowski
Most people experiences the way objects plastically deform on a macroscopic scale. From a car crash to the bending of a paper clip plastic deformation occurs in the form of a smooth flow as a...
Microscale Ionic Wind for Local Cooling Enhancement
26 Oct 2007 | Online Presentations | Contributor(s): David B Go
As the electronics industry continues to develop small, highly
functional, mobile devices, new methods of cooling are required to
manage the thermal requirements of the not only the chip but...
Illinois 2007 Nano-Bio Workshop with nanoHUB Summer School and User Forum
27 Apr 2007 | Workshops | Contributor(s): Narayan Aluru, Eric Jakobsson, Umberto Ravaioli, Dave Mattson, Gerhard Klimeck, Michael McLennan
This summer, on the campus of the University of Illinois, the NCDBN and NCN@UIUC will hold a scientific meeting on "Experimental and Computational Approaches to Understanding Membrane Assemblies...
BNC Annual Research Symposium: Nanoscale Energy Conversion
23 Apr 2007 | Online Presentations | Contributor(s): Timothy S Fisher
Computer Simulation of Nanoparticles, Viruses, and Electrical Power-Generating Bacteria
20 Mar 2007 | Online Presentations | Contributor(s): Peter J. Ortoleva
Models of cells and nanometer-scale biosystems are presented that
clarify their physico-chemical characteristics and allow for computer-
aided design of therapeutic and nanotechnical devices....
Atomistic Alloy Disorder in Nanostructures
4.5 out of 5 stars
26 Feb 2007 | Online Presentations | Contributor(s): Gerhard Klimeck
Electronic structure and quantum transport simulations are typically performed in perfectly ordered semiconductor structures. Bands and modes are defined resulting in quantized conduction and...
Towards Multi-Scale Modeling of Carbon Nanotube Transistors
20 Sep 2006 | Papers | Contributor(s): Jing Guo, Supriyo Datta, Mark Lundstrom, M. P. Anantram
Multiscale simulation approaches are needed in order to address scientific and technological
questions in the rapidly developing field of carbon nanotube electronics. In this paper, we...
Understanding Phonon Dynamics via 1D Atomic Chains
04 Apr 2006 | Online Presentations | Contributor(s): Timothy S Fisher
Phonons are the principal carriers of thermal energy in semiconductors and insulators, and they serve a vital role in dissipating heat produced by scattered electrons in semiconductor devices....
First Principles-Based Modeling of materials: Towards Computational Materials Design
20 Apr 2006 | Online Presentations | Contributor(s): Alejandro Strachan
Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations with accurate, first principles-based interatomic potentials is a powerful tool to uncover and characterize the molecular-level mechanisms that govern the...
The Long and Short of Pick-up Stick Transistors: A Promising Technology for Nano- and Macro-Electronics
5.0 out of 5 stars
11 Apr 2006 | Online Presentations | Contributor(s): Muhammad A. Alam
In recent years, there has been enormous interest in the emerging field of large-area macro-electronics, and fabricating thin-film transistors on flexible substrates. This talk will cover recent...
Thermal Microsystems for On-Chip Thermal Engineering
04 Apr 2006 | Online Presentations | Contributor(s): Suresh V. Garimella
Electro-thermal co-design at the micro- and nano-scales is critical for
achieving desired performance and reliability in microelectronic circuits.
Emerging thermal microsystems technologies...
Irradiation and Nanomechanics of Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes
4.0 out of 5 stars
23 Mar 2006 | Online Presentations | Contributor(s): Sharon K. Pregler, Susan Sinnott
Irradiation of nanotube structures with electron and ion beams has been used to produce functionalized nanotubes and fundamentally new structures, including junctions. Here, we build on previous...
Engineering the Fiber-Matrix Interface in Carbon Nanotube Composites
23 Mar 2006 | Online Presentations | Contributor(s): Sharon K. Pregler, Yanhong Hu, Susan Sinnott
Particle depositions on polymer and carbon substrates to induce surface chemical
modification are a growing research topic in particle-surface interactions due to
localized deposition energy...
Molecular Transport Structures: Elastic Scattering, Vibronic Effects and Beyond
13 Feb 2006 | Online Presentations | Contributor(s): Mark A. Ratner, Abraham Nitzan, Misha Galperin
Current experimental efforts are clarifying quite beautifully the nature of charge transport in so-called molecular junctions, in which a single molecule provides the channel for current flow...
Nano-Scale Device Simulations Using PROPHET-Part II: PDE Systems
20 Jan 2006 | Online Presentations | Contributor(s): Yang Liu, Robert Dutton
Part II uses examples to
illustrate how to build user-defined PDE systems in PROPHET.
Nano-Scale Device Simulations Using PROPHET-Part I: Basics
Part I covers the basics of PROPHET,
including the set-up of simulation structures and parameters based on
pre-defined PDE systems.
Nano-Scale Device Simulations Using PROPHET
These two lectures are aimed to give a practical guide to the use of a
general device simulator
(PROPHET) available on nanoHUB. PROPHET
is a partial differential equation (PDE) solver that... | <urn:uuid:baaea122-433b-4643-869a-439d7388395a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://nanohub.org/tags/multiscalemodels/resources/view?limit=20&limitstart=0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00081-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.810948 | 1,741 | 2.921875 | 3 |
What is an Antigen?
The human immune system will attack any foreign substance entering the body by generating antibodies which will attack and destroy them. Hence, these substances which trigger antibody creation are called antigens.
Now there are various useful sugars and proteins on the surface of our red blood cells, which our immune system might otherwise mistake to be foreign bodies and generate antibodies to kill them. However, our immune system is trained to ignore these self antigens (the antigens which are generated inside our body).
The human blood group classification is based on these antigens on our Red Blood Cells (RBC), and there are around 32 Human Blood Group classifications based on the various antigen groups.
What is ABO Blood Group Classification?
ABO is a classification of human blood group based on the presence or absence of A or B antigens.
So if your blood has only A antigens, then your blood group is A, if it has only B antigens, then your blood group is B, if it has both of these, then your blood group is AB, and if it has neither, then your blood group is O. Simple, isn’t it?
Now the reason for taking into account this group for blood transfusion is that, if you have A antigen (A Blood Group), then the human immune system will not attack A antigens if the donor’s blood contains A. However if a person with B or AB blood group is given to a person whose blood group is A, then the recipient’s body will attack the B antigens in the received blood as it has not been trained to ignore B antigens. Similarly if A or AB or B blood is given to a person whose blood group is O, then it will attack both A and B antigens. So mismatching blood transfusion can be fatal. And it is for this reason that AB is Universal Recipient as the person’s blood will reject neither A or B antigens, while the O group is Universal Donor as it has no A or B antigens which can be rejected by the recipient’s body.
So what about blood groups like B+ve and O-ve which we keep hearing about?
The Rh Blood Group Classification
The second most important classification of human blood group is based on Rh antigens. While the ABO classification is based on the two antigens A and B, the Rh group has 50 antigens! However, the main Rh classification is based on one single antigen of special importance, called the D antigen. So, if your blood has the Rh D antigen, then your blood group is Rh positive, else it is Rh negative. The reason for the importance of this antigen is that a mismatch in the D antigen can prove fatal during blood transfusion, just like it does in AB antigen mismatch.
So A+ve means a blood group which has A antigen and Rh D antigen. O-ve means a blood group which has neither A nor B antigens, nor Rh D antigen. AB-ve means a blood group which has both A and B antigens, but has no Rh D antigen.
Which is why in case of an emergency when there is no time to match for any other antigen reactions, O-ve is the safest blood transfusion that can be done without any prior tests because of the absence of A, B and Rh antigens in it.
Mother’s blood group proving fatal to the newborn
There is a possibility that a mother whose blood group is Rh negative, carries a child whose blood group is Rh positive, and if mother’s blood comes in contact with the fetus blood, then the mother’s immune system upon finding an antigen foreign to its body, Rh D antigen, will produce antibodies against the Rh parties in the fetus blood which can prove fatal to the fetus.
So, if the father is Rh positive and mother is Rh negative, then extra care should be taken during pregnancy. If the mother’s immune system has prior knowledge of Rh D antigen, either due to some previous blood transfusion of Rh +ve blood group, or if this is not the first pregnancy and the earlier pregnancies carried a Rh positive child, then chances are that the mother’s immune system is already aware of Rh D antigen and has antibodies against it ready, which can be of an immediate concern for the fetus health. Tests are done during early stages of pregnancy, and if the mother is Rh -ve and the child is Rh +ve, then an injection which prevents the mother’s immune system from generating antibodies against Rh D antigen is given during pregnancy. This will ensure that the fetus remains unaffected by the fact that the mother’s blood is Rh negative and ensures a safe delivery of the child.
Does Rh-ve indicate alien blood or Reptilian Blood or Blood of the Gods?
Recently came across this theory which suggests that those with Rh negative blood group might be the descendants of ancient alien astronauts. But before that one more fact. Around 85% of humans are Rh positive, which means they have Rh D antigen in their blood, only around 15% are Rh negative which means they do not have Rh D antigen in their blood. This is also the reason why blood groups like O-ve are very rare.
Back to the alien blood group theory which states that
If all mankind evolved from the same ancestor their blood would be compatible. Where did the Rh negatives come from? If they are not the descendants of prehistoric man, could they be the descendants of the ancient astronauts?
This makes one believe as if Rh negative indicates the “presence of something rare in one’s blood”. But as we learn earlier, Rh negative indicates the “absence of the Rh D antigen” which otherwise is quite abundant in most (85%) humans. So what could be the contribution of alien blood here? Obviously, there is nothing alien here, because there is no alien genes present here, its actually the “absence” of our own genes which produce the Rh D antigen in most humans.
The entire theory seems to have been built upon an incorrect understanding of blood groups, antigens and antibody response. Because Rh D is not the ONLY antigen either, in Rh group itself we have around 50 such antigens, and human blood group classification itself has around 32 types based on different groups of antigens.
The theory then states
All animals and other living creatures known to man can breed with any other of their species. Relative size and color makes no difference. Why does infant’s haemolytic disease occur in humans if all humans are the same species?
This seems to suggest that other animals are free from such instances of mother’s immune system attacking the child’s blood. Well, it is not. We have seen newborns die because of this attack even in horses and mules! It appears in all those species where the mother has a negative antigen blood group, and the fetus has a positive antigen blood group, and mother’s blood comes in contact with fetal blood.
For that matter, it is not only restricted to Rh D antigen either. After all, it is also very much possible that mother whose blood group is O, gives birth to a child whose blood group is B, and if the mother’s blood comes in contact with fetal blood, then there will be antibodies against B produced by the mother’s blood! Its only that in this case it is not life threatening, while in the case of Rh D it can be life threatening to the baby.
All combinations where mother is negative antigen, and child is positive antigen can cause scenarios where mother’s immune system produces antibodies against the child’s positive antigen. It is only that while some of them cause no harm, some cause mild issues, and the ones like Rh D can be severe.
So there is nothing alien here, and this is a common evolutionary compromise across the human species.
The extraterrestrial origin theory also asks a question
Why would a mother’s body reject her own offspring?
In evolution, the immune system has been trained only to accept its own antigens, anything foreign will be attacked by the immune system, and Rh D is not an exception, nor is the only case of its kind. The Rh D in the child came from the father who has to be Rh positive, and there is no way for the mother’s immune system to treat the father’s Rh D antigen as its own, isn’t it? And so, it will attack it.
The theory also asks
Why does it so violently reject the Rh factor?
As we saw earlier, the immune system treats ALL unknown antigens as foreign and attacks them. Rh D looks violent only because, attack on Rh D can cause serious complications in the baby. Not because, mother’s immune system reacts violently ONLY to the Rh D antigen. The response is the same for ANY antigen not found in the mother’s own body.
Evolution of the Rh D negative blood group
Most humans have Rh D antigen, and are hence Rh positive. Very few do not have it and hence are Rh negative. So what caused this mutation where some humans stopped having this antigen in their blood? What purpose did this serve?
It is interesting to note that Rh -ve or the absence of Rh D producing genes is common in the European population, even though it is rare in rest of the world. This suggests that there might be an evolutionary advantage in this European population over NOT having Rh D antigen, than having it. Some recent studies have indicated that Rh negative people are resistant to some parasites like Toxoplasma, or to their effects on the body. So it might as well have served an advantage in this geography NOT to have the Rh D antigen, rather than have it. And hence, such humans evolved to be Rh negative.
And one can find many such instances across human evolution. For example humans who come from an ancestry which started domesticating cattle, and consuming dairy products have digestive systems which generate an enzyme called lactase which helps in digesting milk by digesting the sugar lactose in the milk. However a significant population of humans are also lactose intolerant, which means they cannot digest milk products which contain lactose, because their body does not produce lactase. If these lactose intolerant people drink milk, then they will have symptoms like bloating, sometimes even vomiting. Does this mean lactose intolerant population are from an alien ancestry?
Some evolutionary gene modifications might prove fatal when exposed, but are nevertheless are useful while they remain dormant and hence are continued to be carried. For instance, Sickle Cell anemia is a fatal disease where RBCs sickle up causing life threatening complications. However, those humans who are only carriers of the gene causing Sickle Cell Anemia, but who don’t have the disease are resistant to Malaria! So in such cases such evolution is useful to the body in areas affected by Malaria even though it may cause problems in those kids where the gene becomes active.
So to summarize:
- Rh negative does not indicate the presence of anything special or alien, it is the absence of Rh D antigen which is pretty common in humans otherwise.
- Rh D is just another normal antigen and there are lot many antigens similar to Rh D.
- Rh negative is NOT the only antigen which can cause problems to the baby.
- Mother’s body does not selectively react violently ONLY to the Rh D antigen.
- Cases where mother’s blood group causes problems to the child are not restricted to humans alone.
- There is nothing alien or out of this planet about Rh D negativity | <urn:uuid:f6dee95d-3eaf-48b3-ba35-db7aa9dbfdc2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hitxp.com/articles/science-technology/rh-negative-blood-group-alien-origin/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00132-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941143 | 2,441 | 3.9375 | 4 |
Consider a transverse wave travelling in four dimensions. This wave is propagating along the w axis, with amplitudes measured in the x,y, and z axes. This wave crosses our third dimension at a point (0, x1, y1, z1) perpendicularly. This wave would be manifested in our dimension as a pulsing sphere, with (x1,y1,z1) as the center of the sphere, and the amplitude of the wave as the radius of the sphere. For an analogy, consider a light wave propagating perpendiular to a sheet of paper, and the manifestation of the light wave on that sheet as line whose length varies as simple harmonic motion. | <urn:uuid:0f5769a4-584e-44e4-9fa6-0fd4309843c9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://everything2.com/title/4D+Transverse+Wave | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00183-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.931318 | 142 | 2.59375 | 3 |
For more than 20 years, specialists with the University of Kentucky Integrated Pest Management Program have trapped moths of Kentucky’s major agricultural pests to give producers an early warning about potential outbreaks. A recent UK College of Agriculture survey shows this program is paying financial and environmental dividends for the agricultural industry.
Fall armyworm moth trap counts at the UK Research and Education Center in Princeton reached record numbers on two different occasions during the summer of 2012. The fall armyworms arrived in July in Western Kentucky, earlier than ever before, and were the largest and longest lasting population in 10 years of data collection. Following the outbreaks, UK Extension entomologist Doug Johnson and Patty Lucas, IPM Extension specialist, conducted an online survey to determine the value of the early warning system.
The survey had 39 individual responses representing 24 Kentucky counties and locations in Illinois, Ohio and Indiana. The respondents said UK’s early warning system protected more than $1.6 million in crop yields and saved producers more than $270,000 in unnecessary pesticide applications.
Additionally, 12 percent of responders reported they did not receive the early warning and lost at least $18,000 in crops due to fall armyworm damage, because they did not scout for the pest or make a timely insecticide application.
“It is very clear from these data that early warning of an insect infestation provides a significant financial advantage to producers, and being unaware of early warnings can result in a significant financial penalty,” Johnson said. “Although our respondent sample size was small, it does indicate that the early warnings were used by a significant portion of agricultural and horticultural interests, which allowed them to make on-time, real-time management decisions for control of this pest.”
The fall armyworm is a pest of many crops including alfalfa, row crops, tobacco, cucumbers and tomatoes, but it prefers grasses. The moths migrate from the South each summer, and the worms are active in the state from the mid-summer until the first killing frost. Survey respondents reported most of the damage from the 2012 outbreak was in grass used for hay and pastures.
About 85 percent of the 2012 survey respondents said they received warning about the high trap counts. Survey respondents listed Kentucky Pest News, extension specialists, UK’s Grain Crops Update Blog and county extension agents as the main ways they received the early warning.
Of the respondents, nearly 45 percent said, due to the early warning system, they scouted their fields and determined they did not have a fall armyworm problem. As a result, respondents reported 22,775 acres were not treated with a pesticide application. This not only saved producers money but also had human health and environmental benefits. It reduced the risk of pesticide exposure to handlers and applicators as well as beneficial insects including natural predators and pollinators.
Of the producers who found fall armyworms in their fields, 47 percent said the early warning system gave them enough time to make a timely control decision to prevent crop damage or loss.
Survey participants included producers, consultants, Extension agents, pesticide industry representatives and farm supply business personnel. | <urn:uuid:8c4b457a-81c1-4d73-bc99-9890ac127a28> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.agprofessional.com/news/Kentuckys-insect-pest-early-warning-system-benefits-producers-208173031.html?email=yes&cmntid=122060001 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952907 | 640 | 2.890625 | 3 |
English soldiers in Ireland suffered very much from the quartan ague, which is associated with malaria.Ireland has a moist climate, and in those days much of the land was undrained and quite marshy. The assumption is that mosquitoes, which are carriers of malaria, thrived in that environment.As far as I know, there were various places in England in the 16thC that carried the same health warning - I think Essex was notorious, but I'm working from memory.The use of scientific methods to figure out historical fact is dodgy because of the lack of essential data. Plus I'm not sure of the latest thinking on this topic. I don't think the ague is related to the sweating sickness of the mid tudor period.Link here for a definition of the term (scroll down about 35%):"Ague: Intermittent fever. This term appears to be derived from a Gothic word denoting trembling or shuddering. [Hoblyn1855]Intermittent fever; often used in the same sense as chill or rigor. [Dunglison1874]An intermittent fever, attended by alternate cold and hot fits. The interval of the paroxysms has given rise to the following varieties of ague: an interval of 24 hours constitutes a quotidian ague; of 48 hours, a tertian; of 72 hours, a quartan; of 96 hours, a quintan. [Hoblyn1900]Malarial or intermittent fever; characterized by paroxysms consisting of chill, fever, and sweating, at regularly recurring times, and followed by an interval or intermission the length of which determines the epithets quotidian, tertian, etc. Synonyms: fever and ague; intermittent fever; periodic fever; malarial fever; marsh fever; paludal fever; miasmatic fever. [Gould1910].Febris intermittans. A febrile condition in which there are alternating periods of chills, fever, and sweating. Used chiefly in reference to the fevers associated with malaria. Archaic term for Malarial Fever. [Dorland]"Aigue" entered English usage in the 14th century, having crossed the channel from the Middle French "aguë". The word share the same origin as "acute." It descends from the Latin "acutus" meaning "sharp or pointed". A "fievre aigue" in French was a sharp or pointed (or acute) fever. [Medicinenet]http://www.antiquusmorbus.com/English/EnglishA.htm
Romney Marsh in Kent has had a history of malaria, though now not present. I believe that it was definitely an issue in the 1560s. There's a few reaserch papers out on malaria and Romney Marsh, particularly concentrating on the 17th & 18th century but with a reference or two to the 16th century.
Post a Comment | <urn:uuid:dea9957e-82f2-456f-b043-be25a276c834> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://queryblog.tudorhistory.org/2011/03/question-from-guy-malaria.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947758 | 606 | 3.25 | 3 |
| Length/Distance |
Convert from centimeter to pouce
Common Length Conversions
Metric Length Conversions
Unit Definition (centimeter)
The centimeter (or centimetre) was the basic unit of distance in the former CGS (centimeter, gram, second) version of the metric system, equal to 0.01 meter. The engineering standard uses every third power of ten, such as 10e3, 10e9, 10e12, etc., and for small numbers 10e-3, 10e-6, etc. The only exception is the centimeter. "Cent" means a hundredth, or 10e-2, but the centimeter is still commonly used because it is such a convenient unit for measuring length.
Unit Definition (pouce)
The pouce is a French "inch" unit, equal to 1/12 pied. Based on the pied de roi, the pouce equals about 1.066 inches or 2.707 centimeters. The word pouce means "thumb" in French. | <urn:uuid:2fb81b9e-8e1c-413b-85df-dfa27e885fe5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.onlineunitconversion.com/centimeter_to_pouce.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.83769 | 226 | 3.203125 | 3 |
Did you play Corners when you were little? It’s a fun game to get moving, and you can adapt it to practice almost anything – colors, numbers, shapes, letters, sight words – basically anything you can think of!
How To Play Corners
- Get 3 or more people.
- Create your rectangle (or square): Inside, you could use a whole room or gym, or mark off part using tape. We played outside by drawing a large rectangle on our driveway with sidewalk chalk.
- Decide what each corner represents: We were playing with a mixed age group, including toddlers, so I went with colors. We choose orange, blue, yellow, and purple. You could also choose 4 numbers, shapes, letters, or words.
- Create your corners. We colored each corner a separate color. Indoors you could use several pieces of colored paper, or strips of colored tape.
- Draw a circle in the center. This is where the “counter” will stand.
- Choose a counter. The counter stands in the circle and closes his or her eyes and counts out loud to 10, while everyone else runs around and chooses which corner to stand in. When the counter calls out “10!”, whatever corner the runners are closest to, they have to stay in.
- Call out Corners. The counter calls out the name of a corner – in our game that would be “Orange!” “Blue!” “Yellow!” or “Purple!” (make sure the counter’s eyes are still closed!). Anyone in that corner is out. (As my son says, “they’ll get a chance next time!”)
- Choosing a winner. When there are 4 people or fewer left, each runner must choose a different corner. The last person left is the winner – and the next counter!
Other Ways to Move & Learn This Week
- Window Painting Handwriting Practice from Coffee Cups & Crayons
- Alphabet Tunnel Play from Toddler Approved
- Maze of Numbers Counting from Hands On: As We Grow
- Lots of ideas on our Move & Learn Pinterest board
- Check out all the Move & Learn ideas we’ve shared | <urn:uuid:d81c6a2b-a246-48d7-b41c-fc52d0702a46> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pleasantestthing.com/play-corners | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00149-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940991 | 474 | 3.234375 | 3 |
His story is clearly fanciful, and (unsurprisingly) is not supported by any archoelogical evidence. Apparently, the king became blind when he threw a spear into the waters of the Nile. He was told by an Oracle that he would regain his sight when he washes his eyes in the "water" of a woman who had remained faithful to her husband. When the king tried using his own wife´s water, he remained blind. So he worked his way though all of the women of the land. When he eventually discovered a faithful woman, he summoned all of the others to the city of Erythrabolos ("Red Clod"?) and burned them all to death. He then married the faithful woman, who was already married, thus making her unfaithful to her husband!
|Predynastic period||Early Dynastic||Old Kingdom||First Intermediate||Middle Kingdom||Second Intermediate||New Kingdom||Third Intermediate||Graeco-Roman period||Late period| | <urn:uuid:b69bd33b-609b-49dd-97e3-294eed3d90b8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ancientegyptonline.co.uk/HerodPheros.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00104-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958185 | 202 | 3.234375 | 3 |
3 Simple Steps for Studying the Bible
- Jim George, Th.M.
- 2015 5 Mar
One of the noblest pursuits a child of God can embark upon is to get to know and understand God better. The best way we can accomplish this is to look carefully at the book He has written, the Bible, which communicates who He is and His plan for mankind. There are a number of ways we can study the Bible, but one of the most effective and simple approaches to reading and understanding God’s Word involves three simple steps:
Step 1: Observation—What does the passage say?
Step 2: Interpretation—What does the passage mean?
Step 3: Application—What am I going to do about what the passage says and means?
Step #1: Observation
Observation is the first and most important step in the process. As you read the Bible text, you need to look carefully at what is said, and how it is said. Look for:
● Terms, not words. Words can have many meanings, but terms are words used in a specific way in a specific context. (For instance, the word trunk could apply to a tree, a car, or a storage box. However, when you read, “That tree has a very large trunk,” you know exactly what the word means, which makes it a term.)
● Structure. If you look at your Bible, you will see that the text has units called paragraphs (indented or marked ¶). A paragraph is a complete unit of thought. You can discover the content of the author’s message by noting and understanding each paragraph unit.
● Repetition. This is another way an author demonstrates that something is important. One reading of 1 Corinthians 13, where the author uses the word “love” nine times in only 13 verses, communicates to us that love is the focal point of these 13 verses.
● Relationships between ideas. Pay close attention, for example, to certain relationships that appear in the text:
—Cause-and-effect: “Well done, good and faithful servant; you were faithful over a few things, I will make you ruler over many things” (Matthew 25:21).
—Ifs and thens: “If My people who are called by My name will humble themselves, and pray and seek My face, and turn from their wicked ways, then I will hear from heaven and forgive their sin and heal their land” (2 Chronicles 7:14).
—Questions and answers: “Who is the King of glory? The Lord strong and mighty” (Psalms 24:8).
● Comparisons and contrasts. For example, “You have heard that it was said…but Isay to you…” (Matthew 5:21).
● Literary form. The Bible is literature, and the three main types of literature in the Bible are discourse (the epistles), prose (Old Testament history), and poetry (the Psalms). Considering the type of literature makes a great deal of difference when you read and interpret the Scriptures.
● Atmosphere. The author had a particular reason or burden for writing each passage, chapter, and book. Be sure you notice the mood or tone or urgency of the writing.
After you have considered these things, you then are ready to ask the “Wh” questions
Who? What? Where? When?
Who are the people in this passage? What is happening in this passage? Where is this story taking place? When in time (of day, of the year, in history) is it?
Asking these four “Wh” questions can help you notice terms and identify atmosphere. The answers will also enable you to use your imagination to recreate the scene you’re reading about.
As you answer the “Wh” questions and imagine the event, you’ll probably come up with some questions of your own.
Asking those additional questions for understanding will help to build a bridge between observation (the first step) and interpretation (the second step) of the Bible study process.
Step #2: Interpretation
Interpretation is discovering the meaning of a passage, the author’s main thought or idea. Answering the questions that arise during observation will help you in the process of interpretation. Five clues (called “the five C’s”) can help you determine the author’s main point(s):
● Context. You can answer 75 percent of your questions about a passage when you read the text. Reading the text involves looking at the near context (the verse immediately before and after) as well as the far context (the paragraph or the chapter that precedes and/or follows the passage you’re studying).
● Cross-references. Let Scripture interpret Scripture. That is, let other passages in the Bible shed light on the passage you are looking at. At the same time, be careful not to assume that the same word or phrase in two different passages means the same thing.
● Culture. The Bible was written long ago, so when we interpret it, we need to understand it from the writers’ cultural context.
● Conclusion. Having answered your questions for understanding by means of context, cross-reference, and culture, you can make a preliminary statement of the passage’s meaning. Remember that if your passage consists of more than one paragraph, the author may be presenting more than one thought or idea.
● Consultation. Reading books known as commentaries, which are written by Bible scholars, can help you interpret Scripture.
Step #3: Application
Application is why we study the Bible. We want our lives to change; we want to be obedient to God and to grow more like Jesus Christ. After we have observed a passage and interpreted or understood it to the best of our ability, we must then apply its truth to our own life.
You’ll want to ask the following questions of every passage of Scripture you study:
● How does the truth revealed here affect my relationship with God?
● How does this truth affect my relationship with others?
● How does this truth affect me?
● How does this truth affect my response to the enemy, Satan?
The application step is not completed by simply answering these questions; the key is putting into practice what God has taught you in your study. Although at any given moment you cannot be consciously applying everything you’re learning in Bible study, you can be consciously applying something. And when you work on applying a truth to your life, God will bless your efforts by, as noted earlier, conforming you to the image of Jesus Christ.
Content provided by OnePlace.com. Used by permission. | <urn:uuid:af4da8f1-ebba-411e-b14a-c308e208d11b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.crosswalk.com/faith/bible-study/3-simple-steps-for-studying-the-bible.html?p=2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00023-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947067 | 1,408 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Published on 12.01.12 in Vol 14, No 1 (2012): Jan-Feb
Short Message Service (SMS) Applications for Disease Prevention in Developing Countries
Background: The last decade has witnessed unprecedented growth in the number of mobile phones in the developing world, thus linking millions of previously unconnected people. The ubiquity of mobile phones, which allow for short message service (SMS), provides new and innovative opportunities for disease prevention efforts.
Objective: The aim of this review was to describe the characteristics and outcomes of SMS interventions for disease prevention in developing countries and provide recommendations for future work.
Methods: A systematic search of peer-reviewed and gray literature was performed for papers published in English, French, and German before May 2011 that describe SMS applications for disease prevention in developing countries.
Results: A total of 34 SMS applications were described, among which 5 had findings of an evaluation reported. The majority of SMS applications were pilot projects in various levels of sophistication; nearly all came from gray literature sources. Many applications were initiated by the project with modes of intervention varying between one-way or two-way communication, with or without incentives, and with educative games. Evaluated interventions were well accepted by the beneficiaries. The primary barriers identified were language, timing of messages, mobile network fluctuations, lack of financial incentives, data privacy, and mobile phone turnover.
Conclusion: This review illustrates that while many SMS applications for disease prevention exist, few have been evaluated. The dearth of peer-reviewed studies and the limited evidence found in this systematic review highlight the need for high-quality efficacy studies examining behavioral, social, and economic outcomes of SMS applications and mobile phone interventions aimed to promote health in developing country contexts.
J Med Internet Res 2012;14(1):e3
The last decade has seen an unprecedented growth of the development of information and communication technologies (ICT) infrastructure worldwide . The trend exhibits a clear shift from landline toward mobile phones, whose subscription rates are three times greater than for landlines. The expansion has been most significant in the developing regions, where diffusion reached more than 40% of the population in 2007, thus connecting millions of previously unconnected people. Developing countries not only have the majority of world mobile phone subscribers, but will also account for 80% of the new ones [ ].
Mobile telephones offer short message service (SMS), also known as text messaging. SMS is a communication protocol standardized in the Global System for Mobile communications allowing messages of 160 characters maximum to be interchanged from a mobile phone or a computer to one or many mobile phones simultaneously . SMS can send information in near-real time to thousands of people as recipients of standardized, bulk messages or even personalized or tailored messages. SMS is available on all cellular phones, including cheap low-end handsets, through the Global System for Mobile communications network.
Recent research has focused largely on the use of SMS for health purposes in developed countries, while compelling studies seem to remain anecdotal in the developing world [- ]. But text messages could have considerable implications for disease prevention efforts in developing countries where their potential is recognized not only in their communication attributes, such as voice call and text messages, but also in their data transfer capabilities. In addition, the robustness, ease of maintenance, and relative affordability of handsets, compared with computers, make the mobile phone and SMS very attractive in resource-poor areas with little electricity and slow Internet connections. As such, an increasing number of mobile health initiatives are being implemented and tested in the developing world [ ].
Primary and secondary prevention encompass all actions that help in “averting the occurrence of disease” and “halting the progression of a disease from its early unrecognized stage to a more severe one,” respectively . As declared in the Ottawa Charter, health promotion is “the process of enabling people to increase control over, and to improve, their health. It supports personal and social development through providing information, education for health, and enhancing life skills” [ ]. Today, the World Health Organization recognizes that “advanced information and telecommunication technologies should be employed to their fullest extent wherever possible, in order to create effective and transparent communication channels that will allow interactive sharing and learning among various groups of stakeholders in the society” [ ].
With the rapid expansion of mobile health applications, combined with current and predicted economic and public health challenges, reviews of existing applications and evidence of SMS-supported interventions in developing countries are needed. Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine SMS-supported interventions for prevention of communicable and noncommunicable diseases in developing countries. We began with a review of peer-reviewed and gray literature on existing SMS-based interventions. Gray literature is “that which is produced on all levels of government, academics, business, and industry in print and electronic formats but which is not controlled by commercial publishers.” In other words, “grey literature includes documents that have not been formally published in a peer-reviewed format” . Then, we assessed the effectiveness of SMS-based interventions and identified drivers and inhibitors to adoption. Finally, we present recommendations for future research and practice.
The data used in this study are part of a larger review aiming to examine SMS-supported interventions for prevention, surveillance, management, and treatment compliance of communicable and noncommunicable diseases in developing countries. We used a subject-based approach to systematically search both peer-reviewed and gray literature published in English, French, and German up to May 2011. The decision to include gray literature was motivated by the fact that public health professionals often use gray literature to inform decision making at the practice, program, and policy levels , and that both gray and scholarly evidence should be included in reviews of new and innovative topics in order to reduce bias and provide good estimates of the effects of interventions [ ].
Data Sources and Search Strategy
Bibliographic database and search engines were PubMed (incorporating Medline), EMBASE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, EBSCOhost, ABI/INFORM, Google Scholar, and Google. Synthesis-producing organizations comprised the Cochrane Collaboration, the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, and the Campbell Collaboration.
The search terms were health promotion, public health, preventive health services, disease prevention, population surveillance, patient compliance, patient care management, disease management, self care, HIV, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, tuberculosis, communicable diseases, communicable disease control, chronic disease, noncommunicable disease, cellular phone, mobile phone, cell phone, SMS, MMS, text messag*, picture messag*, developing countries, developing world, Asia, Africa, South America, Latin America, and Europe, Eastern. We used the medical subject headings in Medline and Emtree tools in EMBASE. When necessary, these words were translated into French and German to minimize language bias.
The gray literature search strategy was inspired by a guideline for finding gray literature in public health . Requests for cases and papers were posted on email lists, through personal connections, and directly to health organizations and SMS providers. Key gray literature sources were the Digital Repository Infrastructure Vision for European Research, the Electronic Theses Online System, the Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations, the Directory of Open Access Repositories, DissOnline.de, SUDOC Catalogue, Social Science Research Network, Scirus, and Catholic Media Council Library. Other sources of gray literature comprised proceedings from related conferences, funding and not-for-profit organizations, listservs, blogs, SMS, and mobile phone providers. For identified projects, we contacted the corresponding agency to request documents and white papers that described the application and evaluation results. References of included documents and citation tracking of articles were also searched.
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
Following a detailed protocol, an initial reviewer identified and retrieved all eligible documents. The titles and abstracts were first examined to remove obviously irrelevant reports. A second reviewer confirmed eligibility and relevance. The full text of the potentially relevant ones was reviewed to finally select eligible papers.
English-, French-, and German-language documents were included when they were related to interventions using SMS in developing countries for disease prevention. For the purpose of this review, SMS referred to all applications that used SMS or texting for disease prevention purposes. These included applications that automatically shifted between SMS and general packet radio service channels, had live-person components, and connected to the Internet. Developing countries were defined as developing and emerging economies, a World Economic Outlook classification system based on (1) per capita income level, (2) export diversification, and (3) degree of integration into the global financial system . For this study, we considered countries classified as developing and emerging economies in the International Monetary Fund’s World Economic Outlook report in 2008 to be developing countries (eg, Algeria, Brazil, Cambodia, India, Mexico, Poland, and Zambia) [ ].
Documents were excluded if the applications did not use SMS, if they were not used in developing countries, or when they did not focus on the prevention of communicable and noncommunicable diseases. Documents published in languages other than English, French, or German were also excluded.
Data Collection and Management
Eligible articles were reviewed and data extraction was inspired by a template provided in the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions . Applications were given a unique identification number. Disease focus, country or countries of implementation, project objectives, target audience, status (planned, ongoing, or completed), funding source, and contact details were recorded. When an evaluation was reported, the methods used and outcomes measured (health outcome, process of care, relevance, acceptability, and cost effectiveness) were recorded. Each personal communication attempt was documented along with contact information and the outcome of the effort. Finally, SMS-based interventions used for health promotion and disease prevention were extracted from the larger dataset and used for this review.
The first screening identified 4008 citations. We retrieved 38 additional papers by personal communications (n = 21) and by hand searching the reference lists of eligible articles (n = 17). After an initial screening of abstracts and titles, we excluded most because they were related to developed countries or examined harmful effects of mobile phone use. A second selection was done to exclude applications that did not focus on disease prevention (eg, applications for surveillance, disease management, or compliance with a treatment).
We identified 34 different SMS-based prevention applications according to the eligibility criteria ([ - ]), among which 5 included details about an evaluation ( [ , , , - , ]). Most were from gray literature sources. The interventions addressed a variety of topics, with human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) being the most common (n = 18), followed by sexual and reproductive health (SRH) (5). Some applications addressed multiple diseases ( ). Although projects extended across regions, SMS initiatives were concentrated in South Africa, Kenya, and India ( ).
|It begins with you ||30 African countries||HIV/AIDSa||SMS voting system on what happened on the show, asked viewers to share what they have done to advance an HIV-free generation, and encouraged all Africans to start by knowing their HIV status.||Target: population; status: ended after 1 season|
|Star Project ||6 African countries||HIV/AIDS||Counterpart to India’s Freedom from HIV project. SMS used for downloading 2 mobile phone games (AIDS Fighter Pilot and AIDS Penalty Shoot Out) to raise HIV/AIDS awareness, deployed on low-end and sophisticated colored devices.||Target: population; technology: ZMQ; specificity: developed English and 2 local languages (Kiswahili and Shen)|
|Talk Back ||Botswana||HIV/AIDS||Weekly television program for HIV prevention, broadcasted live, to stimulate interactivity with teachers and viewers through phone lines, SMS, emails, and letters.||Target: teachers and students|
|UNICEFb ||Central African Republic||Measles, malaria, diarrhea||Multimedia campaign used SMS to encourage vaccination, use of long-lasting insecticidal nets, and hand-washing.||Target: parents of young children|
|Text Me! Flash Me! [, ]||Ghana||HIV/AIDS||Health education and promotion messages sent to mobile phone numbers collected by peer educators and social networks. Clients who text in “HELP” were referred to live helpline counselors, who called back within 24 hours.||Target group: most-at-risk populations: men who have sex with men and female sex workers|
|eQuest ||Kenya||HIV/AIDS||Contest engaged youth in discussions about HIV/AIDS. Youth sent SMS answers to questions about HIV/AIDS received on their mobile phone, after checking information in a special eQuest column printed in the newspaper.||Target: youth; incentives: airtime, T-shirts, mobile phone, computers, DVD players, and a home theatre system|
|Makutano Junction [, ]||Kenya||HIV/AIDS||Soap opera based in a fictitious Kenyan village supported by SMS. Viewers were invited to text in if they needed more information on a given topic.||Target: population|
|Mobile4Good ||Kenya||HIV/AIDS||“My question” allowed customers to anonymously ask HIV/AIDS and breast cancer-related questions and receive answers via SMS. “Health Tips” provided subscribers with useful tips on various pertinent health issues via SMS.||Target: population|
|Afriafya ||Kenya||HIV/AIDS||Community resource centers worked with information and communication technology to access various information, including on health, via SMS request or other means of communication. Answer was sent back by email, booklet, or SMS.||Target: rural population; technology: telecenter|
|Pariah News ||Madagascar||HIV/AIDS||Citizen media-enabled project that broadcasted HIV/AIDS message via SMS, Internet radio, and blogs.||Target: sex workers; technology: Ushahidi platform, open source|
|Health On Line ||Mali||HIV/AIDS, malaria||Social marketing campaign that used bimonthly free SMS with health slogans and reference to an interactive sexual health website.||Target: young, urban people (n = 350,000)|
|Learning about Living [, ]||Nigeria||HIV/AIDS and SRHc||Health promotion and prevention was based on HIV/AIDS, SRH, maternal morbidity, and gender violence with (1) MyQuestion: HIV/AIDS-related questions sent by public via SMS, Web, or hotline, answered by trained counselors, (2) MyAnswer: prizes won by texting correct answer to a quiz.||Target: young people; incentive: airtime; scaleup: in existing and new states|
|RapidSMS ||Nigeria||Malaria||SMS helped deploy bed nets by (1) tracking commodities from state stores to distribution points by monitoring coupon distribution, (2) sending SMS reminders about distribution times and location for beneficiaries.||Target: population; technology: RapidSMS (UNICEF innovation); license: open source|
|Beat It [, ]||South Africa||HIV/AIDS||Free SMS to enter the draw for prizes that motivated people to check results on Beat It television program. Designed to promote positive living, treatment access, and HIV infection prevention.||Target: youth; technology: Cell-Life; incentives: mobile phone, airtime|
|Cell-Life [, ]||South Africa||HIV/AIDS||Mass messaging for prevention, linking clinic and patients to peer-to-peer support and counseling at no charge, through a computerized capture of mobile phone number and automatic SMS back with the information.||Target: patient; technology: Cell-Life; license: open source; multicomponent project; status: ongoing|
|Project Masiluleke [, ]||South Africa||HIV/AIDS||Project provided several mobile phone-based applications for HIV/AIDS care: “Access Information” and “Get Tested”. Health promotion messages broadcasted in unused space of “Please Call Me,” a free form of SMS widely used in Africa.||Target: population; technology: SocialTxt from Praekelt Foundation; license: open source; multicomponent project compliance|
|South African Depression and Anxiety Group ||South Africa||Mental health||National toll-free suicide helpline and SMS for adolescents in crisis.||Target: young people; status: ongoing|
|Digital mosquito net vouchers ||Tanzania||Malaria||Implemented long-lasting insecticidal net distribution using SMS voucher system for controlling counterfeited voucher.||Target: pregnant women|
|Kimasomaso [, ]||6 African countries||SRH||Radio program transmitted voices of young people keeping audio diaries, associated with helpline. Also provided SMS to redirect callers and text senders to local support.||Target: young people|
|AppLab ||Uganda||HIV/AIDS, SRH||Leveraged existing Village Shared Phone Operators to deliver mobile information services in health and agriculture with (1) SMS-based health tips and searchable database, (2) “Clinic Finder”, to locate nearby health clinics and services.||Target: population; technology: AppLab applications|
|Text to Change [- ]||Uganda||HIV/AIDS||Interactive SMS quiz designed to help resolve key issues around HIV transmission and prevention, in the form of a multiple choice questionnaire that guaranteed free voluntary counseling and testing services to participants who answered correctly. Three quizzes offered weekly in English.||Target: population (15,000); incentives: voluntary counseling and testing services, airtime and mobile phone; status: ongoing, plan for Uganda and other African countries|
|UNICEF ||Zimbabwe||Cholera||Nationwide SMS information campaign during larger cholera campaign.||Target population|
|China Netcom ||China||SRH||SRH education and awareness campaign with SMS and hotline that gave access to medical experts.||Target: population and teenagers|
|SARSd education [, ]||China||SARS||Mobile phone subscribers could call an SMS that alerted them if they were within 1 km of a SARS-infected building, where confirmed cases existed, and about news updates.||Target: population; license: proprietary, mobile operator|
|Indonesia: Community Based Avian Influenza Control Project ||Indonesia||Avian influenza||SMS-based contest to encourage travelers in buses to be careful and to test their knowledge on the diseases.||Target: population; incentives: airtime|
|Condom Condom Campaign [, ]||India||HIV/AIDS||Condom use promotion and HIV/AIDS awareness campaign among young men with (1) SMS opinion to vote on HIV/AIDS issues, (2) condom-themed mobile phone ringtone using SMS to get a push in reply, from where the user could download the ringtone.||Target: men; incentives: mobile phone and free talk time|
|Freedom HIV/AIDS ||India||HIV/AIDS||SMS used for (1) downloading mobile phone games to raise HIV/AIDS awareness, deployed on low-end and sophisticated colored devices, (2) announcement of radio shows on HIV/AIDS, (3) information on the nearest HIV testing center.||Target: population; technology: ZMQ; specificity: developed in local languages|
|Heroes Project [, ]||India||HIV/AIDS||Multiple media channels including SMS to get key messages on HIV/AIDS out to the general public.||Target: population|
|Indian tuberculosis campaign ||India||Tuberculosis||Public awareness campaigns used SMS for tuberculosis information.||Target: population|
|Breast cancer awareness ||India||Cancer||SMS as reminder to conduct breast self-examination.||Target: working women in private companies|
|Global Hand-washing Day/UNICEF ||Nepal||Diarrhea||Public awareness campaign used SMS to encourage hand-washing.||Target: population|
|Mobilink ||Pakistan||Polio||Broadcasted millions of SMSs to encourage parents to get their children vaccinated against polio.||Target: parents; specificities: initiative of services provider|
|Sex-Ed Text ||Philippines||SRH||Computerized system using SMS to receive and then return the keyword of interest for getting complete and free information.||Target: young people|
|CardioNet ||Mexico||Cardiac diseases||Public prevention campaign in which users took a quick cardiac assessment screening by SMS.||Target: population; technology: Voxiva; license: proprietary|
aHuman Immunodeficiency Virus/acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome.
b United Nations Children’s Fund.
c Sexual and Reproductive Health.
d Severe acute respiratory syndrome.
|Learning About Living ||HIV/AIDSa and SRHb||To document and distribute lessons learned during the process of initiating, planning, implementing, and monitoring the project.||Project evaluation; duration: 14 months after implementation; N = 9000 youth. Outcomes: objective and subjective.||User description: median age 24 years, 93% from urban and suburban settings, 79% male, 60,000 questions received by SMS, multiple use of service 49%. User satisfaction: 76%, 24% free, 12% prompt response, 7% easy access and availability, 24% educative HIV and SRH. Reason for dissatisfaction: >50% no answer due to bad network, 25% question partially answered, 18% response time too long, 7% question misunderstood.||Limitations: methods not described, results not comparable from state to state due to partner variation in evaluation methods. Challenges: network fluctuations, spam messages, girls and rural outreach.|
|Cell Phone for Life ||HIV/AIDS||To evaluate how the pilot service is perceived by the organizations running the service, those receiving the messages and those close to the recipients who may be affected: (1) baseline study of expectations of the pilot service, current access to information and service usage, and behavior, (2) process evaluation to assess how the pilot service is received, (3) review outcomes and results from the pilot service.||Baseline survey; N = 210. Outcomes: objective and subjective.||Participant characteristics: mean age 26.32 years, 71% female, 66.2% own a mobile phone, 79.5% comfortable using mobile phone, 64.3% use SMS. Qualitative information: Important: two-way communications important, messages may be consulted at any point, save time and money. Concerns: maintenance cost to members, the poor have no access to phones with required technology to perform Cell-Life functions technology, people change mobile phone regularly, potential for misuse or private use of SMS allocated by Cell-Life.||Challenges: maintenance and SMS costs, limited access for poor people, high mobile phone turnover, potential misuse or private use of SMS by Cell-Life.|
|Text Me! Flash Me! ||HIV/AIDS||To understand the main reasons for contacting the helpline.||Pilot project; duration: 6 months; N = 1169 calls; 12 health workers and 135 MSMc randomly selected. Outcome: objective and subjective, interview and focus groups.||Participants: reach in first month: 5 counselors counseled 439 MSM clients = average of 88 MSM clients per counselor per month compared with 50 MSM clients per peer educator or health worker per month in facilities and communities; 87% shared the information with others: 40% did it by SMS to a mean of 8.6 persons; increased knowledge and intention to use condoms; 47% went to health services as counseled voluntary counseling and testing uptake increased after launch of campaign.||Challenges: lack of monetary incentives related by counselors.|
|Text to Change [, ]||HIV/AIDS||Understand satisfaction with and use of pilot system.||Pilot project; duration: 8 weeks; N = 15,000. Outcome: objective, number of answers, and voluntary counseling and testing attendance.||Participants: 2610 actively participated, 807 texted back their age (mean 29.2 years), 801 texted back their gender (70.8% male; 29.2% female). Number of questions/participant: >1 (17.4%); voluntary counseling and testing attendance: 255 people.||Challenges: language barriers, confidentiality concerns (33.8%), lack of information on voluntary counseling and testing participants.|
|Text to Change ||HIV/AIDS||Assess access to and interest in receiving health information on mobile phone.||Survey; duration: 6 months. Outcome: number of answers.||Participants: 1506 with response rate of 86.7%; 62% male, 42% between 12 and 14 years and 51% between 15 and 17 years, 27% owned a mobile phone, among whom 93% sent SMS over past 12 months (34% every day, 35% weekly, 21% monthly, 9% <1/month), 19% of those who sent SMS said they did it to get health information in the last year; 51% of all adolescents said they were somewhat or extremely likely to access health education program through SMS, which was associated with owning a mobile phone; high-risk adolescents were equally likely to be interested in receiving HIV prevention program via SMS.||Limitations: low rate of mobile phone ownership in Mbarra, self-administered questionnaire, with results relevant to secondary school students with good English literacy. Large number of missing data.|
|Breast cancer awareness ||Cancer||To assess SMS effectiveness as reminders for making women aware of breast cancer.||Participants: 106 women; duration: 6 months; SMS to remind to conduct breast self-examination.||Participants: 20–54 years old. Outcome: among those who forgot, 54% forgot and intended to do it, 47% were busy, and 4% had some questions regarding the exam. After 2 months of reminders, the practice of breast self-examination improved significantly.||Limitations: small sample, little information on methods. Women working in private sector.|
a Human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.
b Sexual and reproductive health.
c Men who have sex with men.
|Disease focus||Number of applications||Percentage of sample|
|Human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome||18||47%|
|Sexual and reproductive health||5||13%|
a Includes Measles, Avian Influenza, Cholera, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, Tuberculosis, Poliomyelitis, Mental Health, Cancer, and Cardiac Disease. Some Applications Related to Several Diseases.
Description of the Applications
The 34 applications, listed in[ - ], were described using varying levels of detail about the purpose of the initiative and features. Most provided information about the method used for communication (one-way or two-way), the use of games and contests, and incentives to increase the adoption and use of the application.
SMSs served as one-way communication tools for prevention. SMSs were sent outbound to large numbers of subscribers who had no opportunity to respond to messages or seek specific advice. The communication was standardized or targeted, tended to aim at a large population, and provided information about healthy behaviors and testing services. Such initiatives often required the participation of mobile phone operators who provided a database of phone numbers used during the campaign. As such, SMSs were sent with health promotion slogans for HIV/AIDS in the Heroes Project in India [, ], to encourage parents to get their children vaccinated during Polio Vaccination Days in the Mobilink project in Pakistan [ ], by the United Nations Children’s Fund for cholera information during an outbreak in Zimbabwe [ ], to prevent diarrhea by encouraging hand-washing in Nepal [ ], and to provide information about tuberculosis in India [ ]. They were also sent to parents of young children encouraging vaccination, bed net use, and hand-washing in the Central African Republic [ ]. For malaria prevention, text messages reminded the population about bed net distribution dates, times, and locations [ ].
Cell Phone for Life in South Africa offered an open source system to support the fight against HIV/AIDS [, ]. One component of the project diffused awareness through one-way mass messaging. The first stage of Project Masiluleke [ , ] circulated HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis messages to the general public. SMSs were sometimes accompanied by links to interactive website with, for example, information on sexual health for the project Health On Line in Mali [ ]. In one component of Text Me! Flash Me!, SMSs were sent to subscribers with educational and promotional messages, either for a general communication strategy or in response to trends noticed through ongoing quality monitoring and evaluation [ , ].
Two-way communication interventions included opportunities for people to text in for health tips, obtain tailored information about clinic locations, or contact a live person. SMS also supported other media channels allowing people to ask questions when they needed more information. They could remain anonymous, which is particularly important for stigmatizing issues such as HIV/AIDS, other SRH issues, and tuberculosis.
In the project Mobile for Good, “Health Tips” were sent to Kenyan subscribers who asked questions on HIV/AIDS and breast cancer-related issues . An automatic computerized system was also established in the Philippines. In the Sex-Ed Text project, people who texted “SET” to a specific number (ie, short code) received a menu of keywords for SRH. When they responded with the keyword of interest they received free information [ ]. Some projects leveraged existing public access services to deliver the intervention. Launched in Uganda, the Application Laboratory used shared phone operators to deliver information through an SMS-searchable database of health tips on sexually transmitted diseases, family planning, and maternal health, as well as details on local clinics and timetable of operation for outreach services [ ]. In China, individuals could text in to receive the locations of buildings affected by severe acute respiratory syndrome and know of cases within 1 km of the calling location [ , ]. Users could also text in for daily updates on the syndrome. Messages were in both English and Chinese.
Several initiatives used television and radio programs in combination with SMS to engage in two-way communication. In the television soap opera Makutano Junction, viewers were encouraged to send an SMS if they needed more information about HIV/AIDS [, ]. During the first, year, 30,000 text messages were received, and audience research showed that such a medium was useful to deliver information to rural and periurban audiences. Similarly, the It Begins With You campaign used SMS to engage young people in watching a show and voting with SMS [ ]. The campaign aimed to get young people to share what they are doing to advance an AIDS-free generation and to know their HIV status. The Botswana Talk Back initiative aimed to provide education about HIV and involved a television talk show where viewers were encouraged to SMS with the presenters in the studio during live broadcasts [ ]. Kimasomaso was a radio series that provided education about SRH issues [ , ]. Individuals could send in a text and receive support and advice.
Another component of the previously mentioned Cell-Life project used two-way communication to provide information on the location of voluntary counseling and testing (VCT) clinics [, ]. Anybody could dial a specific phone number associated with a certain piece of information. A computer captured the number and sent an SMS back with the requested information at no charge to the requester. In Kenya, Afriafya provided community resource centers with technology access to HIV information [ ]. Individuals requested information through SMS, and information was returned by SMS, email, or in print. Pariah News in Madagascar used SMS to send news about HIV/AIDS testing and prevention to sex workers [ ]. Sex workers updated their health and HIV status and reported cases of violence anonymously, willingly, and in real time.
The Project Masiluleke connected mobile users to existing call centers, where trained operators provided health information, counseling, and referrals to local testing clinics . After 3 weeks, average daily call volume to the national AIDS helpline tripled in Johannesburg, South Africa. Another component of the HIV/AIDS education initiative Text Me! Flash Me! in Ghana allowed for two-way communication. Targeting men who have sex with men and sex workers, users could text HELP to the project shortcode and a live peer counselor called back within 24 hours [ ]. The South African Depression and Anxiety Group provided a national toll-free suicide crisis line and an SMS for adolescents in crisis [ ]. In Tanzania, pregnant women could receive digital vouchers for bed nets, to prevent malaria [ ]. Doctors sent an SMS to a retail bed net outlet and received back a valid digital voucher code. That code was transferred to the woman, who could then pick up a bed net. This also reduced the spread of fraudulent paper vouchers. In China, subscribers of two local mobile providers could text with experts about SRH issues [ ].
Another project evaluated the use of SMS on breast cancer prevention, targeting working women in the private sector in Delhi. An SMS was sent every month according to the person’s last menstrual cycle to remind her to conduct breast self-examination at the end of her menstrual period. The content not only reminded the women to conduct breast self-examination, but also asked them to send an SMS back stating whether they had done it .
Games and Contests
The Indian Freedom HIV/AIDS project and its African counterpart, the Star Programme [ ], both used games to increase participation and promote disease prevention behaviors ( [ ]). Both used mobile platforms that were deployable on low-end black-and-white as well as sophisticated color cell phones to purposely target different preferences and socioeconomic groups. In India, 10 million game sessions were played over a 15-month period, and in Africa 6 million games were played in the first year. The project later included other topics such as tuberculosis, malaria, swine flu, lifestyle, and women’s health issues.
The Condom Condom Campaign in India used different approaches to encourage young men to communicate about HIV/AIDS and to use condoms [, ]. An SMS opinion vote was published in print media around the core message “smart men talk about condoms.” In six newspapers across four states, an average of 89% of readers responded to a text vote. In addition, to get people to talk about condoms, the project developed a condom-themed ringtone that people could download via SMS shortcodes (ie, dedicated 5-digit mobile phone numbers). There were 270,000 requests for it.
Other issues addressed by games and contests included avian flu and heart disease. In 2005, the Community Based Avian Influenza Control Project in Indonesia, an SMS-based contest, encouraged travelers in buses to test their knowledge of Avian Influenza . In Mexico, CardioNet used a quick cardiovascular risk assessment screening by SMS [ ]. In turn, the numbers collected were used to send advice and information about heart health. The company was also developing a comparable tool for breast cancer information.
Some projects generated participation with a rewards system. Text To Change in Uganda designed an SMS multiple choice quiz, three times per week, to raise HIV/AIDS awareness and increase VCT . Parallel to radio and newspaper advertisements, background information was provided in a special column in a magazine. Users submitting correct answers to the quiz were offered free VCT services and the possibility to win mobile phones or airtime. The program also monitored knowledge and beliefs through responses. The project Beat It in South Africa used free SMS to enter a prize draw where the results were announced during a television show designed to promote positive living and HIV/AIDS prevention [ , ]. This drew viewers and provided a contactable database. Campaigns such as Learning about Living in Nigeria ( ) [ , , ] and eQuest in Kenya [ ] often targeted youth, encouraging them to correctly answer questions on HIV/AIDS issues for free airtime, T-shirts, mobile phones, computers, or DVD players.
Evaluations and Outcomes
Most of the reported applications did not provide information about an evaluation. Five interventions reported outcomes, with varying levels of detail ([ , , , , - , ]): Learning About Living [ ], Cell for Life [ ], Text Me! Flash Me! [ ], Text to Change [ - ], and Breast Cancer Awareness project [ ]. Each of these is described below including available information about the aim and method used to evaluate it. Findings are described, and stated benefits and limitations are then noted.
The project Learning about Living, an HIV and SRH education campaign, was evaluated after 14 months of implementation . The project reached 9000 young people (median age of 24 years) who submitted 60,000 HIV/AIDS-related questions by SMS, and 4500 people (50% of users) accessed the service more than once. Most users (93%) were from urban or suburban setting and were male (79%). The majority (76%) were satisfied with the service, mostly because it was free (24%), quick (12%), or easily available (7%). Among dissatisfied users (24%), half did not receive a response to their SMS due to mobile network fluctuation, and 50% complained about the timing of answers. Despite the lack of information on methodology and variation in methods of evaluation between different sites, this initiative may have increased access to information for young people. The strengths of the project were regular formal and informal communication between all stakeholders. Noted challenges included network fluctuations, spam issues, and low reach of women and rural populations.
The pilot service of Cell-Life was evaluated using quantitative information from 210 respondents as well as qualitative inputs from 10 in-depth interviews and 5 focus groups . Among the 210 participants, 66% owned a mobile phone, 80% felt comfortable using a mobile phone, and 64% were comfortable using SMS. Awareness of Cell-Life was poor, and its primary role was perceived as information dissemination at multiple levels. Users ranked the two-way communication and 24-hour availability of the messages for consultation on the mobile phone as important aspects, with the principle advantage that Cell-Life would save them time and money. Many requests were received for information about HIV and health in general, medication reminders, clinic locators, and access to reference sources of experts. Barriers included concerns about maintenance and SMS costs, limited access for poor people, high mobile phone turnover, and potential misuse or private use of SMS.
The Text Me! Flash Me! Service was an HIV/AIDS education initiative in Ghana that strived to strengthen HIV/AIDS knowledge among the most-at-risk population. After 6 months of implementation, the initiative was evaluated . The aim was to understand the main reasons for using the service. Participants reported sharing information they received with others (87%) and 40% of them did so by SMS. The most popular service of the system was referral to VCT services (71% of the calls), which resulted in a substantial increase in VCT uptakes. Traditionally, counseling occurred at a rate of 50 clients per week per counselor. This program resulted in each counselor providing advice for approximately 88 clients per week. Reported challenges included a lack of financial incentives for counselors.
The project Text to Change aimed to increase the use of VCT centers. The system was evaluated in several papers, including 1 published in peer-reviewed literature [- ]. In 2 papers, the project showed a 40% increase of VCT uptake after using an SMS quiz [ , ]. Identified challenges included language barriers due to English-language messages, a majority of male participants, confidentiality concerns (33.8%), and missing data (no information collected at VCT centers). The low number of respondents highlighted the importance of marketing at the beginning of the campaign and reassuring anonymity. In the quantitative study published in 2011 [ ], the reported response rate was higher (86.7%) and still characterized by a majority of male participants. Among the SMS users, 19% mentioned they used it to get health information, and slightly more than half (51%) said they would be extremely likely to access health education programs through SMS, which was correlated with owning a mobile phone. High-risk and low-risk adolescents were equally likely to be interested in receiving HIV prevention programs via SMS. This study suggested that not all adolescents would have access to a mobile phone intervention and that nearly half would not necessarily choose to receive HIV/AIDS health information via this channel. It shows that adolescents may engage with education in different ways, thus emphasizing the importance of making HIV/AIDS prevention messages available in different modes and environments.
In India, the community-based study to evaluate the effect of SMS on breast cancer prevention targeting working women in the private sector in Delhi reported a significant increase of women performing breast self-examination after 2 months of SMS reminders . The study sample was small and targeted only highly educated women working in the private sector who own mobile phones.
This review collected descriptive information about SMS-based disease prevention interventions in developing countries, reported as of May 2011. Applications were widespread with small clusters in South Africa, Kenya, and India. Most of them targeted HIV/AIDS and SRH, but the topics were broad. Many SMS-delivered applications were initiated by projects with modes of intervention varying between one-way and two-way communication. Some used educative games or incentives to increase participation.
Of the 34 applications, 5 reported an evaluation. The evaluations primarily focused on the processes and outputs of the interventions. However, some provided evidence on behavior change outcomes, such as increase in uptake of VCT services and increase in breast self-examination. Available data suggest that for the 5 initiatives evaluated, SMS interventions were feasible, were well accepted by the targeted population, and allowed for high reach. Additionally, several projects that did not conduct or report an evaluation did report usage statistics that suggest the target audience used the service (at varying levels of engagement).
Some issues appeared as potential barriers to usage. These included lack of timely responses, mobile network connection fluctuations, lack of financial incentives, maintenance and SMS costs, high mobile phone turnover, and potential misuse or private use of SMS. Language barriers were identified as limiting factors in one campaign [, ]. While some countries such as South Africa have 11 official languages and many more indigenous ones [ ], scalability of the intervention may depend on the ability to develop health promotion messages in various languages and ethnocultural contexts, and finding ways to target people speaking less-known languages. A key learning of the consultation was that ICTs are “only as good as the information they seek to communicate” and the importance of considering “the whole communication process of which ICTs have opened up unprecedented opportunities.” [ ] It is important to develop culturally and gender-sensitive messages and approaches provided in the languages of the target population. Transmitting messages through intermediaries, developing a voice recognition system, or using pictograms or graphs may be worthwhile solutions to language barriers. The limited length of SMS (160 characters) also influences content; however, next-generation mobile services will allow the transmission of richer messages and multimedia capacities, affording new opportunities for more effective communication.
There were also concerns about maintenance and SMS costs, high mobile phone turnover, and reliability and security of systems. Reliability may be questioned by the sender, who does not know whether the messages have been delivered, and by the receiver, who may not receive the message . This was of particular importance with the high mobile phone turnover reported [ ]. Users raised concerns about the ability to ensure data protection and confidentiality [ , ], even though the mobile phone was perceived as the most trustworthy technology over others [ ]. These aspects were particularly important in settings where users shared mobile phones. It has been an undeniable concern for patients with tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS, who would have increased risk of stigmatization if their text message were viewed inadvertently, unless the message was encrypted. This was particularly of concern in South Africa, where health workers were repeatedly robbed at gunpoint for their mobile phones while making their home care visits [ ].
Finally, as an unintended consequence of the high reach afforded and achieved using SMS, health workers may bear the larger burden of servicing a larger number of clients than before, creating problems in quality or in feelings of not being properly compensated . This may be a challenge to programs that do not have the resources to enhance financial incentives of workers. Thus, careful planning about capacity of systems and their staff must be fully assessed prior to launching SMS initiatives that aim to increase use of services, addressing the potential increase in the staff workload.
Insights provided in this review outlined current practice of SMS for disease prevention in developing countries. Novel projects were doing innovative things to prevent the spread or progression of disease. Using games and interactive communication strategies, as well as integrating SMS with other channels, is a reality and holds great promise for reach and potential social change. Yet high-quality SMS-based intervention studies from developing countries were lacking in the literature, as reported in other recent literature reviews [, ]. Most of the evaluations in this study were feasibility studies assessing process and output, rather than outcomes, a situation that has been called the pilot syndrome [ ]. The included case studies predominantly appraised process and usage output and encompassed various limitations, such as (1) sample selection (no randomization; often convenience samples), (2) sample size (insufficient statistical power), (3) lack of information on process validations (pretesting, recruitment type, response rate, retention rate), (4) lack of assessment of the maintenance of the effect, and (5) no comparison with control groups. Given the enormous potential of this widespread communication tool, randomized controlled trials to determine efficacy of using SMS as a means for disease prevention in developing countries are highly needed and should be a priority in funding.
Limitations related to the literature review process should be considered when interpreting the results. The innovative aspects and the commercial implications of the field may have affected the reporting of studies. The findings could be influenced by a tendency of projects to report positive results, by time lag issues typical of a fast-moving field, by projects promoted by industry, or by unwillingness to share information in order to protect innovation. Additionally, this review includes SMS applications focused on disease prevention and thus does not provide a full picture of applications with other foci, such as disease surveillance or adherence to prescribed regimens. Results may furthermore have been influenced by the involuntary omission of documents from the gray literature, which were sometimes difficult to find . The extensive search and the methodical approach used in this review strived to minimize limitations and enabled the assembly of comprehensive information about this innovative field.
There are many SMS health initiatives for disease prevention in developing countries, yet few are being evaluated and reported. Those that did conduct evaluations reported process evaluation and uptake, providing limited data about behavior change. Moreover, with a low number of documents found in the peer-reviewed literature, it appears that, to date, little is being done to advance our understanding of what works and what outcomes could be achieved in using SMS for disease prevention in a developing country contexts. Major opportunities are perceived, evident by the number and wide variety of projects, the recent creation of the United Nations Foundation’s mHealth Alliance, and papers published describing SMS applications in the developed world [- , ]. However, the need remains for evidence-based dissemination of information about using mobile phones and SMS for improving health in the developing world. The limited evidence found in this systematic review highlights the need for research that assesses behavioral, social, economic, and health outcomes of mobile phone interventions aimed at promoting health in developing country contexts. Sharing best practices and providing strategic directions will allow the building of evidence for the use of mobile health technologies that address the needs of health systems, communities, and populations. Consequently, the promises of using mobile phones and SMS may translate into an equitable improvement in health.
The authors thank Mr Joel Lehmann for his assistance with protocol development and data collection, Mrs Sepideh Dianat for feedback on previous versions, and Mr Kaspar Hurni, Centre for Development and Environment, University of Berne, for establishing the world map figure.
This research was undertaken as a collaborative project with the three authors.
Conflicts of Interest
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|HIV/AIDS: human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome|
|ICT: information and communication technologies|
|SMS: short message service|
|SRH: sexual and reproductive health|
|VCT: voluntary counseling and testing|
Edited by G Eysenbach; submitted 01.04.11; peer-reviewed by R Furberg, H Thinyane, J Barrington, G Wright, E Kuntsche; comments to author 23.04.11; revised version received 03.10.11; accepted 05.10.11; published 12.01.12
©Carole Déglise, L. Suzanne Suggs, Peter Odermatt. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (http://www.jmir.org), 12.01.2012.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on http://www.jmir.org/, as well as this copyright and license information must be included. | <urn:uuid:a5ecfe1e-d2db-482d-a4ba-3454556cc677> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jmir.org/2012/1/e3/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.90066 | 14,885 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Journal of Energy in Southern Africa
versión On-line ISSN 2413-3051
AKURU, Udochukwu B; OKORO, Ogbonnaya I y CHIKUNI, Edward. Impact of renewable energy deployment on climate change in Nigeria. J. energy South. Afr. [online]. 2015, vol.26, n.3, pp. 125-134. ISSN 2413-3051.
It is well known fact that the rate of industrial growth of any country is a function of the amount of energy available in that country and the extent to which this energy is utilized. The burning of fossil fuels to generate energy is a dirty process. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions result when fossil fuels are produced and consumed and these emissions contribute to climate change. Nigeria as a country is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change because its economy is mainly dependent on income generated from the production, processing, export and/or consumption of fossil fuels and its associated energy-intensive products. Hence, it is on this premise that this paper is researched to review the energy sources being used in Nigeria and investigate its impact to climate change. Findings reveal Nigeria's over-dependence on fossil-generated energy with associated adverse environmental effects, among other things. Recommendations for the integration of renewable energy into Nigeria's energy mix, beyond other measures, have been offered, especially with reference to the salient environmental benefits that accrue to it.
Palabras clave : Climate change; fossil fuels; GHG emissions; renewable energy. | <urn:uuid:995dc0ae-5ec6-4408-b7ba-d01742b1118c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S1021-447X2015000300014&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=en | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915682 | 321 | 2.65625 | 3 |
The valley of Spiti derives its name from the Spiti River, which rises just
below the 16,000 ft high Kunzum Pass. After flowing for about 60 miles, it
joins the Sutlej River near the village of Namgiya in Kinnaur district. En
route it is fed several streams - Pin Cholmo, Gyundi, Rahtang, Ulah, Lungse,
Mane, Surahi, Hanze, Tagling, Thumpa Lumpa, Kaza, Lingti, Parechu and Tabo.
Valley Of Barren Splendour
Deep inside the inner folds of the
Himalays, behind the greater Himalayan ranges lies the valley of Spiti. The
sheer starkness of its beauty with its dramatic rock shapes and colours and
its distinct cultural identity gives it a unique character that makes it
stand apart from most of the other valleys of the Himalayas.
Huge mountains rise to very high elevations on either side of the Spiti
River and its numerous tributaries. The valley has largely been influenced
by the action of ancient glaciers. The river and its tributaries have
deposited almost barren river terraces. The river attains peak discharge in
late summers when snow on the mountains melts and it occasionally freezes in
The main settlements that have come up along the Spiti River and its
tributaries are Hansi and Dhankar Gompa. | <urn:uuid:ea02e570-8af0-47ac-b9b9-c10d3c1a9d11> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.travel-himalayas.com/rivers-himalayas/chandra-chenab-river.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00201-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.906474 | 308 | 3.3125 | 3 |
In the Animal kingdom,the rule is eat or be eaten;in the human kingdom,define or be defined. Thomas Szasz
A recurrent meme in the discourse of medical policy is the notion of the "medical commons". This term can be traced back to the phrase " the tragedy of the commons" which was a term introduced in a 1968 article by Garrett Hardin.
Tragedy of the Commons refers to the situation in which a shared resource is depleted by individuals acting in their own short term interest to the detriment of the group.Typical stylized examples are herders overgrazing their sheep on a common field not allowing grass to regrow or fishermen overfishing an area of the ocean depleting the fish population thereby damaging all in the long run.A characteristic of these commons is that the property is unowned or is considered to be common property.In other words there is lack of strong property rights.
The earliest reference I could find for the notion of medical commons (MC) was in a 1975 NEJM special article entitled Protecting the Medical Commons:Who is responsible? by Dr. Howard H. Hiatt.(NEJM 1975;293:235-241,July 31,1975).
Dr. Hiatt made the following gratuitous assertion that medical resources in the country can be viewed as analogous to the grazing area problem.I say gratuitous because Hiatt does not elaborate of how the two phenomena are alike in significant ways.
"The total resources available for medical care can be viewed as analogous to the grazing areas on Hardin's common."An analogy is a type of comparison in which one likens one thing to another in circumstances in which the two things have useful similarities such that knowledge of the one thing can aid in understanding the other. For example one could consider the human heart to be analogous to a pump.From our understanding of a pump we gain some insight into the mechanics of the heart.
The problem I have with the medical commons analogy is that health care or health care resources share no essential features with the notion of a commons.
For example, the common field or patch of ocean is owned by no one ( or every one,which in some regards is the same thing ) whereas medical resources are owned by numerous entities in particular. Hospital X is owned by someone or some real economic entity,a corporation or perhaps a local government or the federal government. The MRI units and the physical therapy units and the commercial labs are all owned by someone or other. Ownership involves the right to use one's property,to dispose of one's property and to exclude others from the property. In the commons all can use the property but do not enjoy the other elements of property ownership.
In the commons,all are allowed to bring in the sheep to feed but every patient cannot simply go to any of the numerous health care facilities and partake of their offering for free and ad lib.
The "tragedy" in the tragedy of the commons is that overuse leads to resource depletion but does overuse (how ever defined) of health care resources deplete those resource. I argue just the opposite .
As the demand for health care resources increases often so does the supply. As demand for hip replacements goes up more facilities have become available for orthopedic surgery, the same for cardiac caths and for MRI etc etc.Increasing demand and use of medical resources does not deplete them but can lead to their increase.No one is using up the MRI exams.
The issue is not the depletion of resources as one might think using the flawed medical commons analogy, rather it is the expenditure for using those resources about which alarms have been sounded. Even here though, money spend on a MRI or surgery or whatever is not money hurled down a black hold- it is simply redistributed . But could not that money have been better spent by for example preschool tutoring for under privileged inner city youth? Maybe, but there will always be some other use for money that is spent on any thing. So is the resource that is being "depleted" in the medical commons money or more accurately other people's money or the perception that it is other people's money.
If the medical common analogy is thought to be appropriate and valid why would not the following be equally so; the home construction commons,the food supply commons, the hair care commons,the automobile manufacturing commons. Why do we not hear alarms being sounded about spoiling of the home construction industry by overbuilding or too many customers spoiling the food supply commons?After all money spent on burgers cannot be spent on housing for the poor. Hint: Much of medical care is paid for using someone else's money.
While a grassy field for the villager's sheep to graze can be defined by a specific surveyor description, the "medical commons" is a extremely large amorphous array,the elements of which defy enumeration, and is every changing, with some elements growing ,others contracting and rearrangements cropping up constantly. Various entities own various elements of this array-society owns none even though various government entities own some but the government is not society.
The skills,and knowledge of thousands of physicians are aggregated and then allocated as if somehow society own them.There is no easily defined entity called "medical resources". Rather,it is an amorphous abstraction.Further, to speak of allocation means some one or some elite group will be the "allocator in chief ".
If there is societal allocation decisions will not be made by thousands of individual physician-patient pairs.
Dr. Hiatt is a very accomplished medical scientist with a distinguished career .His article in my opinion was an attempt to call attention to what he believed was the need for "society to find ways to govern access and control of the use of the medical commons" and the role that physicians would have in those decisions. In that regard the use of the idea of medical commons was a rhetorical device to imply that medical resources are in some meaningful sense owned collectively and that society should decide important allocation questions. Governing access and control are the operative words.
Once one accepts the notion that the medical resources are collectively owned then it is a short step to the idea that individual physicians and patients should not be selfishly decide how things are allocated, the allocation must be done for the collective good based on sound, cost effective, utilitarian considerations.Although the discussions speak of a medical commons implying everyone in the country, operationally what we would be dealing with are smaller commons such as that found in and HMO or the current HMO oid entity the ACO which is the panacea flavor of the month.
When someone speaks of society making a decision be wary because there is no one named society and society decides nothing.The medical commons concept is more than a very flawed analogy . It is a rhetorical tool for the listener or reader to passively accept the notion that health care should be collectivized. Advocates of that may say society decides and society demands but basically some (most ?) of the advocates of that view believe that the medical intellectual elite with the power of the government should make those decisions . They believe that medical care is too complex,too complicated and costs too much to be left in the hands of the individual physician and patient.Drs. Donald Berwick and Troynen Brennan clearly expressed the view that the doctor patient decision making "dyad" in their book New Rules should be eliminated.
Here are two quotes expressing the desire to do away with the traditional physician patient relationship , the first from Berwick's New Rules, the second from a 1998 Annals of Internal Medicine article by Dr. Robert Berenson and Hall :
"Traditional medical ethics, based on the doctor-patient dyad must be reformulated to fit the new mold of the delivery of health care."
"we propose that the devotion to the best interests of each individual be replaced with an ethic of devotion to the best interests of the group for which the physician is personally responsible."
Of course everyone using the medical commons figure of speech is not an advocate of the new medical ethics or of collectivization of medical care, but once a phrase is used often enough it becomes part of the common discourse sometimes (often?) without concern about what it might really mean to some.
If we want to make progress in solving or at least mitigating some of the problems with US health care I suggest referring to a meaningless analogy is not useful except to those whose agenda involves destruction of the old time medical ethics.You might remember the one that emphasized the primary fiduciary duty of the physician to the patient.
The medical commons meme is often invoked in polemics admonishing physician to not order unnecessary testing.Such comments as "spoiling the commons" appear. I suggest that advocates of prudent medical testing need not invoke collectivist views of medical resources or reference to non existent medical commons.Physicians already have a firm ethical basis for not ordering unnecessary tests and procedures. Two well known,long standing, stalwart precepts cover that very well;beneficence and do no harm.
Ordering unnecessary tests and procedures bump up against both. The harm of doing a test that is not necessary should be evident to a physician before he finishes medical school let alone residency training. The patient is harmed by the cost of the test (even if she only pays a fraction of the cost),by the anxiety of a false positive result and the inevitable cascade of further testing and possible invasive procedures that commonly occur after a false positive result.
Simply put- a physician who orders tests that are not in the interest of the patient is harming his patient and not living up to his fiduciary duty.The problem is not harm to the medical commons,there is no such thing.
It is not an oversight that advocates of the new medical professionalism which posits a co-duty of the physician to the patient and to society conveniently leave the term fiduciary duty out of their discussions and admonitions regarding medical professionalism.The fiduciary duty of the physician to her patients has been nudged out of the definition of a ethical physician and quietly replaced by physician as steward of society's resources. | <urn:uuid:a6b8bbbd-5262-4c96-a333-e47100e7fb48> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mdredux.blogspot.com/2012/11/is-term-medical-commons-useful-analogy.html?showComment=1352323148754 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00137-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950442 | 2,073 | 2.75 | 3 |
Posted by Daniel on Sunday, April 7, 2013 at 12:29pm.
So here is the question:
Inflation is currently causing the cost of items to increase by about 2.5% per year. In 2009 a litre of gasoline costs approximately $0.90. What will it cost to fill a 60 litre gas tank 10 years from now. Round your answer to the nearest dollar. Name at least one thing other than inflation that determines the cost to the consumer of any article (not just gasoline).
For the mathematical portion, what would be the correct answer?
A = (0.9(1+0.25)^(10)) (60)
60 = # of litres
earlier portion of equation = cost of gas (per litre)
Is the answer..
math - Wayne, Tuesday, April 2, 2013 at 4:35pm
Today it costs $54 to fill tank. In one year (per cent increase problem):
(x - 54)/54 = .025, so x = $55.35
in the next year:
(x - $55.35)/$55.35 = .025, so x = $56.73
Do this 8 more times, and you will get your answer: $69.12
I used an Excel worksheet to generate the answer. Not sure if there's a formula to solve this or not.
math - Wayne, Tuesday, April 2, 2013 at 4:40pm
There is a formula, called the standard future value formula:
54 * (1 + .025)^10 = future value = $69.12
- math - Reiny, Sunday, April 7, 2013 at 12:45pm
the price increases exponentially
if it increases 2.5% this year, then next year it will increase 2.5% on the NEW amount
so if 2009 ----> 90 cents
10 years later ,
cost = 90(1.025)^10 = 115.20 cents or $1.152
so to fill a 60 L tank would cost
60(1.152) = $69.12 or $69 to the nearest dollar.
BTW, yesterday I paid $1.223 / L in Ontario, the lowest in many weeks.
- math - Steve, Sunday, April 7, 2013 at 12:49pm
They are both the same.
The problem with the first is that 2.5% = 0.025, not 0.25, which is 25%.
After all, (0.9)(60)=54
and that is the only difference between the two answers, aside from the typo.
- math - Daniel, Sunday, April 7, 2013 at 12:59pm
Wow thanks guys, perfect feedback.
Answer This Question
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Short for nanotechnology.
- Uses for the nano molecular sensor could encompass early diagnosis of genetic diseases.
- Now researchers have taken advantage of a proposed quantum effect to construct a Y-shaped, nano electronic circuit that boosts signals spontaneously.
- From there, he hopes to pursue a half dozen elevator-related businesses, from nano - to laser technology.
For editors and proofreaders
Definition of nano in:
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed. | <urn:uuid:de3d4580-c0a2-4240-bb21-45545a7987cb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/american_english/nano | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00094-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.877298 | 114 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Tea is the second most consumed beverage in the world, second only to water. All tea, including the four main types (black, white, green and oolong) originates from the same plant, Camellia sinensis. Although all tea has the same origin, the differences occur in the harvesting and processing.1
Green tea starts with freshly picking Camellia sinensis leaves and immediately steaming or pan-frying them to halt oxidation and fermentation, which results in a fresher, lighter flavor. White tea is made in a similar fashion using the newest, youngest buds of the plant. The leaves of black and oolong tea wither and then are rolled and crushed. Oolong tea is partially fermented while black tea is fully fermented.1
Matcha tea, which is recently gaining popularity, is finely ground or milled green tea turned into a powder. Traditional matcha tea powder is then sifted into a bowl with hot water until frothy. When drinking matcha, you consume the whole tea leaf instead of just the infusion, which experts say make matcha nutritionally superior to green tea.
Black tea contains 2-3 times more caffeine than green tea.
Herbal tea is made from a variety of plants, herbs and spices and in many countries cannot be called "tea" since it does not come from the Camellia sinensis plant.
This MNT Knowledge Center feature is part of a collection of articles on the health benefits of popular foods. It provides a nutritional breakdown of tea, an in-depth look at its possible health benefits, how to incorporate more tea into your diet and any potential health risks of consuming tea.
Contents of this article:
Nutritional breakdown of tea
According to the USDA National Nutrient Database, one cup of black tea (approximately 237 grams) contains 2 calories, 1 gram of carbohydrate, 0 grams of sugar, 0 grams of fiber and 0 grams of protein as well as 26% of daily manganese needs and small amounts of riboflavin, folate, magnesium, potassium and copper.
Tea is the second most consumed beverage in the world.
Unsweetened brewed green tea is a zero calorie beverage.
The caffeine contained in a cup of tea can vary according to the length of infusing time and the amount of tea infused.
Overall, tea contains few calories, helps with hydration and is a good source of antioxidants.
Catechins, potent antioxidants found primarily in green tea, are known for having beneficial anti-inflammatory and anti-carcinogenic properties.3
Possible health benefits of consuming tea
Most available studies on the potential health benefits of consuming tea have used green tea.
A study published in the Journal of Physiological Anthropology looked at the effects of green tea, white tea and water consumption on stress levels in 18 students. The study suggested that both green and white tea had a lowering effect on stress levels, however, white tea had an even greater effect. Larger studies need to be done to confirm this possible health benefit.
Boosting the brain
Some studies suggest that tea may be beneficial in reducing the risk of dementia and even enhancing our brain's cognitive functions, particularly the working memory.
A 2006 study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association concluded that green tea consumption is associated with reduced mortality due to all causes, including cardiovascular disease.
The study followed over 40,000 Japanese participants between the ages of 40 and 79 for 11 years, starting in 1994.
The participants who drank at least 5 cups of green tea per day had a significantly lower risk of dying (especially from cardiovascular disease) than those who drank less than one cup of tea per day.
Another study found that consuming 10 cups of green tea per day can lower total cholesterol, however, consuming 4 cups or less had no effect.3
Decreasing cancer risk
Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) is the most studied and bioactive polyphenol in tea and has been shown to be the most effective at eliminating free radicals.3
According to the National Cancer Institute, the polyphenols in tea have been shown to decrease tumor growth in the laboratory and animal studies and may protect against damage caused by ultraviolet UVB radiation.
In countries where green tea consumption is high, cancer rates tend to be lower. However, it is impossible to know for sure whether it is the green tea that prevents cancer in these specific populations or other lifestyle factors.6
One large-scale clinical study compared green tea drinkers with non-drinkers and found that those who drank the most tea were less likely to develop pancreatic cancer, particularly women, who were 50% less likely to develop the disease.
Studies have also shown the positive impacts of green tea on breast, bladder, ovarian, colorectal, esophageal, lung, prostate, skin and stomach cancer.
Other studies have shown a lack of preventative effects of tea on cancer. The amount of tea required for cancer-preventive effects has also varied widely in studies - from 2-10 cups per day.3
In 2005, the FDA stated that, "there is no credible evidence to support qualified health claims for green tea consumption and a reduced risk of gastric, lung, colon/rectal, esophageal, pancreatic, ovarian, and combined cancers."3
Green tea may have an anti-arthritic effect by suppressing overall inflammation.
According to Registered Dietitian Joy Bauer, "studies suggest that EGCG works to stop the production of certain inflammatory chemicals in the body, including those involved in arthritis. Preliminary research suggests that EGCG and other catechins in tea may prevent cartilage from breaking down, possibly helping to preserve joints longer."
How to incorporate more tea into your diet
For optimal health benefits, tea should be steeped as long as possible to increase flavonoids and 2-3 cups should be consumed per day, according to Tori Crawford, MS, RD, LD.2
Tea can be incorporated into the diet in many forms - including smoothies.
Bottled tea does not seem to be as beneficial as brewed tea and contains smaller amounts of beneficial polyphenols.3
Not only can you drink tea, but also you can incorporate it into your cooking. Check out these healthy and delicious recipes developed by Registered Dietitians that incorporate tea:Green tea honey vinaigrette dressing
Gingery green tea smoothie
Matcha tea waffles
Matcha and pumpkin seed crusted salmon
Peppermint mocha matcha tea
Matcha vegetable curry.
Potential health risks of consuming tea
People who are extremely sensitive to caffeine could experience insomnia, anxiety, irritability, or an upset stomach when consuming tea. Those taking anticoagulant drugs such as Coumadin/warfarin should drink green tea with caution due to its vitamin K content.7
Tea has been found to decrease the bioavailability of iron when taken with meals. People with a history of iron deficiency should take care to not consume tea when taking iron supplements or an iron-rich meal.1
If taken with other stimulant drugs, tea could possibly increase blood pressure and heart rate.
Green tea supplements contain high levels of active substances that can interact with medications and other herbs and supplements. Green tea supplements are unregulated by the FDA and may contain untested substances with unproven health benefits. Always check with a physician before starting any herb or supplement regimen.
In particular, pregnant or breastfeeding women, those with heart problems or high blood pressure, kidney or liver problems, stomach ulcers, or anxiety disorders should not take green tea supplements or extracts.6
It is the total diet or overall eating pattern that is most important in disease prevention and achieving good health. It is better to eat a diet with variety than to concentrate on individual foods as the key to good health. | <urn:uuid:3cb4522e-6839-49a5-bcb8-596b4ca72786> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/292160.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943322 | 1,624 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Thirsty Energy initiative will help countries mitigate the impact of water scarcity on energy security
The World Bank is launching a new initiative at the World Future Energy Summit and International Water Summit in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, that will help developing countries better plan and manage scaling up energy capacity to meet rising demand, in tandem with water resource management.
Producing energy requires a lot of water, yet, the availability of and access to water is negatively impacting energy production around the world.
Last year alone, water shortages shut down thermal power plants in India, decreased energy production in power plants in the U.S. and threatened hydropower generation in many countries, including Sri Lanka, China and Brazil.
The problem is expected to only get worse. By 2035, the world's energy consumption will increase by 35%, which in turn will increase water consumption by 85%, according to the International Energy Agency.
Part of the challenge for the energy sector is the competing demand for water. This demand will grow as the world's population reaches 9 billion, requiring a 50% increase in agricultural production and a 15% increase in already strained water withdrawals. With two-thirds of the world's population — 5 billion people — expected to be urbanized by 2030, cities in developing countries will be under tremendous pressure to meet the demand for food, energy and water services. Today, however, some 780 million people lack access to improved water and 2.5 billion, more than one-third of the world's people, do not have basic sanitation.
Thirsty Energy is a global initiative aiming to help governments prepare for an uncertain future by:
- Identifying synergies and quantifying tradeoffs between energy development plans and water use;
- Piloting cross-sectoral planning to ensure sustainability of energy and water investments; and
- Designing assessment tools and management frameworks to help governments coordinate decision-making.
With the energy sector as an entry point, initial work already has started in South Africa, and dialogue has been initiated in Bangladesh, Morocco and Brazil, where the challenges already have manifested themselves and thus where demand exists for integrated approaches.
Failing to anticipate water constraints in energy investments can increase risks and costs for energy projects. In fact, the majority of energy and utility companies consider water a substantive risk and report water-related business impacts.
The issue is too large for any partner or sector to tackle alone.
Solutions exist, but countries must continue to innovate and adapt policies and technologies to address the complexity of the landscape. These solutions include technological development and adoption, improved operations to reduce water use and impacts in water quality, and strong integrated planning. | <urn:uuid:009cac6b-f516-4875-bb95-2a888de7a44d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wqpmag.com/print/18967 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00008-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937384 | 539 | 3.015625 | 3 |
THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF NATIONAL RIGHTS
The Moorish American Nation in North, Central and South America, in consequence of having returned to us the Divine Knowledge,
Divine Wisdom, and Divine Understanding from our Heavenly Father, Almighty God Allah (swt), of Our True Selves, the Spirit
in flesh, which makes us an Almighty, Omnipotent, All-Powerful, and Boundless
People brought into existence by Our Heavenly Father, Almighty God Allah (swt), for the purpose of Our Rulership, Dominion,
Power and Authority over Heaven and Earth by whatever conception any Divine Human Being can imagine, contemplate, invent,
acknowledge, realize, etc. whether that Divine Human Being is from the past, in the present, or coming in the future.
every Divine Human Being is the Living Image and Likeness of Almighty God Allah (swt).
True Selves as Divine Human Beings with a superior self-dignity, self-confidence, and self-respect, and the absolute necessity
for our self-determination, self-improvement and self-empowerment, removing from our mental, physical, economic, social, political,
scientific, industrial, technological, activities all forms of long term and short term oppression, depression, suppression
and apression of that Divine Knowledge, Divine Wisdom and Divine Understanding from our Heavenly Father, Almighty God Allah
(swt) of Our True Selves, and our abilities, capabilities, capacities, potentialities, possibilities, etc. to manifest and
fully express them in order to establish that Supreme Civilization, also known as the "Kingdom of Heaven", and the "Kingdom
act of Having been long deprived of that Divine Knowledge, Divine Wisdom, and Divine Understanding from our Heavenly Father,
Almighty God Allah (swt) of Our True Selves has had the consequence of our revolting with every decimal of Our collective
and individual beings against that oppression, repression, depression, suppression and apression of the last 500 years, which
has destroyed and broken and warped the bodies and minds and spirits of The Asiatics of North, Central and South America,
including those members of the Moorish American Nation which had also been stripped during the institution of enslavement,
and is the cause of Our absolute desire to remove this oppression, repression, depression, suppression and apression, and
to destroy this oppression, repression, depression, suppression and apresssion wherever it harms mankind in the world, no
matter what their race, ethnicity or nationality.
in consequence of Our absolute and invincible desire, determination, dedication, devotion, drive, diligence and discipline
to build a new and better world, for the sovereingty of all Moorish Nationals, and all Asiatics, around the world, do hereby
declare all Moorish Nationals of the Moorish American Nation forever Liberated from, Independent from, Free from, and Equal
to the jurisdiction of any National Government we reside, domicile or inhabit as a Nation of People, except where we so choose
for ourselves to be part and partial of that National Government, as long as it does not interfere with our Divine Human Rights
to express and manifest our Natural born, inherited, inherent, inalienable and invincible Mental, Physical, and Spiritual
Omnipotence over the entire Physical Universe, as children of our Almighty Heavenly Father, Allah (swt).
claim no rights from any National Government in the World other than those rights belonging to all Divine Human Beings anywhere
in the world, as emunerated in this "Universal Declaration of National Rights", and these also include the right to damages,
reparations due Us, and all oppressed, suppressed, depressed, repressed and apressed peoples, for the grievous injuries sustained
by Our ancestors and Ourselves by reason of the anti-natural and anti-divine lawlessness of any National Government.
is a Divine National Movement against the further and future oppression, repression, suppression, depression and apression
all people in the world. And it is a Divine National Movement for a better life for The Moorish-American Nation of North,
Central and South America, a better station for mankind all over the planet Earth, and a better mastery, possession and ownership
of all of the divine and natural forces of the entire Physical Universe for our survival at the highest sovereign and superior
state of existence. We, The Moorish American Nationals, therefore, see these
as the aims of Our Divine National Movement:
liberate, make independent, free and equalize all Moorish Nationals as Divine-Nationals, and all Free-Nationals in America,
and all over the world, from oppression;
support the advancement, growth, expansion and development of our Divine National Movement all over the world, until all people
everywhere are liberated, independent, free and equal as Divine-Nationals and Free-Nationals;
build the Ultimate Progressive Civilization by forming a Global Paradigm under the Divine Science of Islam, and bringing about
our Globally Organized Dominion called Allah's (swt) "Everlasting Dominion" in the book of Daniel, and "The Kingdom of Heaven"
on Earth in the book of Matthew, as the beginning of our Eternal and Supreme Civilization on Earth that is better than what
we now know and as perfect as Man can make it;
assure all Moorish Divine-Nationals, as well as all Free-Nationals, and all humanity in this New Civilization, the ultimate,
absolute and maximum opportunity, and equal access to that maximum opportunity for their own upliftment, betterment, unfoldment,
development, improvement, empowerment, advancement, attainment, accomplishment and achievement;
promote Universal Social power, Economic power, Political power, Educational power, Scientific power, Technological power,
Industrial power, and National power through Divine-Nationalist and Free-Nationalist responsibility and service;
create conditions in which the liberation, independence, freedom and equality of the Religion of Islamism abounds and Man's
pursuit of unity with his Heavenly Father, ALmighty God Allah (swt), and his own destiny, place and purpose as the Living
Image and Likeness of Almighty God Allah (swt) upon the Earth-land, and in the Physical Universe, will be recognized and given
without hindrance or limitation;
build a liberated, independent, free and equal Moorish Nation, Kingdom, Empire and Dominion for our National Government, where
no Islamic sect, or foreign religious creed, subverts or impedes the building of our Ultimate Progressive Civilization, the
New Moorish National Government, or the achievement of the Aims of our Divine National Movement as set forth in this "Universal
Declaration" for all "Divine-Nationals", and all "Free-Nationals";
end the exploitation and/or enslavement of Man, by Man, or by his environment;
assure equality of rights for all Divine National and Free-National Men and Women, all over the world;
end all racial, class discrimination and individualism, while at the same time not abolishing diversity or individuality,
and to promote self-respect, and mutual respect, among all people of Progressive Civilization on the planet Earth, especially
within the realm of our own Moorish National Government;
protect and promote the personal dignity, honor, self respect, and integrity of every individual Moorish National, all Divine-Nationals,
and all Free-Nationals, and their divine and natural rights as Divine Human Beings;
assure the highest forms of Divine Justice, Moral Justice, and Legal Justice, for all Divine Human Beings, Divine-Nationals,
Free-Nationals, on the planet Earth;
place the benefits of this Earth, and all other planets in the Physical Universe, and man's highest wisdom, intelligence,
genius, inventiveness, skills, talents and labor in the hands of all Moorish Nationals, Divine-Nationals, and all Free-Nationals,
all over the planet Earth;
encourage and reward the individual for their faithful desire, determination, dedication, devotion, drive, discipline, diligence
of hard work, initiative, and insight for the advancement, growth, expansion and development of the Divine national Movement
on Local, National and Global scales.
recognize that all Divine-Nationals, and Free-Nationals, no matter what their nationality, are equal to all Moorish Nationals,
of North America, Central America, South America, Asia and Africa, and also protected by all of our ideals found in this "Universal
Declaration", and all works produced for the Moorish American Nation, it does not matter If those Divine-Nationals or Free-nationals
are mentioned by name or not, if they are Divine-Nationals or Free-Nationals, then all of our Divine, Natural and National
Laws are automatically conferred upon them for their own benefit and betterment. As the establishing of our Divine National
Movement for our Globally Organized Dominion as the seed of our own Supreme Civilization for the manifestation of the Human-Supremacy
over the physical universe. nothing we are doing is for the "enslavement" of anyone, but for the improvement and empowerment
of the national life of everyone, because only that which benefits all Divine Human Beings truly benefits the Moorish Nationals.
it will be our Divine Vine and Fig Tree that acts as the umbrella under which all Nations and their National Governments will
be forced to excel beyond all past levels of excellence by us, the Divine-Nationals of The Moorish American Nation.
ensure that any Asiatic National, Asiatic Nation, or Asiatic National Government that so desires to become part and partial
of the Moorish, will be given full membership, rights and privileges of the Moorish in our families, communities, tribes and
Nations no matter what their historical descendancy or descent is. This will not do away with their personal descendancy or
descent, it will just bring them into the NEW DIVINE NATIONAL FAMILY, that will form all Asiatic Nations today into one Global
The Moorish Nationals, pledge, without reservation, ourselves, our talents, and all our worldly goods to the full manifestation.
DECLARATION OF NATIONAL RIGHTS:
THERE IS NO
GOD BUT ALLAH, THE LORD OF ALL THE WORLDS
In the Moorish
Science Temple of America, the Moorish Divine National Movement, and the Moorish American Nation we recognize that our Members
as Moorish Nationals have certain rights that are Inherited, Inherent, Inalienable and Invincible, as part of their Descent
and Descendancy, and we have put this "Universal Declaration" together so all Members and Moorish Nationals universally across
the planet earth will know exactly what their National Rights are as Members and Moorish Nationals, which also expresses itself
through all lower realms of Law; the American Equity Laws, the English Common Laws, and the Roman Civil Laws, including Constitutional
Laws, of whatever National Government, State, Republic, etc. in which they reside, domicile or inhabit.
In the Moorish
Science Temple of America, the Moorish Divine National Movement, and the Moorish American Nation we recognize that all Members
are Moorish Nationals, which are recognized as Divine Human Beings with all of
the Eternal Rights given to them by the will, ordination and providence of Almighty God Allah (swt). and thus, every Member
has the full rights of all Divine-Nationals, Free-Nationals, Free Men, Popular Sovereigns, Sovereign Citizens within the Jusiprudence
and jurisdiction of the Moorish Science Temple of America, the Moorish Divine National Movement, and the Moorish American
of the Moorish Science Temple of America, the Moorish Divine National Movement, and the Moorish American Nation is a Moorish
National and is recognized as a Divine Human Being, Sovereign Being, Independent Being and Free National Being. All of the
Members rights coming from the Eternal Laws, Natural Laws, Divine Laws, Temple Laws, Equity Laws, Common Laws, and Civil Laws
recognized by the Moorish Science Temple of America, the Moorish Divine National Movement, and the Moorish American Nation
will be guaranteed, defended, preserved and protected by all Moorish National Leadership, Officials and Officers.
that all Moorish Nationals as Members of the Moorish Science Temple of America, the Moorish Divine National Movement, and
the Moorish American Nation are natural and organic men and women, fulfilling all requirements of being Natural Persons, which
are born free and equal, in dignity and in rights, and, being endowed by Almighty God Allah (swt), the Great God of the universe,
the Father of the universe, the Author, Creator and Governor of the world, with reasoning, willing, understanding, thinking
and conscience, they should conduct themselves as Brothers and Sisters, one to another collectively, equally and universally.
fulfillment of duty by each Member as a Moorish National is a prerequisite to the procuring, maintaining, securing, defending,
reserving, preserving and protecting of all the rights of all Human Beings. Rights and duties are interrelated in every social
and political activity of The Moorish Family of Nations, and all Moorish Nations and Nationals thereof. While rights exalt
the natural existence of individual liberty, Sovereignty, Freedom and independence and duties fully express the dignity of
those National and International liberties, Equal Sovereign powers, Freedoms of will, and Independent thoughts, deeds and
Duties of a jusidical and jurisdictional nature presuppose others of a universal moral nature which support
them in principle and constitute their basis.
Inasmuch as mental, spiritual, Intellectual, and Industrial upliftment,
betterment, unfoldment, advancement, development, improvement and empowerment is the supreme end of Human existence and Oneness
with Almighty God Allah (swt) is the highest expression thereof, it is the duty of Moorish Nationals, Men and Women, to serve
that end with all their strength and resources, this is the fulfillment of Islamism; the Divine Science of Salvation.
Moorish National Society, Culture and Civilization is the highest social and historical expression of that Progressive National
and Human development, it is the duty of every Moorish National to preserve, practice and foster Our Moorish National Society,
Culture and Civilization by every means within their power, until our Progressive Civilization produces the next and highest
Supreme Civilization ever upon the Earth-land.
And, since morality, virtue, righteousness, ethics and integrity guiding
all human activity, conduct, and behavior constitutes The Noblest unfoldment of Moorish National Society, Culture and Civilization
it is the duty of every Moorish National always to hold it in the highest respect, Dignity and Honor.
all Moorish Nationals
as Free National Citizens, Sovereign people, free people, popular sovereigns, sovereign citizens, free citizens, and all free
men have the right to know what their National Rights are, and thus shall be emunerated in this "univeral Declaration".
Every Moorish National
has the right to the Supreme and highest quality of life, liberty to pursue their redemption, salvation and perfection, and
the security of their person during this life long pursuit.
Moorish Nationals are Divine Human Beings with Equal Sovereign Rights, and are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
They are endowed with reason, intelligence, thinking, willing, reasoning, conscience, knowledge, wisdom and understanding
and must act towards one another in a spirit of Brotherhood and Sisterhood, as Brothers and Sisters collectively, equally
Article IV: All Moorish Nationals are equal
in Spirit, Soul and Flesh before the law and are entitled to all the National Rights and Freedoms
set forth in this "Universal Declaration", without distinction of sex, language, political or other opinion, national or social
origin, property, birth place or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional
or international status of the government, country, state or territory to which a Moorish National belongs, whether it be
independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of domestic or foreign sovereignty. all are one
under the Eternal Law of Almighty God Allah's (swt) will made manifest thru the Natural and Divine Laws, formed into our Divine
Creed, Law, Principle, Science and Religion of The Moorish Science Temple of America, The Moorish Divine National Movement,
and the Moorish American Nation; Islamism.
Moorish National shall be held in mental, physical, spiritual, economic or political slavery or servitude; slavery and the
slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms, in all nations equally and universally.
VI: No Moorish National may be deprived of his Liberty except in the cases and according to the procedures established
by pre-existing law. No Moorish National may be deprived of liberty for non-fulfillment of obligations of a purely civil character.
Every Moorish National individual who has been deprived of his liberty has the right to have the legality of their detention
ascertained without delay by a court, and the right to be tried without undue delay or, otherwise, to be released. They also
have the right to humane treatment during the time they are in custody. Every Moorish National
has the right to an effective remedy by the proper and competent Courts for acts violating the fundamental National Rights
granted them by this Declaration, and their government's laws. No Moorish National shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest,
detention or exile. Every Moorish National is entitled in full Sovereign Equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent
and impartial court, in the determination of their Equal Sovereign Rights as a Divine Human Being, and obligations and of
any criminal charge against him. Every Moorish National charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent
until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which they have had all the guarantees necessary for their defense.
No Moorish National shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a
penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed
than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed. Every Moorish National has the right,
in case of pursuit not resulting from ordinary crimes, to seek and receive asylum in foreign territory, in accordance with
the laws of each country and with international agreements. Every Moorish National may resort to the courts to ensure respect
for their Eternal, Natural, Divine, Temple, Equitable, Common and Civil legal rights. There should likewise be available to
them a simple, brief procedure whereby the courts will protect them from acts of authority that, to their prejudice, violate
any fundamental National and Constitutional Rights.
Article VII: The rights of Moorish Nationals are limited
only by the rights of others, by the security of all Moorish Nationals of the Moorish Family of Nations, and by the just demands
of the general welfare and the advancement of Moorish Society, Culture and Civilization according to the Divine Guidance and
Instruction of Islamism.
Moorish National shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.
Article IX: Every Moorish National has the
right to a Superior General Education, especially including Scientific, Technological, Industrial, Architectual, and Engineer
training, which should be based on the principles of ethics of Love, Truth, Peace, Freedom, Justice, Obedience, Respect, Loyalty,
Tolerance, Unity, Equality, and Universality. every Moorish National has the right to an education that will prepare them
to attain, acquire, achieve, accomplish and advance a Sovereign and Superior State of Existence for their life, constantly
raising their standard and conditions of living, and to be a useful, integral and important member of Moorish Society, Culture
and Civilization. mediocracy and averageness are adverse to the excellence and exceptionalism of the Moorish National person
and purpose for Progressive National and Human Advancement.
General Education shall be free. And Elementary, Technical and Professional education shall be Mandatory and made generally
available and equally accessible to all. Education shall be directed to the full development of the Divine Human Intelligence
and Personality and to the strengthening of respect for Divine Human Rights and fundamental Equal Sovereign freedoms. It shall
promote Love, Truth, Peace, Freedom, Justice, Obedience, Respect, Loyalty, Tolerance, Unity, Equality, Universality, and Understanding
among all Moorish Nationals and shall further the activities of The Moorish Science Temple of America, The Moorish Divine
National Movement, and The Moorish American Nation for the maintenance of Universal Peace, in all of the Local, Municipal,
National, International, Intranational and Supranational affairs of Men.
Moorish Nationals are Divine Human Beings with Equal Sovereign Rights before the law and are entitled without any discrimination
to equal protection, guarantee and privilege of all Eternal Laws, Natural Laws, Temple Laws, Equity Laws, Common Laws, and
Civil Laws that support this "Universal Declaration". All Moorish Nationals are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination
in violation of this "Universal Declaration" and against any incitement to such discrimination.
XII: Every Moorish National has a right to own such private property as meets the essential needs of a Sovereign
and Superior State and Standard of living and helps to maintain the dignity, respect and honor of the individual Moorish National
and of the Moorish National's home. Every Moorish National has the right to own property alone
as well as in association with others. No Moorish National shall be arbitrarily deprived of their property. Every Moorish
National has the right to the inviolability of their home.
Article XIII: No Moorish National shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with their privacy, family, home or
correspondence, nor to attacks upon their honor and reputation. Every Divine-National and Free-National Citizen has the right
to the protection of the law against all such arbitrary, discrimatory, prejudiced and malicious interference or attacks.
Moorish National has the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and the right freely to profess and express the religious faith of Islam and the
religion of Islamism, and to manifest and practice it both in public and in private. this right
includes freedom to their personal views of the religion of Islam our Divine Creed, and freedom, either alone or in community
with others and in public or private, to propagate the religion of Islam in teaching, practice, worship and observance.
Article XV: Every Moorish National has the
right to freedom of investigation, of opinion, and of the expression and dissemination of ideas in accordance with, and the
betterment of, the Moorish Science Temple of America, the Moorish Divine National Movement, The Moorish American Nation, The
Moorish Family of Nations, and the Asiatic Race to which they belong by any medium whatsoever. This
National Right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas
through any media and regardless of frontiers. Every Moorish National has the right to the inviolability and transmission
of his correspondence.
Moorish National as a member of The Moorish Science Temple of America, The Moorish Divine Movement, and The Moorish American
Nation has the right to the security of their entitled realization, and full expression of the unfolding of their Spirit and
Higher-Self under The Divine Ordination of their Heavenly father, Almighty God Allah (swt), through the efforts of the national
collective and international community and in accordance with the organization and resources of each government in which they
reside, domicile, and inhabitate of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for their dignity and the free
development of their personality, character, qualities possibilities, capabilities and capacities. the Divine Ordination being
the Omnipresence, Omnispection, Omniscience, Omnipotence and Omnificience of Almighty God Allah (swt) working in, around and
through The Moorish Nationals life, also called "Deific Life".
Article XVII: Every Moorish National has the
right to assemble and associate peaceably with others in a formal public meeting or an informal gathering, in connection with
matters of common interest of any nature. Every Moorish National has the right to associate with others to promote, exercise
and protect their legitimate interests of a political, economic, religious, social, cultural, professional, labor union or
other nature. No Moorish National may be compelled to belong to an anti-divine or un-natural association.
Article XVIII: Every Moorish National has the
right and duty to work, under proper conditions, and to follow their vocation freely. Every Moorish National who works has
the right to receive such remuneration as will, in proportion to their capacity and skill, assure them a Sovereign and Superior
standard of living suitable for themselves and for their family. Every Moorish National has the right to leisure time, to
wholesome and positive recreation, and to the opportunity for advantageous use of their free time to their spiritual, cultural
and physical benefit and betterment. Every Moorish National has the right to social and economic security and protections
which will protect them from the consequences of unemployment, old age, and any disabilities arising from causes beyond their
control that make it physically or mentally impossible for them to continue to earn a living. Every
Moorish National has the right to free choice of employment, to just and favorable conditions of work and to protection against
unemployment. Every Moorish National, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work. Every Moorish
National has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests. Every Moorish National has the
right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay.
Every Moorish National has the right to a Sovereign and Superior standard of living adequate for the improvement and empowerment
of the health and well-being of themselves and of their family, including Superior food, clothing, shelter and health and
medical care and necessary social services, and Moorish Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance.
All Moorish children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection. All Moorish women, during pregnancy
and the nursing period, and all children have the right to special protection, care and aid. all Moorish life begins with
the Mother, the greatest resource for reproducing Moorish Life, and so, the very life of the Moorish Mother is absolutely
Holy, Sacred and Divine and shall always be treated with the highest honor, respect and dignity. PRAISE ALLAH (swt) FOR THE
all Moorish Nationals of full legal age, without any other limitation have the right to marry and to found a family, and to receive protection therefore.
Right to a family and to protection thereof. all Moorish men and women are entitled to equal rights
as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent
of the intending spouses. The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of Moorish Society, Culture and Civilization
and is entitled to protection by the Moorish Science Temple of America, The Moorish Divine National Movement, the Moorish
American Nation, and this "Universal Declaration" of National Rights.
Article XXI: Every Moorish National has the
right to the nationality to which they are entitled by law and to change it, if they so wish, for the nationality of any other
country that is willing to grant it to them. No Moorish National shall be arbitrarily deprived
of their nationality nor denied the right to change their nationality. Every Moorish National has the right to freedom of
movement and residence within the borders of each government, state, country or territory. Every Moorish National has the
right to leave any government, state, country, or territory including their own, and to return to their country. Every
Moorish National has the right to fix their residence within the territory of the state of which they are a National, to move
about freely within such territory, and not to leave it except by their own free, independent and sovereign will.
Article XXII: Every Moorish National having legal
capacity is entitled to participate in the government of their country, directly or through their representatives, and to
take part in popular elections, which shall be by secret ballot, and shall be genuine, honest, periodic and free. Every Moorish
National has the right to submit respectful petitions to any competent authority, for reasons of either general or private
interest, and the right to obtain a prompt decision thereon. Every Moorish National has the right
to take part in the government of their residence, domicile, inhabitation, directly or through freely chosen representatives.
Every Moorish National has the right of equal access to public service in their respective governments. The will of the Moorish
National shall be the basis of the authority of their respective governments.
Every Moorish National has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of their personality is possible.
Every Moorish National
has the right to take part in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts, and to participate in the benefits that
result from intellectual progress, especially scientific discoveries. They likewise have the right to the protection of their
moral and material interests as regards their inventions or any literary, scientific or artistic works of which they are the
In the exercise of the Moorish Nationals Equal Sovereign Rights and Freedoms, every Moorish National shall be subject only
to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the Equal
Sovereign Rights and Freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, ethics, righteousness, virtue, integrity,
public order and the general welfare of all Moorish National Communities. These Equal Sovereign Rights and Freedoms may in
no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of this Declaration. Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted
as implying for any government, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction
of any of the Equal Sovereign Rights and Freedoms set forth herein, or The Moorish Science Temple of America, The Moorish
Divine National Movement, and The Moorish American Nation which enforces them. Every Moorish National is entitled to a national
and international structure in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this "Universal Declaration" can be fully realized.
Declaration of National Rights is the right of every Moorish National upon linking with The Moorish Science Temple of America,
The Moorish Divine National Movement, and The Moorish American Nation. And thus is a perpetual, everlasting, eternal, and
permanent Declaration for the benefit and betterment of all Moors, also known as True Moors, Moorish, Moorish Americans, Moorish
American Nationals, Moorish Nationals.
Declaration" is part and partial of the "blessings of the God of our Father Allah", as seen upon the Moorish Nationality and
Identification Card. These National Rights enumerated herein are the rights of All Divine Human Beings on the planet earth
as Human Beings, but we have made sure that these National Rights of our Members as Moorish Nationals is known perfectly to
All of these
National Rights are recognized by The Moorish Science Temple of America, The Moorish Divine Movement, and The Moorish American
Nation and exist within any boundaries, borders, territories, properties that is controlled by The Moorish Science Temple
of America, The Moorish Divine National Movement, The Moorish American Nation. As The Moorish American Nation is the founder
of The Moorish Divine National Movement, and The Moorish Divine National Movement is the parent, guardian and controlling
stakeholder of the Moorish Science Temple of America, and any other Religious Corporation formed by The Moorish Divine Movement
will also be in full recognition of these Rights, whether it be The Moorish Science Temple of China, The Moorish Science Temple
of Uganda, or any other Moorish Science Temple of the nations of the world.
If a Moorish
National resides, domiciles, or inhabits any National Government that has any Laws that are adverse to or in opposition of
these Rights, then they must work to have the Laws of that National, State or Municipal Government change by suffrage and
taking office in the legislature of said National, State or Municipal Government. This is The Great Missionary Work of The
Moorish Science Temple of America, The Moorish Divine Movement, and The Moorish American Nation.
In like manner,
all of the National Rights of this "Universal Declaration" are also the National, International, Intranational, and Supranational
Duties of all Moorish Nationals to fulfill and bring into fruition all over the planet Earth as authored, enacted and ratified
for The Moorish Science Temple of America, The Moorish Divine National Movement, and The Moorish American Nation by Allah's
Minister; El-Ghazi, Prince Ka Amir Saadi-El, 2nd Supreme Grand Sheik.
And any amendments
or emendments will be done through the said author, enactor and ratifier in the name of Almighty God Allah (swt), the Great
Prophet Noble Drew Ali (asa), and The Universal Moorish Family of Nations of the world. | <urn:uuid:452c6cf5-0690-44cb-9926-a58aef1504e3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://moorishkingdom.tripod.com/id99.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915342 | 7,047 | 2.703125 | 3 |
The Japanese government has set its first safety standards on radioactivity found in seafood after it was discovered that the radiation in the seawater surrounding the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear complex was several million times the legal limit.
Radiation has been leaking from the facility since the 9.0 magnitude earthquake followed by a massive tsunami struck Japan's northeast coast on March 11.
The Tokyo Electric Power Company announced Tuesday that it tested the seawater near one of the damaged reactors on April 2. One sample contained 7.5 million times the legal limit for radioactive iodine. That figure dropped to 5 million two days later.
Samples taken from hundreds of yards away from the plant tested at a thousand times the legal limit.
TEPCO insisted that the radiation will rapidly disperse and that it poses no immediate danger, but an expert said exposure to the highly concentrated levels near the plant could cause immediate injury and that the leaks could result in residual contamination of the sea in the area.
The new levels of radiation caused the government to set standards for radiation found in fish. It's unclear what effect the contamination will have on marine life.
"Even if the government says the fish is safe, people won't want to buy seafood from Fukushima," said Ichiro Yamagata, a fisherman who used to live within sight of the nuclear plant and has since fled to a shelter in Tokyo.
"We probably can't fish there for several years," he said.
Japan exported $2.3 billion worth of seafood last year to the world. And in the home of sushi, the worries over contamination could deal a blow to its brand. | <urn:uuid:5f8f9460-122b-4477-ab67-aebb04934679> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cbn.com/cbnnews/world/2011/April/Japan-Plant-Spews-more-Radiation-into-Sea/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97308 | 327 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Much of what is used to train younger students focus on the “entertainment” value. Training reaction timing can be very entertaining. One of my favorites is using balloons or beach balls. Blow up a bunch of balloons or beach balls and have the students try to use their punches and kicks to keep them in the air. Make sure you have ample space between each student and let them roam wherever the balls or balloons take them. If you want to make it even more challenging, turn on a fan or anything which will blow them in different directions.
For older students, the idea of kicking or punching a balloons or beach balls may seem childish, thus it’s possible to modify the exercise by using things like scarves. Magicians have a great trick where they try to maintain a series of scarves in the air in a juggling exercise. This can be translated onto the Martial Arts floor. Take the students and form a circle. Using offensive and defensive techniques, try to keep the scarves moving around the circle to another person (a version of hot potato).
Another idea of beginner students where the class size may be smaller is the use of “reaction balls”. Reaction balls are generally used in various sports, such as baseball or basketball, to train players on how to recover from odd bounces. While not specific to Martial Arts in use, this can be an ideal way to practice reaction times with limited participants. This can even be practiced when only one person is involved by utilizing a wall to bounce the ball off of.
When students are comfortable in facing one another and being able to do so in a controlled and safe manner, reaction training can advance into actual face-to-face combat.
One simple drill is to have two combatants facing each other. The attacker will initiate a tap. The more skilled the participants, the more variety of taps one can use. However, to start with, simply isolate the attack to a single region of the body, such as the top of the head. The defender must react to the movement and block.
As the participants increase their skill, vary the attack as well as decrease the proximity of the combatants. The closer the opponent, the less time there is to react and the quicker the reaction time must be.
Be careful not to fall into a pattern or rhythm with the attacks as it become too easy to predict when the next attack will come. The best way to overcome this is to change partners and positions frequently and keep everyone on their toes.
Training reaction times is a key to advancing a student’s skills in Martial Arts. It can begin at any level and any age. But most of all, it is a lot of fun to train this very important skill! | <urn:uuid:08b1405e-02ce-4daf-86ce-b219450fda1a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bellaonline.com/ArticlesP/art59320.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95439 | 556 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Photosynthesis is considered the 'Holy Grail' in the field of sustainable energy generation because it directly converts solar energy into storable fuel using nothing but water and carbon dioxide (CO2). Scientists have long tried to mimic the underlying natural processes and to optimize them for energy device applications such as photo-electrochemical cells (PEC), which use sunlight to electrochemically split water - and thus directly generate hydrogen, cutting short the more conventional approach using photovoltaic cells for the electrolysis of water.
Traditionally, PEC electrodes are made of semiconducting materials such as metal oxides, some of which are also known for their photocatalytic properties. For quite some time, researchers at Empa's Laboratory for High Performance Ceramics (LHPC) have been investigating nanoparticles of these materials, for instance titanium dioxide (TiO2), for the neutralization of organic pollutants in air and water. Collaborating with colleagues at the University of Basel and at Argonne National Laboratory in the US, they now succeeded in making a nano-bio PEC electrode, consisting of iron oxide conjugated with a protein from blue-green algae (also known as cyanobacteria), which is twice as efficient in water splitting as iron oxide alone.
Inspired by photosynthesis
Iron oxide, in particular hematite (Fe2O3), is a promising electrode material for PEC because it is susceptible to visible wavelengths and thus uses sunlight more efficiently than photocatalysts like TiO2, which can only use the UV part of solar radiation. What's more, hematite is a low-cost and abundant material.
The second ingredient in the novel electrode 'recipe' is phycocyanin, a protein from blue-green algae. "I was inspired by the natural photosynthetic machinery of cyanobacteria where phycocyanin acts as a major light-harvesting component. I wanted to make artificial photosynthesis using ceramics and proteins», recalls Debajeet K. Bora who designed the new electrode during his PhD thesis at Empa. «The concept of hematite surface functionalization with proteins was completely novel in PEC research."
After Bora covalently cross-coupled phycocyanin to hematite nanoparticles that had been immobilized as a thin film, the conjugated hematite absorbed many more photons than without the algal protein. In fact, the induced photocurrent of the hybrid electrode was doubled compared to a 'normal' iron oxide electrode.
One tough cookie
Somewhat surprisingly, the light harvesting protein complex does not get destroyed while in contact with a photocatalyst in an alkaline environment under strong illumination. Chemists would have predicted the complete denaturation of biomolecules under such corrosive and aggressive conditions. "Photocatalysts are designed to destroy organic pollutants, which are a burden to the environment. But here we have a different situation", says Artur Braun, group leader at Empa's LHPC and principal investigator of the study. "There seems to be a delicate balance where organic molecules not only survive harsh photocatalytic conditions, but even convey an additional benefit to ceramic photocatalysts: They double the photocurrent. This is a big step forward".
The project was fully funded by the Swiss Federal Office of Energy (SFOE). Bora who will soon have completed his PhD thesis says he will continue what he started at Empa during a postdoc at the University of California, Berkeley, which he will assume early next year. | <urn:uuid:11ef5e7f-fc7b-4450-a561-7acbf15fb23f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2011-12/sflf-apg121911.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950864 | 742 | 3.75 | 4 |
Maternal Nutrition and Wellness
April 18 – June 24, 2016
An important goal in public health is that of improving the health and well-being of women of reproductive age. Research shows that this can have a great impact on the health of future generations. Identifying and addressing the existing health risks, conditions and behaviors of women in this age group and the health, social, ethnic and economic disparities in the health care system and community can reduce maternal and infant mortality and pregnancy-related complications, improve birth outcomes, prevent disability or death and enable children to reach their full potential. Public health nutritionists can play a vital role in helping to achieve this goal.
This course provides an opportunity for public health nutritionists to explore women’s health during preconception, pregnancy and lactation and explore the complex factors that affect the health, wellness, and quality of life of women, children, and families. It is specifically designed to improve nutrition assessment and counseling skills in maternal health, enhance core knowledge in basic nutrition and management of specific conditions, and provide updated resource lists and tools to connect clients with community resources.
The audience for this course is public health nutritionists and other dietetic professionals working in Local Health Agencies throughout North Carolina who are new to maternal nutrition and wellness or who want to broaden their maternal nutrition and wellness knowledge base.
This self-paced, instructor-facilitated, online course consists of three modules: Module 1: Preventing Barriers to a Healthy Pregnancy, Module 2: Healthy Pregnancy and Lactation, and Module 3: Managing Diseases and Conditions during and after Pregnancy.
Each module includes presentations that can be viewed online in various formats, handouts that can be used as reference aids “back on the job”, activities that help reinforce important course content, and resources and references that provide further information and links to the latest research.
Completion of the course will take approximately 2-3 hours per week and varies by student. Please note that successful completion often requires working on the course during personal time.
For more information about the course’s technical requirements, please review the “System Requirements” section below. Technical support will be provided to students during the course.
Module 1: Preventing Barriers to a Healthy Pregnancy
The first module focuses on the care of a woman before she becomes pregnant as well as identifying any potential health disparities that may influence pregnancy outcomes. Module 1 consists of the following two units:
- Unit 1: Nutrition Considerations in Preconception
- Unit 2: Social and Psychological Determinants of Maternal Health
Module 2: Healthy Pregnancy and Lactation
The second module covers general nutrition care and specific nutrition concerns during pregnancy, as well as lactation, and consists of the following three units:
- Unit 1: Expectations and Nutrition during Pregnancy
- Unit 2: Special Health and Nutrition Considerations
- Unit 3: Health and Nutrition Considerations during Lactation
Module 3: Managing Diseases and Conditions during and after Pregnancy
The last module focuses on management of weight status, diabetes, and pregnant and lactating women with food allergies and celiac disease. Module 3 consists of the following three units:
- Unit 1: The Impact of Weight in Pregnancy
- Unit 2: Diabetes
- Unit 3: Adverse Food Reactions in Maternal Health
The course will run from April 18 through June 24, 2016, and is completely online. The links to a recorded orientation webinar will be provided via email to all fully enrolled and paid participants the week prior to the start of the course. This webinar will provide an overview and demonstration of the online course environment. There are no required meeting dates or times.
This course has been developed in collaboration with the Division of Public Health Nutrition Services Branch, Department of Health and Human Services, North Carolina and the NC Institute for Public Health at the Gillings School of Global Public Health, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
This course is approved for 15 Level 1 Continuing Professional Education Units (CPEUs) from the Commission on Dietetic Registration, for Registered Dietitian Nutritionists (RDNs), Registered Dietitians (RDs), Nutrition and Dietetics Technicians, Registered (NDTRs), and Dietetic Technicians, Registered (DTRs). For those not eligible for CPEU credit, 1.5 Continuing Education Units (CEUs) will be awarded upon completion of the course from the Friday Center for Continuing Education at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
In order to successfully complete this course, the computer equipment used should meet the following minimum hardware and software requirements:
- 1 GHz processor or better
- 256 MB or more of RAM
- 20 GB free on the hard disk
- 56 Kbps or better modem, cable, or LAN connection to the Internet
- 16-bit or better sound card and speakers
- 15-inch color monitor or larger
- 65,000-color or better video display card
- Windows XP or 2000
- Adobe Reader 8.0 or later (free)
- Adobe Flash Player 9.0 or later (free)
Important note: Which browser to use
Please note: We recommend you use Mozilla Firefox or Google Chrome as your browser for the course. Both are free to download. Past students have had trouble using Sakai (the learning environment for the course) in Internet Explorer.
If you do not know what browser you are using, you can go to the online skills test to find out.
If you are completing the course using a computer at your office, and you do not have either Mozilla Firefox or Google Chrome, please contact your IT department for assistance.
To make sure you have the minimum system requirements for completing the module, complete the online skills test.
The enrollment period for this course ended on March 18, 2016.
Enrollment in this course is a two step process:
- Complete the online application form before March 18, 2016.
- Once your application has been received and reviewed, you will be invited to register. Information about how to register will be emailed to you upon your acceptance into the course.
You must complete both steps in order to enroll in this course.
Total enrollment in this course is limited. Preference is given to public health nutrition personnel who work in North Carolina Local Health Agencies and pediatric nutritionists in Children’s Developmental Services Agencies (CDSAs). A limited number of spots are available to others.
Note: Because the registration step is handled through a third party service, the email inviting you to register may end up in your spam or junk email folder. Please be sure to check there if you don’t receive an email in your inbox.
The course fee is $50 for public health nutrition personnel in North Carolina Local Health Agencies and for pediatric nutritionists in North Carolina Children’s Developmental Services Agencies (CDSAs). For all other participants the course fee is $100.
All registration fees must be received or postmarked no later than April 1, 2016 or your registration will be CANCELED. You will be able to pay for the course after you have been accepted in the program.
If you find that you cannot participate in this course you must cancel no later than April 1, 2016. Any cancellation received after April 1 will be charged the full registration fee. All cancellations must be received in writing. You may send cancellations to Cherelle Whitfield at firstname.lastname@example.org. Substitutions from the same organization are allowed at any time before the start of the course with prior notification to email@example.com.
If you have questions about registration or payment, please contact Cherelle Whitfield at firstname.lastname@example.org. If you have questions about course content, please contact Sara Moss by email at Sara.Moss@dhhs.nc.gov. | <urn:uuid:ef2b546a-c5d7-42bf-8e30-068eb620e97d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://sph.unc.edu/nciph/mnw/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00121-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925406 | 1,641 | 2.671875 | 3 |
The famous K/T extinction event (death knell of the dinosaurs) shows that, even today, the collision of Earth with a small world gone astray can refresh the face of our planet. Impacts were much larger and more frequent on the early Earth. In all likelihood, impacts posed the greatest challenge to the survival of early life; and they remain a major threat, today.
Wonderfest and the Mt. Tamalpais Astronomy Program present Planetologist Kevin Zahnle from the NASA-Ames Research Center for a talk on Earth’s status as a “rock star” for powerful impacts from space.
After Dr. Zahnle’s presentation, the San Francisco Amateur Astronomers will provide big telescopes for wonderful close-up views of the heavens.
WHAT: “When Worlds Collide,” a Bay Area Science Festival lecture followed by star gazing
WHO: Dr. Kevin Zahnle, planetologist, NASA-Ames Research Center
WHEN: November 3, 2012; 7:00 – 10:30 PM
WHERE: Cushing Memorial Amphitheater, Mt. Tamalpais State Park, 801 Panoramic Hwy., Mill Valley, CA
HOW: Bring a flashlight, warm clothing, and your curiosity. Call 415-455-5370 if weather is questionable.
Please consider making a donation to Wonderfest to help us promote science. Even a modest gift will make more events like this possible. | <urn:uuid:6ce78819-6bfc-4da6-bc85-c789adb396e8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://wonderfest.org/cosmic-collisions/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00004-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.858628 | 304 | 2.75 | 3 |
Definition of Baltic Sea
arm of the Atlantic N Europe enclosed by Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, & Germany area ab 160,000 square miles (256,000 square kilometers)
Learn More about baltic sea
Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article about Baltic Sea
Seen and Heard
What made you want to look up Baltic Sea? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible). | <urn:uuid:2fdbb25c-7052-41f0-8466-e8c1428d4f86> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Baltic%20Sea | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00192-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.815826 | 96 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Posts Tagged Guide to design of Doubly reinforced beams
7 step procedure for “Design of Doubly reinforced sections”
In our article series for “Design of Doubly reinforced sections”, we covered the following:
In our previous article, we discussed a detailed 6 step procedure for determining stresses in steel and concrete followed by a numerical example. Now we shall move on with the “design procedure for doubly reinforced sections”.
Generally the following data are given:
Breadth of the beam = b
Effective depth of the beam = d
Permissible stress in concrete = σcbc
Permissible stress in steel = σst
Modular ratio = m
Bending moment = M
To solve a problem, the following procedure may be followed.
Design the beam as a singly reinforced one (balanced section)
Find xc by
σcbc/ (σst/m) = xc/(d – xc)
Moment of Resistance calculations | Doubly reinforced sections
In our article series for “Doubly reinforced sections”, we have covered the following:
Now we shall move on with a solved example. This will help you understand the methods in a better way. I suggest that you do them yourselves too. Practice will help you make your concepts more concrete and clear.
An reinforced concrete 300mm x 600mm effective dimensions is provided with tensile and compressive reinforcement of 1256mm2 each. The compressive steel is placed 30mm from the top edge of the beam. If σcbc = 7N/mm2, σst = 190N/mm2 and m = 13.33, find the moment of resistance of beam by following two methods:
1) Elastic theory method
2) Steel beam theory method | <urn:uuid:dbc01d64-7d0d-43ad-ac40-dd39d2f61855> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.civilprojectsonline.com/tag/guide-to-design-of-doubly-reinforced-beams/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00172-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.892504 | 376 | 3.390625 | 3 |
My class created diorama projects last week. I wanted to share with you how awesome that they turned out! We have been learning about the native people of America.
I split the class into five groups. Each group then drew a geographical region out of a hat to create a diorama on. The five groups that I used were: Northeastern Woodlands, Southeastern Woodlands, Pacific Northwest, and Western Great Plains.
The students were responsible for creating a diorama that depicted the type of house they would have lived in, as well as the surrounding land and culture that would have been seen in that region.
As well as the diorama, they created a folder with a map showing where their area was located and a couple of paragraphs telling some more facts and details about the specific tribes that lived there as well.
Here is the rubric that I used to grade their projects with: | <urn:uuid:18bfbb8a-8d81-432d-bafe-52c5ba93c209> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://acraftyteacher.blogspot.com/2012/09/native-american-dioramas.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00129-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.988253 | 186 | 2.765625 | 3 |
The Portable Eye Examination Kit (PEEK) has just been launched in Trans-Nzoia, Kenya, by the London School of Hygiene in partnership with several Kenyan doctors. PEEK uses smartphone technology to look inside the eye and carry out various tests including visual acuity, colour and lens vision as well as retinal imaging. After a child’s impaired vision is detected, the actual vision difference is shown on the phone’s screen while a parent and the school head teacher receive an automatic SMS asking them to present the child for treatment.
PEEK will be used to detect early signs of eye defects in school children. The initiative is sponsored by Standard Chartered Bank as part of its ‘Seeing is Believing’ initiative, as it has invested $350,000 (about Sh35 million) in a three-year programme to screen pupils in 350 schools in Trans-Nzoia.
Blindness in Kenyan children appears to be an existing challenge. In 2015, a Kenyan ophthalmologist, Prof. Geoffrey Simiyu, reported that many children are blind in the country. “More than 300,000 Kenyans are blind and about 16,800 of them are children, making eye diseases one of the top 10 causes of morbidity and subsequent loss of productivity,” he said.
For now, the innovation will only be used in the Trans-Nzoia county in Kenya, however, there are plans to spread the initiative to other parts of the country. The statistics for blindness from Trans-Nzoia could be the reason for being the starting point of the initiative. According to Dr. Hilary Rono, a co-founder of the app, out of the 2.5 million people in the region, 80 percent have eye problems that, if not checked, would lead to avoidable blindness. Five in every 1,000 people in the region are blind.
PEEK has already been used on 21,000 school children in the district and 900 were found visually impaired and were referred to the Kitale County Hospital Eye Unit for treatment.
The high demand for childhood eye services and health personnel was what informed the innovation, which can be used by teachers with minimal training. PEEK will serve as a major solution and preventive measure in tackling disabilities in Kenya as there is still no adequate and sustainable plan for disabled people in Africa. As disabled persons still struggle to be properly integrated into society, it is better to have innovations like this to detect disabilities in the making, to avoid future exclusion from societal life. Like Dr. Rono rightly said about the app, “If visual impairment is not identified and managed at an early age, it can result to under-achievement in school and possible societal exclusion later in life.” | <urn:uuid:3e77c081-df6e-4593-9563-227d479774ce> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://venturesafrica.com/this-smartphone-app-detects-blindness-tendencies-in-kenyan-schoolchildren/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00138-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966713 | 567 | 2.96875 | 3 |
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