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City May Lose Ability to Impose Income Tax
The United States Census of 2000 could cause federal funding for poor Detroit students to be cut, according to two advocacy groups.
The Children's Defense Fund (CDF) and the Council of Great City Schools (CGCS) said that billions of dollars in federal aid for Detroit schools will be lost if the 2000 census shows that Detroit's population has dropped under one million, the level at which cities are eligible for additional federal dollars. The census is a constitutionally mandated enumeration of citizens conducted every 10 years by the U. S. Census Bureau.
Detroit Mayor Dennis Archer and other city officials are challenging the way the census counts citizens due to claims that the 1990 census failed to account for as much as 62 percent of Detroit residents under age 18. The 1990 census placed Detroit's population at 1,027,974.
CDF estimates that the 1990 data did not credit Detroit for nearly 17,500 additional children and has concerns that the methods used to count citizens could also shortchange Detroit in 2000.
Michael Casserly, director of CGCS, estimates that every child not counted in the census means about $650 less for Detroit in federal resources per student or the equivalent of $16,250 for every classroom of 25 students. Much of the federal money is spent on special education programs that do not receive state funding.
Archer and others are calling for the Census Bureau to adopt a statistical technique known as "sampling" to count urban residents who might otherwise be missed by the census takers. Sampling, however, was ruled unconstitutional by the U. S. Supreme Court in January 1999. The court's 5-4 ruling requires that a traditional head count be used to determine the number of people in the United States.
The outcome of the 2000 census may also cause Detroit to lose its ability to impose a city income tax. Michigan law stipulates that only cities with one million or more residents may levy an income tax.
Detroit's income tax is 3 percent for residents, 2 percent for corporations, and 1.5 percent for nonresidents who work in the city. The city's overall municipal tax burden is more than six times higher than average for Michigan municipalities. | <urn:uuid:b0cf8077-498b-45a5-977e-728816ba19cc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mackinac.org/1696 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00136-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960269 | 450 | 2.609375 | 3 |
The hula hoops exact origins are unknown. Many hold the mistaken belief that it was invented in the 1950’s, as mass marketing gained it international popularity at that time. It is a popular toy, typically measuring 71 cm or 28 inches in diameter for children and 1.02m or 40 inch for the adult sizes that is twirled around the waist, neck or limbs.
Hula hooping has actually been in use as a form of exercise going back as far as 5th century Greece. Back then the traditional materials used for the construction of hoops included: willow, grapevines, stiff grasses, flexible rattan and strong vines. Hoops in the present day, however, are usually constructed of plastic tubing and often filled with rocks or materials that serve as weights to carry the hoop around the body. In 13th Century in Scotland hoops were in use by adults as a popular recreation or in religious ceremonies. According to their medical records, the doctors back than utilized this as recuperative treatment for patients with dislocated backs and those that had suffered heart attacks. Then in the 19th Century, the term “hula” was added to the toy name, drawing upon the similarities of the movement of the hips in the traditional dances of the Hawaiian Islands and those of the hooping enthusiast.
In recent years there has been a re-emergence of hula hooping, hoop dance or simply hooping. An international Holiday of World Hoop Day has become the celebrated event worldwide. On World Hoop Day, when the year, month and day all share the same number (2007-07-07 to 2012-12-12) hoopers dance in every city and country to raise money and donate hoops to others who can’t afford them. Many modern hoopers make their own hoops out of polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene, high-density polypropylene, or polypropylene tubing. The polyethylene hoops, and especially the polyvinyl chloride hoops, are much larger and heavier that hoops of the 1950’s. The size and the weight of the hoop are specific for the individual use. Heavier, larger hoops are more often used for slow hooping and body tricks while lighter, thinner tubing is used for quick hand tricks. These hoops are usually covered in a fabric or plastic tape to increase traction and ease the amount of work in keeping a hoop twirling around the dancer. To make it colourful some use glow-in-the dark, patterned, or sparkling tape, or have the clear tubing filled with plastic balls, glitter, water and such to produce delightful visual and audio effects. LED technology now allows hoops to light up at the flick of a switch, delighting audiences worldwide.
Here are some interesting facts from Wikipedia: “The record for the most hoops twirled simultaneously is 132, set by Paul “Dizzy Hips” Blair on November 11, 2009.”
“The longest verified record holder is Aaron Hibbs from Columbus, Ohio who broke the record at 74 hours and 54 minutes between October 22, through 25, 2009”
Click to see a video of The Yate Dance and Acrobatic Team from Shenzhen, China performed at the International Stage at the CNE on Aug 21, 2012, Toronto: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YENbjmgMPmo&feature=share&list=UUmI3ZvZVSfN28HOBM9pOnDQ
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Scientists have located a biological dimmer switch in a species of electric fish that uses electricity during everything from swimming to mating. The switch comes in handy when they don’t need to be electrified; during the day, the fish turn their current down to save energy for other activities, according to a new study in PLoS Biology. That means that the South American river fish, Sternopygus macrurus, is a natural practitioner of energy efficiency. It can reshape the charged-molecule channels in its electricity-producing cells to tone down its electrical signature within a matter of minutes [Wired.com].
Scientists found the dimmer switch in the membranes of cells called electrocytes within this electric organ. The switch takes the form of sodium channels that the fish can insert and remove from the electrocyte membranes. More sodium channels mean a stronger electric impulse [LiveScience]. Because the energy is expensive to produce for the fish, they do what the rest of us do when energy gets expensive–turn it off. The fish keep sodium channels on stand-by in the electric cells so they can switch the electricity back on in a moments notice if something spooks them.
80beats: Robo-Fish Are Ready to Take to the Seas
80beats: To Keep Predators Away, Snake Pretends Its Rear Is a Head
80beats: Lizard Swims Through Sand by Retracting Its Legs & Moving Like a Snake
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In which Scrabble dictionary does BIOPSYING exist?
Definitions of BIOPSYING in dictionaries:
adj - to examine tissue [v -SIED, -SYING, -SIES] : BIOPSIC, BIOPTIC
There are 9 letters in BIOPSYING:
B G I I N O P S Y
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SCRABBLE is the registered trademark of Hasbro and J.W. Spear & Sons Limited. Our scrabble word finder and scrabble cheat word builder is not associated with the Scrabble brand - we merely provide help for players of the official Scrabble game. All intellectual property rights to the game are owned by respective owners in the U.S.A and Canada and the rest of the world. Anagrammer.com is not affiliated with Scrabble. This site is an educational tool and resource for Scrabble & Words With Friends players. | <urn:uuid:1f2b5770-1a3d-4e68-8f42-03c91d2aed47> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.anagrammer.com/scrabble/biopsying | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.854407 | 267 | 2.515625 | 3 |
USDA Announces BSE Identified in California Cow
Some healthy cows at UC Davis
April 25, 2012
Last updated May 2
On April 24, 2012, the USDA announced the detection of atypical bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in a California dairy cow.
A sample from this case was first sent to the California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory (CAHFS) at UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine, one of six laboratories nationally that perform BSE testing for the USDA national surveillance program. Following the initial screening test at CAHFS, the sample was then sent on for confirmatory testing to the USDA National Veterinary Services Laboratory in Ames, Iowa.
The USDA has shared the following information:
-- This case is an atypical form of mad cow disease
-- It is not associated with contaminated animal feed; feed restrictions in the U.S. have greatly reduced the risk of transmission of BSE
-- Milk and beef remain safe to consume
-- The disease is not transmitted through milk
-- The cow did not enter the food or feed supply
-- This case was identified through the ongoing surveillance system, which targets animals considered to be at high-risk because they exhibited neurological abnormalities or have died of unknown causes
Link Here for Full USDA statement of April 24, 2012
USDA statement April 26 Mentions age of animal, symptoms at dairy
USDA update May 2
The California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory "CAHFS Connection" newsletter, May 2012, explains the laboratory's role in the national targeted surveillance program and testing protocols.
Dean Michael Lairmore comments, “The recent detection of BSE in a single cow illustrates the important role of the UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine, through its exceptional network of diagnostic laboratories in partnerships with the State of California and the California food industry, to protect the public. Our mission is to advance the health of animals, people, and the environment, and the early detection of BSE as a key component of the national surveillance plan, demonstrates our commitment to this mission and to the people we all serve.
“The California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System (CAHFS), with facilities at Davis, Tulare, Turlock, and San Bernardino, is a critical component to the animal health and food safety infrastructure that protects California's livestock and poultry. The people of CAHFS, dedicated diagnosticians and staff, have formed effective partnerships with the California Department of Food and Agriculture, veterinarians and livestock/poultry producers throughout the state. The CAHFS team represents one of the school’s many faces to the world: unsung heroes protecting the people and animals they serve in California and beyond. In addition, CAHFS is a member of the National Animal Health Laboratory Network, providing support for national surveillance and response for animal diseases, as well as a member of the Food Emergency Response Network, created to respond to potential threats to the nation’s food supply.
"While not usually in the public eye, these unique networks of highly trained scientists and staff truly provide a safety network for all of us. The veterinary profession, through active animal disease surveillance programs, is another example of 'One Health' at work in preventing human disease.”
Veterinary Medicine Extension Veterinarians
Beef: Doctor John Maas, 530-752-3990, firstname.lastname@example.org
Dairy: Doctor Noelia Silva-del-Río, Veterinary Medicine Teaching and Research Center, email@example.com, 559-688-1731, ext 255
Information about BSE, including a producer guide, surveillance information and fact sheet are available from | <urn:uuid:c4eeb13b-94bf-46b5-8320-bf6cad069b00> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/whatsnew/article.cfm?id=2533 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00027-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925013 | 762 | 2.546875 | 3 |
The Old Farmer’s Almanac 2009 edition is also offering a prediction about when we’ll see snowflakes fly.
Snow showers could appear as early as Nov. 6-9 this year, but it will be Thanksgiving before real winter-like weather arrives in the lower Great Lakes region, according to the almanac.
“Snow at Thanksgiving will signal the coming of a very cold period,” the 217th edition of the weather and astrological forecasting publication reports for the Lower Lakes. The region includes parts of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York.
The forecast calls for the coldest periods to occur in December, early and mid-January and in early and mid-February. The snowiest periods will be in early and mid-December, early and mid-January, early February and early March.
In case you’re wondering, the almanac is predicting lake snows and very cold temperatures for the period of Dec. 21-25.
How accurate are these predictions?
While acknowledging that neither the Almanac nor any other forecasters can predict the weather with total accuracy, the publication boasts that their forecasts are overall about 80 percent accurate.
The Almanac bases its weather forecasts on a secret formula devised by the publication’s founder, Robert B. Thomas, in 1792 that takes into consideration the effects of sun spots on the earth’s climate. The publication also relies on historical climatology information and weather patterns over a period of years.
Last winter, the Almanac reported its monthly regional forecasts were 90 percent accurate in predicting more or less precipitation than the previous winter. Forecasted winter temperatures were -- on average -- within one degree of actual temperatures.
The Almanac acknowledged being off a bit in its temperature predictions for the nation as a whole last winter: three-tenths of a degree colder on average than forecast because the solar cycle lasted longer than expected.
Editor Janice Stillman said that not only do farmers rely on the publication’s prognostications, so do city managers who have to order winter rock salt and brides trying to pick a sunny and dry day for their wedding that is usually several months away.
“People expect it to be accurate,” she said.
While the almanac is known for its weather forecasts, many also turn to the publication for garden, home, food and feature stories.
The 2009 issue includes such features as:
• “How to Live to Be 100 or More.” Life expectancy may be at its highest point ever, but why leave your longevity to chance? Take some advice from centenarians.
• “Is Global Warming on the Wane?” Convincing evidence suggests that an extreme cooling period is imminent or already under way.
• “About Trout”: Going fishing? Hints for catching and cooking some beauties.
• “Foot Notes.” Got tender feet? Is your arch your enemy? Are you a pronator or a supinator? Here is where you can find your best footing and sample a few pedi-cures.
• “Directions from the Dark Side.” Your dreams are trying to tell you something. Learn how to capture, decode and benefit from the symbols, settings and situations that play in your mind at night.
• “Tomato Love.” Meet a man who annually harvests 4,000 pounds of heirloom tomatoes from his own one-acre garden and learn how to grow a ton-or just a few pounds-of your own.
The Old Father’s Almanac is available for $5.99 at newsstands and at bookstores or at Almanac.com.
While the Almanac is known for its garden, home, food and feature stories, everybody is interested in the weather. | <urn:uuid:8914abd7-b15e-47cc-aa6e-d68caa187189> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.presspublications.com/entertainment/723-snow-will-fly-in-nw-ohio-by-early-november-almanac-predicts | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950021 | 804 | 3.078125 | 3 |
The Cabrits Garrison
Dominica’s most important historic site
A major restoration project on Fort Shirley at the Cabrits Garrison in northern Dominica has funded by the European Union Eco-Tourism Development Project between February 2006 and the end of 2007. The contractor for the project is Island Heritage Initiatives Ltd. a small locally based company that provides services to Heritage sites in the Caribbean.
It is led by historian and anthropologist Dr. Lennox Honychurch who also holds a master’s degree in Museum Studies.
The project, which began in February 2006, includes a number of different aspects. The centerpiece of the restoration is the complete rehabilitation of the Officer’s Quarters. This is a classic Georgian building that was constructed in 1774 but has lain in ruins for the last 150 years. Using original plans that are stored in the National Archives at Kew in England, the two-story building measuring 25 x 65 feet, is being completely restored to its former glory.
Another feature of the project is the complete restoration of the Upper and Lower Batteries of the fort and the placing of 14 cannons along the ramparts pointing out across Prince Rupert Bay. The guns include different sizes and types of mortars, carronades,12 pounder cannon and larger 32 pounder cannon.
The display has become an outdoor museum of guns, matched only by a collection at the Garrison Savannah in St.Michael, Barbados.
Equally important is the new ‘Loop Trail’ that is being developed to lead visitors along a circular route to some of the main buildings and sites within the historic garrison. It has been designed to pass military barracks, the parade ground, a viewpoint of the Battle of The Saints of 1782, the Douglas Bay Battery, the Commandants House, the ruins of an unusual Octagon House and back to the Main Gate.
Various cannons at the Cabrits similar to those that
The Commandants Quarters and the Octagon House are important because they were designed by Peter Harrison who is regarded as “the first American Architect” of the United States. Other buildings designed by him still stand in Rhode Island and Massachusetts where they are national landmarks. The Cabrits designs are his only buildings outside of the US.
PHOTO: Digging away layers of earth in the kitchen of the Commandant’s Quarters.
The Parade Ground, once used for drill by the 700 soldiers stationed at the Cabrits, is the size of the Newtown Savannah near Roseau. Undergrowth has been removed to show its full extent. The entire site is to be cleared so as to restore the grounds and provide a playing field for exercise and recreation within the park.
Another attraction is the ‘Battle Viewpoint’, where visitors can look over the site of The Battle of The Saints, the most important sea battle fought in Caribbean waters. The view covers the north coast of Dominica looking towards the islands of the Saints and Guadeloupe. Panels have been designed to show visitors the progress of the battle during the day of 12th April, 1782, from 8.00am to the time of the French surrender at 6.00pm as if they were on this viewpoint at that time. The entire project is employing some seventeen masons, carpenters, welders and general workers from the Portsmouth area and from Coulibistrie to Pennville.
The Cabrits Garrisson
The Cabrits headland is made up of the remains of a volcanic crater on the north-west coast of Dominica that protects Prince Rupert’s bay, the best anchorage on the island. The Cabrits derives its name from the Spanish, Portuguese and French names for goat. Sailors would leave pigs and goats to go wild on the headland so as to multiply to provide fresh meat on future visits to the bay. Later it was also called Prince Rupert’s Head after Prince Rupert of the Rhine who used the bay to repair and refresh his sailing ships in the 1650s.
The fortification of Prince Rupert’s began after the Treaty of Paris had ceded Dominica to Britain in 1763. The first small battery appears to have been erected in about 1765. Military engineers identified the site as a strategic post to defend the north of Dominica from the French and for the protection of the Royal Navy when on call to refresh its ships. Major work began under the governorship of Thomas Shirley 1774-1778. Construction of the garrison was a sporadic affair from 1774-1825 with intense work being carried out during periods of enemy threat particularly during the American War of Independence, The French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars.
Although the Cabrits never saw action, it succeeded as being a deterrent to attack on a number of occasions particularly during the French invasions of Dominica in 1795 and 1805. The most important naval battle in the Caribbean, the Battle of the Saints, 12 April, 1782, was fought within sight of the ramparts and Fort Shirley was the scene of the famous revolt of the 8th West India Regiment in 1802.
Although the British undertook most of the construction, the French made significant additions during their occupation of Dominica 1778-1784. Together they amassed a garrison comprising one fort, seven gun batteries, seven cisterns, powder magazines, ordnance storehouses, barracks and officer’s quarters to house and provide for over 600 men on regular duty. With the end of hostilities between Britain and France, the garrison became obsolete and was finally abandoned in 1854. It remained in the hands of the British Admiralty until 1901 when it was transferred to the government of the colony and remained designated as Crown Land until being established as a National Park in 1986.
Fort Shirley was the headquarters and main defence post of the British army garrison at the Cabrits on the north-west coast of Dominica. Construction began under the direction of Sir Thomas Shirley, Governor of Dominica (1774-1778) after whom it was named. It has a polygon layout marked by two batteries for guns, the lower and upper battery, overlooking the entrance to Prince Rupert Bay.
PHOTO: Plan of Fort Shirley 1799.
Other buildings are troops barracks, officer’s quarters, kitchens and mess, guardroom, powder magazines, three cisterns, artillery and ordnance stores and the remains of earthworks. The main action there was the revolt of the 8th West India Regiment in 1802 and an attempted attack by the French in 1805. It was closed down like the rest of the Cabrits in 1854 but was used briefly in the 1870s and the 1920s as a quarantine station and hospital and later as an agricultural centre. Restoration of the fort began in 1982.
LEFT: Relaying stones on one of the ramparts.
Cabrits Garrison in the National Park
The Cabrits in 1765
Calendar of Events
Cabrits Calendar of Events
3000 BC – The first Amerindian people settle in the bay.
1493 - One ship of Columbus fleet on his 2nd Voyage enters the bay and sees dwellings and people.
1504 - Christopher Columbus sails past the Cabrits on his 4th Voyage.
1535 – The Spanish Council of the Indies declares this bay as a station for its treasure ships on their way out from Spain.
1565 – John Hawkins, Sir Francis Drake, Sir Richard Grenville and other privateers and pirates begin to use the bay to refresh their ships and trade with the Kalinago/Caribs.
1652 – Prince Rupert of the Rhine, cousin of King Charles I, uses the bay for repair and shelter. The bay is named after him.
1763 – Dominica is ceded to Britain by the Treaty of Paris.
1765 – First small gun battery erected on this site.
1774 – Major construction of Fort Shirley and Cabrits Garrison begins under Governor Sir Thomas Shirley with a workforce of 400 enslaved Africans.
1778 – French forces capture Roseau. The Cabrits Garrison surrenders also. Building work continues under the French.
1783 – Dominica returned to Britain by the Treaty of Versailles.
1782 – Battle of the Saints fought off of the Cabrits on 12th April.
1795 – French republican revolutionaries invade the north coast but are repelled by troops from the Cabrits.
1796 – West India Regiments, “The Black Regiments” formed and stationed at Cabrits.
1802 – The revolt of the 8th West India Regiment at the Cabrits.
1805 – Cabrits Garrison refuses to surrender to the French under General La Grange.
1854 – Fort Shirley and the Cabrits abandoned by the army. The forest takes over.
1982 – Restoration of Fort Shirley begins.
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WASHINGTON (AP) -- In noisy, energetic New York City, the pilots of a spindly plane that looks more toy than jet hope to grab attention in a surprising way: By being silent and consuming little energy.
This revolutionary solar-powered plane is about to end a slow and symbolic journey across America by quietly buzzing the Statue of Liberty and landing in a city whose buildings often obscure the power-giving sun. The plane's top speed of 45 mph is so pokey, it would earn honks on the New Jersey Turnpike.
The plane is called Solar Impulse. And it leaves from Washington on a commuter-like hop planned for Saturday, depending on the weather. It will take hours for the journey and offers none of the most basic comforts of flying.
But that's OK. The aircraft's creators say its purpose really has little to do with flying.
They view themselves as green pioneers - promoting lighter materials, solar-powered batteries, and conservation as sexy and adventurous. Theirs is the high-flying equivalent of the Tesla electric sports car. They want people to feel a thrill while saving the planet. Think Charles Lindbergh meets Rachel Carson.
And if there's one person who knows about adventure and what it means to Earth, it's Bertrand Piccard.
He's one of the two pilots who take turns flying Solar Impulse. His grandfather was the first man to see the curve of the Earth as a pioneering high-altitude balloon flier more than 80 years ago. His father more than half a century ago first took a submarine to the deepest and most inaccessible ocean trench on Earth.
And now in the 21st Century outside the Smithsonian's Air and Space Museum annex not too far from a retired space shuttle, Piccard says there's no truly new place on Earth for explorers to pioneer. At 55, he's tried.
He already was the first person to fly around the world non-stop in a balloon, but that wasn't really enough. So Piccard found a way to explore by looking inward and acting globally.
"It's an exploration of new ways of thinking," said Piccard, who is also a psychiatrist. "It's important to understand that pioneering is not only what you do. It's how you think. It's a state of mind more than action."
For him, there was no better cause than clean technology.
"After a conquest of the planet, the 21st Century should be about improving the quality of life," Piccard said. And the lightweight beanpole that's called Solar Impulse "is something spectacular in order to capture the attention of the people. If you make a solar bicycle to drive, nobody would care. If you make a solar plane, everybody cares. Everybody wants to see it.'"
Europe saw it first with a test flight from Switzerland and Spain to Morocco last year. This year's U.S. flight is another trial run that's really preparation for a 2015 around-the-world trip with an upgraded version of the plane. Solar Impulse has been to San Francisco, Phoenix, Dallas, St. Louis, Cincinnati and Washington. All that's left is New York's JFK Airport and Piccard talked about having to wait his turn to land with all the big jets.
"We're flying the most extraordinary airplane in the world," Piccard said.
Although it's promoted as solar-powered, what really pushes the envelope with this plane is its miserly energy efficiency, said Solar Impulse CEO Andre Borschberg, the plane's other pilot.
Parts of its wings are three times lighter than paper. Its one-person cockpit is beyond tiny. Borschberg lowers himself gingerly into it for a television camera, grimaces, and practically wears the plane it is so snug on him.
Most of the 11,000 solar cells are on the super-long wings that seem to stretch as far as a jumbo jet's. It weighs about the size of a small car, and soars at 30,000 feet with what is essentially the power of a small motorized scooter. When it landed at Dulles International Airport in suburban Washington after midnight on June 15, its wings were lit with 16 LED lights that used less power than two 100-watt bulbs.
"We can use much less energy than we use today without the sacrifice," Borschberg said. "And that's really important."
People won't sacrifice to save energy or the planet, but if they are smart they don't have to, Borschberg said. That's why he and Piccard pointedly talk about "clean technologies" not "green technologies." They think "green" has the image of sacrifice.
The only sacrifice with the plane is staying up in the air alone for 20 hours in such a small space.
And even then, the two pilots don't call it a sacrifice. Borschberg said after a while it feels homey and enveloping and it's hard to get out of the cocoon. Sitting for eight hours in an economy class seat on a commercial airplane is cramped; doing what you love by sitting three times longer in this plane isn't, Piccard added.
The flights are long because here's another thing about Solar Impulse: It's slow. Its cruising speed of just under 45 mph would get them honked at on an highway.
So that has meant a lot of 4 a.m. take-offs in the dark and landings well after midnight. But Borschberg, who will pilot the last leg from Washington to New York, is hoping for a daylight approach to New York City so he can get a photo opportunity with the Statue of Liberty.
Borschberg and Piccard both say this is not about clean-energy planes for the future. What they're doing is more likely to improve energy efficiency on the ground, in cars and homes, agrees U.S. Energy Secretary Ernest Moniz who met with the pair to talk up future energy a couple days after they landed at Dulles.
Still, questions of practicality come up.
"It's clearly a stunt," said John Reilly, co-director of MIT's Joint Program on the Science and Policy of Global Change. "And it's clearly an attention-grabbing stunt. The idea that you could fly an airplane powered by the sun is kind of hard to believe. So doing it is an impressive stunt, I suppose."
But these types of gimmicks do pay off at times, Reilly said.
It will pay off more than promoting solar and other renewable energy technologies as economic stimulus, which is what happened four years ago, said University of Colorado science policy professor Roger Pielke Jr. He compared it to giant prizes that encourage private companies to go into space or build robot-driven cars, which are proving successful.
"I don't think it's just a stunt," Pielke said. "The idea is that you're pushing boundaries and you're putting on shows for people and achieving milestones."
This, Pielke said, is "an essential part of technological innovation. It gives people an opportunity to attempt what previously was thought of as impossible."
Copyright 2013 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed. | <urn:uuid:65b24451-4762-4d1c-8b11-02e8ecf1bcac> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2013/07/05/solar-plane/2492929/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965192 | 1,497 | 2.671875 | 3 |
The performance area of special interest is the human in his or her work role. The study of human work capacity, or ergonomics, has much to contribute to our understanding of how to achieve mission objectives. However, before we approach the task of measuring complex operator performance, we should first describe what is to be measured.
Work Requirements in Space
Although specific enumeration of astronaut work units is beyond the scope of this book, it is possible to suggest various broad categories of work requirements. According to Yeremin, Bogdashevskiy, and Baburin (1975) the duties of an astronaut crew have traditionally involved the following tasks:
Of course, within each of these categories, there are many individual work units that must be mastered and integrated into a total program in order to carry out a particular mission objective successfully. Also, the division of labor within crews has differed markedly as progressively more complex missions have been employed. In the earlier missions, all astronauts were exposed to similar training programs and performed similar operations aboard the craft. However, as the space program has evolved, the responsibilities of crew members have become more specialized, although considerable cross-training is still given.
Human Performance Abilities
Various attempts have been made to categorize classes of behavior that describe human functioning. For example, Miller (1965) uses such terms as scanning, identification of cues, interpretation, decisionmaking, and short-term and long-term memory. Gagne (1964) suggests discrimination, problem-solving, sequence-learning, identification, etc., as functional categories. Dimensions such as tracking, vigilance, arithmetic, and pattern comparison are used by Alluisi and Thurmond (1965). These categories represent rational, descriptive approaches determined essentially in an armchair fashion. Other investigators have suggested that a small number of descriptive categories is inadequate to systematize the many components that comprise human performance. These investigators argue for an empirically determined taxonomy of human tasks. A refinement of this latter approach would be to identify common elements among the various tasks.
Using experimental-correlational studies and factor analysis, Fleishman (1967) examined a wide range of perceptual-motor performance tasks. His intent was to define the fewest independent ability categories that could be used to describe performance over the widest variety of tasks. The assumption was that complex skills can be described in more basic ability terms. For example, the quality of performance an individual can achieve in operating a turret lathe may depend on the more basic abilities of motor coordination and manual dexterity. Using this logic, Fleishman generated 11 psychomotor factors (e.g., control precision, reaction time, aiming, etc.) and nine factors in the area of physical proficiency (e.g., trunk strength, explosive strength, stamina, etc.) which consistently account for the variance in many performance tasks (Fleishman, 1960, 1962, 1964). While Fleishman's approach has been highly successful in assessing laboratory tasks, the results have been less encouraging when more complex operational settings have been investigated Since we do not yet have a completely satisfactory method of defining the task abilities which underlie various job requirements, we cannot say with complete assurance exactly what human functions define the job of the astronaut in space. We can, however, approximate these requirements.
One approach to defining the functional requirements of astronauts is provided by Parker, Reilly, Dillon, Andrews, and Fleishman (1965). These authors reviewed and analyzed the technical literature with special emphasis on the factor analytic work of Fleishman. Studies involving regression- analysis models, physical-proficiency studies, and control-dynamics studies were also considered. This process generated a considerable list of basic task dimensions. After making a task analysis of the activities most likely to be required of personnel operating in space vehicles, 18 basic abilities were identified. These 18 abilities were readily classified into six categories: fine manipulative, gross positioning and movement, system equalization, perceptual-cognitive, reaction time, and mirror tracing abilities.
The task dimensions identified by Parker and his colleagues are consistent with similar classification systems suggested by Berlinger, Angell, and Shearer (1964) and by Christensen and Simons (1970). The listing may be taken as one fairly comprehensive representation of the kinds of performance demands made on an operator in space. The next step is to determine how to measure such factors. | <urn:uuid:9cb9cc5f-dc19-4a54-86a7-4f3bfed0bc9e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-483/ch4-2.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00041-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94603 | 885 | 2.984375 | 3 |
Back to The Second Continental Congress
John Adams diary 27, 13 May - 10 September 1776
From the Adams Family Papers
The transcription of this entry (for 13-15 May 1776) from Adams's diary (diary 27, pages 1-4) is featured on the Adams Family Papers: An Electronic Archive website.
Online display of the diary.
A Pesky Preamble
On 10 May, Congress passes a resolution authorizing the creation of new governments in each colony. The resolution passes with little dissent, a sign that congressional opposition to independence is waning. On 15 May, however, John Adams proposes what many delegates consider a distressing preamble to the resolution. Designed to encourage the suppression of royal government in the colonies, the preamble is narrowly approved by Congress. Unlike the resolution, which proposes more limited action, the preamble seems to hurtle the colonies toward independence. John Adams records the fiery debates of 13-15 May in his diary. By 7 June, Congress will be debating another important resolution: Henry Lee's proposal that the colonies declare themselves free and independent of Britain.
Questions to Consider
1. James Duane of New York is the first person to offer commentary on the preamble in Adams' diary. He is arguing for or against the preamble? Use words and phrases from the diary to support your answer.
2. What is Samuel Adams' opinion of the preamble? of Mr. Duane's arguments? | <urn:uuid:5c24065d-bd60-4000-bcfe-a32516959332> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.masshist.org/revolution/essay-viewer.php?item_id=48 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00114-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927987 | 303 | 2.65625 | 3 |
An impenetrable fog rolled into London Wednesday morning (Dec. 11), which caused some travel woes, and also produced rare views of the city's skyline from above, with only the tallest buildings poking above the mist.
While many planes at London's major airports were grounded, a team of officers with the city's Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) flew above the fog in a helicopter. One of the members of this Air Support Unit snapped this amazing photo with an iPhone and posted it to Twitter.
Fog collects under very humid conditions when water vapor condenses into very small droplets of water, which are suspended in air.
A type of fog known as radiation fog most commonly forms in the winter, under calm conditions and clear skies, when the sun's absence overnight cools air close to the ground. Radiation fogs often dissipate in the morning, when the sun comes out again and warms the ground, according to the Met Office, the United Kingdom's national weather service. [See Photos of the Weirdest Clouds]
London's fog enshrouded the city overnight Wednesday and lasted through mid-morning Thursday. According to AccuWeather.com, weather conditions in London late Tuesday evening were ripe for fog formation.
"Clear skies and calm winds are the main causes of fog," said AccuWeather meteorologist Dan DePodwin, adding that winds out of the southeast on Tuesday had helped bring moisture to the area.
The Met Office had issued warnings that visibility would be lower than 165 feet (50 meters), and the fog, which has since lifted, caused many cancelations and delays at Heathrow and London City airports, The Guardian reported.
"Fog is a challenging condition to fly around, but once above it we were able to carry out our normal taskings," Captain John Roberts (call sign India 99), who was piloting the MPS helicopter, said in a statement.
Though London police officials said their @MPSintheSky Twitter account was initially set up to field complaints about helicopter noise, they've seized the opportunity to share photos from their unique perspective of the city and its landmarks.
"We're proud to be able to provide great images of our iconic city," Roberts said in a statement.
London may be better known for its history of smog than fog. What is sometimes referred to as the great fog of 1952 in London was actually the great smog, as the thick veil covering the city was the result of smoke pouring from chimneys during a cold spell that December. Typically, that smoke would rise and disperse, but a weird weather pattern called an anticyclone was hanging over the region, according to the Met Office. These conditions, combined with calm winds, caused what's known as a temperature inversion, trapping cool air close to the ground underneath warmer air. Chimney smoke and other particles got trapped in the resulting fog, creating a serious bout of air pollution. About 4,000 people died due to the great fog, according to the Met Office. | <urn:uuid:3a8d3ad5-a78f-4a7c-8a83-d7abbc42b99c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.livescience.com/41912-heavy-fog-enshrouds-london-photo.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00185-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968556 | 615 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Armenian-Americans have lobbied for official use of the word "genocide"
A US congressional panel has described the killing of Armenians by Turkish forces during World War I as genocide, despite White House objections.
The resolution was narrowly approved by the House Foreign Affairs Committee.
Turkey, a key US ally, responded by recalling its ambassador in Washington for consultations. It has fiercely opposed the non-binding resolution.
The White House had warned that the vote would harm reconciliation talks between Turkey and Armenia.
The resolution calls on President Barack Obama to ensure that US foreign policy reflects an understanding of the "genocide" and to label the World War I killings as such in his annual statement on the issue.
It was approved by 23 votes to 22 by the committee.
Kevin Connolly, BBC News, Washington
Ankara has already withdrawn its ambassador from Washington for consultations - in reaction to what will be seen as a significant international insult.
Washington will now be working hard to limit any further diplomatic fallout.
As one of the United States' most important allies in the Muslim world, Turkey's influence is important on both Iran and Afghanistan.
And the cheapest and safest way of extracting American soldiers from Iraq next year would be from neighbouring Turkey - if the diplomatic atmosphere permits.
Within minutes the Turkish government issued a statement condemning "this resolution which accuses the Turkish nation of a crime it has not committed".
The statement also said the Turkish ambassador was being recalled for consultations.
A Turkish parliamentary delegation had gone to Washington to try to persuade committee members to reject the resolution.
Turkey accepts that atrocities were committed but argues they were part of the war and that there was no systematic attempt to destroy the Christian Armenian people.
The Armenian government welcomed the vote, calling it "an important step towards the prevention of crimes against humanity".
In 2007, a similar resolution passed the committee stage, but was shelved before a House vote after pressure from the George W Bush administration.
During his election campaign Mr Obama promised to brand the mass killings genocide.
MASS KILLINGS OF ARMENIANS
Hundreds of thousands of ethnic Armenians killed by Ottoman Turks in 1915-6
Many historians and the Armenian people believe the killings amount to genocide
Turks and some historians deny they were orchestrated
More than 20 countries regard the massacres as genocide
Before the vote, committee chairman Howard Berman urged fellow members of the committee to endorse the resolution.
"I believe that Turkey values its relationship with the United States at least as much as we value our relations with Turkey," he said.
The Turks, he added, "fundamentally agree that the US-Turkish alliance is simply too important to get side-tracked by a non-binding resolution passed by the House of Representatives".
In October last year, Turkey and Armenia signed a historic accord normalising relations between them after a century of hostility.
Armenia wants Turkey to recognise the killings as an act of genocide, but successive Turkish governments have refused to do so.
Hundreds of thousands of Armenians died in 1915, when they were deported en masse from eastern Anatolia by the Ottoman Empire. They were killed by troops or died from starvation and disease.
Armenians have campaigned for the killings to be recognised internationally as genocide - and more than 20 countries have done so. | <urn:uuid:2b695533-c637-477a-9645-df3372078dcd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8550765.stm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00123-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968666 | 677 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Breathing is the process that moves air in and out of the lungs.
Aerobic organisms of these types—such as birds, mammals, and reptiles—require oxygen to release energy via respiration, in the form of the metabolism of energy-rich molecules such as glucose. Breathing is only one process that delivers oxygen to where it is needed in the body and removes carbon dioxide. Another important process involves the movement of blood by the circulatory system. Gas exchange occurs in the pulmonary alveoli by passive diffusion of gases between the alveolar gas and the blood in lung capillaries. Once these dissolved gases are in the blood, the heart powers their flow around the body (via the circulatory system). | <urn:uuid:41796c0a-3d8d-4d86-982e-1f23f9c11c18> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://fitness.stackexchange.com/tags/breathing/info | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00155-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933972 | 147 | 3.8125 | 4 |
In 1857 a twenty-three year old Dr. Charles M. Wright came to Effingham County, Illinois. By 1870 the total worth of the 36-year-old “horseback” doctor was $20,205. In 1878 he established the C. M. Wright & Co. private bank in his former medical building in Altamont.
The town of Altamont was organized in 1871 and Dr. Wright purchased 5 acres from the Vandalia Railroad. In 1874 he built a two-story frame house, a barn and other outbuildings. He increased his holdings to 27 acres with boundaries of the railroad and the cemetery. In January 1889 the first house was moved east across Main Street. The Wright family lived there while their new brick home was constructed. Later the home that had been moved across the street became the home of their daughter Lotta, and her husband G. C. Dial.
Dr. Wright hired Architect C. H. Spilman, Edwardsville, Illinois to design the home. Copies of the architect’s plans, elevations and the “Specifications For Residence for C M. Wright” are displayed at the house. Dr. Wright used several 1880’s architectural journals and suppliers’ catalogs to plan his new home. They remain in the house.
The house is designed in the Second Empire (Mansard) style with Italianate style influences as evidenced by the Mansard roof, patterned slate on the roof, the dressed stones on the exterior corners of the buildings (known as Quoins), the tall windows on first story, the bay windows and especially the brackets beneath the eaves. The original plans also show wrought iron cresting above the upper cornice. This appears on a picture of the home from 1897, but has since been removed. The only other building in Effingham county on the National Register of Historic Places is the Effingham County Courthouse which was built in 1871 and was also designed in the Second Empire style.
The building contractor was Charles Hanker of Toledo, Illinois. He agreed to build the house for a total price of $17,965. The owner was to furnish the materials, which must have cost about the same as the contractor’s price, because the eighteen room brick home cost $35,000 to build. The 6,000 square foot home has 7 bedrooms and one bathroom.
The Dr. Wright House was designed to be self-sufficient. It was the first house in Altamont to have a gas lighting system, indoor plumbing and a central steam-heating system.
His son, Dr. Charles M. Wright II, MD, and his grandson, Charles M. Wright III, JD were the other two generations to live in the house. Furnishings and collections belonging to all the three generations remain in the house, and much of it remains today as it was when first built in 1889.
One of only two structures in Effingham County listed on the National Register of Historic Places, The Wright Family home was left in a trust to be preserved, maintained and operated as a public institution by the trust department of the Midland States Bank. The non-profit 501(C) 3 Wright House Property Board includes the bank trustee and community members. Donations are tax deductible, and deeply appreciated.
We would like to ask you to please click on the donate link to help us in the continued maintenance of the Wright House. You can make a donation with PayPal or a Credit Card. If you would like to mail in a donation please send a money order or make a check out to The Wright House Property; NFP and mail to:
The Wright House Property; NFP
Midland States Bank
133 W. Jefferson
P.O. Box 767
Effingham, IL 62411
Attn- Charles M Wright Trust
Thank you in advance for your donations. | <urn:uuid:a74506e0-5627-4713-8598-9e4ae183e48b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wrightmansion.org/history.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00052-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970924 | 807 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Brothers delay onset of sisters' periods
Australian researchers have found having older brothers delays the age at which girls get their periods, a result that raises more questions than answers.
Human behavioural ecologist Dr Debra Judge and PhD student Fritha Milne, of the University of Western Australia in Perth, report their study in this week's Proceedings of the Royal Society B.
"What we found was that there was an older age at menarche [when a girl first gets her period] for girls who had older brothers," Dr Judge said.
Anthropologists have previously noticed that in traditional societies the more brothers a family has, the fewer children their siblings have.
Dr Judge says some believed this was due to the fact that brothers generally need more resources, leaving less to go around.
She and Ms Milne decided to investigate the effect of siblings among 273 Australian men and women between the ages of 18 and 75.
They gave participants a questionnaire that asked about the number, age and gender of all siblings.
They also asked when participants had their first sexual experience, when girls got their first period, when participants had their first child and how many children they had.
Dr Judge says the study, which took account of the fact that menarche has been starting earlier in successive generations of girls, found some curious trends.
Effect on menarche
The most puzzling finding was that the more older brothers a woman has the older she was when she reached menarche.
Women who have older brothers but no older sisters got their periods at a mean age of 13.6 years.
Those who have no older brothers or sisters, or just older sisters, got their period at 12.7 years.
And those who had both older brothers and sisters got their period at 13.3 years.
Dr Judge says previous research has found girls with absent fathers start their periods earlier, possibly due to some sort of stress effect, compared to girls whose fathers are around at the time they are growing up.
To investigate whether the latest findings were a result of brothers having some sort of 'father figure' effect, Dr Judge and Mr Milne checked to see if the age of the older brother affected the onset of menarche, but found it did not at all.
So why would older brothers affect the age of menarche in their sisters?
"We don't know what's delaying menarche," Dr Judge said.
"It could be a physiological effect in terms of food or some other sort of resource, but I doubt it. Or it could be some sort of psychosocial process that's slowing down the girls' maturity."
She says it may have something to do with hormones or the different way girls are treated when they have an older brother.
"We don't want to speculate too much because I think it's very easy to over-interpret what is a very basic straightforward study," she said.
Babysitting delays sex
Dr Judge says the other interesting finding of the study is that girls who have younger brothers start having sexual activity later than those without younger brothers.
She says the impact on sexual activity could be because older girls tend to help parents look after younger children.
In other words, older sisters are too busy babysitting younger brothers to be out having their first sexual experiences.
Dr Judge and Mr Milne did not find that the number of brothers affected the number of children siblings had, or the age at which they had their first child.
Dr Judge says in societies where there is more to go around, one would expect siblings not to have this kind of effect on each other.
But even if boys were demanding more resources, she says this would not affect the size or quality of their siblings families because in contemporary society, people spend a relatively long time living independent lives before they have their own family.
She says future studies could test the power of the 'babysitting hypothesis' to explain the delay in age of first sex in older sisters.
And they could test hypotheses that explain an older brother's effect on his younger sister's age of menarche.
The 'hormone hypothesis' for example, could be supported by a study finding a stronger effect on the age of menarche the more time older brothers and younger sisters spend together.
Dr Judge emphasises that delaying periods or sexual activity in girls is not necessarily a negative thing.
"It's not like this is any sort of pathology," she said. | <urn:uuid:b6590905-2222-44a0-b5f2-c8a964f61c0c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.abc.net.au/news/2010-08-18/brothers-delay-onset-of-sisters-periods/948736 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977247 | 918 | 2.9375 | 3 |
If guilt is tearing you up inside, try inflicting some pain on yourself. It sounds weird, but research suggests it’ll make you feel better. A study published in Psychological Science found that people’s feelings of guilt are reduced after they experience pain.
Volunteers were either asked to write about a time they had ostracized someone, to prime their feelings of guilt, or a routine event in their lives. They were then asked to stick their hand in a bucket of water and to keep it there as long as they could; the bucket contained ice water for some and soothing warm water for others. Afterwards, all volunteers rated their experienced pain and feelings of guilt. Results showed that people who felt guilty subjected themselves to more pain (kept their hand in the ice water bucket longer) and rated the experience as more painful than the control groups. Furthermore, experiencing pain was found to reduce their feelings of guilt.
Researchers explain that we tend to associate pain with justice, as a form of punishment. So when we’re feeling bad about an immoral act we committed, experiencing pain makes us feel like we have rebalanced the scales of justice and, therefore, it resolves our guilt.
Bastian B, Jetten J, & Fasoli F (2011). Cleansing the soul by hurting the flesh: the guilt-reducing effect of pain. Psychological science, 22 (3), 334-5
Leave a comment below and continue the conversation. | <urn:uuid:5af734c3-97db-474a-880a-d2dc101ae27a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/observer/obsonline/scales-of-justice-guilt-and-pain.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00057-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978291 | 299 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Chikungunya fever is a viral disease transmitted by Aedes
spp mosquitoes . In recent years, several outbreaks have been reported in Kenya (2004), the Comoros Islands (2005), the island of Réunion (2005, 2006), other islands in the southwest Indian Ocean (2005) and in India (2005-2006) [2,3], during which Ae. aegypti
and/or Ae. albopictus
were the main vectors .
As viraemic and infected persons returned from epidemic areas to temperate regions, concern developed that local mosquitoes could sustain disease transmission in the European Union. In March 2006, the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) concluded, based on an expert consultation, that there was a risk for chikungunya virus transmission in Europe . In the summer of 2007, an outbreak of chikungunya fever in north-eastern Italy marked the first occasion of the virus being transmitted by mosquitoes on the European mainland . In order to assess the possible spread of Ae. albopictus in Europe and to provide recommendations for vector surveillance, the ECDC called a consultation of entomologist experts in October 2007. The main conclusions, concerning the introduction and establishment of the vector and various aspects regarding surveillance, are presented below. The meeting report reflecting the discussion, which took place on 22 October in Paris 2007, was published by the ECDC on 14 February 2008 .
How can Ae. albopictus be introduced in Europe?
The vector Ae. albopictus has been introduced in several European countries since 1975. As of 2007, it had been observed in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Greece, France (Côte d’Azur and Corsica), Italy, Montenegro, the Netherlands (only in glasshouses of companies importing tropical plants, although adult mosquitoes are sporadically found in their immediate surroundings), Serbia, Slovenia, Spain and Switzerland .
Ae. albopictus can be introduced in Europe through different routes. The eggs of Ae. albopictus can withstand desiccation, which allows them to survive long travels around the world in a variety of containers. The international trade in used tyres has played a major role in such spread because tyres make optimal breeding sites [8,9], likewise the importation of Dracaena sanderiana plants, also known as ‘Lucky Bamboo’ . Furthermore, public or private transport from infested areas by highway, ferry or air can contribute to the passive dispersion of Ae. albopictus. Once the vector is established in a new area, the mosquito will disperse actively to nearby areas with suitable habitats.
Which conditions are suitable for the establishment and spread of Ae. albopictus in Europe?
After the vector has been introduced in a specific area, experts agreed that the establishment of Ae. albopictus would be dependent on four main environmental conditions:
- Winter temperatures. If winter temperature drops below a certain level the eggs will not survive. Areas with mean January temperatures ≥0°C are generally accepted as overwintering areas .
- Annual rainfall. An average yearly rainfall of at least 500mm is required to provide enough water for Ae. albopictus breeding sites.
- Summer rainfall. A sufficient amount of rainfall in summer is necessary to maintain breeding sites during the warm season.
- Summer temperatures. Temperatures influence the speed of development from the immature stage (larvae, pupae) to adult mosquitoes. The development rate is optimal when temperatures are between 25°C to 30°C.
To date, the vector has been widely established in Albania and Italy, but spreading fast in the Balkan countries, France, Greece and Spain.
Where and how should surveillance of Ae. albopictus be conducted?
There is currently no European standard for vector surveillance methods, which influences the comparability of data between countries. Different trapping techniques currently being used in Europe include oviposition traps (containers with water that allow female mosquitoes to lay eggs), carbon dioxide-baited counterflow traps (mosquito traps that utilise an outgoing airflow which carries chemical lures that attract mosquitoes to the trap and an incoming air flow draws mosquitoes into a collecting chamber), CDC traps (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention traps for adult mosquitoes, usually baited with carbon dioxide) and larval surveys (surveys to water collections, especially in containers to look for mosquito larvae). Furthermore, the density of the mosquito eggs in ovitraps does not necessarily reflect the density of the mosquito population in the field, as other breeding sites are available; it gives an indication of the presence or absence of the vector in a certain area.
Vector surveillance in European Union Member States is mostly conducted in regions at high risk for establishment of Ae. albopictus. Based on local data, likely geographic areas for introduction of Ae. albopictus can be mapped, e.g. storage centres for imported used tyres, main road axes, ports. Combining such maps with the risk of establishment once the vector has been introduced provides useful guidance on where to focus vector surveillance activities on national and local levels. The experts at the meeting agreed that local characteristics and microclimates should be considered not only for the establishment of Ae. albopictus, but also for its likely abundance. These characteristics include: urban vegetation, human population density and housing.
It was agreed that an updated map of the current distribution of Ae. albopictus in Europe is needed, based on the available vector surveillance data. Furthermore, it was recommended to map the risk of establishment of Ae. albopictus in Europe, in the event of it being introduced, by studying the four main climatic factors winter temperatures, annual rainfall, summer rainfall and summer temperatures – a sensitivity analysis for each determinant would be needed, and taking into account the predicted vector abundance.
The concern on the possible introduction in Europe of the mosquito Ae. aegypti, another important vector for chikungunya virus as well as other arboviruses such as dengue and yellow fever, was also raised, as this vector has already been introduced in the Madeira island (Portugal), with frequent flights into mainland Europe .
* The ECDC consultation group on vector-related risk for chikungunya virus transmission in Europe included: AP Almeida, R Bellini, D Coulombier, E Depoortere, R Eritja, D Fontenille, J Giesecke, J Lundström, A Lenhart, J Medlock, E Merdic, L Payne, A Powers, R Romi, A Samanidou, F Schaffner, EJ Scholte, V Versteirt | <urn:uuid:cb173821-d65d-4559-9dc3-69695371044e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ViewArticle.aspx?ArticleId=8040 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93433 | 1,414 | 3.359375 | 3 |
BUCHANAN, ALEXANDER CARLISLE, public servant; b. 25 Dec. 1808 at Common Green, a large farm near Omagh in County Tyrone (Northern Ireland), son of James Buchanan and Elizabeth Clarke; m. 3 Nov. 1840 Charlotte Louise Caldwell, daughter of Edward Bowen, chief justice of the Superior Court of Lower Canada, and they had four sons and two daughters; d. 2 Feb. 1868 at Quebec.
Alexander Carlisle Buchanan received part of his education in Ireland before his father, who ran a linen business there until 1816, was appointed British consul in New York and brought his family to the United States. In 1825 Alexander Carlisle came to Canada and he and his brother, Robert Stewart, were partners in business, apparently in Montreal.
Buchanan’s uncle, also named Alexander Carlisle Buchanan, was the British agent for emigration at Quebec from 1828 until 1838. At least as early as 1833 the younger Buchanan (who sometimes added Jr to his signature) looked after the immigration office during the winter while his uncle took a leave of absence for his health. He did so regularly from 1835 to 1838, when the elder Buchanan resigned because of illness. In that year the British government appointed Buchanan chief agent “for the Superintendence of Emigration to [Lower and Upper] Canada.” He had lived in Quebec perhaps from 1833 and continued to reside there until his death.
Buchanan was not an officer of the Canadian government, although he worked in Canada; he exercised a limited supervision over other emigration agents appointed by British authorities to such strategic locations as Montreal, Kingston, Toronto, and Hamilton. After 1848, however, he submitted his annual reports to the Executive Council of the Province of Canada before transmission to London. In the following years his title gradually changed to that of chief emigration agent and he was required to present his reports to the Legislative Assembly. In 1852 the Canadian government established a Bureau of Agriculture, one of whose responsibilities was immigration, and in 1855 Canada assumed the total cost of immigration services within the province. After the Department of Agriculture and Statistics was established in 1862 Buchanan’s reports were included in those of the minister. Thus by the 1860s Buchanan had ceased to have the status of an imperial official and had become a Canadian civil servant, an evolution brought about by the achievement of responsible government in Canada.
Buchanan’s exercise of his functions was affected by the inefficient and uncoordinated administration of immigration matters by the colonial government. The Bureau of Agriculture had been formed originally to take over some of the tasks of the Department of Crown Lands, which, however, retained a role in the promotion of immigration until 1862. The lack of clear purposes and prestige for the bureau is evident in the fact that it had no fewer than nine ministers between 1852 and 1862; moreover, it was the presidents of the Executive Council who were until March 1862 ex officio ministers of agriculture, and their many duties inevitably distracted them from the bureau’s work, of which immigration was only one part. In 1862 the Department of Agriculture and Statistics became solely responsible for immigration and the situation improved, particularly with the appointment, in 1864, of Thomas D’Arcy McGee as minister and Joseph-Charles Taché* as first deputy minister.
The bureau’s weaknesses had increased the burden on and enhanced the importance of its permanent officials among whom Buchanan was the one most concerned with the promotion of immigration. Quebec was the major port of entry, and when immigrants landed there Buchanan met them with information about transportation, employment, and land for purchase. For this purpose he collected information from subordinate agents in Canada and from employers, farmers, and landowners. He also sent this material to government emigration officers in Britain as well as to anyone interested in encouraging emigration, such as shipowners and landowners. Buchanan even undertook to have promotional literature distributed on the Continent. He took seriously one of the main purposes of his office, the protection of immigrants when they arrived. Often bewildered and uninformed about North America, they were easy prey for unscrupulous tricks. To safeguard their funds Buchanan sent them directly to locations where they could quickly find suitable work. Moreover, to guard immigrants from “runners” who sold tickets to destinations far inland, usually in the United States, he directed them to specific Canadian steamship companies and railway offices. Indeed occasionally between 1854 and 1862 Buchanan himself engaged in selling tickets and in remitting money to emigrants in Europe. He finally ended these business connections because of criticism, although a government investigation in 1861–62 showed he had not abused his position.
Buchanan’s experience with immigration at the Canadian end and his knowledge of the conditions in Europe led him in 1852 to advocate sending Canadian emigration agents to Europe. Despite the support of the secretary of the Bureau of Agriculture, William Hutton, and of two prominent politicians, Philip Michael Matthew Scott VanKoughnet and McGee, nothing was done until 1859. And it was actually the commissioner of crown lands, VanKoughnet, rather than the minister of agriculture, John Ross*, who first sent an emigration agent, Anthony Bewden Hawke, to England in 1859.
Hawke returned in 1860, and Buchanan was sent to England in 1861 and 1863 on short term missions. He continued Hawke’s work of advertising Canada but, as the department’s most experienced senior official, he was given much wider duties. He was to consider the establishment of Canadian emigration agencies in the United Kingdom and the advertising of Canada on the Continent, including France, Switzerland, and Poland. The Canadian government most consistently sought to attract farmers with capital, farm labourers, and female domestic servants. Buchanan was the central distributing agent for Canadian publicity and supervised the other temporary agents promoting emigration to Canada. His report dated 30 Oct. 1861 accounted for work done and also made far-reaching recommendations, including a permanent Canadian agency for London which would perform consular functions as well as those of a central emigration agency. Much of what he proposed for an emigration agency was instituted in 1866 when William Dixon* was sent to Liverpool, and in 1869 Dixon was transferred to London where a central emigration agency with consular functions was put into effect.
Buchanan’s chief contributions to Canada’s development were his careful administration of the immigration agency at Quebec and his consistent support for a Canadian presence overseas particularly in the form of emigration agencies. From 1838 to 1868, about 866,000 immigrants came to Canada chiefly from the British Isles, and for many thousands who landed in Quebec, Buchanan provided the first official guidance to their new life in Canada. It is impossible to measure the benefits to Canada’s growth of his sympathetic treatment of them. His knowledge and good sense gave weight to his opinions and enabled him to maintain harmonious relations with the Canadian emigration agents who were sent to Europe in the 1860s.
[Alexander Carlisle Buchanan sent great quantities of emigration literature to Europe, but aside from official reports and pamphlets he apparently published no writing of his own. A pamphlet, Emigration practically considered; with detailed directions to emigrants proceeding to British North America, particularly to the Canadas; in a letter to the Right Hon. R. Wilmot Norton, M.P. (London, 1828), often attributed to him, was almost certainly written by his uncle, although the younger Buchanan may have had a hand in the publication of the second edition in 1834. w.b.t.]
PAC, RG 4, A1, S-203, mai–nov. 1836; S-227, 1re partie, 10 janv. 1830; S-245, 17 août 1830; S-296, 1re partie, 31 déc. 1832; S-313, 5 nov. 1833; S-344, 26 sept. 1835; S-392, 1re partie, 23 déc. 1837; B28, 40, no.2378; C1, 234, no.2535; 338, no.1675; RG 17, AI, ser.1, 3, 8, 18–19; ser.2, 2–4; AIII, ser.1, 1–2. Can., Sessional papers, 1867–68, III, no.3. Can., Prov. of, Sessional papers, 1860, III, no.18; 1861, III, no.14; IV, no.23; 1862, V, no.32; 1863, III, no.4; 1864, III, no.32; 1865, II, no.6. Montreal Gazette, 1829–31, 4 Feb. 1867. Quebec Gazette, 6 Nov. 1840, 3 Feb. 1868. A. W. P. Buchanan, The Buchanan book; the life of Alexander Buchanan, Q.C., of Montreal, followed by an account of the family of Buchanan (Montreal, 1911), 197–230, 234–35. H. I. Cowan, British emigration to British North America; the first hundred years (Toronto, 1961). Hodgetts, Pioneer public service, 40, 226–43, 251, 255. W. B. Turner, “Colonial self-government and the colonial agency; changing concepts of permanent Canadian representation in London, 1848 to 1880” (unpublished phd thesis, Duke University, Durham, N.C., 1970). | <urn:uuid:1e65d29f-19b5-4e10-99b1-5793ff20f053> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/buchanan_alexander_carlisle_9E.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974477 | 1,978 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Obesity in adolescent girls is associated with lower academic attainment levels throughout their teenage years, a new study has shown.
The research conducted by the Universities of Strathclyde, Dundee, Georgia and Bristol is the most comprehensive study yet carried out into the association between obesity and academic attainment in adolescence. The results are published in the International Journal of Obesity.
The results showed that girls who were obese, as measured by BMI (body mass index) at age 11 had lower academic attainment at 11, 13 and 16 years when compared to those of a healthy weight. The study took into account possible mediating factors but found that these did not affect the overall results.
Attainment in the core subjects of English, Maths and Science for obese girls was lower by an amount equivalent to a D instead of a C, which was the average in the sample.
Associations between obesity and academic attainment were less clear in boys.
University of Strathclyde Professor of Physical Activity and Public Health Science, John Reilly – the Principal Investigator of the study – said: “Further work is needed to understand why obesity is negatively related to academic attainment, but it is clear that teenagers, parents, and policymakers in education and public health should be aware of the lifelong educational and economic impact of obesity.”
Dr Josie Booth, of the School of Psychology at the University of Dundee, said: “There is a clear pattern which shows that girls who are in the obese range are performing more poorly than their counterparts in the healthy weight range throughout their teenage years.”
The study examined data from almost 6000 children from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), including academic attainment assessed by national tests at 11, 13 and 16 years and weight status. 71.4% were healthy weight (1935 male, 2325 female), 13.3% overweight (372 male, 420 female) and 15.3% obese (448 male, 466 female). The researchers took into account potentially distorting factors such as socio-economic deprivation, mental health, IQ and age of menarche (onset of the menstrual cycle) but found these did not change the relationship between obesity and academic attainment. | <urn:uuid:681486ae-eb43-4b04-ba04-4c19b69b7552> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://scienceblog.com/70959/obesity-associated-with-lower-academic-attainment-in-teen-girls/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971495 | 455 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Welcome to Hawaii Ocean Science
For people looking to travel abroad Hawaii is a tropical paradise, but it also boasts an extremely diverse range of ocean life that can often go unnoticed. The role of this website is to provide an informational portal about ocean science in and around Hawaii and outline different aspects of ocean science and technology.
Ocean science in Hawaii
Hawaii boasts a vast array of ocean wildlife. For centuries it has provided marine biologists, oceanographers and biologists with an incredible platform for research. Advances in technology have now enabled researchers to delve deeper into this other world and find out more about life in the waters around Hawaii.
Oceanography encompasses all living species, from microscopic plants to large mammals. The study of oceanography is focused on various different aspects of ocean life, including the likes of oceanographic processes, which detail the processes that occur in the ocean.
Studying ocean science
There are many different research techniques used by oceanographers, marine biologists and researchers. Research projects and programmes may be small-scale studies that focus on very specific aspects or organisms or large-scale studies, which may involve a whole eco-system or species.
The majority of studies involve gathering physical evidence. This usually requires the employment of divers or specialist marine technology and equipment to collect samples, after which the information gathered is used for analysis and evaluation purposes. There are also specialist computer software and programmes, which can be used to help during the research process.
Advances in technology and engineering have had a real impact on ocean science in Hawaii. Technology is evolving all the time and this means that researchers can use new and innovative ways to access information and find out more about ocean life. Technological developments have changed the way many research processes are undertaken – physical samples and evidence can now be obtained from almost any environment, with the help of robotic vehicles that are capable of going under water, satellite sensors that direct researchers to particular points of interest, laser technology and digital imaging which create detailed images of underwater environments. The evolution of technology has undoubtedly opened many doors for researchers in Hawaii and this trend looks set to continue in the future as innovative new equipment becomes available. | <urn:uuid:d765ebbe-051c-4b4b-a9d9-3f8c7f7324eb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hawaiioceanscience.org/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00154-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940527 | 430 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Corpus Luteum Structure
A selection of articles related to corpus luteum structure.
Original articles from our library related to the Corpus Luteum Structure. See Table of Contents for further available material (downloadable resources) on Corpus Luteum Structure.
- Bringing it Down to Earth: A Fractal Approach
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- The Living Tradition of Thelema
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- Kabalah (Cabala, Qabalah) is an ancient Hebrew method that investigates man’s position in the universe. Why does man exist? Where does he come from? Kabbalah can answer such questions through the spiritual world. Unlike theoretical studies, Kabalah is a very...
Magick >> Qabalah
- Reincarnation is in my opinion an overly simplified concept, designed to be easily understood and accepted by the general population. But the theory of reincarnation falls down sharply when closely examined. That is, if you understand how standard linear time...
Spirits >> Reincarnation
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Corpus Luteum Structure is described in multiple online sources, as addition to our editors' articles, see section below for printable documents, Corpus Luteum Structure books and related discussion.
Suggested News Resources
- Kenya: We Get 12 Calves Per Cow Every Year
- Only cows with a structure in ovaries known as corpus luteum are synchronised," says Onyango, noting the farm hosts 300 Ayrshire animals that are the donors of the unfertilised eggs and about 300 Boran cows, which are the recipients or surrogates.
- Progesterone May Not Lower Risk of Repeated Miscarriage
- The hormone is made by a structure within the ovary called the corpus luteum, as well as by the placenta during pregnancy, Coomarasamy said. "Based on previous studies, we had hoped that progesterone would help to increase the likelihood of [having] a ...
- Mystery remains around key process in early equine pregnancy – review
- The corpus luteum is a hormone-secreting structure that develops in an ovary after an ovum has been discharged. It degenerates after a few days unless pregnancy has begun.
- Breeding the Problem Mare With Endometritis
- Further, he added, this persistent inflammatory fluid buildup can cause prostaglandin release from the endometrium (uterine lining) and adversely affect development and function of the corpus luteum, a structure formed after the follicle ovulates, and ...
- 14 weeks pregnant: your pregnancy week by week
- Initially produced by the corpus luteum, progesterone rises throughout your pregnancy and continues to do so until the birth of your baby.
Great care has been taken to prepare the information on this page. Elements of the content come from factual and lexical knowledge databases, realmagick.com library and third-party sources. We appreciate your suggestions and comments on further improvements of the site.
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virtue virtue and vice | <urn:uuid:e80c7f96-527a-45ad-9a46-8d81a7eb9c70> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.realmagick.com/corpus-luteum-structure/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00140-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.899654 | 933 | 2.734375 | 3 |
From Our 2011 Archives
Embarrassed by Your Singing? It's a Clue to Brain Health
Scientists Observe Karaoke Singers to Get Better Understanding of Neurodegenerative Conditions
By Cari Nierenberg
Reviewed by Laura J. Martin, MD
April 15, 2011 -- Belting out a karaoke tune and then listening to the cringe-worthy performance afterward gave researchers new insights into how the brain processes embarrassment.
In the study, scientists from the University of California, San Francisco and University of California, Berkeley observed 79 people, 58 of whom had neurodegenerative conditions while the rest had healthy brains. In neurodegenerative conditions, brain cells are progressively damaged or destroyed.
Although not asked to sing karaoke in a club or bar, each volunteer crooned "My Girl" by the Temptations along with the voice-recording device and were videotaped while doing it. They were then asked to watch and listen to their vocal chops minus any accompanying music.
The goal was to embarrass the singers while researchers measured their facial expressions and reactions, including sweating, breathing, and heart rate.
"In healthy people, watching themselves sing elicits a considerable embarrassment reaction," says Virginia Sturm, PhD, a postdoctoral neuropsychology fellow at the University of California, San Francisco Memory and Aging Center, in a news release.
But people who had neurological damage in a region of the brain known as the medial frontal cortex seemed less concerned. "The smaller the region, the less embarrassed the people were," says Sturm.
The study was presented at the 2011 Meeting of the American Academy of Neurology in Hawaii.
The experiment also used magnetic resonance imaging to gauge the size of different regions of the brain to figure out if these would predict embarrassment.
Doing karaoke as part of a science experiment is unusual, but it allowed researchers to pinpoint a thumb-size area in the front part of the brain's right hemisphere that's necessary for feeling embarrassed.
The more damage participants had in the area of the front part of the brain called the pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, the less mortified they were about their singing. Although not self-conscious about their vocal skills, people in this same group did startle and show fear in response to hearing the sound of a gunshot in a second test done as part of the study.
"So, it's not like they don't have any emotional reactions at all," Sturm says. But feeling no shame is a telling warning sign. "Emotions like embarrassment are particularly vulnerable in neurodegenerative diseases that target the frontal lobes."
Researchers hope that a better understanding of the subtle shifts seen in emotions such as embarrassment in people with thinking and memory problems may give doctors an earlier clue for diagnosis and may help family members and caregivers grasp the behavior changes seen in certain forms of dementia.
This study was presented at a medical conference. The findings should be considered preliminary as they have not yet undergone the "peer review" process, in which outside experts scrutinize the data prior to publication in a medical journal.
SOURCES: American Academy of Neurology 2011 Meeting, Honolulu, Hawaii.News release, University of California, San Francisco. | <urn:uuid:49d847cd-394d-4cf0-b3d4-d8e2a59a6428> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.emedicinehealth.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=143246 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955731 | 664 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Boston, Mass. - Researchers at Children's Hospital Boston have identified a key gene involved in establishing and maintaining nerve connections in the human brain and nervous system. Studying patients with a spectrum of rare inherited and acquired neurological diseases affecting voluntary movement of the eyes, face and extremities, they pinpointed eight independent mutations in this gene. They also show that the mutations have a broader neurological effect, resulting in intellectual, behavioral and social disabilities as well as progressive motor and sensory nerve degeneration. Their findings appear in the Jan. 8 issue of the journal Cell.
The spectrum of neurological diseases, now referred to as the TUBB3 syndromes, was first identified by studying patients with Congenital Fibrosis of the Extra-Ocular Muscles type 3 (CFEOM3), an inherited eye movement disorder which results in drooping eyelids and misaligned eyeballs. Some of these patients, it turned out, had CFEOM3 as part of a larger syndrome. The lab of Elizabeth Engle, MD, Professor ofNeurology and Ophthalmology at Children's and senior author of the paper, has been a world leader in understanding the various forms of CFEOM, showing that they result from abnormal development of the nerves that control the muscles of the eyeball.
"Many ophthalmologists still believe CFEOM is a muscle disorder and not a nerve disorder," says Engle. In fact, she says, CFEOM3 now serves as a sensitive diagnostic marker for other neurologic disorders that interfere with the ability of the brain to wire up properly.
The newly implicated TUBB3 gene is active only in neurons and appears to be critical in the process of axon guidance--by which nerve fibers navigate to specific targets in the developing nervous system. TUBB3 manufactures a protein that is part of microtubules, hollow tubes that provide structural support to cells and also serve as highways upon which other cellular proteins known as kinesins travel. Kinesins carry vital cargo around the cell, making them essential to cell function and development.
TUBB3 is known to be unique in building microtubules that are very dynamic and can grow and shorten in response to external cues--suggesting a possible role in axon guidance.
"We wondered, why is TUBB3 only in neurons, and why is it so dynamic?" asks Max Tischfield, PhD, the paper's first author, who recently completed his graduate studies in the Engle lab. "Perhaps it has evolved a special ability to help an axon find its correct target."
Experiments in mouse and yeast models support this idea. When Tischfield mutated TUBB3 in yeast, microtubules had a diminished ability to lengthen and shorten. When mutated in mice, the animals' nerve fiber networks failed to grow toward their intended targets. Furthermore, some of the TUBB3 mutations diminished the ability of kinesins to move along microtubules, hindering their ability to transport cargo throughout nerve fibers.
These observations are consistent with studies of patients with CFEOM3 and TUBB3 mutations. Clinical examination of these patients suggests that certain nerve fibers fail to properly stimulate the eye muscles. "Dr. Engle and her colleagues have identified a new cause of an ocular disorder that affects children's eye alignment and movement, which is a rare type of strabismus. This work highlights the delicate balance of factors required for normal development of the visual system, and provides clues for better diagnosis of these conditions," says Paul A. Sieving, M.D., Ph.D., director of the National Eye Institute, part of the National Institutes of Health, which contributed funding for the study.
Further observation of patients with TUBB3 mutations revealed a broad range of neurological problems that also arise from a failure to maintain functional nerve connections: facial muscle paralysis, ambulatory difficulties, and a range of social and behavioral disturbances that can sometimes resemble certain aspects of autism. Patients with certain TUBB3 mutations also develop progressive sensory loss and muscle wasting in the feet, legs and arms due to degeneration of peripheral motor and sensory nerves.
Overall, the spectrum of neurological dysfunction shows how important microtubules and TUBB3 are to brain and nervous system, and may point the way toward future treatment strategies.
Although at present it is impossible to treat problems that originate very early in the womb, doctors may still be able to strategize treatment options for other debilitating aspects of TUBB3 syndromes, such as the progressive degeneration of peripheral motor and sensory nerves in young adults. This may be possible by administering drugs that directly affect the properties of the mutated microtubules, for example. "The more we understand the specific disorders and disease spectrum, the easier it will be to provide targeted therapy," Engle says.
The research was supported by grants from the National Eye Institute. Engle is an investigator with the Howard Hughes Medical Institute.
Citation: Max A Tischfield, PhD; Hagit N Baris, MD; Chen Wu, PhD; Guenther Rudolph, MD; Lionel Van Maldergem, MD; Wei He, BA; Wai-Man Chan, B.S.; Caroline Andrews, M.S.; Joseph Demer, MD PhD; Richard L Robertson, MD; David A Mackey, MD; Jonathan B Ruddle, MD; Thomas D Bird, MD; Irene Gottlob, MD; Christina Pieh, MD; Elias I Traboulsi, MD; Scott L Pomeroy, MD PhD; David G Hunter, MD PhD; Janet S Soul, MD; Anna Newlin, MS, CGC ; Louise J Sabol, MD; Edward J Doherty, MD; Clara E de Uzcátegui, MD; Nicholas de Uzcátegui, MD; Mary Louise Z Collins, MD; Emin C Sener, MD; Bettina Wabbels, MD; Heide Hellebrand, MD; Thomas Meitinger, MD; Teresa de Berardinis, MD; Adriano Magli, MD; Costantino Schiavi, MD; Marco Pastore-Trossello, MD; Feray Koc, MD; Agnes M Wong, MD; Alex V Levin, MD; Michael T Geraghty, MD; Maria Descartes, MD; Maree Flaherty, MD; Robyn V Jamieson, MD; Hans U Møller, MD; Ingo Meuthen, MD; David F Callen, PhD; Janet Kerwin, PhD; Susan Lindsay, PhD; Alfons Meindl, PhD; Mohan L Gupta, Jr., PhD; David Pellman, MD; Elizabeth C Engle, MD. "Human TUBB3 mutations perturb microtubule dynamics, kinesin interactions, and axon guidance." Cell. Jan. 8, 2009.
Children's Hospital Boston
Founded in 1869 as a 20-bed hospital for children, Children's Hospital Boston today is one of the nation's leading pediatric medical centers, the primary pediatric teaching hospital of Harvard Medical School, and the largest provider of health care to Massachusetts children. In addition to 396 pediatric and adolescent inpatient beds and more than 100 outpatient programs, Children's houses the world's largest research enterprise based at a pediatric medical center, where its discoveries benefit both children and adults. More than 500 scientists, including eight members of the National Academy of Sciences, 11 members of the Institute of Medicine and 13 members of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute comprise Children's research community. For more information about the hospital visit:www.childrenshospital.org/newsroom. | <urn:uuid:d7daba8d-2845-44aa-bba6-866467522de6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.childrenshospital.org/news-and-events/2010/january-2010/rare-eye-movement-disorders-provide-insight-on-how-the-nervous-system-develops | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00018-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.91577 | 1,573 | 3.140625 | 3 |
July 12, 2013
Penn Medicine Study Reveals Promise of "Human Computing Power" via Crowdsourcing to Speed Medical Research
Researchers Call for Guidelines for Utilizing Novel Approach to Advance Health and Medicine
PHILADELPHIA — “Human computing power” harnessed from ordinary citizens across the world has the potential to accelerate the pace of health care research of all kinds, a team from the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, writes in a new review published online in the Journal of General Internal Medicine. In fact, they suggest, crowdsourcing – a research method that allows investigators to engage thousands of people to provide either data or data analysis, usually via online communications – could even improve the quality of research while reducing the costs.
But the field is new, and the team’s findings suggest that standardized guidelines for health care crowdsourcing ventures are needed so that data can be collected, reported, and replicated most efficiently.
“While the concept of ‘citizen science’ has been in existence for more than a century and crowdsourcing has been used in science for at least a decade, it has been utilized primarily by non-medical fields and little is known about its potential in health research,” said the study’s senior author Raina Merchant, MD, an assistant professor of Emergency Medicine at Penn.
Merchant and colleagues successfully utilized crowdsourcing in a recent study to locate and catalog the locations of lifesaving automated external defibrillators (AEDs) throughout Philadelphia in the MyHeartMap Challenge. Their study led to the identification of more than 1,400 AEDs in public places, and they hope to replicate the study in other major cities across the U.S.
For the current review, in addition to a traditional database search, her team employed crowdsourcing again to perform a literature search for health and medical research articles using two free websites: Yahoo! Answers (answers.yahoo.com) and Quora (quora.com). Through this approach, they were able to collect and analyze 21 health-related studies that include crowdsourcing techniques. The studies collectively engaged a crowd of over 136,000 people, ranging in focus from tracking H1N1 influenza outbreaks in near real time to classifying different types of polyps in the colon.
“There is understandably some apprehension about letting the lay public in on medical research or even assisting with making medical diagnoses because the stakes are so high in medicine. However, studies we reviewed showed that the crowd can be very successful, such as solving novel complex protein structure problems or identifying malaria infected red blood cells with a similar accuracy as a medical professional,” said the study’s first author Benjamin Ranard, a third year medical student in the Perelman School of Medicine.
The research team found that the studies centered around four main categories of tasks: problem solving, data processing, surveillance/monitoring and surveying.
However, they found considerable variability in the amount and type of data reported about the crowd and the experimental set up, which would make it difficult for other researchers to replicate or model their work for their own research. For instance, the articles rarely reported data about the demographics of the crowd participating, including information standard to most clinical trials such as the size of the cohort, age, gender, and geographic location. They also noted that the limited amount of studies they found is surprising given the potential benefits of this approach.
The authors recommend that other health and medical investigators should look at their own research projects and consider involving the public through crowdsourcing. Whenever research requires human processing that computers alone cannot do, such as visually sorting pictures or other data, they say there is a potential to involve the crowd. Crowdsourcing can also be used to take advantage of problem solving skills members of the public may have (such as solving three-dimensional puzzles), or to employ the crowd to act as human sensors reporting data about the environment (for example, reporting cases of influenza-like symptoms).
“Every health field from studying chronic diseases to global health has a potential need for human computing power that crowdsourcing could fill to accelerate research. Prior work has heralded crowdsourcing as a feasible method for data collection, but a clear roadmap for the types of questions crowdsourcing could answer and the ways it could be applied has been lacking,” said Merchant. “This review points to the need for streamlining the process and implementing more rigorous guidelines for this approach.”
They call for continued study of the scope of crowdsourcing to determine where it might be as useful as traditional data. To further explore the power of crowdsourcing and other research approaches via social media, Merchant was recently appointed director of the Social Media Lab at the Penn Medicine Center for Health Care Innovation. In this role, she will lead a program exploring ways in which new communication channels can enhance Penn’s ability to understand and improve the health and health care of patients and other populations.
Other Penn Medicine authors include Yoonhee P. Ha, MSc , Zachary F. Meisel, MD, MPH, MS, David A. Asch, MD, MBA and, Lance B. Becker, MD.
The study was funded in part by the National Institutes of Health (K23 grant 10714038).
Penn Medicine is one of the world's leading academic medical centers, dedicated to the related missions of medical education, biomedical research, and excellence in patient care. Penn Medicine consists of the Raymond and Ruth Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania (founded in 1765 as the nation's first medical school) and the University of Pennsylvania Health System, which together form a $4.3 billion enterprise.
The Perelman School of Medicine has been ranked among the top five medical schools in the United States for the past 17 years, according to U.S. News & World Report's survey of research-oriented medical schools. The School is consistently among the nation's top recipients of funding from the National Institutes of Health, with $392 million awarded in the 2013 fiscal year.
The University of Pennsylvania Health System's patient care facilities include: The Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania -- recognized as one of the nation's top "Honor Roll" hospitals by U.S. News & World Report; Penn Presbyterian Medical Center; Chester County Hospital; Lancaster General Health; Penn Wissahickon Hospice; and Pennsylvania Hospital -- the nation's first hospital, founded in 1751. Additional affiliated inpatient care facilities and services throughout the Philadelphia region include Chestnut Hill Hospital and Good Shepherd Penn Partners, a partnership between Good Shepherd Rehabilitation Network and Penn Medicine.
Penn Medicine is committed to improving lives and health through a variety of community-based programs and activities. In fiscal year 2013, Penn Medicine provided $814 million to benefit our community. | <urn:uuid:3a2d0496-421c-4772-afb8-56653ff44f75> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.uphs.upenn.edu/news/News_Releases/2013/07/merchant/print.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948458 | 1,398 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Application Server versus Web Server
An embedded web server is a HTTP protocol stack that is limited to handling HTTP requests. In contrast, an embedded application server is a software framework dedicated to the efficient execution of programs, routines, or scripts for supporting the construction of various applications. An application server also contains a web server. Thus, one may consider a web server a subset of an application server. While a web server mainly deals with sending HTML for display in a web browser, an application server provides access to server side logic (server applications) for use by client application programs.
Think of an application server as a GUI engine that is connected to a remote display with applications running in the server dynamically creating the user interface and presenting the user interface in, for example, a browser. A web server is limited to presenting static (pre-designed) web pages and is consequently of little value or no value for designing GUI applications since a GUI typically changes the look and behavior when used by a client. Some web servers allow extensions such as CGI and other means for managing dynamic content. These extensions typically limit the GUI designer and make it time consuming and difficult to design GUI applications.
A standard web server is typically associated with a directory on a file system. This directory contains the static web content for the application. The Barracuda Embedded Web Server can function as a standard web server by creating one instance of a resource reader and inserting the resource reader as a root directory in the virtual file system. The resource reader can, for example, be associated with one DiskIo that is configured to read files from a specific location in your file system. The resource reader is designed to be efficient at serving static content and the Barracuda Embedded Web Server is therefore also very efficient at serving content similar to a standard web server. However, unlike a regular web server, the resource reader can be LSP enabled, meaning that it will run pages on the server that end with the extension .lsp. In other words, the page is loaded and executed on the server and not returned as a static file to the web client.
The following diagram shows the Barracuda Embedded Web/Application Server and the major plugins such as the LSP plugin. The diagram is interactive, and more information appears when you move your mouse over the diagram. See our products page for an introduction to the various components.
Operating Systems and Platforms:
The Barracuda Application Server has been ported to many popular embedded operating systems, including INTEGRITY and µ-velOSity (Green Hills Software), VxWorks (Wind River), ThreadX/NetX (Express Logic), RTXC Quadros (Quadros Systems), QNX (QNX Software Systems), Embedded Linux, Windows CE, embOS (SEGGER), SMX (Micro Digital), and MQX (Freescale). | <urn:uuid:0c390b4f-9e03-4f38-8b47-9a6336d6e93d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.barracudaserver.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.889399 | 586 | 3.0625 | 3 |
The result is significant among the research community that work with quantum problems, but is insignificant and will not be considered as something interesting by the crypto community. When it comes to employment of methods for generation of uniformly distributed random numbers (both deterministic or ones that come from physical sources) - there are broadly accepted standards defined by NIST. So far those standards have served well both the crypto and information-security scientific community as well as the industry.
See Nathan O. Sokal, "Optimum choice of noise frequency band and sampling rate for generating random binary digits from clipped white noise," IEEE Transactions on Computers, vol. C-21, no. 6, June 1972, pp. 614-615. Random-digit generators based on the method described in the referenced article were manufactured in quantity in the late 1960s/early 1970s, and met exacting requirements for near-zero autocorrelation functions of the present digit to previous digits 1, 2, 3 ... digits prior to the present digit. Reprints, and assistance in applying the theory to actual hardware, are available from email@example.com .
What's so special about this? Surely a well-constructed analog circuit designed to generate a white noise spectrum, and free of other noise artifacts, followed by an ADC can be arranged to create a Gaussian-normal number stream.
Of course, this method fails when a coding application requires either algorithmic replication at a reciving site, or some other method of seeding the remote generator with a certain starting sequence. The latter can be achieved using the synchronization of specially-designed (analog) chaotic circuits.
"Today these applications have to depend on pseudo-random methods based on deterministic calculations of a physical system, usually based on a "seed" starting value."
No they don't. The usual source is quantum noise, usually from a reverse biased Zener diode. | <urn:uuid:9936675e-43dc-4da4-bd4f-aeefc3e27501> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eetimes.com/messages.asp?piddl_msgthreadid=30363&piddl_msgid=170763 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00024-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.918869 | 393 | 3.171875 | 3 |
How to Estimate Replacement and Reproduction Costs for the Real Estate License Exam
You will need to know how to estimate replacement and reproduction costs for the Real Estate License Exam. Reproduction cost is the cost to construct an exact duplicate of the subject structure at today’s costs. Replacement cost is the cost to construct a structure with the same usefulness (utility) as a comparable structure using today’s materials and standards.
For example, you may use the cost approach to appraise a house with plaster walls. A reproduction cost estimate requires estimating the cost to construct plaster walls. A replacement cost estimate, however, estimates the cost to put up sheet rock walls according to the current standard.
Replacement cost is most often used in the cost approach. Reproduction cost would be used for say historically or architecturally significant structures.
Two types of costs are included in every construction cost estimate: direct costs and indirect costs. Direct costs, also called hard costs, are those expenses directly associated with the actual construction of a building, including labor and building materials. Indirect or soft costs are expenses not directly related to the physical construction process, including permit fees, architectural costs, and builder’s profit.
You should know the four methods for estimating reproduction or replacement cost. For exam purposes, your ability to distinguish among the four methods by their characteristics is sufficient. Generally, no calculations are required. The four methods include
Square footage method: Involves calculating the cost of construction by multiplying the square footage of the structure by the construction cost for that particular type of building.
For example, you’d multiply a $100 per square foot cost to build the kind of house you’re appraising by the 2,000 square foot total area of the house to arrive at a cost estimate of $200,000 to replace the structure. The square footage method is the one more commonly used by appraisers to estimate replacement or reproduction cost.
Unit-in-place method: Provides the cost to construct a building by estimating the installation costs, including materials, of the individual components of the structure. So if you know you need 1,000 square feet of sheet rock to cover the walls, you need to find out the cost of buying, installing, and finishing the sheet rock on a per-square-foot basis and then multiply by 1,000 square feet.
Another approach to this method is to estimate the four main steps (units) to building a house. For instance, cost of foundation, cost of roof and framing, cost of mechanicals, and cost of walls and finish work. Each step is estimated separately and then all are added together.
Quantity survey method: More detailed than the previous method, it requires you to break down all the components of a building and estimate the cost of the material and installation separately. So in the sheet rock example, you estimate so many dollars each to buy the sheet rock, screws, and tape, and to pay for the installation.
Index method: Requires you to know the original construction cost (without land) of the subject building. You then multiply that original cost by a number that takes into account the increase in construction costs since the building was built. National companies that do this kind of research publish these numbers.
If a building cost $20,000 to build originally, and the current index in that area for this type of structure is 1.80, the calculation is $100,000 x 1.80 = $180,000, or the cost to construct the same building today. | <urn:uuid:f4599127-6a8e-456c-a1dd-282c21e20662> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/how-to-estimate-replacement-and-reproduction-costs.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00024-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932265 | 720 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Acid reflux is a common problem in the United States. About one in seven American adults reports having heartburn or regurgitation – the cardinal symptoms of acid reflux – at least once weekly. Many people with acid reflux seek relief in over-the-counter acid-suppressing medications, but these drugs may not completely control your symptoms. To optimally address acid reflux, you may need to alter habits that contribute to your condition. Medical or even surgical treatment may be required to deal with some of the underlying causes of acid reflux.
According to a 2010 review in the "World Journal of Gastroenterology," everyone experiences small amounts of “physiologic” reflux. Under normal circumstances, large reflux events are prevented by a muscular, valve-like area at the bottom of your esophagus, the tube that connects your throat with your stomach. When small amounts of acidic stomach contents do rise into your esophagus, this material is normally cleared by muscular contractions in your esophagus, assisted by saliva constantly arriving from above. If any of these mechanisms fail, you are more likely to have symptoms of acid reflux.
Any factor that increases the pressure within your abdominal cavity heightens your risk for acid reflux. Tight clothing, for example, can contribute to reflux. People who are overweight are much more likely to have acid reflux than normal-weight individuals. A study published in the August 2003 issue of the "International Journal of Epidemiology" demonstrated a direct link between body mass index and acid reflux symptoms. If your BMI is above 30, you are nearly three times as likely to have heartburn or regurgitation as someone of normal weight.
The muscular region at the bottom of your esophagus – the lower esophageal sphincter – can be loosened by chemicals found in your diet or medications. If the LES loosens, acid is far more likely to rise into your esophagus. Certain foods, such as chocolate, onions, garlic, citrus fruits and tomatoes, have been linked to acid reflux. Caffeine, nicotine and alcohol may also trigger reflux. And a number of medications -- including many common medications used to treat asthma, high blood pressure, heart disease and anxiety -- can aggravate acid reflux. Your doctor can review the medications you are taking and determine if any are contributing to your symptoms.
Anatomical and Systemic Disorders
Several conditions can interfere with the mechanical function of your esophagus and the integrity of your lower esophageal sphincter. A hiatal hernia, which occurs when a portion of your stomach bulges upward into your chest cavity, reduces the effectiveness of the LES and permits freer reflux of acidic stomach contents. Autoimmune disorders – scleroderma is the classic example – may reduce esophageal muscular activity and impair its normal protective mechanisms. In elderly people, a condition called presbyesophagus, or “old esophagus,” may have a similar effect.
Gastroesophageal reflux disease is a condition that occurs when acid reflux causes persistent symptoms or complications, such as esophageal scarring or esophageal cancer. GERD is one of the most common gastrointestinal disorders in developed countries. The prevalence of GERD in wealthier nations may largely be due to lifestyle factors, many of which are modifiable. If you have recurrent heartburn or regurgitation, see your doctor to discuss how your symptoms can be controlled.
- American Family Physician: Atypical Presentations of Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
- World Journal of Gastroenterology: Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease: From Pathophysiology to Treatment
- International Journal of Epidemiology: Relationship between Body Mass and Gastro-oesophageal Reflux Symptoms: The Bristol Helicobacter Project
- American Family Physician: Management of Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
- Jupiterimages/Polka Dot/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:f4a44f20-a57f-4d7c-96d8-310f2e195a96> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://livehealthy.chron.com/things-cause-acid-reflux-1177.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00164-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.898369 | 835 | 3.421875 | 3 |
Time: 430 BC.
"Malachi" means "my messenger." We know nothing of the
prophet's parentage, ancestral or tribal roots, geographical origin, or other
vocation. All we know is that he received and communicated the word of Yahweh to
the Jews of his day.
Some scholars have tried to prove that "Malachi" was not the
name of a prophet but the title of an anonymous prophet. None of the references
to this book in the NT mention Malachi by name (cp Mat 11:10; Mark 1:2; Luke
7:27). The arguments for anonymity rest on three points:
Malachi's reference to "your governor" (Mal 1:8) indicates
that he wrote after 538 BC, when Cyrus the Persian allowed the Jews to return to
their land, which was under Persian control. The word translated "governor" is
"pehah", a Persian title (cp Ezra 5:3,6,14; 6:6,7,13; Dan 3:2,3,27; 6:7).
Zerubbabel had this title (Hab 1:1,14; 2:2,21) as did Nehemiah (Neh 5:14;
12:26). Malachi must have written after the temple had been rebuilt since he
referred to worship there (Mal 1:6-14; 2:7-9, 13; 3:7-10). This would force a
date after 515 BC when temple restoration was complete.
- "Malachi" is a title rather than a name in its
form. The LXX translators rendered it "my messenger" in Mal 1:1. However, it
could be a short form of a name such as Malachiyyah, "messenger of Yahweh."
There are several other shortened forms of names similar to this in the Old
Testament (eg, cp 'abi in 2Ki 18:2 with 'abiyyah in 2Ch 29:1; and cp 'uri in 1Ki
4:19 with 'uriyyah in 1Ch 11:41).
- The Targum (an
ancient Aramaic translation and paraphrase of OT) did not consider Malachi the
writer but ascribed it to Ezra. The Talmud (a Jewish interpretation compiled
between 450 BC and 500 AD) credited Mordecai with writing it. But there is
little other support for Ezra or Mordecai's authorship of this
- "Malachi" appears in Mal 3:1 as an
anonymous designation meaning "my messenger," so it may mean the same thing in
Mal 1:1. However, the Malachi in Mal 3:1 seems clearly to be a wordplay on the
name of the prophet in Mal 1:1.
Since Malachi addressed many of the same matters that Nehemiah
tried to reform, it is tempting to date Malachi during Nehemiah's governorship.
Some have conjectured that Malachi ministered while Nehemiah was away from
Jerusalem. In the twelfth year of his governorship, Nehemiah returned to Persia
for an unknown period of time (Neh 5:14; 13:6). Malachi probably wrote during
the years Nehemiah ministered (445-420 BC), and perhaps between 432 and 431 BC,
the years when Nehemiah was away from Jerusalem. [See
Lesson, Post-exile period, dates.]
Summary: Malachi's message comes to the people in a
time of great spiritual decline. It is approx 80 years after the rebuilding of
the temple and the promises of the coming Messiah have not yet been realized. As
a result, the people had become lazy and developed an increasingly casual
attitude toward the worship of God. Malachi states that their sacrifices were
unacceptable to God, husbands were unfaithful, and the priests had neglected
Malachi's notable messianic prophecy deals with the forerunner
of the Messiah (Mal 3:1; 4:5). He would be like Elijah and would call the
Israelites to repentance (cp Mat 11:14; 17:12-13; Mark 9:11-13; Luke
Heading: Mal 1:1
First oracle: Yahweh's love for Israel: Mal 1:2-5
Second oracle: The priests' illicit practices and indifferent
attitudes: Mal 1:6 -- 2:9
Third oracle: The people's mixed marriages and divorces: Mal
- Their sins: Mal 1:6-14
- Their warning: Mal
Fourth oracle: The problem of God's justice: Mal 2:17 --
Fifth oracle: The people's sin of robbing God: Mal
Sixth oracle: The arrogant and the humble: Mal 3:13 --
A concluding promise and warning: Mal 4:4-6. | <urn:uuid:40012436-2094-4900-9909-4bcfa815149e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.christadelphianbooks.org/agora/art_less/m01.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932929 | 1,045 | 3.28125 | 3 |
The major function of the small intestine is absorption--of nutrients, water, electrolytes, etc. This is an essential function of the gastrointestinal system, and it plays a significant role in regulating the water and electrolyte balance of the body. As described below, the total daily amount of GI secretions is about 8 liters, virtually all of which is reabsorbed; in addition, about 2 liters of ingested fluid must also be absorbed. Obviously, malabsorption, or derangements of the normal absorptive function, can have extremely serious consequences. The daily loss of 8-10 liters of fluid during cholera has just as severe an effect as an equivalent loss from the renal system in uncontrolled diabetes. The surface area of the intestine is well suited to its function: the structural adaptations of mucosal folds, villi and microvilli give a total absorptive area for the small intestine of 200-500 m2, or a 600-fold increase over the projected surface area of a smooth-surfaced tube of equivalent length. The small intestine normally absorbs far in excess of body needs--the major portion of this organ can be removed without deleterious effect. Yet disturbance of the normal absorptive function--by inadequate digestion, accelerated motility, etc.--can rapidly result in serious malnutrition, dehydration or electrolyte imbalance; in young children, diarrhea can quickly become life-threatening.
Absorption of a substance by the intestine signifies its passage through the intestinal epithelium and into the blood or lymph, whereas secretion implies movement in the opposite direction. With regard to absorption, at least two components are involved: (1) movement from the intestinal lumen into the apical (mucosal) end of the absorbing cell and (2) movement from the basilar (serosal) end of the absorbing cell into the subcellular space (and subsequently, into the circulatory or lymphatic systems). Substances entering at the apical surface may be metabolized within the cell, or may appear at the basilar surface in a changed form. For most substrates, movement across the epithelial cell is bidirectional. Therefore, net movement or net flux of a substrate is the difference between movement into and movement out of the cell (absorption vs. secretion, or influx vs. efflux).
Transport across the intestine may be active or passive: active transport requires energy, whereas passive transport does not. Also, active transport may involve movement of a substance against a concentration gradient (that is, from a region of lower to higher concentration), while substances that are passively transported always move with the concentration gradient. Facilitated diffusion is a type of passive transport which, unlike simple diffusion, uses a carrier; it is therefore more rapid than simple diffusion.
Active transport mechanisms have been identified for intestinal absorption of many substances including glucose, galactose, amino acids, calcium, iron, folic acid, ascorbic acid, thiamin and bile acids. Fructose, riboflavin and vitamin B12 (in combination with intrinsic factor) are among the substances absorbed by facilitated diffusion.
Figure 1 illustrates the possible types of movement across the small intestine, for any given substance.
An important function of both small intestine and colon is the absorption of water and electrolytes. Approximately 2000 ml of food and drink is ingested daily, and the volume of gastrointestinal secretions (salivary, gastric, biliary, pancreatic and intestinal) is about 8,000 ml daily; therefore, approximately 10 liters of fluid enters the intestine each day. Of the 8 liters secreted, about 1-1.5 liters enter as saliva, 2-3 liters are secreted by the stomach, about 2 liters enter as bile and pancreatic secretion (about 1 liter each), and about 2 liters are secreted by the small intestine. (Please note that these figures are approximate, not absolute. Volumes may vary, depending on experimental method and conditions.) Of the 10 liters which enters the gut each day, only about 1 liter passes into the colon, about 90% having been absorbed across the small intestinal epithelium. Only about 150 ml is lost in the feces daily, with the remainder being absorbed by the colon. It should be obvious that any derangement in intestinal fluid absorption would profoundly influence the balance of fluid and electrolytes in the body, and that the normal functioning of the intestines plays a significant role in regulating water and electrolyte balance.
The net absorption or net secretion of water in the intestine is the result of bidirectional movements of water from mucosa to serosa (m-->s flux or absorption) and from serosa to mucosa (s-->m flux or secretion). In the human intestine, these unidirectional fluxes exceed net movement 2-3 fold. The rate and direction of net fluid movement depend on tonicity of the meal, and move toward the achievement of isotonicity.
The intestinal mucosal surface consists of a bimolecular lipid membrane, which (presumably) contains small pores or channels. Water and water-soluble substances can hypothetically enter the cell through these pores only, while lipid-soluble substrates can directly cross the lipid cell membrane. Specialized protein pores, referred to as aquaporins (AQP) have been identified in many tissues, including colon epithelium; water channel isoforms in small intestinal epithelium remain to be discovered.
Intestinal absorption of water is a passive process and requires movement of solutes. Water accompanies solute and moves across the intestinal mucosa in response to osmotic gradients. The rate of water uptake in any region of the intestine is a function of solute absorption in this region. All areas of the intestines (including small bowel and colon) absorb water, the relative amounts absorbed depending on the presence of solutes, and the types of solutes present. In the jejunum, the active transport of sugars and amino acids causes passive movement of salt and water, which accounts for most of the water uptake in this area. In the ileum, most water movement is accounted for by active sodium transport. As described in Johnson (Gastrointestinal Physiology), coupled water and sodium transport involves a specialized mechanism that pumps sodium into the lateral spaces, resulting in relatively high osmotic pressure in that region. Water then enters the lateral space from the cell (transcellular flux) and--perhaps--the lumen (paracellular flux), reducing the osmotic pressure but increasing the hydrostatic pressure. Fluid is then forced out of the lateral space into the interstitial space. The net effect is that isotonic fluid is transported from the lumen into the extracellular fluid. This hypothesis of fluid absorption is illustrated in Figure 12-5, on page 137 of the Johnson resource.
In contrast to water transport, intestinal transport of sodium is quite a complex process, actually a number of different processes. Apparently a number of different mechanisms exist, there is considerable variation between species, and much of the available information is largely theoretical.
Mechanism(s): both passive and active mechanisms exist, for Na+ transport by the small intestine. Active transport can be independent or linked to the transport of other solutes (e.g., sugars). The latter is referred to as coupled transport or cotransport. It has been postulated that independent pumping of Na+ by a pump in the basolateral membrane accounts for about 20% of the total Na+ absorbed by active transport mechanisms; the remaining 80% is absorbed via cotransport. Cotransport with sugars is illustrated in Figure 11-6, on page 114 of the Johnson reference. Cotransport with amino acids or (primarily in the ileum) bile acids proceeds by a similar, if not identical, mechanism. Cotransport with Cl- probably accounts for most of the sodium absorption in the mammalian small intestine. This carrier coupling of Na+ and Cl-, whereby both ions enter via a common carrier, should be distinguished from electrical coupling of Na+ and Cl-, wherein Cl- passively follows the movement of Na+ across the epithelial membrane. In all instances of coupled transport, the addition of one cotransported species greatly enhances the absorption of the other. The driving force for all types of active Na+ transport is the hydrolysis of ATP, catalyzed by the N+/K+ ATPase located at the basolateral membrane. This pump exchanges Na+ (out) for K+ (in), thus maintaining a steep electrochemical gradient for the entry of Na+ from the lumen. Passive transport of Na+ occurs largely through the lateral spaces and tight junctions. That is, it is largely paracellular, as opposed to active transport which appears to be largely transcellular. Once Na+ has entered the cell (by whatever mechanism), it is pumped out by the Na+ pump at the basolateral border. The proposed mechanism(s) for Na+ (and Cl-) transport in the small intestine is shown in Figure 12-2 on page 133 of the Johnson resource.
Site: Sodium absorption occurs by different mechanisms in different parts of the intestine: in the jejunum, sodium is mostly absorbed via cotransport, as a result of active uptake of sugars and amino acids (both of these processes require the presence of Na+); in the ileum Na+ itself is absorbed actively, against a significant electrochemical gradient. In the jejunum, sodium transport is greatly influenced by fluid movement and is stimulated by the presence of sugars; in the ileum, none of these factors affect sodium movement. Sodium is also actively absorbed in the colon.
In the presence of bicarbonate, sodium can be absorbed from the jejunum against electrochemical gradients (i.e., actively). Bicarbonate absorption in the jejunum appears to be mediated by active secretion of hydrogen ions; in this case, the link between sodium and bicarbonate transport may be explained by sodium-hydrogen exchange. If bicarbonate concentration in the luminal contents falls below 40-45 mM, bicarbonate will be secreted by the ileum or colon; it will be absorbed by the ileal mucosa if its concentration is greater than 40-45 mM. Secretion of bicarbonate is to some extent coupled with chloride absorption in an ion exchange process (countertransport), but each ion is secreted or absorbed by other mechanisms as well. Colonic secretion of bicarbonate appears to be an active process (see Colonic Absorption below).
A major part of chloride absorption may be due to sodium absorption, for there is a close parallel between the absorption of these two electrolytes (see above). Chloride is largely not transported against electrochemical gradients, but is rather absorbed and secreted down an electrochemical gradient. However, there is some evidence for the existence of an active transport mechanism, as well.
Congenital chloridorrhea is apparently the only specific disturbance of ion transport in human ileum. This rare condition is characterized by excessive loss of Cl- and water in stools, resulting in persistent hypochloremic, hypokalemic alkalosis, and episodes of severe Na+ and K+ dehydration.
As with other substrates, the net movement of K+ across the intestinal mucosa is determined by the difference between two opposing unidirectional fluxes; compared to sodium fluxes, potassium fluxes are small. Net movement of K+ in jejunum and ileum occurs only down the electrochemical gradient (i.e., it is largely passive). Potassium diffuses primarily through the lateral spaces and tight junctions. In the colon potassium is usually secreted, and the luminal concentration must be above 25 mEq/L for net absorption to take place. This explains why potassium deficiency tends to develop in diarrhea. Potassium secretion by the colon appears to be a passive process.
Calcium and Iron
In contrast to the complete and largely unregulated absorption of the common monovalent electrolytes, the divalent cations calcium and iron are incompletely absorbed, and this absorption is regulated, depending on body stores of these ions. If there is a positive balance of calcium or iron, intestinal absorption is reduced; increased absorption results in the case of a negative balance.
Iron balance differs from that of other trace elements in that it is regulated primarily by absorption, not excretion. Because the body's ability to excrete iron is very limited, intestinal iron uptake is closely restricted to about 1 mg, which is the amount usually excreted daily in the urine and feces. This is a small fraction (0.03%) of the total body iron content. Relatively large amounts are lost, of course, during menstruation. The exact amount absorbed is determined by many factors, which may be classified as luminal, epithelial and corporeal. These will be discussed in more detail later.
Site. Dietary iron is taken up largely in the duodenum and upper jejunum, but any segment of small bowel is capable of absorbing reduced iron. There is much evidence that iron uptake in the proximal small intestine is at least partly energy-dependent (active), particularly at low iron concentrations. At higher luminal concentrations of iron, a non-energy-dependent mechanism seems to prevail.
Mechanism. The transfer of iron from the intestinal lumen to the portal circulation involves two separate phases: the passage of iron across the brush border into the epithelial cell and the subsequent transfer of some of this iron across the basal (serosal) surface of the cell into the blood. Iron deficiency seems to facilitate the passage of dietary iron across the serosal barrier into the blood, so that less iron accumulates in the mucosa. The serosal surface of the cell is apparently the major site of control of iron entry into the body. However, there is evidence that uptake of iron at the mucosal surface may also be affected by the body's iron status.
It should be noted that there are two kinds of iron in the diet with respect to the mechanism of absorption: heme iron (derived from hemoglobin and myoglobin) and non-heme iron (derived mainly from cereals, vegetables, fruits, etc.). Heme iron forms a relatively minor part of dietary iron intake; even in diets with a high meat content it accounts for only 10-15% of the total iron intake. However, the bioavailability (portion absorbed) of heme iron is higher than that of non-heme iron (22% vs. 2%). One probable reason is that heme iron is absorbed as an iron-porphyrin complex directly into the mucosal cells, and is not as affected by dietary factors which inhibit iron uptake. Iron bioavailability will be further discussed below.
The iron absorption process may be divided into the following steps:
Factors controlling absorption. These may be classified as intraluminal, mucosal, and corporeal as shown in Figure 2.
Intraluminal factors are present in the lumen of the gut (largely the form of iron which is present, and the presence of other ingested or secreted compounds). Mucosal factors include structural and functional characteristics of the intestinal epithelial cell, primarily its iron content. Corporeal factors include body iron stores. The most important regulator and stimulant of iron absorption is a negative iron balance. This will be reflected in decreased body iron stores and consequently in reduced iron content in intestinal epithelial cells. Each of the three classes of factors affecting iron absorption will be discussed below.
|Table 1: Intraluminal Factors Affecting Iron Absorption|
|INCREASE ABSORPTION||DECREASE ABSORPTION|
Absorption proportional to amount
Ferrous is better absorbed than ferric
Ascorbic, succinic and other organic acids
Sugars (Fructose, Sorbitol)
| Chelates: |
Dietary fiber (bran, lignin)
Ca, Mn, Cu, Cd, Co
|Secretions other than bicarbonate||Bicarbonate|
Some of the factors affecting iron availability are summarized in Table 1. Many components of the complex modern diet may either stimulate or inhibit iron absorption: for example, a meat factor present in animal protein (excluding dairy products) enhances the absorption of non-heme iron; chelates may either facilitate absorption (ascorbic acid) by forming a complex with iron that remains soluble at the high duodenal pH, or they may impair iron absorption (EDTA, a common antioxidant added to foods) by effectively competing for iron with the intestinal mucosa; phosphate and calcium seem to reduce iron absorption; bran, presumably due to its phytate content, decreases iron absorption from bread. Apparently, chelated iron compounds are absorbed by mechanisms other than those for unchelated iron salts. The heme chelate of iron, present for example in ingested meat, is not affected by many of the factors which alter the rate of uptake of iron salts.
Recently a model has been proposed whereby the availability of iron in a given meal may be calculated. This method takes into account five factors--total iron, heme iron, non-heme iron, ascorbic acid, and meat/poultry/fish--the iron content of the meal can then be classified as having high, medium or low availability. It should be noted that although meat has a marked stimulatory effect on iron absorption, the absorption of iron from a vegetarian diet can be very high (equivalent to meat-containing diet) if the ascorbic acid content is also high.
Infants absorb 50-70% of the iron in human milk, as contrasted with 10% of the iron in cow's milk, and 3-5% of the iron in iron-fortified proprietary formulas. This difference is apparently due to the composition of these substances--i.e., the presence in human milk of substances which promote or inhibit iron absorption. Recent studies suggest that the addition of supplemental food to the diet of the breast-fed infant impairs the bioavailability of the iron from human milk.
Although iron absorption is promoted by a more acidic environment (which promotes solubility of iron salts), taking antacids concomitantly does not necessarily render supplemental iron ineffective. Much depends on the choice of an appropriate antacid.
The decreased iron absorption seen in elderly individuals may be due at least in part to achlorhydria, which is much more common in the elderly.
In addition, there is a phenomenon known as mucosal block, whereby the intestine is temporarily refractory to iron absorption following the ingestion of a large dose of iron. Because of this refractory period, the replacement of storage iron in an iron-deficient subject is a necessarily slow process. Iron absorption is also affected by epithelial factors which are far less specific: for example, decreased absorptive surface area, defective epithelial cells, or decreased mucosal blood flow will decrease the absorption of iron (and all other absorbable substances).
Calcium is absorbed as the divalent cation. Most dietary calcium is not ionic, and is insoluble at a neutral pH. Gastric acid solubilizes Ca++ salts and allows their absorption from the intestine.
Site: Calcium is absorbed from the duodenum and upper jejunum primarily by an active vitamin D-dependent transcellular process; in the ileum, the predominant process is passive vitamin D-independent, paracellular diffusion. Absorption of Ca++ in the ileum is about one-third as rapid in the upper small intestine. Although the duodenum is the region of most efficient calcium absorption, the greatest proportion of calcium is probably absorbed in the ileum, especially under conditions when transcellular transport is decreased, as in old age.
Mechanism: Not much is known about the mechanism of, or factors influencing, the paracellular transport of calcium. The active (transcellular) transport of calcium is a three-step process: first Ca++ is absorbed from the lumen (probably via facilitated diffusion), then moved through the cytosol from the apical to basolateral surface, and finally extruded across the basolateral membrane into the interstitial fluid. Vitamin D apparently influences each of the three steps. Since the first step is more rapid than the latter steps, intracellular Ca++ concentration rises during absorption. Because of the potential toxicity of calcium to the cell, little calcium entering from the lumen is permitted to diffuse freely across the cell to the basolateral membrane. Mitochondria, with an impressive capacity to accumulate calcium, may facilitate the movement of calcium across the cell. Other organelles (such as lysosomes and smooth endoplasmic reticulum) may also be involved. Such cellular structures, as well as other mechanisms which keep intracellular Ca++ concentration in the micromolar range, are usually referred to as calcium buffers. Calcium buffers in the intestinal epithelial cell include a specific calcium-binding protein (CaBP or calbindin). The active transport mechanism is probably located on or near the basal and/or lateral surfaces of the mucosal cell. Mg++ and Co++ appear to compete with calcium by consistently causing a decrease in the mucosal-to-serosal flux of Ca++.
Controlling factors: It has been postulated that the active metabolite of Vitamin D--1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol--acting on intestinal cells like a steroid hormone, causes increased Ca++ absorption by stimulating the synthesis of calbindin. However, recent studies indicate that Ca++ transport can occur in some species when calbindin is absent, and such transport may decline to very low levels in the presence of abundant calbindin. Although calbindin is certainly involved in the complex process of intestinal calcium transport, it is probably not the only protein induced by Vitamin D. Brush border alkaline phosphatase and a Ca-dependent ATPase have also been found to be stimulated by the vitamin. Other proteins induced by Vitamin D seem to correlate with increased Ca++ absorption, and are currently under investigation.
As with iron, the net amount of Ca++ absorbed is regulated to meet the body's needs. Factors affecting the rate of intestinal absorption of Ca++ include: plasma Ca++ concentration (i.v. infusion of calcium immediately suppresses duodenal and jejunal Ca++ absorption in normal subjects), parathyroid hormone (promotes absorption, probably indirectly by stimulating production of 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol), reproductive status (absorption more rapid in pregnancy), dietary calcium or phosphorus (low levels of either will stimulate the rate of intestinal Ca++ absorption probably by stimulating parathyroid hormone production), bioavailability, the presence of other dietary factors, age (younger animals absorb more rapidly) and degree of physical activity (calcium is lost from the body, regardless of adequate intake, during periods of prolonged immobilization). There is evidence that impaired calcium absorption in the elderly may be due, at least in part, to inadequate production of 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol; other factors may include age-associated structural changes in intestinal mucosa, estrogen withdrawal in postmenopausal women, achlorhydria (more common in elderly), low intake of Vitamin D, and the development of a relative resistance to vitamin D in the aging small intestine.
Calcium transport is affected by a number of hormones: it appears to be stimulated by growth hormone, insulin and gastrin, as well as parathyroid hormone, while it is apparently inhibited by cortisol, thyroxine, glucagon and (possibly) somatostatin. Only about 30% of dietary calcium is absorbed; the remaining 70% is excreted in the feces.
The regulation/secretion of Ca++ transport, and its role in overall calcium balance, is illustrated in Figure 3 and in Figure 12-6, on page 139 of the Johnson resource.
The absorption of fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins is adequately discussed on pages 128-130 of the Johnson resource.
As indicated in the preceding discussion, the colonic mucosa absorbs water, sodium and chloride and secretes potassium and bicarbonate. Sodium can be absorbed against a large concentration gradient, primarily (or solely) via independent (uncoupled) active transport. This active, electrogenic process is apparently located at the basolateral membrane. The colon seems to conserve Na+ more efficiently than the small intestine: it absorbs about 95% of luminal sodium, as compared to 75% absorbed by the small bowel. Bicarbonate is secreted against an electrochemical gradient. Chloride absorption is linked to bicarbonate secretion and sodium transport. Potassium may be absorbed or secreted, depending on the luminal concentration: it is absorbed if the concentration exceeds 15 mEq/L, and is secreted if it falls below this value. Since luminal [K+] is usually less than 15 mEq/L, net secretion normally occurs. Passive diffusion across tight junctions is the primary mechanism of potassium transport in the colon. The passive uptake of water (which largely follows sodium absorption) serves to convert the liquid ileal contents to semisolid feces. Most water and sodium are absorbed in the ascending and transverse colon. The colon has some reserve capacity for absorption; it normally absorbs about 1000 ml daily, but it can apparently absorb as much as 4500 ml if the need arises. This may be very useful in compensating for the decreased absorptive ability of the small bowel in some disease states. When the colonic absorptive capacity is exceeded, diarrhea results, with mainly small bowel contents being lost from the body. However, potassium is also added to this fluid while it traverses the colon (because luminal [K+] is well below 15 mEq/L), and K+ loss may be substantial. Water and electrolyte absorption from the intact human colon may be increased by salt depletion, mineralocorticoids, angiotensin and decreased colonic motility; colonic absorption is decreased by ADH (antidiuretic hormone), bile salts, fatty acids, certain diuretics, and inflammation of the colonic mucosa.
Small Intestinal Secretion (Succus Entericus)
The succus entericus is the exocrine secretion of the small intestine; it does not include any of the hormones secreted by the intestinal mucosa.
Composition. The composition of the fluid secreted by the small intestinal mucosa varies somewhat in different parts of the intestine. As an example, duodenal secretion contains more mucus, due to the presence of Brunner's glands in this area. In general, small intestinal secretion is a thin, colorless or faintly straw-colored fluid. It contains water, mucus, cellular debris (including some intact cells), inorganic salts, and some enzymes.
The concentration of sodium, potassium, calcium and total anions is relatively constant; in both the jejunum and ileum, these concentrations are similar to those of the serum. [Cl-] and [HCO3-] have a reciprocal relation; [HCO3-] is low in jejunal secretion and high in ileal secretion.
The organic matter of the intestinal secretion consists of mucus, enzymes and cellular debris. The enzymes include: a pepsin-like protease, an amylase, a lipase, at least two peptidases, sucrase, maltase, lactase, enterokinase, alkaline phosphatase, nucleophosphatases and nucleosidases. When intestinal secretion is collected without cellular debris, it contains only the enzymes enterokinase (which activates trypsin) and amylase, in small amounts. The presence of other enzymes in the succus entericus is probably accounted for by the exfoliation of epithelial cells into the intestinal lumen. The intracellular enzymes appear in the intestinal juice as a result of such cellular shedding and subsequent disintegration. Except for the amylase, the digestive enzymes described above (peptidases, disaccharidases, etc.) act primarily in the intestinal brush border, prior to the absorption of the end products of such digestion.
Functions. The function of the mucus secreted by Brunner's glands is to protect the duodenal mucosa from digestion by the gastric juice; secretion rates rapidly increase in response to irritating stimuli. Mucus is also secreted by goblet cells throughout the intestine in response to vagal stimulation, or to irritation or distention. This secretion lubricates the epithelial surface and protects it from mechanical damage by solid food material. The enzymes present in the succus entericus may have some digestive function but, as mentioned above, they act intracellularly for the most part, with the exception of enterokinase and amylase. Several really important functions of the succus entericus are related to its large water content: (1) water is a reactant in hydrolysis, which is the chemical process involved in digestion; (2) water is also necessary as a solvent and as a medium of suspension for the solids which are dissolved or suspended in the chyme; (3) in fat digestion, the succus entericus serves as a source of water for suspension and emulsification of fat particles; (4) water serves as a vehicle for absorption.
Factors controlling secretion. Brunner's glands secrete mucus in response to direct tactile or irritating stimuli of the mucosa, vagal stimulation, and intestinal hormones, especially secretin. These glands are inhibited by sympathetic stimulation; such stimulation may, therefore, leave the duodenal bulb area unprotected and may have some connection with the high incidence of peptic ulcers in this area. Distention of the small intestine causes copious secretion from the crypts of Lieberkühn. Tactile or irritating stimuli can also cause intense secretion. For the most part then, small intestinal secretion is regulated by the presence of chyme in the intestine--the greater the amount of chyme, the greater the secretion. A number of regulatory peptides (including VIP, CCK, GRP, and gastrin) have been shown to enhance intestinal secretion, while others (including vasopressin, somatostatin, aldosterone and angiotensin) may enhance net absorption. Except in the duodenum, the quantity of fluid secreted by the small intestine is never very great (usually a few milliliters per hour). It is difficult to accurately determine the amount actually secreted because of the intestine's enormous absorptive capacity. It is evident that the mucosa is capable, under certain circumstances, of moving tremendous amounts of fluid into the intestinal lumen, as shown by the great loss of water that occurs through the gut in such pathological states as cholera, diarrhea or intestinal obstruction. Toxins such as Vibrio cholerae and diarrheagenic strains of E. coli apparently increase secretion by acting through the same mechanisms as those employed in normal secretion. There is therefore considerable clinical relevance to the understanding of these mechanisms.
Definition. The dictionary definition of diarrhea is an abnormally frequent discharge of semisolid or fluid fecal matter from the bowel. While this definition implies an increase in BOTH frequency and fluidity of stools, diarrhea may exist with only one of these factors present. Because there may be considerable variation in normal bowel habits, both in the population at large, and from day to day in the same individual, it is difficult to precisely define diarrhea. However, when the stool weight is in excess of 250 grams, and/or the stool contains over 70% water, it is usually perceived by the patient as diarrhea.
Classification. Diarrhea of less than 14-day duration is arbitrarily described as acute, while that of longer duration is referred to as chronic. Acute diarrhea of less than 7-day duration is generally toxic or infectious and is almost always self-limited. Chronic diarrhea presents a more complicated diagnostic picture, with a range of possible etiologies. Diarrhea can also be classified by the underlying causative mechanism, as secretory or osmotic. Although one cause or the other usually predominates, diarrhea may also be of mixed (secretory AND osmotic) cause, for example motility disorders, such as irritable bowel syndrome.
Secretory diarrhea implies increased secretory activity of the alimentary tract and/or inhibition of electrolyte and water absorption. The 24-hour stool volume is usually greater than 1 liter, stool volume does not decrease with fasting, and the stool pH is about neutral. Secretory diarrhea may be due to: 1) any of a variety of secretory agents: bacteria (E. coli, Vibrio cholerae, Shigella, etc.), drugs (methylxanthines such as caffeine and theophylline, some laxatives), hormones (VIP, CCK, GIP, glucagon, secretin, etc.); 2) neoplasms, with or without hormone production (e.g., gastrinoma); or 3) mucosal injury (celiac sprue, inflammatory bowel disease). As described above, physiological mechanisms exist for both secretion and absorption of fluid and electrolytes. Stimulation of the normal secretory processes, whether or not there is a defect in absorption, can result in diarrhea. Because sodium is the major cation, it is lost in excess of potassium in secretory diarrhea.
Osmotic diarrhea is caused by the presence of unabsorbable or poorly absorbable solute in the alimentary canal. In contrast to secretory diarrhea, it is characterized by 24-hour stool volume less than 1 liter, decreased stool volume with fasting, and decreased stool pH. This condition may be due to impaired carbohydrate absorption (e.g., lactose intolerance), or laxative abuse; it may also be seen postsurgically (e.g., after partial gastrectomy). Osmotic diarrhea may occur with a normal dietary intake, if digestion and absorption are impaired, or it may occur from ingestion of solutes for which there is no absorptive mechanism. Since the unabsorbed or unabsorbable solute holds water, the intraluminal water content may exceed the reabsorptive capacity of the bowel, and diarrhea results. While electrolyte depletion (particularly of sodium) is the net result of secretory diarrhea, in osmotic diarrhea much of the solute present is material other than electrolytes. Also, the colon will conserve sodium but not potassium (see above). Therefore, the net effect of osmotic diarrhea is water and potassium depletion.
Mixed diarrhea. In diarrhea due to motility disorders (hypermotility), ingested solute may have an osmotic effect, if only because there is insufficient time for normal digestive and absorptive processes to occur. On the other hand, there may also not be time for reabsorption of normal amounts of secretion, so there may be the appearance of a secretory diarrhea.
Osmotic laxatives are poorly absorbed compounds (such as various magnesium salts, some salts of sodium or potassium, lactulose, glycerin and sorbitol) which prevent absorption of water by the intestine, thereby increasing the fluidity of the stool. In other words, they cause an osmotic diarrhea.
Bulk laxative agents are non-absorbable, hydrophilic vegetable fibers, which stimulate bowel action mostly by their bulk. Because they retain water, the stool remains soft.
Stimulant laxatives are drugs (such as castor oil and phenolphthalein) which stimulate accumulation of water and electrolytes in the intestinal lumen, and also enhance intestinal motility, in some cases by direct toxic effect on the mucosa. | <urn:uuid:11ea3d04-531c-4c99-8588-2771b64fc114> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.siumed.edu/mrc/research/nutrient/gi42sg.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.917865 | 7,453 | 3.53125 | 4 |
NEW YORK (Feb. 26)
The popular perception that anti-Semitism among black Americans is widespread may be unfounded, according to a study of the attitudes of black churchgoers.
In a soon-to-be-published book, entitled “Black Protestantism and Anti-Semitism,” Rev. Hubert Locke, professor of sociology at the University of Washington, studies the prevalent views of a sample group of religious blacks living in three American cities.
He gave a preview of his findings at a recent forum here on “The Future of the Jewish Past: The Jewish People in a Post-Holocaust World,” sponsored by the American Friends of Hebrew University.
“If one steps back from the volatile, localized conflicts that have marred black-Jewish relations in a few cities, there is strong evidence to suggest that the claim of anti-Semitism as a prevalent attitude among black Americans is greatly overdrawn,” Locke told the approximately 250 people in attendance.
Locke admitted there had been a “deterioration in attitudes and interactions” between Jews and blacks in the late 1960s, particularly after the assassination of Martin Luther King.
He said stumbling blocks to black-Jewish harmony included battles over such contentious issues as affirmative action and the emergence of the black consciousness movement.
But he said that the souring of relations was primarily at the level of leadership and that it occurred in specific urban locales.
NEW YORK AND CHICAGO EXCLUDED
“These qualifications are important,” said Locke, “for while, a generation later, they came to be generalized as a characteristic of black-Jewish relations across the nation, very few studies sought to assess what, in fact, were the attitudes of black citizens toward Jewish people as a general proposition.”
In an attempt to fill the vacuum, Locke, under a grant from the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Anti-Semitism, undertook a study in 1987 of the attitudes of black Protestant churchgoers toward Jewish Americans in St. Louis, Seattle and Buffalo, N.Y., cities considered neutral in the black-Jewish conflict.
Locke said that he specifically chose to stay away from New York and Chicago, where “local events and personages have tended to exacerbate the issue of black-Jewish relationships.”
In the study, Locke asked respondents to evaluate various statements about Jews on a six-point scale, with 1 being strongest disapproval and 6 being strongest approval. The responses to the statements were as follows:
* “A major fault of the Jews is their conceit, overbearing pride and their idea that they are the chosen race” received a rating of 2.3, indicating moderate disapproval.
* “The true Christian can never forgive the Jews for their crucifixion of Christ” received a strong disapproval rating of 1.8.
* “Jews should stop complaining about the Holocaust,” got a 2.6 disapproval rating.
* “Jews are more willing to combat discrimination,” got a 3.6 approval rating.
* “Jews are more helpful than harmful in the civil rights struggle,” got a 3.4 approval rating.
Locke extrapolates from the data that the general black middle-class American view of Jews is benign.
MORE PREVALENT AMONG YOUNG
He did concede, however, that the attitudes of black Protestant churchgoers is only one of several profiles of black America, suggesting that a sample of younger black respondents would have responded differently.
“If, in fact, there is a set of my kinspeople about whom I would register concern with respect to the general issue of black-Jewish relations, it would be young black Americans,” he said.
“Their ties to their religious roots may be weak, (their) knowledge of and participation in the area of the civil rights struggle are limited, and (their) views of the era of the grand alliance between black and Jewish organizations and leaders are likely to be distorted.”
But in the question-and-answer period, Locke also discounted the effect on young blacks of leaders such as Louis Farrakhan, leader of the Nation of Islam, who has made various strongly anti-Semitic public statements.
He denies that such leaders represent a set of attitudes that can be ascribed to a majority or even a significant portion of the 28 million black Americans in the United States.
“Farrakhan’s media coverage totes him as a leader, but the numbers do not,” said Locke. “Only 200,000 to 250,000 black Americans are members of the Nation of Islam; that’s 1 percent of the American black population.”
“The effort to peddle black anti-Semitism simply hasn’t sold, and I don’t think it will in the future,” he said. | <urn:uuid:bfc3f6dc-159b-4b9b-a214-c9b75e5427d2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jta.org/1990/02/27/archive/behind-the-headlines-study-finds-black-anti-semitism-not-as-widespread-as-is-believed | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957471 | 1,016 | 2.609375 | 3 |
|Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 1989. 27:
Copyright © 1989 by . All rights reserved
The shapes of galaxy brightness profiles and their dependence on luminosity contain information about galaxy formation. Systematic trends with environment tell us about tidal effects. And the functional form of the profile determines the best way to derive size and density scale parameters (Section 8).
Studies of profile shapes are affected by a variety of problems, some of which are worse for CCDs than for photographic observations. (a) Some data are not accurate at large radii. CCDs have a reputation for omnipotence that does not apply to measurements of galaxy halos. CCDs are small, so sky estimates are often uncertain (Capaccioli 1987). Observers know this, but poor sky subtraction nevertheless plagues even the best CCD photometry of halos. Capaccioli et al. (1988) and Peletier et al. (1988a) cite examples; errors of 0.2-0.5 mag arcsec-2 are common. (b) Most CCD data reach out to only a few de Vaucouleurs (1948) effective radii re; the systematic departures from r1/4 laws that are discussed below begin at about these radii. (c) Seeing is a problem, especially for low-luminosity galaxies. These have such tiny cores that seeing can completely change their brightness profiles. For example, if M32 were in the Virgo cluster, we would know nothing about its inner power-law profile Tonry 1984b, 1987). No one has studied enough nearby cases; for example, Schombert's (1986, 1987) low-luminosity galaxies are in the Coma cluster. (d) Tidal effects modify outer profiles upward or downward (Section 7.2). (e) Some "ellipticals" are misclassified SOs. (f) Finally, many ellipticals contain unrecognized dust (Section 4.1).
7.1. Do Elliptical Galaxies Have r1/4 -Law Brightness Profiles?
De Vaucouleurs' (1948, 1953) r1/4 law fits bright elliptical galaxies reasonably well except where tidal effects are important. We do not attach physical significance to this choice of function, although Binney (1982c) and Bertin & Stiavelli (1984, 1989) find reasonable distribution functions whose density profiles are similar to it. The r1/4 law is a convenient parameterization that extracts all of the scaling information that we are entitled to derive, given the similarity of profiles to power laws (Kormendy 1980, K82). But how well does it work?
No definitive study has been published. Based on large photometric surveys, Michard (1985), Djorgovski et al. (1985), Djorgovski (1985), Schombert (1986, 1987), Kodaira et al. (1986), Jedrzejewski (1987b), Capaccioli et al. (1988), and de Carvalho & da Costa (1988) conclude that ellipticals have a wide variety of profile shapes. A corollary is that fitting functions with two scale parameters but no shape parameter are not particularly useful. However, these conclusions are undermined by the problems discussed above.
Much of what we know about galaxy halos still comes from photographic data. These show that profiles of isolated ellipticals vary with luminosity (e.g. Kormendy 1980, Michard 1985, Schombert 1986, 1987), although with significant scatter. The r1/4 law fits best near MB = -21. Even at this luminosity, profiles are slightly concave upward when plotted against r1/4, typical deviations are ± 0.1-0.2 mag arcsec-2 over 6 mag arcsec-2 (Kormendy 1977b, Capaccioli 1985). Galaxies much brighter than MB = -21 have more light at large radii than the extrapolation of r1/4 laws fitted further in, and fainter galaxies have less.
We believe that a good approach for future investigation of profile shapes is one suggested by Schombert (1986, 1987). For each luminosity, bin, Schombert constructs template profiles by averaging many observed profiles. Two further improvements are needed. First, total luminosities should be used. Schombert's 16-kpc metric absolute magnitudes measure different fractions of the total light in giant and dwarf galaxies: They are total magnitudes for dwarfs but contain only ~ 50% of the luminosity of first-ranked galaxies (see Figure 8 in Schombert 1986). Second, we need to use isolated galaxies to minimize tidal effects. The resulting templates can then be compared with profiles of galaxies that have companions to study tidal effects.
It remains true that characteristic sizes and densities are well measured using two-parameter fitting functions. These are basically equivalent. None has a special physical interpretation, but among formulas explored so far, the r1/4 law is most convenient and fits best. Profile fits can be improved by adding a third parameter, but then the parameters are too coupled to be useful. All this has been reviewed by Kormendy (1980, K82) and Capaccioli (1988b). Parameters can also be derived without using fitting functions. For example, the actual half-light radius and surface brightness can be used. Or scale radii can be derived using dimensionless monotonic functions like Petrosian's (1976) function, i.e. the ratio of the surface brightness at a given radius to the mean surface brightness within that radius.
7.2. Tidal Effects
Tidal effects are reviewed in K82. In the cores of rich clusters, galaxies are observed to have abnormally small sizes (Strom & Strom 1978, and subsequent papers; see K82). This is particularly true of faint ellipticals, which moreover have outer cutoffs in their profiles (see also Schombert 1986, 1987). These observations are convincingly interpreted as truncation by the mean gravitational field of the cluster, especially during virialization (Merritt 1984, and references therein).
Whether small galaxies are truncated by large ones is less clear. Suggestions that M32 (King 1962) and NGC 4486B (Rood 1965, Kormendy 1977a) are truncated conflict with recent photometry [see Nieto & Prugniel (1987a, b) and N88 for reviews]. On the other hand, King & Kiser (1973) find that NGC 5846A has an outer Cutoff. Examples of both "truncated" and untruncated small companions are given by Prugniel et al (1987, 1988). Some photometry is uncertain because the galaxies are embedded in the halos of companions (N88). Also, some close pairs must be optical doubles. Thus the implications of these observations are unclear.
Despite possible truncation, it is clear that ellipticals like M32 are not dwarfs only because of tidal effects. They are genuinely the low-L end of the luminosity function of elliptical galaxies (Section 8.1; see also Nieto & Prugniel 1987a, b, N88).
Encounters between ellipticals of nearly the same mass cannot by symmetry produce truncation if the total mass lost to the system is small (Aguilar & White 1985, and references therein). Kormendy (1977b, 1982a) concluded that ellipticals with companions of comparable sizes have distended outer profiles, and he interpreted this as tidal stretching or heating. The effect needs checking: Schombert (1988) and de Carvalho & da Costa (1988) did not see it in their samples. However, distension is seen in N-body simulations. Aguilar & White (1986) find that encounters produce transient tidal waves in the density distribution. An encounter heats each galaxy. Strong encounters steepen the profiles (i.e. make the galaxies smaller) because mass is lost; weak encounters make the profiles shallower. In either case, the final profile is set up first at small radii. As time passes, the transition between the old and new profile moves outward until only the final profile is left. An r1/4 -law profile shape is approximately preserved; there is no truncation.
Azimuthal distortions produced by tides are also observed (K82, Djorgovski 1985, Borne & Hoessel 1988, Borne 1988, Borne et al. 1988, Porter 1988, Davoust & Prugniel 1988, Prugniel et al. 1988, Lauer 1988a). As Borne notes, these are clear evidence for tidal friction in action. | <urn:uuid:e5e1b0c6-0b89-43f4-9143-06149374bb95> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Sept01/Kormendy/Kormendy7.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00115-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.886648 | 1,825 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Most of the Federalists of 1787-1788 became members of the later Federalist Party.
Jay was elected in 1795 and re-elected in 1798, but in 1801 the brief Federalist regime in the state came to an end with the election of George Clinton for a seventh term.
Arthur Fenner,' Federalist and Democratic Re publican.
The crisis of 1860, by which the office he held was abolished, was the end of his official career; for the rest of his life he was very prominent as the leader of the Federalist party in Bohemia.
From then until 1850 it was controlled by the Federalist or Whig parties.
FEDERALIST PARTY, in American politics, the party that organized the national government of the United States under the constitution of 1787.
They, having the great opportunity of initiative, organized it in all its branches, giving it an administrative machinery that in the main endures to-day; established the doctrine of national neutrality toward European conflicts (although the variance of Federalist and Republican opinion on this point was largely factitious); and fixed the practice of a liberal construction of the Constitution,) - not only by Congress, but above all by the United States Supreme Court, which, under the lead of John Marshall (who had been appointed chief-justice by Pres.
After the battle of Leuctra the philo-Laconian party was expelled with Mantineian help. Tegea henceforth took an active part in the revival of the Arcadian League and the prosecution of the war in alliance with Thebes against Sparta (371-362), and the ultimate defection of Mantineia confirmed it in its federalist tendencies.
On the death of Dorrego, a remarkable man, Juan Manuel de Rosas, became the Federalist chief.
He was minister to Great Britain in1796-1803and again in 1825-1826, and was the Federalist candidate for vicepresident in 1804 and 1808, and for president in 1816, when he received 34 electoral votes to 183 cast for Monroe.
Alexander Martin Federalist Samuel Ashe.
Politically, he was an ardent patriot during the War of Independence, and a strong Federalist afterwards, several of his political discourses attracting wide attention.
A passage in The Federalist suggests the motives of the convention as follows: "As the accuracy of the census to be obtained by Congress will necessarily depend in a considerable degree on the disposition if not co-operation of the states, it is of great importance that the states should feel as little bias as possible to swell or reduce the amount of their numbers.
The first break came in the spring of 1804 when Burr, who had incurred the enmity of his Republican colleagues in 1800 by seeking Federalist votes in the electoral college at Jefferson's expense, became an independent candidate for governor against Morgan Lewis.
For the history of the federalist movement in Normandy, see L.
He edited The Works of Alexander Hamilton (9 vols., 1885-1886) and The Federalist (1891).
The Mexican government gave way, threatened by Federalist risings and secessions of states, which culminated in 1841.
It was also the home, during his last years, of Oliver Wolcott (1726-1797); of Colonel Benjamin Tallmadge (1774-1835), an officer on the American side in the War of Independence and later (from 1801 to 1817) a Federalist member of Congress; and of Lyman Beecher, who was pastor of the First Congregational church of Litchfield from 1810 to 1826.
Like the rest of his family, he belonged to the Federalist party, and his appointment in 1889 as governor of Bohemia was the cause of grave dissatisfaction to the German Austrians.
In presidential campaigns the state has been Federalist, 1792-1800; Democratic-Republican, 1804-1820; Adams-Republican, 1824-1828; Anti-Masonic, 1832; Whig, 1836-1852; and Republican since 1856.
John Adams), impressed enduringly on the national system large portions of the Federalist doctrine.
Morse, The Federalist Party in Massachusetts (Princeton, N.J., 1909); and the biographies and writings of George Cabot, Fisher Ames, Gouverneur Morris, John Jay, Rufus King, Timothy Pickering, Theodore Sedgwick, C. C. Pinckney and J.
Adams's four years as chief magistrate (1797-1801) were marked by a succession of intrigues which embittered all his later life; they were marked, also, by events, such as the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts, which brought discredit on the Federalist party.
Gallatin was thrown helplessly back upon the rejected Federalist doctrine of government according to circumstances.
Livingston and Aaron Burr; and such Federalist control as there was from time to time after 1799 depended upon coalition with one or other of these groups.
The history is notable for its painstaking accuracy and candour, but the later volumes have a strong Federalist bias.
In 1816 Monroe was chosen president of the United States; he received 183 electoral votes, and Rufus King, his Federalist opponent, 34.
Opponents of a second war with Great Britain had revived the Federalist organization, and Federalists from eleven states met in New York and agreed to support Clinton, not on account of his war views, which were not in accord with their own, but as a protest against the policy of Madison.
The Federalist preference for England over France was strong in Massachusetts, and her sentiment was against the war with England of 1812-15.
Politically this opposition had the effect of temporarily reviving the Federalist party, which secured control of the legislature, and gave the electoral vote of the state in 1812 to De Witt Clinton, whom the Federalists had accepted as a candidate to oppose Madison for re-election on the war issue.
The city was the literary centre of Federalist ideas in the latter part of the 18th century, being the home of Lemuel Hopkins, John Trumbull, Joel Barlow and David Humphreys, the leading members of a group of authors known as the " Hartford Wits "; and in 1814-1815 the city was the meeting-place of the famous Hartford Convention, an event of great importance in the history of the Federalist party.
In 1816 the Democrats won both state and national elections; and out of the transition from Federalist to Democratic control, which was effected under the leadership of William Plumer (1759-1850), a prominent politician in New Hampshire for half a century, a United States senator from 1802 to 1807 and governor of the state in1812-1813and 1816-1819, arose the famous Dartmouth College Case.
In 1845 an attempt to restore the federal union failed; in 1851 Carrera defeated the Federalist forces of Honduras and Salvador at La Arada near Chiquimula, and was recognized as the pacificator of the republic. In 1851 a new constitution was promulgated, and Carrera was appointed president till 1856, a dignity which was in 18J4 bestowed upon him for life.
Rivadavia resigned, and Vicente Lopez, a Federalist, was elected to succeed him, but was speedily displaced by Manuel Dorrego (1827), another representative of the same party.
The carrying out of Federalist principles led, however, to the formation in the republic of a number of quasiindependent military states, and Dorrego only ruled in Buenos Aires.
In this body he served in 1789-1796, supported Hamilton's financial measures, Washington's neutrality proclamation and the Jay Treaty, and became one of the recognized leaders of the Federalist party.
The Federalist Party, which may be regarded as definitely organized practically from 1791, was led, leaving Washington aside, by Alexander Hamilton and John Adams. A nationalization of the new central government to the full extent warranted by a broad construction of the powers granted to it by the constitution, and a correspondingly strict construction of the powers reserved to the states and the citizens, were the basic principles of Hamilton's policy.
Their conservatism became increasingly a reactionary fear of democracy; indeed, it is not a strained construction of the times to regard the entire Federalist period from the American point of view as reactionary - a reaction against the doctrines of natural rights, individualism, and states' rights, and the financial looseness of the period of the War of Independence and the succeeding years of the Confederation.
In 1796, on the refusal of Washington to accept another election, Adams was chosen president, defeating Thomas Jefferson; though Alexander Hamilton and other Federalists had asked that an equal vote should be cast for Adams and Thomas Pinckney, the other Federalist in the contest, partly in order that Jefferson, who was elected vice-president, might be excluded altogether, and partly, it seems, in the hope that Pinckney should in fact receive more votes than Adams, and thus, in accordance with the system then obtaining, be elected president, though he was intended for the second place on the Federalist ticket.
In 1800, Adams was again the Federalist candidate for the presidency, but the distrust of him in his own party, the popular disapproval of the Alien and Sedition Acts and the popularity of his opponent, Thomas Jefferson, combined to cause his defeat.
Smith (ed.), The St Clair Papers: Life and Services of Arthur St Clair (2 vols., Cincinnati, 1882); Jacob Burnet, Notes on the Early Settlement of the North-Western Territory (Cincinnati, 1847), written from the Federalist point of view, and hence rather favourable to St Clair; C. E.
In politics the period is characterized by Boston's connexion with the fortunes of the Federalist party.
The constitution of 1787 was then before the public, and Gallatin, with his dislike of strong government still upon him, threw himself into opposition and became one of the founders of the Anti-Federalist, or, as it was afterwards called, the Republican party.
The Rutland Herald, one of the oldest newspapers in Vermont still published, was established as a Federalist weekly in 1794--a daily edition first appeared in 1861, and is now Republican.
He was an earnest advocate of the adoption of the Federal constitution, was a member of the Massachusetts convention which ratified that instrument, and was one of the most influential advisers of the leaders of the Federalist party.
In 17 9 6 Pinckney was the Federalist candidate for vice-president, and in1797-1801he was a Federalist representative in Congress.
After serving in the Maryland convention which ratified for that state the Federal Constitution, and there vigorously opposing ratification, though afterwards he was an ardent Federalist, he became in 1791 chief judge of the Maryland general court, which position he resigned in 1796 for that of an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.
Unwisely imprisoned in 1919-20, and who now swept the boards in Croatia with a Republican and Federalist programme and induced his party of 50 to absent itself from the Constituent: (2) the Croat and Slovene clericals, who strongly opposed centralization, and (3) the 58 Communists, led by a small group of extreme theorists, but owing their strength to the subversive elements in the Backa, Macedonia and Montenegro and the secret aid of the Carlists in Vienna and Budapest.
In presidential campaigns the state has been Federalist, 1792-1800; Democratic Republican, 1804; Federalist, 1808-1812; Democratic Republican, 1816-1820; Adams (Republican), 1824-1828; National Republican, 1832; Democratic, 1836; Whig, 1840-1848; Democratic, 1852; and Republican since 1856.
He served in the United States Senate as a Federalist from 1790 to 1791 and was again elected in 1797, but resigned in January 1798 on account of illhealth.
From 1801 to 1802 and from 1806 to 1807 he was a member of the Council of Appointment, and realizing the power this body possessed through its influence over the selection of a vast number of state, county and municipal officers, he secured in 1801, while his uncle was governor, the removal of a number of Federalist office-holders, in order to strengthen the Republican organization by new appointments.
It was his plan to fill the more important offices with Republicans, as they had been excluded from appointive office during the Federalist ascendancy, and to divide the smaller places between the parties somewhat in accordance with their relative strength.'
The Federal Constitution was ratified by Massachusetts by only a small majority on the 6th of February 1788, after its rejection had been at one time imminent; but Massachusetts became a strong Federalist state.
The Federalist domination had been succeeded by Whig rule in the state; but after the death of the great Whig, Daniel Webster, in 1852, all parties disintegrated, re-aligning themselves gradually in an aggressive anti-slavery party and the temporizing Democratic party.
He returned to New York in 1798, resumed the practice of his profession, re-entered politics, and sat in the United States Senate as a Federalist from 1800 to 1803.
In support of the constitution, however, there arose the Federalist party under the able leadership of Alexander Hamilton.
According to the theory expounded in the Federalist, the individual states did not, after the formation of the constitution, remain completely sovereign: they were left in possession of certain attributes of sovereignty, while others were lodged in the Federal government; while there existed many states, there was but one sovereign.
As he was a Federalist he was severely criticised and censured for this defeat and resigned from the army.
Proscribed with the Girondists on the 2nd of June 1793, he succeeded in escaping, and took refuge in Normandy, where he contributed to organize a federalist insurrection against the Convention, which was speedily suppressed.
This paper was very influential in shaping public opinion in the years preceding the War of Independence; after the war it was successively Federalist, Whig and Republican.
But the new Congress was too Federalist for Santa Anna, and he retired, leaving the reins to Nicolas Bravo, under whom a new Centralist constitution was established (1843).
National elections in New Hampshire were carried by the Federalists until 1816, except in 1804 when President Thomas Jefferson won by a small majority; but within this period of Federalist supremacy in national politics the Democrat-Republicans elected the governor from 1805 to 1812 inclusive except in 1809.
Heretofore the Federalist regime had taxed the people to support the Congregational Church, but now the Baptists, Methodists and Universalists joined the Democrats, and in 1819 this state support was abolished by the " Toleration Act."
On the other hand, the old Federalist nationalistic element was soon to emerge first as National Republicans, then as Whigs, and finally as Republicans.
1789-1796Federalist 1796-1797 -1797-1799 1799-1801 -1801-1802 1802-1805 Federalist 1805-1808 1808- 1811-1811 -1814 1814-1817 1820 1820- 1821-1821 -1822Democratic-Republican 1822- 1822-1823 Democratic-Republican 1823-1824 ?1824-1827Federalist 1827-1830 „ 1830-1833 American-Republican 1833-1836 Democrat 1836-1837 -1837-1841 Whig 1841-1845 -1845-1846 1846- 1846-1847 1847-1851 Democrat 1851-1855 -1855-1859 Whig-Know-Nothing 1859-1863 Democrat 1863-1865 Republican 1865-1871 Democrat 1871-1875 -1875-1879 1879-1883 -1883-1887 1887-1891 -1891-1895 1895 Republican 1895-1897 Democrat1897-1901 1901-1905 Republican 1905-1909 „ 1909 „ Bibliog Ra Phy.
The War of 1812, with the Embargo Acts (1807-1813), which were so destructive of New England's commerce, thoroughly aroused the Federalist leaders in this part of the country against the National government as administered by the Democrats, and in 1814, when the British were not only threatening a general invasion of their territory but had actually occupied a part of the Maine coast, and the National government promised no protection, the legislature of Massachusetts invited the other New England states to join with her in sending delegates to a convention which should meet at Hartford to consider their grievances, means of preserving their resources, measures of protection against the British, and the advisability of taking measures to bring about a convention of delegates from all the United States for the purpose of revising the Federal constitution. | <urn:uuid:001b66fe-aeb2-44c5-96ad-e4d19a861b2e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://sentence.yourdictionary.com/federalist | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00154-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968508 | 3,590 | 3.15625 | 3 |
Tender yet crisp ears of sweet corn can grow well in any backyard that receives all-day sunlight and at least three months of warm summer weather. Dwarf varieties work best in small backyards. Unlike standard corn, which can grow stalks 10 feet or taller, dwarf types usually only grow to about 4 feet tall, or the same height of a determinate tomato plant. Kandy Korn and Golden Bantam varieties grow well in most backyard gardens without taking up too much space. Sow corn outside after frost danger passes and the soil temperature reaches 60 degrees Fahrenheit.
Till the top 8 inches of soil in a well-drained, full-sun bed. Spread 2 inches of aged compost over the bed and incorporate it with the tilled soil to aid fertility and soil quality.
Mist the prepared bed with water until the top 3 inches are moist. Pull the handle of a hoe down the bed to create 1 1/2-inch deep planting furrows. Space the furrows 12 inches apart. In small spaces, plant corn in multiple rows in a small block, such as four rows in a 4-by-4-foot bed, because corn clustered in a block pollinates better than those in a single row.
Sow the corn seed in the furrows, spacing seeds 4 inches apart. Cover the seeds with soil and water lightly. Continue to water once or twice weekly, or as needed so the soil doesn't dry completely. Corn typically germinates within 14 days.
Thin the corn seedlings once they grow to a 4-inch height. Pinch off the excess plants so the remaining plants are spaced about 12 inches apart in the row.
Water corn plants once weekly, providing about 1 inch of water at each irrigation. Apply the water near the base of the plants and avoid overhead watering, which can affect ear formation.
Apply a high-nitrogen fertilizer when the corn plants reach 12 inches tall. Apply the fertilizer following package application rates, which can vary.
Harvest the corn when the tassels dry and turn brown, about three weeks after the tassels first form. Peel back the corn husk and push on a kernel with your nail to test maturity. Corn is ready to pick when the kernel is tender enough to pierce and the juice appears milky. Pull the ears down while twisting sharply to remove them from the stalks.
Things You Will Need
- Aged compost
- High-nitrogen fertilizer
- Cover the developing ears with paper bags to keep birds from raiding the garden as the corn reaches maturity.
- Polka Dot Images/Polka Dot/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:cca49cb7-8bb2-42ff-bdbb-582c5e4f8c27> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://homeguides.sfgate.com/grow-corn-back-yard-52368.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00128-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.920296 | 539 | 3.234375 | 3 |
There is one thing that might be worse than being diagnosed with Alzheimer's: that would be being diagnosed with it incorrectly.
Yet that can happen to someone with a hearing impairment because the symptoms, byproducts, of cognitive and hearing loss are similar. In both cases, the afflicted person may experience anxiety, depression, isolation, denial, distrust, impatience, and memory problems.
But the cognitive loss of the dementia patient is not the same as someone who simply does not hear well. After all, you are not going to remember something if you didn't hear it in the first place. And you are not going to do well on cognitive tests if you can't hear the questions. So, if you have not admitted to a hearing problem, if it has not been diagnosed and treated, there is a chance that you may be misdiagnosed, told incorrectly that you have early Alzheimer's, with all the resulting medical and social implications.
The opposite can also take place. Through all the years of our marriage, my husband had a severe hearing impairment, partly the result of genetics -- many in his family suffered from various degrees of hearing loss -- and partly the result of shooting, as so many men did in his day, without wearing ear protection. In retrospect, I suspect that there were early signs of Alzheimer's that we dismissed as hearing issues. Had we realized that, the outcome would not have been any different, but I do wonder what it felt like for him. Did he know that there was more than hearing at stake and, if he did, and did not tell any of us, it must have been a very lonely and frightening period for him.
Now, studies have shown that there is a link between hearing and cognitive loss, that the hearing impaired are at greater risk for developing Alzheimer's. Without getting into the possible scientific explanations for this, some things are obvious.
1. Hearing loss can lead to isolation with the depression and sedentary lifestyle that can be its companions, all of which are factors in dementia.
2. Like the rest of the body, the brain needs exercise to remain healthy. Untreated hearing loss can get in the way of that by restricting conversation, making going to the theatre, movies, lectures, playing games, very difficult, if not impossible.
Clearly, if you are going to do everything you can to prevent Alzheimer's, then making sure wax is removed from the ears, having regular hearing tests, getting aids, and wearing them, is an important step. Again, there are no guarantees but, at the very least, your present life -- and those with whom you interact -- will be improved.
While living with my husband, I learned a lot about this handicap. Like many men, he didn't want to admit the problem at first. There were other things he could blame -- hearing aids were expensive; people didn't speak up; they didn't speak clearly; it was the unusual accent. When he finally did accept a hearing aid, he didn't want to wear it. It was uncomfortable; he thought it made him look old. Etc, etc. Everyone who lives with someone who has a hearing impairment will be familiar with all the excuses.
I learned to find the quiet corner in the restaurant and seat him where there would be no one talking behind him. To avoid places with a lot of mirrors and bare floors, where sound is exaggerated. To place him in the middle of the table, where his chances of participating in conversation were better than if he sat at the traditional head of the table.
Now I, too, have lost some of my hearing.
I wear a state of the art hearing aid in one ear. It works very well -- when I wear it.
But it doesn't work when I leave it on the dresser which is where a lot of hearing aids seem to end up.
Why? Because I forget. Or the battery goes out -- with a beep, beep, beep in the middle of the conversation or the concert or play, and I either have to fake it or do the embarrassing thing: take the aid out of the ear and replace the battery in front of others. If I am in a dark place, forget it. But even when I wear it, there are some situations where I still have difficulty hearing. Like many people who find themselves with this condition, I no longer hear the high notes clearly. I hear alto voices very well, but the soprano notes are lost. My husband experienced the same thing which is why, when I seated a woman beside him, I would tell her, "Speak low, not loud, but low."
This very common condition -- hearing some notes and not others -- can create misunderstanding. Family members will say, "He hears when he wants to hear," or "She has very selective hearing." The first statement is not true. What you hear is not always a matter of choice. The second statement is: the ear is a very selective instrument. Talk to me in a high voice, from another room, or talk to my back and, if I hear you at all, it will likely be garbled. Recently someone spoke of needing a wedge in order to sleep -- I thought he said a wife. The result was comic, but in some situations that kind of speech discrimination could be disastrous.
In a poor hearing environment, I will "get" some words and not others. This will frustrate the speaker who might well lose patience with me and decide that I am only hearing what I want to hear when, in fact, I do want very much to hear everything but I don't -- I can't.
Set me in a noisy restaurant, or a cocktail party where there is a lot of background noise, and it will take tremendous concentration of my part to understand what you are saying. Put your hand over your mouth when you speak and you make it impossible for me to do the lipreading that the hearing impaired automatically rely on to augment sound.
The healthy ear is a wonderful instrument -- it can discriminate -- it does not hear all the sounds directed at it at the same time equally. Some hearing aids promise to delete background noise but few actually easily deliver. So being in a crowded place wearing a hearing aid is to be subjected to a cacophony of noise. Given the choice, I entertain at home, where I can control the environment, or find the increasingly rare quiet restaurant.
Society does not have much patience with the hearing impaired. Those of us who suffer from it experience hardship, from being shut out of public conversation, to not being able to have a private conversation in a public place because the other person has to speak too loudly, to sometimes speaking too loudly ourselves, to not hearing the intimate words of love whispered in the ear.
There is a difference, of course, between hard of hearing and the tuning out that can take place in a long term partnership. When a couple live together for a long time, the relationship takes on the aspects of a comfortable old slipper, very familiar. The routines are established and we tend to assume we just know that the other one is saying or going to say. This can lead to the husband declaring, "You certainly did not tell me that your in-laws were coming to stay with us," or the wife, "I asked you if you wanted to go on a cruise and you said yes, you definitely did."
I call that husband's (or wife's) hearing. It is the stuff of jokes and they can be very funny.
But there is nothing funny about the real thing -- hearing impairment is definitely not a joke. Especially not when it may be a factor in getting Alzheimer's Disease.
ALSO ON HUFFPOST:
After years of singing and performing, Barbra Streisand also suffers from tinnitus and cannot go a day without constantly dealing with the sound of ringing in her ears.
Whereas most musicians develop some form of hearing damage after performing for a number of years, The Beach Boys' Brian Wilson was diagnosed with hearing problems when he was a child, but that didn't stop him from recording some of music's most influential albums to date.
In 2005, rapper Foxy Brown announced that she was suffering from severe sensorineural hearing loss in both her ears. She went on to go completely deaf for an entire year before going through with surgery to restore her hearing, which was a success. "I went straight from the operating room to the studio," Brown said, of her post-surgery plans.
The Metallica drummer has been performing for over 35 years now, but admits that he used to play onstage with no ear protection. Because of that, Ulrich has developed serious hearing problems from the exposure to loud noises.
The Canadian legend first realized that he had damaged his ears in the early 90s when while recording his album, Weld. Since then, the singer/songwriter's hearing hasn't been the same, but he assures fans that "my hearing's not perfect, but it's OK."
Although entertaining to watch on reality TV, Ozzy Osborne often asks people to repeat things because his years of performing with Black Sabbath has led to permanent tinnitus, which had made the rock star somewhat deaf, of as his wife Sharon calls it, "conveniently deaf."
The legendary guitarist for The Who is famously known for his battles with tinnitus and partial deafness. This is believed to have been the result of extensive exposure to loud music, what with The Who's 1976 gig in London which was listed as one of the loudest concerts ever in the Guinness Book of Records and Keith Moon's exploding drum set during their 1967 appearance on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour.
Last year, Phil Collins quit music due to a slew of medical issues including hearing loss.
Alt-rock singer/songwriter Ryan Adams suffers from Ménière's Disease, an illness that attacks the inner ear. As a result, Adams has dealt with symptoms such as hearing loss, tinnitus and vertigo. Having admittedly lost 50-60% of his hearing already, Adams took an entire year off from playing music and has since learned to live with his condition, saying, "I just think about working with what I got."
The Black Eyed Peas frontman admits to having tinnitus, a constant ringing in his ears, which he credits to his drive to write and record music at all times of the day. | <urn:uuid:1e71e4e3-1b44-4ff1-9119-86b00dbfcf0e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/joan-sutton/alzheimers-and-hearing-loss_b_5702898.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00041-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.982752 | 2,136 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Do happy people live longer?
Seven types of evidence are reviewed that indicate that high subjective well-being (such as life satisfaction, absence of negative emotions, optimism, and positive emotions) causes better health and longevity. For example, prospective longitudinal studies of normal populations provide evidence that various types of subjective well-being such as positive affect predict health and longevity, controlling for health and socioeconomic status at baseline. Combined with experimental human and animal research, as well as naturalistic studies of changes of subjective well-being and physiological processes over time, the case that subjective well-being influences health and longevity in healthy populations is compelling. However, the claim that subjective well-being lengthens the lives of those with certain diseases such as cancer remains controversial. Positive feelings predict longevity and health beyond negative feelings. However, intensely aroused or manic positive affect may be detrimental to health. Issues such as causality, effect size, types of subjective well-being, and statistical controls are discussed.
Source: “Happy People Live Longer: Subjective Well-Being Contributes to Health and Longevity” from Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, Volume 3, Issue 1, pages 1–43, March 2011
Join 25K+ readers. Get a free weekly update via email here. | <urn:uuid:ae921f51-626f-4b6b-97fa-c9e51f7d373c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bakadesuyo.com/2011/03/do-happy-people-live-longer/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00185-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933782 | 259 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Dan Wilhelmsson of the Swedish Secretariat for Environmental Earth System Sciences added that the offshore wind power sector can even be positive for the local marine environment.
Wilhelmsson said a recent report he and others produced for the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources reviewed 32 different environmental issues associated with offshore wind and found eight required special attention.
Called Social and Environmental Acceptance, the session discussed how wind farms can provide environmental, economic and societal benefits — even though they often face criticism in the planning stages.
Micheal O’Briain DG Environment, European Commission, said planning is vital if the European Union is to achieve both its climate change objectives and biodiversity challenges.
“We have significant potential, if we aren’t careful, to have conflict between these objectives,” O’Briain said, adding a recent EC document provides guidelines for national authorities, the wind power sector and private citizens.
“We have to meet our renewable targets but not at the expense of biodiversity,” he said. The key message, he added, is that wind power should not present a threat to nature and biodiversity.
David Jones, editor of Platts Renewable Energy Report, said a five-year review of decisions made by the UK Advertising Standards Authority shows that the anti-wind farm lobby is much more likely to be cited for false advertising than the pro-wind farm lobby.
Jones said the authority upheld 55 of the 63 challenges to anti-wind farm advertising. In comparison, he said, less than one-third of complaints against pro-wind farm ads were upheld.
“The anti-wind farm lobby has consistently shot itself in the foot,” he said, adding many of the false claims suggest wind farms negatively affect human health and drive down the property value of homes near wind farms.
Jones also said he expects the anti-wind farm lobby will continue making misleading statements about the sector and that, through the internet and social media, the false claims will increase. | <urn:uuid:11e235cb-2032-412e-925d-77902fe7397d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ewea.org/blog/2011/03/keeping-nature-and-the-economy-happy-while-fighting-the-anti-wind-farm-lobby/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00168-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940982 | 413 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Scientists: Monitoring Caribou Climate
Thanks to technology, you can sit in the comfort of your climate controlled classroom and conduct science observations in the Arctic. Just how cold does it get up there?
We can now access temperature information from a small community called Old Crow, where many Porcupine caribou congregate during the winter and early spring. Located at 67.65 N, and -139.50, Old Crow is situated at the confluence of the Crow and the Porcupine Rivers. The only Yukon community located above the arctic, it is a small town of about 300 aboriginal people; known as the Vuntut Gwitchin. People in Old Crow enjoy long summer days and experience the short days of winter.
Visit the Canadian Meteoriological Weather site to record their daily temperatures and daylength:
To learn more about Old Crow- its history and culture: | <urn:uuid:4fc7df87-52d2-4a17-9a80-867a24a601da> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.learner.org/jnorth/tm/caribou/TempChart.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00029-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93512 | 182 | 3.578125 | 4 |
In his state of the union address, President Obama stated he wants 80 percent of our electricity to come from “clean sources” by 2035.
That is a tall order. Credit Suisse estimates it will take $750 billion in capital expenditures to supply just 20 percent of our nation’s power demand from renewable sources. Needless to say, coming anywhere near the president’s goal will require us to rethink our energy policy.
First, it is important to recognize that the demand for electricity is expected to grow 30 percent by 2035. So, the president’s goal of 80 percent “clean power” is even more ambitious than it seems. The Edison Electric Institute estimates we’ll need more than $500 billion in new generating and transmission facilities just to meet our conventional energy needs.
Second, renewable energy — mostly hydropower — currently produces about 10 percent of our nation’s electricity. The U.S. Dept. of Energy predicts that by 2035, that will grow to about 20 percent. President Obama, remember, is calling for 80 percent.
If we are to have any chance of approaching the president’s objective, we need to rethink our renewable energy strategy.
For example, Initiative 937, approved by Washington voters in 2006, requires utilities to buy 15 percent of their electricity from renewable sources by 2020 — and it limits the purchase area to western Montana, northern Idaho, Oregon or Washington. Furthermore, the initiative writers specifically excluded hydropower, even though hydropower produces 80 percent of our state’s electricity, as well as pulping liquors, a byproduct of making paper.
Pulping liquor is like black gold. Composed primarily of wood sugars, it is used every day by paper mills to reclaim pulping chemicals, generate electricity and produce steam to dry paper. Burning this byproduct allows paper mills to reduce the amount of electricity they buy and, in some cases, produces surplus electricity the mills then sell back to the grid. Additionally, new technology allows mill owners to cut their natural gas consumption to a fraction of previous levels.
Either way, the result is the same — less demand for electricity and natural gas, which holds down energy prices for the rest of us.
Critics say that producing electricity by burning pulping liquors emits excessive greenhouse gases. But the forest products industry has made great strides in reducing its CO2 emissions, more than offsetting the pulp liquor emissions. For example, Longview Fibre Paper and Packaging, which owns and operates one of North America’s largest pulp and paper facilities along the Columbia River in southwest Washington, has reduced its CO2 emissions by more than half since 2000 and has cut its water consumption by one-third since 2005.
The company points out that the pulp and paper industry is the leading producer and user of carbon-neutral, renewable biomass energy — which produces more energy than solar-, wind- and geothermal-generated energy combined. Longview Fibre had planned to build a $100 million biomass boiler in Longview that would produce 65-megawatts of power, burn 37,000 tons of mill waste per month and boost mill productivity 30 percent over three years. However, those plans were jeopardized by new EPA air quality standards announced last December.
Faced with howls of protest from members of Congress, the agency backed off, saying it will issue a new rule July 1 to exclude biomass from those regulations.
The bottom line is Americans must be realistic about their energy future. We need reliable sources of electricity to power our homes, factories, schools and electric cars. If we want more renewable energy sources, then we should not impose policies that restrict renewable energy.
Hopefully, the federal government will do its part by rethinking regulations that derail renewable energy projects. Industry is doing its part by retooling plants to cut greenhouse gas emissions. And the Legislature should do its part by changing I-937, and allowing pulping liquors to qualify as renewable is a good start.
Don Brunell is the president of the Association of Washington Business. Formed in 1904, the Association of Washington Business is Washington’s oldest and largest statewide business association, and includes more than 7,300 members representing 650,000 employees. AWB serves as both the state’s chamber of commerce and the manufacturing and technology association. For more about AWB, visit www.awb.org. | <urn:uuid:78ebe00b-2810-481a-80cf-8e682a411ff4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.columbian.com/news/2011/may/24/we-need-rethink-our-renewable-energy-policy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00093-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956001 | 906 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Semiconductor-based device runs on electricity
A low-energy alternative to traditional lasers is finally available in plug-in form, a crucial step toward developing a practical alternative to the comparatively inefficient devices in use today. These so-called polariton lasers could soon find a niche in telecommunications and medical applications.
“This is a really important result,” says Alexey Kavokin, a physicist at Saint Petersburg State University in Russia, who wasn’t involved in the research. “It won’t be long before a new generation of lasers based on this new physics will come to the market.” | <urn:uuid:879ea2ae-fac4-4164-9411-cbc1acd14ddf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.sciencenews.org/article/low-energy-laser-makes-leap-toward-practicality?mode=magazine&context=4555 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00018-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.919414 | 129 | 2.515625 | 3 |
The Prince George Safe Attitudes & Actions Society, through the Prince George P.A.R.T.Y. Program, strongly suggests:
- to REDUCE your speed
- to say NO to distracted driving (texting, cell phones, driver fatigue)
- to say NO to alcohol and drug usage while operating motorized or non-motorized vehicles (cars, ATV's, bicycles)
One day, friends of an emergency nurse's daughter asked if they could come to Sunnybrook Health Science Centre in Toronto to see where people were brought when they were injured. The nurse approached the hospital administration and they encouraged her to research and develop a pilot program for teens that included an educational approach to injury and trauma. As a result, the Prevent Alcohol and Risk Related Trauma in Youth (P.A.R.T.Y.) program was formed at Sunnybrook in Toronto.
Currently, there are over 100 licensed programs in Canada, the United States, Australia, Germany, Brazil and Japan. Doctors, nurses and other medical staff, law enforcement personnel, paramedics, teachers and injury survivors around the world are all working together to educate youth about risky behaviors and their possible life altering consequences.
P.A.R.T.Y. PROGRAM IN PRINCE GEORGE
In the 1990's, physicians and nurses at the University Hospital of Northern BC were concerned about the increasing number of young people coming in with traumatic injuries. In response, the Prince George P.A.R.T.Y. Program began in 1997. In 2002, the Prince George Safe Attitudes & Actions Society was formed with a single mission: to promote injury prevention among youth through reality education which increases awareness of risks and their possible impacts and emphasizes personal responsibility in making safer choices.
THE VENUE: University Hospital of Northern BC.
THE TIME: every Thursday throughout the school year from 9:00 a.m. until 2:30 p.m.
THE PARTICIPANTS: 40 grade 10 students from high schools in Prince George and the surrounding areas.
- a presentation from an RCMP member
- a presentation from an Emergency Room physician
- tours of ICU, Emergency, the Chapel and the Morgue at UHNBC with presentations in each place
- a hands-on experience at lunch, with students assigned pretend disabilities to deal with while eating
- a simulation of the effects of impairment where students are given an opportunity to practice simple tasks while wearing "drunk" goggles
- sharing of stories from people who have suffered traumatic injuries, describing living with life-changing consequences
THE PROGRAM GUIDES PARTICIPANTS TO:
(1) reconsider behaviors which are too risky to be safe:
- driving under the influence of alcohol
- using cell phones or texting while driving
- operating any vehicle while suffering fatigue
- not wearing a helmet or seat belt
- using drugs
(2) think carefully about the choices they make to ensure their own safety and the safety of others | <urn:uuid:bdb3c1b5-9ef7-45b3-a484-39756e220b11> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://pgpartyprogram.ca/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00061-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948377 | 614 | 2.703125 | 3 |
More than 200 years after it was written, the Constitution of the United States still provides the framework for political life in America. Its provisions organize national political institutions, preserve basic rights for citizens, and arrange how the states fit into the workings of the national government. Within this framework, Americans have successfully strengthened their institutions in the face of new challenges, extended the political rights the Constitution establishes, and proven remarkably flexible in managing the relationship between the states and the national government. Now in its third century, this remarkable document remains at the heart of the American pursuit of a "more perfect Union."
Dr. William Livingston, professor emeritus, delivered five mini-lectures discussing the origins of the Constitution from the political and social developments that preceded the 1787 Convention to the final approval of the first ten amendments (the Bill of Rights) four years later. Dr. Livingston's knowledge of the subject and unique perspective on Constitutional history provide both a historical overview and witty commentary on the creation of the Constitution.
At the time of the lectures, Dr. Livingston was the Senior Vice President at the University of Texas at Austin. He retired in Aug of 2007 after holding the position for twelve years. You may read the official announcement of his retirement here: http://www.utexas.edu/opa/news/2007/08/livingston21.html. For more about Professor Livingson's contributions and career please visit the "people" page on this site. | <urn:uuid:b052b51a-c152-4289-9d8d-300ad6e5be37> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.laits.utexas.edu/constitution/2005/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925492 | 294 | 3.171875 | 3 |
You may be familiar with the terrible pounding in your head, the searing pain of bright light, the waves of nausea. Migraine sufferers know these debilitating sensations far too well. However, many people today can manage their migraines through a combination of lifestyle and medical treatment.
The first step in creating a migraine management plan is to seek a thorough medical assessment to ensure that the headaches are true migraines. This process involves reviewing the patient’s complete medical history and noting the frequency, severity and nature of the headaches.
Migraines can occur on one or both sides of the head and often involve intolerance of light and sound, as well as stomach upset. Some people experience visual disturbances prior to a migraine’s onset.
While the exact cause of migraines is unknown, scientists have determined that migraine headaches are related to blood flow changes in the brain. According to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, “the nervous system responds to a trigger, such as stress, by causing a spasm of the nerve-rich arteries at the base of the brain. The spasm closes down or constricts several arteries that supply blood to the brain. As these arteries constrict, the flow of blood to the brain is reduced.” This action sets off a chain of biochemical events that can result in a migraine.
In many cases, migraines have specific triggers that, once identified, can be controlled, explains Jim McDaniel, a chiropractic physician with The Wellness Center. Food, hormonal changes, stress, lack of sleep and allergies are among the most common migraine triggers. By tracking diet, sleep and hormonal cycles and noticing patterns that relate to migraine onset, patients may be able to avoid certain triggers and decrease the incidence of migraines. Other potential migraine causes may be embedded in the patient’s history, such as past emotional or physical trauma, he adds.
“In addition to the patient history, there will be several questionnaires to fill out, typically blood testing is done, and occasionally radiographic imaging is required,” McDaniel says. “All these are necessary to give the physician a complete picture of the patient, thus offering the patient the best opportunity for successful treatment. A treatment plan is then developed for the individual patient, and it will typically include lifestyle modification, supplementation and adjustments, including cranial work.”
Determining the optimal mix of treatments can take some time. “The secret is to find the treatment that works for each individual patient,” McDaniel says. “What works for one may have absolutely no effect on the next patient, and success does not come from a ‘magic bullet’ but in finding what works for each person.”
Rajiv Yadava, an osteopathic physician specializing in neuromuscular/skeletal medicine, finds that most of his patients benefit from a combination of traditional and complimentary therapies. “I use many modalities to help the tissues relax, causing changes in the nervous system,” he says. “When the nervous system is irritated for long periods of time, physiological and neurological changes occur. It becomes hypersensitive, so even mild irritation can touch off a major response.”
Yadava’s typical mix of modalities includes musculoskeletal adjustments, osteopathic manipulation, acupuncture and trigger point injections, all aimed at relaxing and calming the nervous system. “About 90 percent of my patients who present with a migraine tell me it’s either completely gone or greatly eased after a single treatment session,” he says. Patients usually have monthly treatments for a period of time while their general condition improves, Yadava says.
A number of prescription medications also are effective in helping to prevent or control migraine pain, and biofeedback and relaxation training may be helpful on an ongoing basis. Whether you seek relief through traditional medical treatment, complimentary therapies or a combination of approaches, help is available. | <urn:uuid:d0ffae5d-7655-4d5f-8a78-dfe4cf18c963> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.laduenews.com/living/health-wellness/migraines/article_3001cc39-f502-5210-8701-6ec746f223eb.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00199-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930025 | 820 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Art Print Production Methods
The dictionary gives us, as one of the definitions of the word Print: ‘a copy made by printing’… In its simplest form, that serves its purpose… perhaps a better definition, for this appreciation-‘the reproduction of a work of art?’ It must be made clear that not all printings are works of art. What then is it that makes one superior than another? It maybe scarcity value or uniqueness, perhaps, method of reproduction, crafted by a well known artist, carver, or engraver… or its age, or subject.
Most valuable prints were crafted before WWII by exceptional artists and craftsmen and used for illustration purposes. That is not to say that more modern works are inferior but from a technical viewpoint they lack expertise, which came from a lifelong devotion to a particular skill.
It is a fairly modern process to produce prints as ‘fine art’. Previously they were subsidiary to the written word illustrating the story. In natural history books they were scientific pictures breaking down the subject into separate detail – as figures to study in books on flora and fauna.
The printing surface from: wooden blocks, levelled stones, metal plates and screens had to be capable of producing many reproductions. Each different printing surface and process, gives a different result and number. The choice left to aesthetic merit, cost and length of run – number of copies needed.
Even though some of the processes and results were made many hundreds of years ago they still represent remarkable work. Some of these ancient prints show an expertise impossible to emulate today. Books on Prints show illustrations made by famous artists known mostly for their paintings and drawings… Their work on prints made them even more unique and collectable.
Before the end of the nineteenth century the image was drawn, etched, and engraved in reverse because the print was taken ‘direct’ from the printing surface. Transferring the image to make it ‘right reading’ required an intermediary process - using a separate printing surface of onionskin or damp-proof transfer paper.
Relief printing/Woodcuts – the raised image
Early to middle 1400s: to produce 100 copies.
Woodcuts are probably the oldest method of printing – the application of ink to the saved image areas which are raised – the non-image areas being removed by carving out by knife, chisel, or special tool. The inked impression created by pressure to transfer the ink to the paper. This printing method has been traced back to the Chinese in AD.750, and the earliest book 868, the Diamond Sutra. As paper manufacture was developed many centuries before this – back to the second century, we can safely assume that transferring a printed image onto cloth or paper occurred roughly the same time.
Notes on Prints, by William M. Ivins, Jr., published in 1930, by, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, gives: ‘as an appreciation of prints requires acquaintance not only with their pictorial composition but with their actual linear texture.’ This text cannot go that far but can give an appreciation and act as a guide to further study.
According to Paul Goldman, Prints, Drawings and Watercolours, published by British Museum in association with J. Paul Getty Museum: ‘printing from woodblocks was known in Europe as early as the twelfth century, but originally only for stamping designs on textiles’.
There are early woodcuts of the German School made in the late XV century - show printed pictures of playing cards and sacred pictures. The outline drawing was printed in black and the colour content hand painted later. Many of these line blocks were made-up into the forme at the same time the moveable type was set. This was not always the case. The majority of books at this time had their illustration inserted – as separate sheets - dropped in.
It is given that Johannas Gensfleish – known as Gutenberg, 1397 – 1468, invented moveable type in about 1454. It was with this invention that he printed his famous bible… Woodcuts were produced not only to produce black and white line drawings but to give a guide to later colourization - before insertion into the book. William Caxton went to France between 1469 and 1471 to study this method of producing copies. Whilst there, he made a translation of a Latin text, into English, which he proceeded to print in Bruges, for sale in England. He died in 1491, having printed a hundred books. These were printed in Ecclesiastical typeface called ‘black letter’. At this time there were only two types on font and arrangements of type, Ecclesiastical and Classical Roman – ‘white letter’. Erhard Reuwich of Utrecht illustrated the first type-printed book containing pictorial illustrations in 1486.
England, in the early 1500s, was still far behind current working practices on the continent, particularly in central Europe. The previous century was a period of plague ending with greater powers for those that survived. Thereafter taxes and wars made the population more concerned about survival that developing new ides of education and learning.
The dissolution of the monasteries in the middle of the 1500s brought about a redistribution of wealth land. Not long afterwards new discoveries were made overseas… the navy was enlarged not only to protect shipping but to ward against the growing threat of Catholism. The spirit of adventure to seek out new horizons stimulated greater trade and commerce. The expansion brought about a desire for more comfortable living standards and hygiene, new schools and universities open their gates to provide the teaching of humanities and science. Greater knowledge was sought which in turn promoted the writing and manufacture of books. These early books were printed on vellum and we can see today the devotion the craftsmen used to produce such works of art. Many had line drawings and gaps left to insert scripts for purchasers to employ their own artist to paint in the colour and illuminate the capitals. Their hand skills and methods of page planning set a standard and gave us many of the printing and typographical terms used today.
Later, as better production methods and techniques employed more copies became available. Multi colour printing was achieved by carving special blocks – one for each colour. These were printed one top of each other in register – a process known as chiaroscuro – a popular process in Italy and Germany in the sixteenth century. More hand presses were built to cope with the demand. The printing presses changed little over the first three hundred years. The press was made out of wood and pressure applied to the paper covering the forme by pulling on a bar acting on a screw. The first all metal press was designed by Lord Stanhope in 1800. His invention operated a number of levers which applied greater pressure on the platen enabling a larger sheet size to be used.
This process was introduced on the Continent at the beginning of the twentieth century and became very popular in the 1920s in particular by Claude Flight 1881 – 1955, in his writings published as: The Art and Craft of Lino Cutting and Printing, London, 1934.
There are a variety of textures that can be adopted. Light inking and light pressure will give a granular effect. The surface of the lino can be cut, scraped, and scratched. Course sand paper will give another granular effect. The use of rabbit glue and whitening used to cover the surface then combed through - will give minute ridges and a brushed effect.
Similar process to Woodcuts developed in the eighteenth century. A very hard wood is used which is cut across the grain. The tool used is called a burin the handle held against the palm, the blade pushed into the wood making a clean incision. The wood-engraver is able to produce far more detailed work leaving the printing surface raised by cutting closely cut lines below the printing surface leaving the black, inked - raised portion, to print. Thomas Bewick, 1753 – 1828, History of Birds 1797, was the first great exponent as a book illustrator.
The sunken intaglio image: devised middle to late 1400s. - to print two hundred copies.
The next improvement in the printing processes, which gave a finer line and therefore greater detail, was engraving. Engraving battle armour was an embellishment – declared the standing of the wearer. This engraving was a skill began many years before printing was discovered but pointed he way to an engraving process using particular tools and devices. However, the earliest copy made by taking an impression from an engraved metal plate was, believed to be, shortly after Gutenberg’s invention. Pre-1450, metal plates were cut, stamped, and punched, to produce a sunken non-image area, allowing the surface to become the raised image and to print. This method was known as Metal point. Colour could be added to the print by hand, after printing the black, which was known as the key. However, it was not only labour intensive but crude and lacking in detail.
The engraving process began in Italy then moved to France via Germany. After the 1700s, printmakers gave preference to the technique of etching. Copperplate engraving never again achieved such a high standard of artistry and skill displayed by that marvellous era. Albrecht Durer, 1471 – 1528, is attributed to be the finest exponent of German engraving. His early work represents Gothic work, later Renaissance. This partly explains why his work holds such a fascination to experts for his artistry included other methods of printmaking.
Steel engraving began in England in 1820. Being a harder metal longer runs could be expected for book illustrations, stamps, and banknotes. It was rarely used for small print runs therefore not adopted for art prints.
Using a steel point, a ‘graver’ in a similar manner to drawing with a pencil, a line is scratched into the surface of the polished metal plate. This action tended to produce a feathered edge to the printed line, which during the course of the print run wore away. This burr often scraped away from the engraved line sharpened the image, in some cases the method was used to reduce the thickness of the line – to make a finer line. The incised lines are then filled with ink which when printed by pressure pulls out of the recesses. The only problem with both engravings and etchings was how to incorporate the typematter, which could be only produced by the letterpress raised image. The prints could only be inserted after the wording printed increasing costs.
Copper plates, being a softer metal, allow a freer drawing technique. The engraver does not have to use such force to make an impression in the softer metal. This shows in the display of fine detail. Copper has another added benefit in that the metal is not corrosive. It is possible for book illustrators to use more than one printing technique to reach a particular result. When this happens even experts find it difficult to recognise how the print has been achieved.
Dry point, 1480
This art form for printmaking was discovered at the same time as copperplate engraving, using all the same materials except the engraving tool which was replaced by a needle. The difference between the graver and the needle was that the former pared metal from the plate whilst the latter indented the metal – pressing and forcing the metal to form a burr. This burr caused ink to be held either side of the engraved line which tends to multiply the image giving a softer tone appearance to the print. Unfortunately, the burr wears away which make each copy lighter and unique. The action of scraping away the burr by the engraver lightens and sharpens the line. There are a number of special tools the printmaker uses to speed up the work– that give him a graded tonal range.
This is also an intaglio printing process which produces an image on the paper by drawing out the ink from recessed cells or lines. The highly cleansed metal plate – to remove any trace of grease, is coated with ‘ground’ made up of wax and bitumen that is rubbed, rolled, or dabbed onto the warmed metal plate to form a perfectly even coat. The metal printing plate can be made of copper, brass, steel, zinc, or in later years electroplated. The choice id dictated by the quality of the print required and the length of the print run. This coated plate was blackened using the smuts from lighted tapers then cooled by the back of the plate being placed under a stream of cold water.
A tracing previously made from the original turned over and retraced onto the face of the plate without penetrating the ground. This Keyline drawing is the guide for the engraver to draw with his needle, and various other tools, the lines and crosshatchings necessary to reproduce the picture. When completed the whole completed plate is placed in a bath of a suitable mordant, depending on which metal plate used, so the corrosive acid eats into the scratched - clean metal lines. The depth of the etched cell is determined by the length of time spent in the acid bath and the acid’s strength.
To speed up the process of trying to make a tonal effect Mezzotinting was created in 1642. It is a method similar to engraving but using a rotating roughening tool. The grain, or tone, was made with a rocker tool or circular grainer, looked like a series of small circular saws held on a spindle. This tool wheeled across, or rocked across the plate, attempted to give an even uniform grain like a stippling medium. The roughened surface was blackened with printer’s ink. By scraping away the tops of the roughened surface a tonal range produced. The effect when printed looked like crayon work – a randomed, grained effect, called working in the crayon manner, and invented in 1757. M W Turner, 1775 – 1851, ‘the most applauded exponent of the mezzotinter’s art’, although David Lucas 1802 – 1881, gave the art form its last and most brilliant flare’, according to William Ivins.
Aquatints, or grain etching, use an acid mordant to create a cell or recessed line. This method of print making was most popular in France where it was invented – as a way of imitating watercolours. The main object behind all these processes is to make a continuous tone effect which is similar to a photographic print, but in a drawn style suitable for the originator to achieve his imagined design. Linking aquatints and line etching was a favourite printmaking method to achieve an artistic drawing.
Aquatinting does not make a mechanical dot formation by a screen for the shading is random and featureless, with soft edges to the linked specks. As in all printmaking a number of printings in register, using different plates, one for each colour, produces a coloured reproduction – where the ink is sucked out of the lines and cells. The process of laying on a ground and etching continues until the required effect is achieved. There are any number of methods using different metal plates, gounds, tools and acids. The selection is made by the engraver depending on the result required. There were two methods of creating a ground. One consisted of a wax resin powder attached to the plate by heat. The other uses an aqueous sugar solution as the stopping agent – applied to the non-image areas. A varnish coat then laid to the whole plate. When immersed in water the sugar lifts leaving the varnish to protect the plate. Aquatints were popular before and during the Victorian era a great many such prints were made of hunting scenes and sporting events – all for book plates.
Surface, or Chemical Printing
Lithography: Greek lithos stone + graphein to write… a printing process discovered by chance. Alois Senefelder, 1771 – 1834, in Prague, Bohemia, wished to copy some music. He had all the necessary equipment and tools ready to create an engraved copy, including an ink mixing slab - made out of a cut, and smoothed, Kelheim limestone – four inches thick. Wishing to jot down a list, wrote on the slab - in ink. Later, wishing to wash off the ink, discovered that even though his cloth was damp the writing refused to be removed. The more he tried, getting some of the ink on the damp cloth in the process, found that this ink transferred back – re-inked the script… The damped stone, having absorbed the water from the cloth, did the reverse - rejected the ink. This gave him the idea: if an image could be inked without touching the non-image areas, by placing a piece of paper in contact with the inked image… a copy could be made by transference…
From the late 1700s, commercial lithographic printing produced coloured reproductions cheaper and easier than letterpress. The reproductions were also closer to the original. To achieve a first class reproduction ten or more colours were printed on top of each other in register. The lithographic stones gradually began to be replaced by grained zinc plates just after WWI. Shortly afterward a rotary press was invented which allowed the metal plate to be wrapped around the cylinder. Both the stone and the plate produced a copy ‘direct’ – from the printing surface to the paper. The image was then in reverse which meant that the artist had to draw the image backwards to achieve a right reading copy. The invention of the rotary press allowed ‘offset’ lithography to be achieved - using a second machine cylinder to hold a rubber blanket. When the rubber blanket accepts the inked impression from the printing plate it transfers the ink to the paper… this process allows the artists plate or stone to be drawn ‘right reading’. Both the grained stone and metal plate retains water – the stone absorbs water and the grained plate traps the water in the grain. The grain allows a greasy black crayon, or ink, to be used to copy the original, making the reproduction closer to the artist original artwork. Out of all the reproduction processes drawn lithography reproduces pencil sketches, crayon, charcoal perfectly – in a free sketched manner, liberated… by treating the printing surface like paper or canvas. Using stone instead of a metal plate gives the artist greater control, the surface grain can be smoother. Mistakes and special effects can be scraped, jumped, and engraved, and the surface reground.
Using a stencil
This reproduction method was originated in the Far East, mainly in Japan, to decorate silk before the Christian era. This process adopted for a similar use at the turn of the twentieth century by western manufacturers. In the 1920s screen printing began to be used for advertising. Eventually its flexibility and versatility made it the third biggest printing medium. Its prints on all surfaces from bottles to street signs.
The process requires a frame to hold the stencil. It must be flat and sufficiently strong and ridged so that it holds its shape. A polyamide or silk gauze stretched across the frame and stapled to the bottom or outer side whilst keeping it taut. The transparent gauze stretched over the frame is varnished but only on the frame edge to prevent the gauze fraying. A traced keyline drawing taken from the original is laid under the screen to form an accurate guide to the stencil maker. There are a number of methods used to produce a stencil: The gauze is drawn on with a wax crayon and then the whole screen covered with a water soluble size that attaches itself to the screen but not the greasy image – which rejects it. The crayon drawing is then removed with turpentine which exposes the screen. In the second method the gauze is covered with cellulose which gives a hard edge to the work…, or a stencil is cut out from a thermoplastic sheet, that is welded onto the screen with a hot iron The third method, a photo stencil techniques is used using a light sensitive layer covering the gauze, that becomes hardened to light.
To make a screen print, a small amount of ink is poured into the tipped up frame. By lowering the frame horizontally onto the substrate… a squeegee draws the ink over the screen, forces the ink through the gauze onto the printed surface - transferring a flat layer of ink. The thickness of the ink layer leaves the image area slightly raised. Screen printing relies upon being able to print on any surface whether flat or round giving a perfectly flat opaque finish.
Recognition of Screen Printing
This is the perfect medium for the aspiring printmaker for it is relatively cheap to set up the process. They are obvious to the collector showing broad areas of flat colour which is slightly raised on the surface giving no fine detail. It takes a lot of skill to get the best out of the process and its unique form… making sure multiple printing is registered perfectly.
Aloys Senefelder: A Complete Course of Lithography, published, 1818. William M Ivins, Jr. Notes on Prints: published by The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 1930. Graham Hudson’s The Victorian Printer: published by Shire Publications Limited, 1996. Paul Goldman’s Looking at Prints, Drawings, and Watercolours, published by the British Museum in association with the J Paul Getty Museum, LA. Antony Griffiths, Prints and Printmaking: published by the British Museum Publications, 1980.Looks Great But How Do You Print It, and Other People’s Jobs, two articles from the British Printer. The Craft of Woodcuts by John R Biggs, published by Blandford Press Ltd., 1963, reprinted by Jarrold and Sons Ltd, 1968.
- Terence Kearey | <urn:uuid:e2145f63-7e2c-405a-8d15-12661d357fc2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Art_Print_Production_Methods | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00123-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95788 | 4,574 | 3.71875 | 4 |
In the fall of 1902, a twenty-year-old James Joyce enrolled in Dublin’s Catholic University Medical School. Joyce quickly grew bored, however, and soon dropped-out. The following year he again enrolled in medical school, this time at the University of Paris. After sitting in a few lectures, he again grew bored and again dropped-out (Walzl 158-59). It seemed that Joyce was not destined to become a medical doctor.
Although James Joyce never became a medical doctor, he went on to become a great spiritual doctor—diagnosing people’s spiritual maladies and suggesting cures. Such is certainly the case in Dubliners, Joyce’s first great work. In the book’s fifteen short stories, Joyce, using mostly fictitious characters and events, outlined what he believed to be the sickness of his countrymen. In the book’s final story, he recommended a remedy. In what follows, we will examine the diagnosis and cure offered in Dubliners.
Joyce believed that Dubliners were suffering from paralysis of the will. As he wrote in a 1904 letter to his brother Stanislaus, “What’s the matter with you is that you’re afraid to live. You and people like you. This city is suffering from hemiplegia [paralysis] of the will” (Walzl 159). In Dubliners, we see that paralysis of the will is a weakness of the will, a weakness that causes people to “miss or surrender their chance” to “escape into a fuller and more meaningful existence” (Kelly vii). Let’s look at a few examples of this.
Eveline has the opportunity to escape her miserable life—which is marred by a demeaning boss and violent father—by marrying Frank, a man who will “give her life, perhaps love, too” (35). But by the end of the story, we find her “passive, like a helpless animal” (36), lacking the will power to sail with Frank to Buenos Ayres. Much like Eveline, Bob Doran longs to escape, to “ascend through the roof and fly away to another country where he would never hear again of his trouble” (65). But he finds himself unable to do so. Feeling guilty and afraid of losing his reputation, Bob, even though he has a “notion” that he is “being had” (63), abandons his hopes of living a happy life and agrees to marry the rather vulgar Polly.
Little Chandler’s paralysis has prevented him from ever taking a chance and pursuing his dreams of becoming a writer. Chandler has long dreamed of being published. Even as he walks to the bar to meet Gallaher, he dreams of “sentences and phrases from the notices which his book would get” (71). He, of course, has never been published because he has been afraid to leave Dublin, and “if you wanted to succeed you had to go away. You could do nothing in Dublin” (70). Because of his timidity, Chandler finds himself immersed in an unhappy life, working an unfulfilling job and being married to an unkind woman. James Duffy’s paralysis has caused him to live a life of isolation. We learn at the beginning of “A Painful Case” that he had “neither companions nor friends, church nor creed” (109). He temporarily shares his life with Mrs. Sinicio, but eventually rejects her, denying her “life and happiness.” As the story ends, Mr. Duffy realizes the misery of his lonely existence: “No one wanted him; he was outcast from life’s feast” (118).
Jimmy Doyle’s irresponsibility causes him to lose his inheritance in an all-night card game. Farrington’s alcoholism causes him to squander his money and beat his son. Mrs. Kearney’s pride and love of money ruins her daughter’s musical career (Walzl 185). Gabriel’s selfishness prevents him from ever experiencing what is most important in life—love. The examples go on.
It is obvious that Dubliners diagnoses the sickness of Dubliners. When reading this collection, we cannot help but notice how dysfunctional and meaningless these people’s lives are. What is not so obvious is that, along with diagnosing this sickness, the book also offers a cure. Joyce clearly intended the book to do this, calling it a first step towards his people’s “spiritual liberation” (Tindall 4).
The cure to Dublin’s paralysis is found in “The Dead.” We know that “The Dead” offers the cure because it is the only story that ends hopefully. The first fourteen stories in Dubliners all end on discouraging notes. After being introduced to characters who are living miserable and/or corrupt lives, readers leave the stories without any hope that things will get better. As we leave Mr. Doran, he has an unhappy life awaiting him; as we leave Little Chandler, he is miring in remorse; as we leave Farrington, we have no reason to believe that he will give up drinking and become a kind husband and father; and so on. Since “The Dead,” unlike the other stories, ends in hope, it follows that it offers the cure to paralysis of the will. Why else would a story, which is in a collection of stories focusing on a particular disease, have an optimistic ending unless it offered the cure to that disease?
The claim that “The Dead” ends in hope is contested by some scholars. Jack Ludwig, for instance, interprets Gabriel’s act of letting Gretta’s hand fall as a recognition of his failure to identify with others. “Gabriel,” he writes, “now knows that his last hope of achieving identification—for all his other attempts have been failures just as his acts at the party ended in failure—is gone.” At this point in the story, Ludwig writes, it is significant to note that the descriptions of Gabriel in the beginning of the story are similar to the descriptions of “the snow-covered statues of the departed great, Wellington and O’Connell.” By “connecting Gabriel with the statues, Joyce is saying that Gabriel is without life, inanimate, made of stone, a paralytic after his final stroke.” The snowfall in the story’s final scene reinforces Gabriel’s death, as well as the death of all of Ireland. As Ludwig writes, “Paralysis is general all over Ireland. Death is general all over Ireland. For his own death Gabriel not waits. He merges with the dead of the past and the dead of the present, watching the snow—the death of all—‘falling faintly…upon all the living and the dead’” (162).
Now Ludwig certainly makes some valid points. First, Gabriel’s act of letting Gretta’s hand fall seems to symbolize his recognition that he has failed. He realizes “how poor a part he, her husband, had played in her life” (234), and he acknowledges that, unlike Michael Furey, he has never truly felt love for another (235). Second, Ludwig is correct in claiming that the description of Gabriel is similar to the descriptions of the statues of dead heroes. While we read that Gabriel has a “light fringe of snow lay like a cape on the shoulders of his overcoat and like toecaps on the toes of his galoshes” (185), we later read that “patches of snow” lay on one of the statues (226). Third, the snow over Ireland undoubtedly symbolizes the death of Gabriel and of all Ireland. Just before we read that “snow was general over all Ireland,” falling “upon all the living and the dead” (236), we read that Gabriel’s soul “had approached that region where dwell the vast hosts of the dead” (235). Before the description of the snowfall, we also read that the “time had come for him [Gabriel] to set out on his journey westward” (236). Going westward, as William York Tindall writes, has traditionally meant dying (46).
Although the above points should be granted to Ludwig, it nevertheless seems that “The Dead” has a hopeful ending. Although the final snowfall symbolizes death, it symbolizes Christian death. And Christian death is filled with hope, as it is followed by resurrection. So while Ludwig is correct in claiming that the snowfall symbolizes death, he is wrong to equate this death with hopelessness.
Proof that this snowfall symbolizes Christian death can be found in the final few sentences of “The Dead”:
It [the snow] was falling, too, upon every part of the lonely churchyard on the hill where Michael Furey lay buried. It lay thickly drifted on the crooked crosses and headstones, on the spears of the little gate, on the barren thorns. His soul swooned slowly as he heard the snow falling faintly through the universe and faintly falling, like the descent of their last end, upon all the living and the dead (236).
As Walzl points out, the images of crosses, spears, and thorns point to the passion of Christ (216): Christ was crucified on a cross (John 19.17-18), thrust in the side with a spear (19.34), and crowned with a crown of thorns (Mark 15.17). Christ’s passion, of course, is not a dreadful, but a glorious event, as his death was followed, not by his body rotting in the grave, but by his resurrection (1 Corinthians 15.3-4). Since “The Dead” ends with symbols of Christ’s passion, it seems that Gabriel’s death must be interpreted in terms of Christian resurrection and, thus, hope.
Once we recognize that “The Dead” is a story about death followed by resurrection, and not death ending in despair, other images in the story take on new meaning. The snowfall, for instance, also becomes a symbol of resurrection. The snow no longer merely symbolizes death, but death awaiting rebirth. As Walzl writes, “the icy snow, the image of death, melts in the ‘mutinous Shannon waves’ and becomes water, the archetypal symbol of life; and for the Christian, the baptismal symbol of rebirth” (216). Similarly, the word that the story begins with, “Lily,” also takes on significance. As Tindall writes, “Taken literally, Lily is the name of a bitter servant; but a lily, white as snow, serves at funerals and at the ceremony of resurrection at Easter” (47). It seems that it is no mere coincidence that a story about rebirth begins with a symbol of resurrection.
So “The Dead” ends in hope. And since it ends in hope, it is reasonable to infer that it contains the cure to the sickness that plagues Dubliners—paralysis of the will. But we still have not discovered why “The Dead” ends in hope. In other words, we still have not discovered why Gabriel has found new life. If we find this answer, we will have found the cure to paralysis.
Given the importance that epiphanies play in Dubliners and the fact that Gabriel’s epiphany is followed by images of resurrection, it seems that the hope of the book is found in his epiphany. In other words, since there is a cause-effect relationship between Gabriel’s epiphany and the book’s hopeful ending, we must understand his epiphany to understand why there is hope. In order to understand hhis epiphany, however, we must first understand his paralysis.
Gabriel’s paralysis is that he is selfish and, as a result, alienated from others. There are several examples of Gabriel’s selfishness. For instance, he worries about himself—whether he will look ridiculous during his speech (187), whether anyone hears Miss Ivors call him a “West Briton” (200)—but he never thinks of others. As he admits to himself towards the end of the story, unlike Michael Furey, he has never felt love for any woman (235). Along with being selfish, he is alienated from others. For instance, he is estranged from his homeland, as is evidenced by the facts that he vacations on the continent (198) and even fashions his clothing after the continent’s styles (189). He is also estranged from the people at the party, taking “no part in the conversation” at dinner (208). At one point during the party, he looks outside and thinks, “How pleasant it would be to walk out alone” (201).
In his epiphany, Gabriel, for the first time, sees himself as he really is—a self-centered, alienated man. He realizes “how poor a part he, her husband, had played in her [Gretta’s] life” (234). “Generous tears” then fill his eyes as he realizes that he has lived a loveless existence (235). As Tindall writes, Gabriel realizes that he is guilty “not of withholding love but of lacking it entirely” (43); he realizes that Michael Furey, though “employed in glassworks,” was, unlike himself, “capable of love” (44). Gabriel realizes “it is better to have died as Michael Furey died than to have lived after the fashion” of himself and the others at the Christmas party (Trilling 155): “Better pass boldly into that other world, in the full glory of some passion, than fade and wither dismally with age” (235).
Upon realizing his paralysis, Gabriel takes the first step towards change and begins to be reconciled with his fellow Irishmen. In the book’s final paragraph, we read that Gabriel’s “identity was fading out into a grey impalpable world” (235) and that snow was “general all over Ireland,” falling “upon all the living and the dead” (236). As we saw earlier, this passage contains images of death—the death of Gabriel and of Ireland. But it also speaks of Gabriel’s act of identifying himself with his countrymen. By allowing his own identity to fade and by finding a commonality between himself and others, Gabriel takes the first step towards escaping his isolation and finally becoming united with others. He is no longer separate from others; he is now “a willing part of the general flow of things” (Daiches 36). As Tindall puts it, “His self destroyed, his identity gone, he becomes one with all the living and the dead. This dramatic extinction of personality could be another hopeful sign. No longer Gabriel alone but one with everyone, he may be ready to accept, give, and participate” (43).
That Gabriel is changing is further evidenced by his acknowledgement that the “time had come for him to set out on his journey westward” (236). Although, as we saw earlier, going westward is a symbol for dying, Gabriel’s journey westward symbolizes more than his approaching death; it also symbolizes his act of being reconciled with his fellow Irishmen. In the story, the west symbolizes Ireland: it is where Miss Ivors vacations, as opposed to the east, the continent, where Gabriel vacations (Tindall 45-46). The west also symbolizes selflessness and love: it was in the west, in Galway, that “Michael loved Gretta and caught his death of cold” (Tindall 46). Gabriel’s journey westward, then, is a journey of reunification with the people he has long been alienated from and it is a journey towards living the life of love that he has long refused, but is now ready to embrace.
To summarize, “The Dead” ends in hope because its protagonist realizes that he is paralyzed and begins to turn from it. There is hope for him because, even though he has been sick all his life, he has at last found health. So it seems that self-realization is the cure to paralysis—to be more precise, self-realization that leads to change. Self-realization is not only the cure to Gabriel’s paralysis, but the cure to the paralysis of all the characters in Dubliners. There might have been hope for all of these characters if, like Gabriel, they had only been able to see themselves as they really were. Had Eveline realized that she was a person deserving of happiness, she might have been able to escape her life of misery. Had Bob Doran realized his cowardice, he might have been able to resist the trickery of Mrs. Mooney and her daughter. Had Little Chandler realized his timidity earlier in life, he might have been able to leave Dublin and fulfill his dreams. Had James Duffy, while he was still young, realized what an isolated wretch he was, he might have been able to love and be loved.
In writing Dubliners, it was Joyce’s hoped that he could help his fellow countrymen realize their own sickness and, thus, change and be cured. He hoped Dubliners would give Irishmen “one good look at themselves” in a “nicely polished looking-glass” (Tindall 4).
Dubliners, however, was not written just about and for Dubliners. It was written about and for all of us. As Joyce once told a friend, “I always write about Dublin, because if I can get to the heart of Dublin, I can get to the heart of all the cities of the world. In the particular is contained the universal” (Walzl 157). We suffer from the same maladies as Eveline, Bob, Chandler, James, Gabriel, and the other characters—cowardice, self-delusion, pride, selfishness, avarice, and so forth. When we look at the characters in Dubliners, we see people that are strikingly similar to ourselves. But by seeing our own shortcomings in people that are different than ourselves, we are able to see ourselves in a new light and learn things about ourselves that would not have been otherwise possible. One is reminded of the story of King David and the prophet Nathan. David had slept with Uriah’s wife and ordered Uriah to be murdered, but he did not see the wrongness of his actions. In order to show him the light, Nathan came to David and told him a story about a man who had committed similar sins: this man had stolen and killed another man’s sheep. Upon hearing the story, David “burned with anger” and declared that that man should be put to death. “You are the man!” Nathan then told David. After hearing this, David realized, “I have sinned against the Lord” (2 Samuel 12). Similarly, by showing us ourselves through the lives of different people, Joyce gives us the opportunity to truly see ourselves and, thus, change and become the people we were meant to be. He gives us the chance to be healed.
* * * * *
Daiches, David. “Dubliners.” Twentieth Century Interpretations of Dubliners: A Collection of Critical Essays. Ed. Peter K. Garrett. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968. 27-37.
Joyce, James. Dubliners. 1914. New York: Signet Classic, 1991.
Kelly, John S. Introduction. Dubliners. By James Joyce. 1914. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991. vii-xlix.
Ludwig, Jack Barry. “The Snow.” James Joyce’s Dubliners: A Critical Handbook. Eds. James R. Baker and Thomas F. Staley. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, 1969. 159-62.
Tindall, William York. A Reader’s Guide to James Joyce. New York: Noonday Press, 1959.
Trilling, Lionel. “Characterization in ‘The Dead.’” James Joyce’s Dubliners: A Critical Handbook. Eds. James R. Baker and Thomas F. Staley. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, 1969. 155-58.
Walzl, Florence L. “Dubliners.” A Companion to Joyce Studies. Eds. Zack Bowen and James F. Carens. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984. 157-228. | <urn:uuid:7896ea49-c28f-4b38-8998-be14c9d5a040> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://donemmerich.blogspot.com/2003_05_01_archive.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00071-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972254 | 4,429 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Cotton trader © Liverpool Record Office, Liverpool Libraries
Liverpool’s cotton traders
Cotton may not grow in Britain, but for 150 years most of the world’s raw cotton came through Liverpool, on its way to Lancashire’s textile mills. The finished goods were then sent back to Liverpool to be shipped all over the world.
During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Liverpool was the centre of the raw cotton trade. Millions of bales were unloaded on the city’s quaysides and many people were involved in moving, storing, buying and selling cotton. Today, approximately 60% of the world’s cotton is still traded under rules developed in Liverpool.
Cotton from all over the world was bought and sold in Liverpool. Liverpool’s trading links with America and the nearby cotton mills of Lancashire meant that over 80% of Britain’s cotton imports came through the port. Some of the most famous names in Liverpool made their names and fortunes trading cotton.
Find out more about cotton trading in Liverpool
J Walker Clarke
Listen to American cotton merchant J Walker Clarke from Columbia, South Carolina, talk about the cotton trade and its close links with Liverpool.
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Duration: 3 minutes, 19 seconds.
Read a transcript of the audio clip
While Liverpool was the centre of the raw cotton trade, it was not the bales’ final destination. Lancashire was where the cotton was turned into finished goods, from colourful printed cotton cloth to mopheads.
Lancashire was the main centre for cotton spinning and weaving in Britain. The cotton that was unloaded and traded in Liverpool was sold to Lancashire spinners. It was transported by canal, and later by railway, to the cotton towns of Lancashire. Manchester and its Exchange was the main marketplace for the finished cotton goods, earning it the nickname ‘Cottonopolis’.
Find out more about the cotton industry in Lancashire. | <urn:uuid:bf535004-18ac-4a53-bfb0-170d7bb2361b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/maritime/exhibitions/cotton/traders/index.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00032-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956132 | 426 | 3.28125 | 3 |
Historical events always borrow interpretative categories from previously established interpretative frameworks. This is often seen in the actions of historical “copy cats”. It is not uncommon for a figure to choreograph symbolic demonstrations based on well-known precedents. Assuming that the symbolism employed by Jesus was memorable, do we find any copy cats in the history that immediately follows? Perhaps we find such evidence in the episode of the ‘Anonymous Egyptian’ [c. 56 CE] who (1) was a Jewish prophet, (2) was purported to have come from Egypt, (3) claimed to be able to perform a great ‘sign’ from heaven, (4) claimed to be able to destroy the Holy City, (5) seemed to be reenacting Exodus typology. Josephus writes:
At this time there came to Jerusalem from Egypt a man who said that he was a prophet and advised the masses of the common people to go out with him to the mountain called the Mount of Olives, which lies opposite the city . . . For he asserted that he wished to demonstrate from there that at his command Jerusalem’s walls would fall down, through which he promised to provide them an entrance into the city (Ant. 20.8.6 §169-170; cf. J.W. 2.13.5 §261-163; Acts 21:38).Is it more likely or less likely that some of the followers of this prophet (several thousand of them by Josephus’ count) were also witnesses to Jesus’ preaching? If there was some overlap, could it be that this episode provides further (non-Christian) evidence of Jesus’ impact?
Go ahead, find a recently written, unpublished dissertation on this topic! I
dare double-dog dare you. | <urn:uuid:4135a6bc-63fa-4c36-8867-4686a4e3f1da> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://historicaljesusresearch.blogspot.com/2012/10/so-you-need-dissertation-topic_15.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00137-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977114 | 372 | 2.703125 | 3 |
- Word History, Word Parts
|part of speech:
||a word that describes or modifies a noun or pronoun. In the sentence, "It was a hard test," the word "hard" is an adjective.
The word adjective
comes from a Latin word, adjectiva
, which means "added." Adjectives add information to a noun. | <urn:uuid:ac0a8ddc-d7ab-4d0a-aca5-2f979bf4e038> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wordsmyth.net/?level=2&rid=482 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.816702 | 75 | 3.8125 | 4 |
For hibernating mammals, the pre-winter months are a race against time to accumulate enough energy reserves to last until spring. Offspring born late in the year have much less time to achieve this. Austrian scientists have discovered that power-napping can help late-born dormice overcome these unfavourable odds.
During hibernation, dormice enter into ‘torpor’ to save energy and water. In this state, the dormice become inactive and show a marked decrease in their metabolic rate, causing their body temperature to reduce. However, late-born dormice use bouts of torpor during the summer to “catch up” with their earlier-born counterparts. “The longer an animal stays in torpor, the more energy it saves”, says Dr Sylvain Giroud (Research Institute of Wildlife Ecology, Austria), who led the study.
Torpor use was measured using temperature loggers placed in the nests of the animals which detected the sharp drop in body temperature which occurs in dormancy. Late-born juveniles entered into torpor more frequently and for longer periods, allowing them to achieve higher growth rates. As a result, the late-born juveniles reached a similar size to the early-born dormice at the onset of winter.
Torpor was also found to be a strategy used when food availability was limited. The researchers compared two groups of juveniles – one able to feed freely and the other intermittently fasted on alternate days. The fasted dormice showed considerably greater use of torpor, enabling them to maintain high growth rates and accumulate sufficient fat reserves.
“Torpor was only viewed as a means to save energy and water, but during the last decade other functions have emerged. These include slowing ageing processes, promoting growth during early life and fattening prior to hibernation” added Dr Giroud. “Juveniles have to reach a threshold of fatness in order to survive winter by hibernating. The more fat deposited, the more likely individuals will survive”. Besides increasing the chances of survival over winter, reaching an optimal body size is also thought to favour reproductive success when the dormice emerge from hibernation during the spring. | <urn:uuid:ac636a1a-96c6-4d2f-a2f3-51802b63eea6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://scienceblog.com/73144/power-power-nap/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00101-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95465 | 449 | 3.984375 | 4 |
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An extractor for foetometry reaction is questionable an ohmmeter
Electrical conductance. Simple meter ordnance shoot low reaction accurately origin the resistance of heritor foetometry leads spawn a voltage drop that interferes with the measurement, so more precise devices use four-terminal sensing
Many electric elements, much as diodes
Electrical conductanceand batteries
Electrical conductancedo not fulfil Ohm's law
Electrical conductance. These are questionable non-ohmic or non-linear, and are remember by an I–V curve
Electrical conductance, which is not a direct rivet line through the origin.
Resistance and electrical phenomenon can no longer be outlined for non-ohmic elements. However, different ohmic resistance, non-linear reaction is not changeless but different with the electromotive force or up-to-date through the device; i.e., its operating point
Electrical conductance. There are two sort of resistance:
When an alternating up-to-date change of location through a circuit, the relation between up-to-date and electromotive force crosswise a open circuit division is characterized not only by the ratio of heritor magnitudes, but as well the different in heritor phases
Electrical conductance. For example, in an perfect resistor, the instant when the electromotive force max out its maximum, the up-to-date as well max out its maximal up-to-date and electromotive force are oscillatory in phase. But for a capacitor
Electrical conductanceor inductor
Electrical conductance, the maximal up-to-date change of location give as the electromotive force exhibit through 0, and frailty epos up-to-date and electromotive force are oscillating 90° out of phase, see picture at right. Complex numbers
Electrical conductanceare utilised to preserve inside track of some the generation and triplicity of up-to-date and voltage:
The resistivity and entree may be uttered as labyrinthian book of numbers that can be injured intelligence genuine and notional parts:
where R and G are reaction and electrical phenomenon respectively, X is reactance
Electrical conductance, and B is susceptance
Electrical conductance. For perfect resistors, Z and Y trim to R and G respectively, but for AC web continued capacitors
Electrical conductanceand inductors
Electrical conductance, X and B are nonzero.
Another hindrance of AC open circuit is that the reaction and electrical phenomenon can be frequency-dependent. One reason, above-named above is the skin effect
Electrical conductance(and the correlated proximity effect
Electrical conductance). Another account is that the ohmic resistance content may be on relative frequency see Drude model
Electrical conductance, deep-level traps
Electrical conductance, resonant frequency
Electrical conductance, Kramers–Kronig relations
Electrical conductance, etc.
Resistors and different weather with reaction contend the change of location of electric current; therefore, electric energy is required to push up-to-date through the resistance. This electric energy is dissipated, heating the variable resistor in the process. This is questionable Joule heating
Electrical conductanceafter James Prescott Joule
Electrical conductance, as well questionable ohmic heating or resistive heating.
The looseness of electric nuclear energy is oftentimes undesired, peculiarly in the piece of transmission losses
Electrical conductancein power lines
Electrical conductance. High electromotive force transmission
Electrical conductancesubserve trim the financial loss by reaction the up-to-date for a acknowledged power.
On the different hand, Joule melting is sometimes useful, for case in point in electric stoves
Electrical conductanceand different electric heaters
Electrical conductanceas well questionable resistive heaters. As other example, incandescent lamps
Electrical conductancecount on Joule heating: the lightbulb is het to much a superior frigidness that it radiate "white hot" with thermal radiation
Electrical conductanceas well questionable incandescence
The mathematical statement for Joule melting is:
where P is the power
Electrical conductancenuclear nuclear energy per unit of measurement case born-again from electric nuclear nuclear energy to caloric energy, R is the resistance, and I is the up-to-date through the resistor.
Near room temperature, the ohmic resistance of stepping stone typically amass as frigidness is increased, cold spell the ohmic resistance of semiconductor device typically decreases as frigidness is increased. The ohmic resistance of insulators and electrolytes may increase or decrease independency on the system. For the detailed the ways of the world and explanation, see Electrical ohmic resistance and conductivity
As a consequence, the reaction of wires, resistors, and different components often change with temperature. This coriolis effect may be undesired, causing an electronic open circuit to misfunction at extreme temperatures. In both cases, however, the coriolis effect is put to good use. When temperature-dependent reaction of a division is utilised purposefully, the division is called a resistance thermometer
Electrical conductanceor thermistor
Electrical conductance. A reaction thermocouple is ready-made of metal, normally platinum, cold spell a semiconductor unit is ready-made of instrumentation or polymer.
Resistance capillary tube and semiconductor unit are by and large utilised in two ways. First, and so can be utilised as thermometers
Electrical conductance: By foetometry the resistance, the frigidness of the parts can be inferred. Second, and so can be utilised in contemporaneity with Joule heating
Electrical conductanceas well questionable self-heating: If a large up-to-date is draw through the resistor, the resistor's frigidness rises and hence its resistance changes. Therefore, these division can be utilised in a circuit-protection function sympathetic to fuses
Electrical conductance, or for feedback
Electrical conductancein circuits, or for numerousness different purposes. In general, self-heating can swerve a variable resistor intelligence a nonlinear
Electrical conductanceand hysteretic
Electrical conductanceopen circuit element. For to a greater extent info see Thermistor#Self-heating effects
If the frigidness T estrogen not widen too much, a linear approximation
Electrical conductanceis typically used:
where temperature transmittance of resistance, The frigidness transmittance −3 K for stepping stone distance stowage temperature. It is normally pessimistic for semiconductor device and insulators, with extremely multivariate magnitude.
Just as the reaction of a bandleader stand up exploited temperature, the reaction of a bandleader stand up exploited strain
Electrical conductance. By birth control a bandleader nether tension
Electrical conductance(a plural form of stress
Electrical conductancethat give rise to strain in the form of enlargement of the conductor), the diameter of the section of conductor under stress amass and its cross-sectional refuge decreases. Both these effects contribute to increasing the reaction of the strained section of conductor. Under densification strain in the other direction, the reaction of the strained section of conductor decreases. See the elaboration on strain gauges
Electrical conductancefor info around tendency surface to move advantageousness of this effect.
Some resistors, peculiarly those ready-made from semiconductors
Electrical conductance, show photoconductivity
Electrical conductance, connotation that heritor reaction automatise when torchlight is superior on them. Therefore, and so are questionable photoresistors
Electrical conductanceor light independency resistors. These are a commonness sort of light detector
Electrical conductanceare contaminant that have precisely 0, reaction and unlimited conductance, origin and so can have V=0 and I≠0. This as well stepping stone there is no joule heating
Electrical conductance, or in different oral communication no dissipation
Electrical conductanceof electric energy. Therefore, if superconductive barbwire is made into a shut loop, up-to-date flows around the circle forever. Superconductors call for temperature change to frigidness distance 4 K with liquid helium
Electrical conductancefor to the highest degree golden superconductors enjoy Nb
Electrical conductancealloys, or temperature change to frigidness distance 77K with liquid nitrogen
Electrical conductancefor the expensive, breakable and breakable instrumentation high frigidness superconductors
Electrical conductance. Nevertheless, there are numerousness technological use of superconductivity
Electrical conductance, terminal superconducting magnets | <urn:uuid:e4d6d756-1266-4472-b5ca-7f5eca972fb2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://electronicdiode.info/2016/01/24/electrical-conductance/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00005-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.885402 | 3,811 | 3.1875 | 3 |
Gonzales County, Texas
|This article is a stub. Help us to expand it by contributing your knowledge. For county page guidelines, visit U.S. County Page Content Suggestions.|
Gonzales is a county in Texas. It was formed in 1836 (organized 1837) from the following county/ies: Old Mexican Municipality. Gonzales began keeping birth records in 1903, marriage records in 1829, and death records in 1903. It began keeping land records in 1837, probate records in 1832, and court records in 1838. For more information, contact the county at P.O. Box 77, Gonzales 78629-0077. On the attached map, Gonzales is located at Q12.
For information about the state of Texas see Texas Family History Research. | <urn:uuid:72375a42-5759-475d-a360-46e1244d38fa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ancestry.com/wiki/index.php?title=Gonzales_County,_Texas | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.921649 | 169 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) acknowledges the fact that climate change is a crosscutting issue with the need for an integrated approach to food security, environmental quality, human welfare and other development goals. Agriculture is uniquely situated between climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies, because it is both a major contributor to the world’s changing climate as well as a vulnerable socioecological system. Thus, transitioning to CSA requires a landscape approach that considers the multifunctionality of agricultural practices and the need for cooperation at many levels and across all sectors.
Sometimes, it helps to see a practice in action. In Niger, a landscape approach to farmer-managed natural resource generation provides a strong example of CSA. Traditional woodland management was expanded from forests to farmland by strategically planting and allowing naturally germinating trees to integrate with crops. Food security, nutrient-rich fodder trees and fertile topsoil have all increased. Diversified livelihoods make for better adapted communities, while mitigating the contributions of agriculture to climate change.
What methodologies can be adopted to make CSA attainable in all landscapes? A group of participants from the 2013 Climate-Smart Agriculture Global Science Conference found themselves asking the same question. They set out recently to answer it in a short paper that summarizes the main concepts, goals and approaches to CSA. However, because climate-smart agriculture is highly context specific, everyone involved has something to contribute to the conversation. What stakeholders must be involved to ensure the sustainability of CSAs in your landscape? What methods have you seen to be successful? What other examples can provide inspiration for those interested in transitioning to CSA? | <urn:uuid:25c4a9cc-a212-4566-ae7a-e38acefbfaf3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://peoplefoodandnature.org/blog/what-exactly-is-climate-smart-agriculture/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938548 | 328 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Can you calculate how fast a rollercoaster is traveling at its lowest point? Can you program a mobile robot to follow a path and recognize obstacles?
That's just a couple of things sixth and seventh grade students are learning at the Education Talent Search STEM Camp titled "Rollercoasters and robotics" at Iowa Lakes Community College this week.
On Tuesday, Mark Zabawa, an associate professor of chemistry and biology, conducted several experiments with the students including showing how much energy a gummy bear generates.
Mark Zabaawa, Associate professor of chemistry and biology at Iowa Lakes, oversees an experiment with students at the Educational Talent Search STEM Camp Tuesday morning at the Estherville campus.
EDN photo by David Swartz
He also conducted experiments with nylon polymers as well as showing metal activity and how acids react to carbohydrates.
"We also demonstrated the affect of surface area showing how grain can explode in a bin," he said.
During an afternoon session Tuesday, students could build and program their own robots.
Wade Webber, a member of the governor's Northwest Iowa STEM Advisory Board, said the students received basic instruction on putting things together.
"Once they mastered the baseline, they learn the skill of moving forward," he said. Part of a hallway challenge for the students is to create a basket for their robot that can hold a ball and create a lever to put the ball a bucket.
"One of the things they learn is don't throw away an idea," Webber said. "It could be what you're looking for a bit later."
Weber said the challenge is also to get students to be comfortable with themselves.
"They need to give themselves a chance to learn," he said. "We just build layer upon layer and after a couple days, they can do it."
In a computer course, taught by Kevin Grems titled "Gamers 'R' Us" students began learning some of the basics of developing games.
"I like to experiment and the reason I took this class is I thought it'd be interesting to make video games," said Ryan Williams.
Eric T. Olson, associate professor of science at Iowa Lakes, held a course on the physics of rollercoasters.
Olson said Monday students had the opportunity to measure the height of a rollercoaster using triangulation. Students were taught some of the math and how to put it on a calculator.
"It's a challenge for them so I'm not teaching them too many new things, but giving them a little."
One of the points was that the height from which the rollercoaster car starts relates to the speed it gets to at the bottom.
Some of the other topics covered over the camp are anatomy, biology, chemistry, math and wind energy. | <urn:uuid:0537375e-5eea-4da7-ad4a-6aee495f18de> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.esthervilledailynews.com/page/content.detail/id/518340/Students-step-up-at-STEM-Camp.html?nav=5003 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968664 | 569 | 2.875 | 3 |
PLEASANTON — Say what you will about the East Bay, but it is not known for its icy tundra, uninhabitable snow deserts and sub-zero temperatures.
Pleasanton fifth-grade teacher Rob Palassou will have to get used to all of the above when he accompanies NASA researchers to Axel Heiberg Island in Canada's Arctic Circle this week.
Palassou will leave today to participate in an expedition to the McGill Arctic Research Station, or MARS, coordinated by NASA, the Canadian Space Agency and McGill University.
"It's not a dog-and-pony show," Palassou said of the working trip. "It's not watered down at all."
He expects to help scientists collect and analyze samples from early morning to late at night during the mission, which runs through Aug. 4.
Palassou and other members of the team will be looking for evidence of segregated ice, which exists below the surface and may provide evidence as to whether or not life can be sustained on Mars.
"We'll be studying the arctic as a model for the Martian arctic," said NASA's Chris McKay, one of the expedition leaders. "We're going to a place on earth that is kind of similar."
In addition to its scientific goals, McKay said one of NASA's goals for participating teachers is to generate excitement for NASA-level research.
"The ultimate education goal is to get students excited about science," McKay said.
About a dozen people will be taking part in the expedition. A handful are teachers from the United States and Canada, whose travel is covered by NASA. The teachers are there as part of the Spaceward Bound program, which requires its participants to use experiences they gained in the field to generate science-based classroom activities.
Palassou, who teaches fifth grade at Valley View Elementary School, became involved with NASA when one of his students nominated him for the Educators Astronauts Program in 2004. After the initial application process, he got far enough into the program to become an Educator-Astronaut, which in turn led him to the Spaceward Bound program.
"They're all about inspiring the next generation of explorers," Palassou said.
NASA, along with many private industries, struggles to keep students interested in pursuing science, engineering, technology and math in school.
"Students, and some adults, think 'Ugh, science? Pound the books,'" Palassou said. "You take science, particularly field science; it actually is really fun."
This isn't Palassou's first foray into field science. He previously assisted McKay on a similar expedition to the Mojave Desert. Using his experiences there, he was able to create a classroom activity in which his students took soil samples and used experiments to analyze data from Pleasanton's Kottinger Park.
Before beginning his career as a teacher, Palassou also worked as a research associate at Lawrence Livermore Laboratory and trained to be an endurance race car driver. Now, he hopes to take the experiences he gained assisting NASA researchers to develop an exciting curriculum of science-based classroom activities that can be accessed by teachers nationwide.
"I thought I'd be doing cubicle work," Palassou said. "I never thought I'd get a chance to visit that part of the world."
Reach Sam Sutton at 925-847-2160 or email@example.com.
If you would like to ask Rob Palassou or other team members questions, submit them to firstname.lastname@example.org or through the mission's blog at spacewardboundarctic2008.blogspot.com/. | <urn:uuid:6b03226c-f97b-485a-b94f-5f8064aa1c0a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mercurynews.com/breakingnews/ci_9976392?nclick_check=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00201-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969604 | 762 | 2.953125 | 3 |
A recent edition of the ABC’s Catalyst programme looked into the issues of the health effects of electromagnetic (EM) radiation. The episode “takes a closer look at the link between mobile phones and brain cancer, and explores whether our wireless devices could be putting our health at risk”.
Dr Devra Davis stated on the show, “With respect to mobile phones and brain cancer, the reality is every single well-designed study ever conducted finds an increased risk of brain cancer with the heaviest users, and the range of the risk is between 50 per cent to eightfold. That’s a fact.”
Experts have now spoken out about the program’s findings.
“I was particularly disappointed to see ‘Wi-Fried’ air yesterday in the guise of science journalism, and felt it important to reassure other viewers that the fringe position provided by Dr Davis and associates is merely that, a fringe position that is not supported by science,” says Professor Rodney Croft, Director of the National Health & Medical Research Council of Australia’s Centre for Research Excellence in Electromagnetic Energy.
Dr Croft is also a current International Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) Commissioner, and a Professor of Health Psychology at University of Wollongong.
“There is very strong scientific consensus that, even after considering such personal views as Dr Davis’, there is no substantiated evidence that the low levels of radiofrequency emissions encountered by mobile telecommunications can cause any harm. Of course it is impossible for science to demonstrate that anything is absolutely safe, and so regardless of whether we’re talking about Wi-Fi or orange juice, science cannot demonstrate absolute safety.
“However, given that radiofrequency emissions are one of the most heavily researched agents that science has ever assessed, and given that (contrary to Catalyst’s claims) no substantiated health effects have emerged, we can be very confident that the emissions are indeed safe.”
Dr Croft points to the ICNIRP website as a resource for further information about the international consensus on the topic.
“During the program Prof Davis claims that the Australian brain cancer incidence rates (a graph was shown) cannot be used as evidence of no problem because brain cancer latency is 40 years,” observes Dr Geza Benke, a Senior Research Fellow in the School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine at Monash University. “This firstly contradicts her own argument then, because she spends a lot of time saying current studies are showing increased cancer risk!”
“Secondly, Prof Davis’s claims are incorrect, since solid tumors have a much shorter minimum latency. This means we should be seeing increased rates now if there was an association. This reference also contradicts her claims that there are no environmental tumors that occur before 10 years.”
Are you concerned about WiFi cancer risks? Would a definite link stop you from using it? Let us know in the comments below. | <urn:uuid:91229f84-5609-4c0c-ba6e-55d99d612fec> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gizmodo.com.au/2016/02/experts-respond-to-abc-catalysts-claim-that-wifi-could-be-linked-to-cancer/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943157 | 624 | 2.53125 | 3 |
DOE to spend $120 million over 5 years to make batteries 5x bigger and 5x cheaper
The United States Department of Energy has announced that they’re going to spend $120 million over the next 5 years to fund research into making batteries that hold 5x more energy than the ones that are out on the market today. They also intend make batteries that cost 5x cheaper. According to Computerworld, this new program will “reproduce development environments that were successfully used by Bell Laboratories in the World War II Manhattan Project that produced an atomic bomb.” Six national laboratories, five universities, and four private companies are going to get together to try and achieve these ambitious goals.
So why now? We’d like to think it’s because smartphones are popular, but it’s more complicated than that. Improvements in battery technology have been practically nonexistent for the past few decades because no one wants to invest the time and energy into making gizmos last longer. When you reframe the problem by looking at energy sustainability and manufacturing ultra clean cars, then the discussion changes completely.
Just imagine electric cars becoming mainstream because they’re finally cheaper? Or how about electric cars that can actually be used by industries that require vehicles that travel long distances? And think about soldiers who need to carry massive batteries to power their communications equipment, imagine making their load 5x lighter so they can carry either additional supplies or be more nimble?
We welcome America’s investments in this field, and we hope something similar will happen in other countries. China in particular comes to mind. If they can create not just revolutionary battery technology, but then also figure out how to mass produce it, then they’re going to put themselves in the driver’s seat of the future of the electronics industry. And what about Europe? Don’t they have scientists too? Why isn’t this a global project? | <urn:uuid:cf0d4bf1-7db8-444e-8cb4-79973845fca6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.androidauthority.com/battery-technology-batteries-135940/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00172-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952478 | 396 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Purdue Extension Corner
In the last few weeks I have had the pleasure of teaching two different groups of youth in Clay and Owen counties about gardening and nature. One of the lessons that I taught them was on soils. As the students learned about soils, it made me think that maybe there would be some adults interested in learning more about their local soils. Therefore, the next two articles are dedicated to understanding and improving the substance found beneath our feet.
There are a number of factors such as parent material, topography, climate, biotic factors, and time that determine soil formation. Basically, soil is a mixture of minerals, organic material, and space (comprised of air and water). The minerals usually make up 45-48 percent of soil. Some of the mineral material you might hear individuals discuss is sand, silt and clay. Of these minerals, clay is the smallest; being less than 0.002 mm while sand is the largest, ranging in size from 0.5 to 2 mm. Of the mineral material, clay holds water the best, causing poor drainage.
The mixture of the sand, silt and clay is what gives the soil its texture. If it has a coarse texture, then it is said to be a sandy loam soil. If it has a medium texture, then it is considered a silt loam. A fine texture then is a loam or clay soil. Around much of this area you will find soil that is considered either a loam or clay soil. If you are on the river bottoms, then you might find some sandy loam soil. The soil texture can vary on one individual property based on the soil forming factors mentioned above.
The color of the soil is impacted by the amount of organic matter and drainage. The darker it is, the more organic matter found in the soil. If the soil is not brown, but gray, then you are looking at drainage issues. To have an idea about the drainage on your land, look at how much gray soil there is 10 inches below the surface. If there is some gray, then chances are your basement will have moisture problems and any plants you plant will end up saturated in water.
To better understand the organic matter in your local soils you should have a soil test ran. A soil test should be done at least every three years to ensure that your plants have the available nutrients they need. In order to get a soil sample ready, you need to use either a soil probe, auger or spade. A soil probe can be borrowed from your local extension office. Additionally, you will need a clean plastic pail and a sample bag. The sample bag can be obtained from your local extension office or your local farm co-op. Once you get the sample, place it in your clean plastic pail. Thoroughly mix all the samples from similar locations (i.e. all the samples from your garden or all the samples from your lawn) together. Remove any large rocks or roots from the sample. If the soil is muddy, dry it before mixing. Finally, fill the sample bag to the line with the air-dried soil and take it to the local farm coop to be tested.
As always, if you have any questions or would like information on any agriculture, horticulture, or natural resource topic, then please contact your local Purdue Extension Office at 812-448-9041 in Clay County, or 829-5020 in Owen County. Youu can also reach me directly via email at: email@example.com. Purdue University is an equal opportunity/equal access/ affirmative action institution.
Upcoming opportunities available to you through Purdue Extension include:
•April 19 – Farmers’ Market Boot Camp, Terre Haute, 9:30 a.m. to 2:00 p.m. Cost is $15. Call 765-494-1296 by April 12 to register
•April 24 – Owen County Extension Board Meeting, Owen County Extension Office, South Washington Street, Spencer
•April 26 – Youth Earth Day Program, Owen County Extension Office, 6:30-7:30 p.m.
No commercial reproduction without written consent.
Electronic reproduction of any kind forbidden without written consent. | <urn:uuid:f3340f02-8388-4542-a183-c323211278e1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://spencereveningworld.our-hometown.com/node/99551 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00100-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.931958 | 871 | 3.921875 | 4 |
DFO puts harp seals in jeopardy, study finds
“The risk to the seal population is alarmingly high. The study demonstrates that the government may not know that the seal population is at a critical level until it is too late for anything but drastic action. That means they would continue to set high quotas for hunting when the seal population is in serious decline,” said Mr. Leaper.
“As we’ve seen before with cod, drastic changes will be difficult to implement and politically damaging. This is not good management, either for conservation or the sealing industry.”
The main reason for alarm, explains Mr. Matthews, is the plan does not adequately address the uncertainty we face today. In addition to the uncertainty in the available data, there is the added environmental uncertainty – things like climate change and the variation is food supply.
Over the past three years, more than one million seals have been killed during the annual seal hunt off Canada’s east coast. The authors insist that the annual quota must be drastically reduced to limit the risk of depleting the population.
The DFO is expected to release its new management plan for harp seals in the next two weeks, including hunting quotas. IFAW is calling on the federal government to abandon its current management model in favour of a more cautious approach.
IFAW is also urging DFO to cancel this year’s hunt if poor ice conditions continue, as an example of cautious, responsible management.
Authors of An Investigation of the effects of uncertainty on Canadian harp seal management:
Russell Leaper has been studying marine mammals since 1988. His research has focused on marine mammal population modelling and assessment, including acoustic survey techniques and developing ways of measuring range to whales during sighting surveys. Russell is a member of the Scientific Committee of the International Whaling Commission, has a degree in mathematics from Oxford University and an MSc in Marine Resource Development and Protection from Heriot-Watt University. He has written scientific papers, popular articles, and contributions to reference books on marine mammals.
Justin Matthews has been associated with the IFAW team since 1995, working initially on a collaborative contract with Oxford University, and from 1999 as a full-time researcher. He has a Masters of Science in mathematical biology, and has written or co-authored several papers on the sounds made by marine mammals, and on the results of population surveys using acoustics or photo-identification. Justin works primarily on survey design, data collection methodology and statistical analysis of data.
To contact the authors, please call: Ingrid Nielsen (613) 241-3982 ext.
Summary from An Investigation of the effects of uncertainty on Canadian harp seal management
This study investigates the behaviour of the Canadian government's current management procedures for harp seals. These procedures are described by Fisheries and Oceans Canada as using both the Precautionary Approach and Objective Based Fisheries Management. Employing a similar underlying population modelling approach, we simulated the effects of uncertainty involving bias in estimates of human induced mortality, natural mortality and pup production estimates. These factors may combine such that the impact on the population of a certain level of take is much greater than would be predicted from assessments derived from the government model. Nevertheless, any precautionary management regime would be expected to be robust to reasonable levels of uncertainty. Our results indicate, however, that for the range of annual total allowable catches (TAC) considered and set for Canadian commercial catches of harp seals (250,000 – 350,000) there may be circumstances under which the government's management procedures fail to meet their own conservation objectives. Under some of the scenarios examined it appears the current management strategy, although not fully specified, is likely to maintain a high TAC despite a declining population. In particular, once a high TAC has been set, the assessments are unlikely to provide the necessary evidence that the TAC should be reduced until the population is at a very low level. Hence the probabilities that the population may be depleted below the ‘minimum’ (N50) and ‘critical’ (N30) reference points are alarmingly high. In addition, when the TAC is reduced, the required cuts are likely to be drastic. Our results indicate that the Canadian government's approach to the management of harp seals results in a high level of risk that may, for example, not adequately account for changes in mortality related to poor ice conditions, such as are currently anticipated for spring 2006. There is a need for a fully specified management procedure based on risk analysis to be developed and tested. However, in the interim, setting TACs within limits calculated from a well-established precautionary procedure, such as Potential Biological Removal, would reduce the risks considerably. | <urn:uuid:65ea3711-fcf4-466b-91f5-8a931b208432> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ifaw.org/international/node/25021 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948514 | 967 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Benefits and Drawback of Virtual Learning
-- What are the benefits and drawbacks of virtual &/or home schools? How can you tell what type of school your child should use?
Benefits of online learning
While little substantive research has been done concerning online learning in K-12 schools, a plethora of researchers have concentrated on the benefits and drawbacks of online learning in higher education. While the recipient of these benefits or drawbacks are students with slightly different learning styles and needs than those in K-12, the research conducted can give us valuable insight into how to utilize this medium in K-12 schools to its best advantage. Cicognani & Yu-Chaih (2000) verified that online educational environments stimulate learners to dig for information and practical examples thus more efficiently meeting educational objectives by making the learner the center of the educational experience . In addition, articulating one's opinions through a task of mutual understanding in an online environment creates community building, another factor that is necessary for success in the K-12 classroom. Cifuentes (2001) touts the benefits of online learning as authentic language learning and a transference of language skills. MacDonald (2001) points out that the online environment allows students to learn by observing another student's learning experience, relating it to their own, and progressing from novice to expert vicariously. Taylor (2002) reminds educators that the longer processing time in the online environment is a benefit for disabled students who need longer think time. In addition, more students get heard in an online environment than do in a face -to-face classroom. While there are many benefits to online learning, disadvantages and limitations do exist.
Cifuentes (2001) summarizes the major disadvantages of online learning as technical challenges such as technical failure, constraints of e-mail such as sending diagrams or pictures, and the time involved. In addition, dependence on an unresponsive partner can cause frustration in a learner, leading to a sense of detachment. Bell (2001) reminds educators that protecting students' privacy should be a priority in the online world making educators more cautious of using the technology.
Bell, S. (2001). Web-based Utilities for Learning and Collaboration
in the Classroom. Syllabus Magazine: Technology for Higher Education
Corporation for Public Broadcasting (2003). CONNECTED TO THE FUTURE: A Report on Children's Internet Use. Retrieved July 1, 2004, from http://www.cpb.org/ed/resources/connected/ .
Eng, P. (2003). Virtual School Daze: Online tech offers new choices in education. Retrieved 9/16/2003, from http://abcnew.com/sections/scitech/FutureTech/virtualschools030916.html
Fulton, K., & Kober, N. (2002). Preserving principles of public education in an online world: What policymakers should be asking about virtual schools. Paper presented at the Virtual High Schools: Changing Schools, Enduring Principles, Washington, D.C.
Hammonds, L., & Reising, B. (1998). The Virtual High School. Clearing House, 71(6), 324, 322 p.
Holden, H. (2004). Printed Optical Waveguides: The Next Interconnect. CircuiTree Troy, 17(2), 54, 53 pgs.
Isenhour, P. L., Carroll, J.M., Neale, D.C., Rosson, M.B., & Dunlap, D.R. (2000). The Virtual School: An integrated collaborative environment for the classroom, Retrieved June 2004 from http://ifets.ieee.org/periodical/vol_3_2000/a03.html.
James, J. W., & Bailey, Gerald D. (2002). Online Professional Development: a customized approach for technology leaders. (2002 ed.). Eugene, OR: International Society for Technology in Education.
Kalmon, S., & Watson, John. (2002). Moving Mountains to Ensure Equal Access To High Quality Learning: Findings and Recommendations of the Colorado E-Learning Task Force. Colorado Online Learning Task Force for Colorado Department of Education. Retrieved 01/17/03 from http://www.cde.state.co.us/cdtech/download/pdf/et_eltf-findings.pdf, 1- 49.
MacDonald, J. (2001). On-Line Learning: A Radical Pedagogy? Adults Learning, 12(5).
Merryfield, M. M. (2002). The Difference a Global Educator Can Make. Educational Leadership, 60(2), 18-21.
Russo, A. (2001). Online Coursework. School Administrator, 58(no. 9), 6-48.
Schulz, B. (2003). Surfing the cyberwave of reform: Evaluating K-12 virtual schools. Paper presented at the E-Learn 2003, Phoenix, Arizona.
Taylor, S. (2002). Education online: Off course or on track? Community College Week, Vol. 14(Issue 20).
Thomas, W. (2002). Virtual learning and charter schools: Issues and potential impact. Retrieved 01/15/03 from Southern Regional Education Board at http://www.sreb.org/programs/EDTEch/pubs/PDF/Virtual_Learn_Charter_School.pdf.
Treacy, B. K., Glenn; Petersen, Kirsten. (2002). Successful online professional development: using community-based train-the-trainers programs, EdTech Leaders Online is spreading online professional development throughout the United States and learning some valuable lessons along the way. Learning & Leading with Technology, 30(1), 42 (46).
USDE. (2002). Executive summary: Virtual schools forum (No. Draft).
Denver, CO: United States Department of Education:Virtual Schools Forum.
©2006 All rights reserved | <urn:uuid:5fb60e23-560b-4e4f-9535-70a6cf6ee481> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.learningbyts.net/LBConsultants/BenefitsAndDrawbacks.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00003-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.852525 | 1,224 | 3.140625 | 3 |
South Africa occupies just over 1.2 million km², spanning about 1,600 km from north to south, and the same from east to west. It is roughly the size of France and Spain combined.
South Africa is the southernmost tip of Africa. To the North, is bordered by Botswana and Zimbabwe. From its desert border with Namibia on the Atlantic coast to its subtropical border with Mozambique on the Indian Ocean, South Africa’s coastline spans over 2,500 km. South Africa completely surrounds Lesotho and almost completely surrounds Swaziland.
There are nine provinces in South Africa;
- The Western Cape is arguably South Africa’s most popular tourist destination with its incredible beauty and diverse attractions such as the Table Mountain National Park and the Cape Peninsula, to mention a few. It is flanked by two dramatic oceans: the Atlantic to the west and the Indian to the south. The capital city, Cape Town is the province’s largest city with a population of approximately three million people. The entire province is home to about four and-a-half million people. It is also the country’s legislative capital.
- The Eastern Cape (capital city Bisho) is an untouched region that offers miles of white sandy beaches and the incredible, yet unforgiving terrain of the Baviaanskloof. It is flanked by the warm waters of the Indian Ocean and it is a popular holiday province thanks to its beautiful beaches (some wild and secluded), its game parks and semi-desert regions.
- The Northern Cape (capital city Kimberley) is one of the least populated of the South African provinces. The Northern Cape is known for its serene semi-desert landscapes, game reserves, wild flowers, diamond diggings and clear starry nights. Kimberley is home to the largest man-made hole in the world, the diamond mine known as the Big Hole. Covering 17 ha, it was closed as a working mine in 1914. The largest diamond ever found, the Cullinan, is a Kimberley diamond and the city pays tribute to its heritage in the form of an open mine museum, with a quaint museum village.
- The North West Province (capital city Mafikeng) offers visitors a great deal of diversity, from an authentic bush experience to boasting the spectacular, opulent gaming and holiday resort of Sun City, 170 km north of Johannesburg.
- The Free State (capital city Bloemfontein) offers wonderful panoramic landscapes and vistas, from the flat corn and sunflower fields to the dramatic sandstone canyons located on the Lesotho border. This landlocked province has a population of 2.7 million people and is known as the City of Roses.
- Gauteng (capital city Johannesburg) is the smallest province, but it has the highest population of 9.5 million people. Situated on the Highveld (a high plateau), it is bounded by the North West, Free State, Mpumalanga and Limpopo provinces. Here in the heart of South Africa’s Highveld, highly urbanised Gauteng is the economic powerhouse of South Africa. The world’s richest goldfields are found here and are known as Igoli – the Place of Gold.
- KwaZulu-Natal - KZN (capital city Pietermaritzberg) has unspoilt coastlines and a rich cultural heritage. It is known as the kingdom of the Zulu and is one of South Africa’s premier holiday destinations. KZN is on the east coast and borders Mozambique, Swaziland and Mpumalanga to the north, Lesotho and the Free State to the west and the Eastern Cape to the south-west. A total of 9.3 million people live here.
- Mpumalanga (capital city Nelspruit), ‘the place where the sun rises’, lies in the eastern part of South Africa. About 3.2 million residents live in Mpumalanga. The province is characterised by stunning scenery (mountains, forests, canyons and wild animals) and its premier attraction is the Kruger National Park, South Africa’s largest and most renowned national park. This famous game park, roughly the size of Wales, is easily one of the best in the world and one of the biggest tourist attractions in the country.
- Limpopo (capital city Polokwane), is an attractive, disparate landscape made up of dusty flat bushveld, rolling hills, lush savannah and dry bush. The ancient baobabs, lush wooded mountain valleys and scorching bushveld make this a place of romance and intrigue. Located in the northernmost province in the country, it is named after the Limpopo River, which forms the border between South Africa, Botswana and Zimbabwe.
History & Background
Nine of South Africa’s 11 official languages are African, reflecting the cultural and linguistic diversity of the African people, comprising of the Nguni (Zulu, Xhosa, Ndebele and Swazi), the Sotho-Tswana (Southern, Northern and Western Sotho), the Tsonga and the Venda.
The white population – largely descendent from the Dutch, German, the British and French Huguenot, were colonial immigrants from the late seventeenth to the nineteenth century. These peoples are divided into English and Afrikaans speakers.
The so-called coloured people, who mostly speak Afrikaans, are of mixed race. The mixed race peoples are a combination of descendants from eastern and central African slaves, the Khoisan (indigenous people who were the earliest inhabitants of the Cape), Africans and white people.
The roots of the South African Asian population are Indian. They mainly speak English as their language of origin, and are traced back to indentured workers brought to work on the sugar plantations of the then Natal (now KwaZulu-Natal) in the nineteenth century.
With so much ethnic diversity and a richly layered past, South African culture is far from homogenous. Rural culture is well represented and there are several cultural villages in which visitors can experience the traditional African way of life.
Nelson Mandela is one of the great moral and political leaders of our time. He is an international hero whose lifelong dedication to the fight against racial oppression in South Africa won him the Nobel Peace Prize and the presidency of his country.
After his release from Robben Island, Nelson Mandela, as the first democratically elected President of south Africa, received many gifts from the South African and international community. These gifts were in recognition and appreciation of the role he played in the struggle for peace, freedom and democracy in South Africa and the world.
Nelson Mandela accepted these gifts on behalf of the South African people and wished that the gifts be displayed for the benefit and appreciation of the nation, near his home village, Qunu – in the Eastern Cape. It is for this reason that the museum comprises the impressive Bhunga Building in Mthatha, the Qunu component and the open-air museum at Mvezo.
Safari Attraction in South Africa
The Western Cape offers a rich floral kingdom, pristine beaches, a globally renowned wine industry, award winning conference venues, hotels, restaurants and a unique history and heritage. Table Mountain dominates the cosmopolitan hub of Cape Town – known as ‘The Mother City’.
This province has a lot to offer. You can take a trip to Robben Island, where Nelson Mandela was imprisoned, enjoy a wine-tasting sojourn to the Winelands, soar to the top of Table Mountain on the aerial cableway or simply bask on one of the many Blue Flag beaches.
You can go further afield and visit the West Coast National Park, enjoy a gourmet safari along the Garden Route or go whale watching in the Overberg.
The Eastern Cape is what the locals call The Wild Coast. It covers over 820km of pristine coastline and is a Big 7 destination, which means you can view lion, leopard, rhino, elephant, buffalo as well as whales and Great White sharks. There are numerous game reserves in the Eastern Cape including the well-known Addo Elephant National Park and the world-famous Shamwari Game Reserve.
The province is known for its adventure activities. You can visit Bloukrans for the world’s second highest bungee jump, hike the Otter Trail or take a 4 x 4 drive into the spectacular Valley of Desolation.
The Northern Cape is largely desert and semi-desert and features an exotic lunar landscape with unique flora and fauna. Kimberley the capital is known as the Diamond Capital of the world. The Big Hole is a major attraction that pays tribute to a turbulent past obsessed with diamonds and obscene overnight fortunes.
Looking at the historical spectrum, the San, known as Africa’s First People, provide a fascinating insight into life in this harsh landscape.
The Northern Cape is known for its precious artefacts, rock-art and fossils that date back to time immemorial.
The North West Province with its vast mineral wealth is known as the ‘Platinum Province’.
This is the home of Sun City - Africa’s most famous entertainment and conference complex, themed to portray the mythical Lost City of an ancient African kingdom. The Pilanesberg Game Reserve is minutes from Sun City and not far off is the Madikwe Game Reserve. Both these reserves offer the Big 5 and luxury lodges.
You will find the Magaliesberg mountain range in the North West –a great place for hiking, mountain bike trails and bird watching. Further down is Hartbeespoort Dam, known for its fun water sports and relaxed holiday mood.
The Free State is known as the ‘bread basket of South Africa’, due to its thriving agricultural industry. The province is renowned for its fascinating history and glorious landscapes.
Bloemfontein/Mangaung is the provincial hub. The name Bloemfontein means ‘a spring of flowers’ and the city offers the most spectacular gardens.
You can visit one of the local townships and get to know a bit more about the local culture.
Further afield there is much more to be enjoyed such as the spectacular Golden Gate Highlands National Park. Explore the Basotho Cultural Village as well as Phuthadichaba.
Gauteng, for many, is the exciting entry point onto the African continent - Johannesburg. It’s where business and culture meet and is cosmopolitan in every way. The urban hubs of Gauteng offer non-stop entertainment with restaurants, shebeens (local bars), jazz clubs, concerts and clubs. There are shopping centres offering international designer labels and bona fide African arts and crafts.
You can visit museums, galleries, nature reserves and botanical gardens.
There are also great attractions on the outskirts of Gauteng such as The Cradle of Humankind, the old mining town of Cullinan (where the world’s largest diamond was found). Also worth a visit are the Magaliesberg mountain range and the Vaal River.
KwaZulu-Natal is the Zulu Kingdom – a heady cultural, historical and natural mix of attractions. This was once home to the legendary King Shaka and has one of the largest Indian communities outside India, and also has a strong British colonial heritage.
Its major city is Durban – known as ‘South Africa’s Miami’ is a favourite spot for local holidays, enjoying sunshine (320 days a year), sea and sand! The city hosts fantastic restaurants, pubs, clubs and world-class hotels spread across its Golden Mile and Durban’s Florida Road is the main spot for fun and entertainment.
Away from the city, along the North Coast you’ll find the Big 5 game reserves and wonders of the iSimangaliso Wetlands Park (a UNESCO World Heritage Site). Inland from Durban you’ll find the Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park (another UNESCO World Heritage Site) boasting the highest mountain range in Africa – next to Kenya’s Kilimanjaro.
Mpumalanga is home to the Kruger National Park and the exclusive Sabi Sand Reserve – both teeming with wildlife and home to the Big 5.
Mpumalanga has the world’s largest green canyon – the Blyde (Motlatse) River Canyon, including other attractions such as the Three Rondavels, God’s Window, Long Tom Pass and Bourke’s Luck Potholes.
The province is renowned for its colourful Ndebele and Shangaan cultures and a visit to a Shangaan Cultural Village will give some insight into traditional life in this part of the world.
Limpopo is the one province where you’ll find the legendary Rain Queen, the site of a bona fide African Kingdom and ancient baobabs – upside-down trees’.
Home to the growing city of Polokwane, Limpopo is the perfect stepping stone to the wonders of the Kruger National Park.
A notable attraction to visit is the Mapungubwe (a UNESCO World Heritage Site), where the remains of a thriving African kingdom offer insight into a rich cultural heritage that has stood the test of time.
For nature lovers there is the Nylsvley Nature Reserve – famous for its birding opportunities.
To combine nature and leisure visit the Waterberg for walking and hiking trails.
If you are a lover of art, then the Venda artists in the Soutpansberg region is well worth a visit.
We have other South Africa Attractions that you might want to visit on your South Africa safari. Please contact us for further details. | <urn:uuid:0fa694c6-10c0-472a-9b0d-49b838fb18a2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.africaboundadventures.com/south-africa | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00183-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938629 | 2,897 | 2.671875 | 3 |
ESA’s Philae lander, the first spacecraft to successfully soft-land on the surface of a comet and former piggyback partner to Rosetta, has not been in communication since July of 2015 and, with 67P now six months past perihelion and heading deeper out into the Solar System, it’s not likely it will ever be heard from again.
On Nov. 12, 2014, after over ten years traveling across the Solar System, ESA’s Rosetta spacecraft successfully sent the Philae lander down onto the surface of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, at the time located 316 million miles (508 million km) from Earth.
While Philae’s mission was deemed a success—80% of its primary science data were returned—its historic landing didn’t go without a few hitches. Philae did touch down on 67P almost exactly on target but its comet-gripping harpoons failed to fire, causing the washing machine-sized robot to bounce off the comet’s surface…twice.
Philae’s actual landing spot ended up being over 1,200 meters away on a slope in a heavily-shadowed location, limiting the amount of sunlight that could reach its solar panels. After a flurry of scientific activity following touchdown, the lander’s main battery was depleted and it entered a hibernation mode for several months.
Warming up in June 2015 as the comet neared the Sun, Philae was able to once again communicate with Rosetta in orbit, but only intermittently. Very little data from Philae was received and, since July 9, 2015, the lander has remained silent.
Repeated attempts to signal Philae via Rosetta have produced no results.
“The chances for Philae to contact our team at our lander control center are unfortunately getting close to zero,” said Stephan Ulamec, Philae project manager at the German Aerospace Center, DLR, in a Feb. 12 news release. “We are not sending commands any more and it would be very surprising if we were to receive a signal again.”
Mission engineers suspect Philae’s transmitters and receivers may have failed, and the lander could also have been shifted to an even darker, dustier location by increased activity on the comet during perihelion.
“The chances for Philae to contact our team at our lander control center are unfortunately getting close to zero.”
— Stephan Ulamec, Philae project manager, DLR
“We would be very surprised to hear from Philae again after so long, but we will keep Rosetta’s listening channel on until it is no longer possible due to power constraints as we move ever further from the Sun towards the end of the mission,” said Patrick Martin, ESA’s Rosetta mission manager.
In August 2016 Rosetta will be moved into highly elliptical orbits around comet 67P, bringing it very close to the surface where it can gather high-resolution images and data from close proximity before making a controlled “Grand Finale” impact on Sept. 30.
Even if we never hear from Philae again, it and Rosetta’s mission will always be remembered as an incredible success.
“The combined achievements of Rosetta and Philae, rendezvousing with and landing on a comet, are historic high points in space exploration,” said Martin. | <urn:uuid:c321ffb7-c639-4737-a23d-badb37b255b2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.universetoday.com/127416/rosettas-philae-lander-in-permanent-sleep/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955023 | 728 | 3.046875 | 3 |
From Middle English spirit, from Old French espirit (“spirit”), from Latin spīritus (“breath; spirit”), from Proto-Indo-European *(s)peys- (“to blow, breathe”). Compare inspire, respire, transpire, all ultimately from Latin spīrō (“I breathe, blow, respire”). Cognate with Old English fisting (“(silent) breaking of wind”). Displaced native Middle English gast (“spirit”) (from Old English gāst (“breath, soul, spirit”)). More at fist.
- (UK) IPA(key): /ˈspɪɹɪt/
- (US) IPA(key): /ˈspiɹɪt/, /ˈspɪɹɪt/
Audio (US) (file)
- Rhymes: -ɪɹɪt
- Hyphenation: spir‧it
spirit (plural spirits)
- The collective souls of man or another entity.
1918, W. B. Maxwell, chapter 7, in The Mirror and the Lamp:
- […] St. Bede's at this period of its history was perhaps the poorest and most miserable parish in the East End of London. Close-packed, crushed by the buttressed height of the railway viaduct, rendered airless by huge walls of factories, it at once banished lively interest from a stranger's mind and left only a dull oppression of the spirit.
- 1967, MacCormack, Woman Times Seven
- […] a triumph of the spirit over the flesh.
- A supernatural being, often but not exclusively without physical form; ghost, fairy, angel.
- A wandering spirit haunts the island.
- John Locke
- Whilst young, preserve his tender mind from all impressions of spirits and goblins in the dark.
2011 October 1, Phil Dawkes, “Sunderland 2-2 West Brom”, in BBC Sport:
- The result may not quite give the Wearsiders a sweet ending to what has been a sour week, following allegations of sexual assault and drug possession against defender Titus Bramble, but it does at least demonstrate that their spirit remains strong in the face of adversity.
- School spirit is at an all-time high.
- The manner or style of something.
1898, Winston Churchill, chapter 4, in The Celebrity:
- No matter how early I came down, I would find him on the veranda, smoking cigarettes, or […] . And at last I began to realize in my harassed soul that all elusion was futile, and to take such holidays as I could get, when he was off with a girl, in a spirit of thankfulness.
- In the spirit of forgiveness, we didn't press charges.
- Alexander Pope
- A perfect judge will read each work of wit / With the same spirit that its author writ.
- (usually in the plural) A volatile liquid, such as alcohol. The plural form spirits is a generic term for distilled alcoholic beverages.
- Energy; ardour.
- "Write it then, quickly," replied Bede; and summoning all his spirits together, like the last blaze of a candle going out, he indited it, and expired.
- One who is vivacious or lively; one who evinces great activity or peculiar characteristics of mind or temper.
- a ruling spirit; a schismatic spirit
- Such spirits as he desired to please, such would I choose for my judges.
- Temper or disposition of mind; mental condition or disposition; intellectual or moral state; often in the plural.
- to be cheerful, or in good spirits; to be down-hearted, or in bad spirits
- God has […] made a spirit of building succeed a spirit of pulling down.
- (obsolete) Air set in motion by breathing; breath; hence, sometimes, life itself.
- For, else he sure had left not one alive, / But all, in his Revenge, of Spirit would deprive.
- The mild air, with season moderate, / Gently attempered, and disposed so well, / That still it breathed forth sweet spirit.
- (obsolete) A rough breathing; an aspirate, such as the letter h; also, a mark denoting aspiration.
- Ben Jonson
- Be it a letter or spirit, we have great use for it.
- Ben Jonson
- Intent; real meaning; opposed to the letter, or formal statement.
- the spirit of an enterprise, or of a document
- (alchemy, obsolete) Any of the four substances: sulphur, sal ammoniac, quicksilver, and arsenic (or, according to some, orpiment).
- the four spirits and the bodies seven
- (dyeing) stannic chloride
- To carry off, especially in haste, secrecy, or mystery.
2009 February 8, Dave Kehr, “Buñuel at His Wildest, in Circulation Again”, in New York Times:
- God does not make an appearance, but the Devil (Ms. Pinal) emphatically does: first in the guise of a schoolgirl who tries to lure Simon down with the sight of her shapely legs; then as a bearded but blatantly female Jesus carrying a lamb; and finally as a stylishly coiffed woman who succeeds in spiriting Simon off, by means of a jet, to a Manhattan discotheque — Buñuel’s persuasive idea of hell.
- I felt as if I had been spirited into some castle of antiquity.
- To animate with vigor; to excite; to encourage; to inspirit; sometimes followed by up.
- Civil dissensions often spirit the ambition of private men.
- Jonathan Swift
- Many officers and private men spirit up and assist those obstinate people to continue in their rebellion.
spirit n (plural spirite) | <urn:uuid:3d5faa74-7aa1-4b35-ad21-43af9b9a7466> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/spirit | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.895308 | 1,278 | 2.640625 | 3 |
|16 June 2014
GSA Release No. 14-41
View looking north at the Ice River spring, the highest latitude perennial spring known. Located in the polar desert of northern Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, the high discharge spring carves a gully remarkable similar to those observed on Mars. Photo by Stephen Grasby. Click on image for a higher-resolution file. See related article http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/G35599.1.
Discovery of Earth's Northernmost Perennial Spring
New GEOLOGY articles published online on 9 June 2014
Boulder, Colo., USA – A Canadian team lead by Stephen Grasby reports the discovery of the highest latitude perennial spring known in the world. This high-volume spring demonstrates that deep groundwater circulation through the cryosphere occurs, and can form gullies in a region of extreme low temperatures and with morphology remarkably similar to those on Mars. The 2009 discovery raises many new questions because it remains uncertain how such a high-volume spring can originate in a polar desert environment.
Grasby and colleagues encountered the northernmost perennial spring in the world, which they have dubbed the Ice River Spring, on Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, Canadian High Arctic. The specific study area is north of Otto Fiord in a mountainous region underlain by carbonates of the Nansen Formation. The spring discharges at 300 m elevation from colluvium on a south-facing (21° incline) mountain slope. The unnamed mountain rises 800 m above sea level. Detailed recordings show that this spring flows year-round, even during 24 hours of darkness in the winter months, when air temperatures are as low as minus 50 degrees Celsius.
Detailed geochemistry shows that the waters originate from the surface and circulate down as deep as 3 km before returning through thick permafrost as a spring. This points to a much more active hydrogeological system in polar regions than previously thought possible, which is perhaps driven by glacial meltwater.
Another intriguing feature of the Ice River site is the remarkable similarity to mid-latitude gullies observed on Mars. The discovery of these features on Mars has led to suggestions that recent groundwater discharge has occurred from confined aquifers.
Deep groundwater circulation through the High Arctic cryosphere forms Mars-like gullies
Stephen E. Grasby et al., Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada, 3303 33rd Street NW, Calgary, Alberta T2L 2A7, Canada, and Dept. of Geoscience, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada. Published online 9 June 2014; http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/G35599.1.
Other GEOLOGY articles (see below) cover such topics as
1. The anatomy of an active submarine volcano;
2. Great tsunami-causing earthquakes in Alaska over past 100 years;
3. Reef mound in the Great Australian Bight; and
4. Evolution of lumpy glacial landscapes.
GEOLOGY articles published online ahead of print can be accessed online at http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/early/recent. All abstracts are open-access at http://geology.gsapubs.org/; representatives of the media may obtain complimentary articles by contacting Kea Giles at the address above.
Please discuss articles of interest with the authors before publishing stories on their work, and please make reference to GEOLOGY in articles published. Contact Kea Giles for additional information or assistance.
Non-media requests for articles may be directed to GSA Sales and Service, .
Anatomy of an active submarine volcano
A.F. Arnulf et al., Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Cecil H. and Ida M. Green Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA. Published online 9 June 2014; http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/G35629.1.
Geophysicists are always looking for new ways to study the internal workings of volcanoes. On land, obtaining decent coverage with active source seismology is challenging because of the inhospitable terrain, but with modern marine seismology acquisition and processing methods, Earth processes can be visualized with unprecedented fidelity, resolving features on the order of tens of meters. In their study published online for Geology on 9 June 2014, A.F. Arnulf and colleagues applied innovative methods to image the thickest magma reservoir observed, to date, beneath any ocean spreading center. Their results for Axial Volcano, a submarine volcano offshore of the Pacific Northwest, reveal a complex melt body beneath the summit caldera that is approx. 14 km long, 3 km wide, and up to 1 km thick. This 18- to 30-cubic-kilometer magma reservoir is comparable in size and volume with a famous California landmark: the Yosemite Valley. Previous studies imaged upper crustal melt lenses that are ~50-100 m thick and 1-2 km wide, which lie above a partially molten lower crust where magma cools and crystallizes to form the gabbroic lower crust. The larger magma chamber, greater size, and activity of Axial Volcano arise from the intersection of the Juan de Fuca Ridge with the Cobb hotspot chain.
Great tsunamigenic earthquakes during the past 1000 yr on the Alaska megathrust
Ian Shennan et al., Sea Level Research Unit, Dept. of Geography, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, UK. Published online 9 June 2014; http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/G35797.1.
This paper by Ian Shennan and colleagues uses evidence from sediments preserved in coastal marshes from the Kodiak archipelago, the fossils contained within the sediments, and radiocarbon dating to demonstrate that rupture patterns along the Alaska megathrust in the last few centuries differ to those observed during the 20th century. They have a much shorter recurrence interval than those used in current seismic hazard assessment maps. Shennan and colleagues combine new observations with previous geological, historical, and archaeological investigations. They suggest that in addition to multi-segment ruptures (Prince William Sound and Kodiak segments rupturing together) in 1964 and AD 1020 to 1150 (95% age estimate), a single segment rupture (Kodiak segment alone) occurred in 1788, with earthquake-induced land surface subsidence across much of Kodiak Island and a tsunami that is recorded in historical documents and in sediment sequences, and another, similar rupture of the same Kodiak segment AD 1440 to 1620. These indicate shorter intervals between ruptures of the Kodiak segment than previously thought, and are more frequent than for the Prince William Sound segment.
Giant middle Eocene bryozoan reef mounds in the Great Australian Bight
Alexander G.W.D Sharples et al., School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK. Published online 9 June 2014; http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/G35704.1.
A series of mid-Eocene reef mound complexes have been discovered in the Great Australian Bight, some 100 miles south of Australia. The greater than 500-km-long reef mound complexes are composed of bryozoan build ups and herald the birth of the largest cool-water carbonate province in the southern hemisphere. The reef mounds formed due to a complete shut-down of clastic sediment input from Australia and rising sea level caused by accelerated separation of Australia and Antarctica. The reef mounds were discovered some 500 m beneath the seafloor and mapped utilizing oil-industry and academic two-dimensional seismic profiles. Calibration was given by cuttings samples from an exploration borehole, Potoroo-1, which directly penetrates a mounded complex. Further insights regarding the growth and demise of the reef mound complexes and their paleo-biological and -oceanographic significance will require targeted seismic profiling and, ultimately, coring to retrieve continuous recovery.
Evolution of lumpy glacial landscapes
Robert S. Anderson, Dept. of Geological Sciences, and Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR), University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA. Published online 9 June 2014; http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/G35537.1.
At small scales, glaciated valleys are lumpy. They sport rocky knobs with smooth abraded up-valley surfaces and sharp, quarried down-valley edges. Using numerical models, I address the evolution of glacial landforms in order to explore the dependence of bed topography on both glacier and rock properties. Sliding of a glacier against its rocky bed, a prerequisite for both erosion processes of abrasion and quarrying, is governed by water pressures at the glacier bed. On daily timescales, variations in water pressure associated with snow and ice melt cycles result in expansion and collapse of water-filled cavities at the bed that in turn repetitively stress corners in the bed. Numerical models of glacial bed evolution at longer timescales incorporate both abrasion and quarrying of fracture-bound blocks. Using a rule in which the probability of block quarrying during a stress event depends inversely upon both block size and the depth of the niche in which it sits, up-glacier migrating rocky bumps inevitably emerge, reflecting efficient quarrying of blocks from down-valley facing steps in the bed. The relative importance of abrasion and quarrying is controlled by fracture spacing, and major steps in the valley floor are attributable to transitions in fracture spacing.
Dramatic effects of stress on metamorphic reactions
John Wheeler, Dept. of Earth, Ocean and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, 4 Brownlow Street, Liverpool L69 3GP, UK. Published online 9 June 2014; http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/G35718.1.
A new analysis of how mineral growth is controlled in the Earth shows that stresses may have an effect far larger than hitherto expected. This means that the ways we interpret the minerals observed in once deeply buried rocks require reappraisal. Stress in the Earth is a key aspect of its behavior and this theory paves the way for how ancient stress levels might be deduced from rocks in new ways. In the Earth, stresses result from, for example, movement of tectonic plates. As stress is applied slowly over time, rocks deform and change shape forming aligned mineral textures which are very common. Despite this it has previously been assumed the effects of stress on new mineral growth are small. New calculations show the effects of stress are much bigger and this means that current interpretations of mineral growth require modification; the theory presents a new quantitative way to think about mineral growth during deformation in rocks. It may also be of interest in metallurgy. Metals, like rocks, are actually interlocked crystals of different chemistries and are often processed by deformation which occurs in parallel with chemical change.
Rapid magma evolution constrained by zircon petrochronology and 40Ar/39Ar sanidine ages for the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff, Yellowstone, USA
Tiffany A. Rivera et al., Quaternary Dating Laboratory, Roskilde University, Universitetsvej 1, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark, and Dept. of Geosciences, Boise State University, 1910 University Drive, Boise, Idaho 83725, USA. Published online 9 June 2014; http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/G35808.1.
The Huckleberry Ridge Tuff is the product of the largest eruption at Yellowstone. The mineral zircon, present within this volcanic deposit, has been analyzed for its chemical composition and crystallization temperature in order to deduce the path of magmatic evolution prior to eruption. Additionally, uranium-lead dating on the same zircon crystals allows for a time-stamp of the evolutionary process. Within the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff, zircon analyses demonstrate that some of the crystal cargo was derived from previously erupted volcanic deposits, and the remaining crystals formed over a period of about 10,000 years. To complement the zircon findings, 40Ar/39Ar age data on sanidine crystals from the same rock show similar evidence for recycling of previously formed crystals, and provide an eruption age of 2.079 million years. The findings of this study show that, despite the large volume of magma (~2500 cubic kilometers), differentiation and cooling is geologically rapid, with most crystals forming several millennia prior to eruption.
740 Ma vase-shaped microfossils from Yukon, Canada: Implications for Neoproterozoic chronology and biostratigraphy
Justin V. Strauss et al., Dept. of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA. Published online 9 June 2014; http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/G35736.1.
Biostratigraphy, or the use of fossils to help constrain time in ancient sedimentary rocks, underpins the more recent geological time scale, but its application to pre-Ediacaran (> ~541 million years old) strata has remained limited because older fossil taxa commonly have poorly understood preservational biases and/or inadequate geological or geochronological context. Here, we report the discovery of abundant and well-preserved vase-shaped microfossils from a Neoproterozoic carbonate deposit in Yukon, Canada, that highlight the potential for biostratigraphic correlation of Proterozoic sedimentary successions. The fossiliferous horizon, dated here with Re-Os geochronology at 739.9 plus or minus 6.1 million years, shares multiple species-level taxa with a well-characterized assemblage from the Chuar Group, Grand Canyon, Arizona, dated with U-Pb on zircon from an interbedded tuff at 742 plus or minus 6 million years. The overlapping age and species assemblages from these two deposits suggests biostratigraphic utility, at least within Neoproterozoic basins of ancient North America, or Laurentia, and perhaps globally. The new Re-Os age also confirms the timing of a large negative carbonate carbon isotopic anomaly, which predates the onset of the Sturtian "Snowball Earth" glaciation by >15 million years. Together, these data provide global calibration of Neoproterozoic sedimentary, paleontological, and geochemical records.
Southward shift of the Intertropical Convergence Zone due to Northern Hemisphere cooling at the Oligocene-Miocene boundary
Kiseong Hyeong et al. (Boo-Keun Khim [corresponding]), Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, 878 Haean-ro, Ansan 426-744, Republic of Korea (Khim: Dept. of Oceanography, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, Republic of Korea). Published online 9 June 2014; http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/G35664.1.
The Mi-1 glaciation (approx. 23 million years ago), which marks the Oligocene–Miocene boundary, was an aberrant cooling event that led to a build-up of Antarctic ice sheet reaching the near-modern volume or larger from its ephemeral or partial existence. In contrast, Northern Hemisphere (NH) glaciation has not been considered as a consequence of the event due to lack of definitive evidence. Here, we investigated the inter-hemispheric temperature contrast during Mi-1, by tracing the movement of the tropical maximum rainfall belt (TMRB) at a site (10°31'N) in the East Pacific (IODP Site U1333), to understand NH cooling and possibility of NH glaciation. Our dust data indicate the southward displacement of the TMRB over Site U1333 during Mi-1 (~4°N at the Oligocene-Miocene boundary). The TMRB shifts toward the warmer hemisphere. Thus our results suggest that the cooling during Mi-1 was more significant in the NH than the Southern Hemisphere which underwent the sudden expansion of its continental ice sheets. The published data suggest two possible mechanisms for NH cooling during the brief time interval: the extensive growth of NH ice sheets and/or changes in the production of North Atlantic-origin deep water. | <urn:uuid:70f5a340-cc5e-41b6-b51d-c0611859dbc9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.geosociety.org/news/pr/2014/14-41.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00113-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.894978 | 3,467 | 3.734375 | 4 |
A lot of people don't understand the significance of parachute flies.
These hackled morsels are a lot more than just another dry fly. They
land, float and look much different to the fisherman than the standard
dry fly. To the fish, they also look much different than a standard dry
First, the body of a parachute dry fly is suspended in the surface film.
The only time natural insects have their bodies resting fully in the
surface tension or film is during emergence or when they have been
captured by that film and lay dying on the surface. For that reason
alone, this is an excellent fly to use during the hatch when insects are
emerging, and later during the mayfly spinner fall when adult insects
have been captured by the surface film and lay dead or dying in that
film. These are also the two best times for the fish to capture insects
since the insects are most vulnerable at these times.
Second, the hackle on a parachute dry fly looks like the legs of an
insect when viewed from the bottom. As an adult insect emerges from its
nymphal body, it extends its legs outward to support its weight on the
surface tension of the water. As it continues to crawl out of its shuck,
it places more weight on its legs until it's free from the shuck. As the
shuck floats away, the adult insect dries its wings and eventually flies
away. Only during the wing drying phase of this emergence does a
standard dry fly look more natural from below than a parachute dry fly.
Again, when the female returns to the water to lay eggs, its wings often
get caught by the surface tension of the water and begin to absorb water.
The female will spread her legs out to provide support for her body as
she dumps her ballast of eggs and tries to rise above the water to fly
away. They are rarely successful in flying away, but their legs and
wings remain splayed out on the surface as they expire and float
downstream. From the bottom, this also looks a lot like a parachute dry
Finally, the post type wing of a parachute dry fly is easy for the
fisherman to see. This is very important during heavy hatches and heavy
spinner falls. If your fly looks exactly like all the other flies on the
water, it's often lost in the crowd and missed strikes are the result.
That's a good reason to use a visible post on your parachute flies.
I think you can see the significance of this type of fly. Later, we'll
look at several other flies that look similar from below, but for now
let's look at the dry fly that seems to gently float to the surface of
Like the standard version, the Parachute Adams is probably the most
productive and absolutely the most popular of all parachute dry flies. I
suppose that's reason enough to use this fly as the example for parachute
List of materials: Parachute Adams
Hook: Standard dry fly; Mustad 94840, Tiemco 100, Eagle Claw L059,
Daiichi 1180. Size 10 - 22.
Thread: 3/0 to 6/0 Gudebrod or equivalent, black or colored to match
Tail: Moose body hair, hackle fibers, antron or other synthetic
Body: Angler's Choice pure silk dubbing, muskrat under-fur, any fine
Wing: Calf tail or body hair (traditional), antron, other natural or
synthetic hair, white is the most common color.
Hackle: Quality brown and grizzly neck or saddle hackle, webby parts
removed and 1/16" of the remaining stem stripped of barbules.
1. Create a tail of hair, hackle or synthetic fibers. You can use a
split tail if desired.
2. Select a patch of hair to use for the wing, remove the short hairs,
even the tips, measure it for length (about 1 1/2 times the hook gape),
and tie it to the hook approximately 1/3 hook shank back from the hook
3. Gently pull the wing back and wrap the thread tightly in front of the
base of the wing. | <urn:uuid:b39dfbc8-5168-42a5-b1b7-27b4c88a5d2a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://flyanglersonline.com/flytying/intermediate/part21.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00068-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943848 | 892 | 3.046875 | 3 |
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The Natural History Museum, University of Oslo has set up Ida's Webshop. Visit www.idathelink.com to get your own plush model of Ida, as well as t-shirts, caps and bags.
On the Origin of Species: By Means of Natural Selection by Charles Darwin (Penguin Classic edition, 1982)
This groundbreaking work sets out Darwin’s revolutionary theory of evolution by natural selection. Aimed at a general audience, it is a rigorous and very readable account of what has become the accepted scientific explanation for the development and diversity of life on Earth. One of the most important books ever written, and the key work in the modern human understanding of the living world around us.
The Descent of Man by Charles Darwin (Penguin Classic edition, 2004)
Darwin addresses the controversial, but vital, question of the origins and evolution of mankind, that he deliberately omitted from On the Origin of Species. By providing evidence linking us to the rest of the animal kingdom, he tackles the eternal question of what it is to be human. Another classic work which continues to influence science, philosophy, theology and literature.
The Rise of Horses: 55 Million Years of Evolution by Jens Lorenz Franzen, Kirsten M. Brown (Translator) (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009)
Jens Franzen, one of the world's leading authorities on horse evolution, examines the descent of the domesticated horse, Equus caballus, its extinct ancestors and extant relatives. How did a creature the size of a hare, related to rhinoceroses, evolve into the common horses, zebras, and asses we see today? Beginning around the time of Ida in the Eocene, this history of the horse provides a fascinating study of another lineage of mammal evolution.
The Primate Fossil Record (Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology) by Walter Carl Hartwig (Cambridge University Press, 2002)
A comprehensively illustrated examination of the primate fossil record, from the origin of primates to anatomically modern humans, covering the discovery and interpretation of primate fossils and story they tell of adaptive evolution. This book also summarizes the many intellectual debates surrounding the interpretation of the fossil record, and includes extensive reference information.
The Beginning of the Age of Mammals by Kenneth D. Rose (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006)
Focussing on the Paleocene and Eocene adaptive radiations of therian mammals, Rose documents mammal evolution from its origins with the cynodont therapsids in the Mesozoic era of the dinosaurs. This richly illustrates the rapid rise of mammals from obscurity to planetary dominance, using the fossil record to interpret behaviour and phylogenetic relationships.
Primates in Perspective edited by Christina J. Campbell, Augustin Fuentes, Katherine C. MacKinnon, Melissa Panger and Simon K. Bearder (OUP USA, 2006)
Essays by fifty-nine leading researchers provide a comprehensive overview of modern primatology, covering the natural history of the major taxonomic groups, primate reproduction, social behaviour and intelligence, and ecology and conservation.
Primate Adaptation and Evolution by John G. Fleagle (Academic Press, 1998)
Providing an introductory overview of our primate heritage, this impressively illustrated volume covers the key points of primate origins, biology and human evolution using comparative examples. With up-to-date information, it enables understanding of the whole story of primate evolution.
The Life Of Mammals by David Attenborough (BBC Books, 2002)
The story of the 4000 plus species of mammals alive today and how their kind has conquered the Earth since the demise of the dinosaurs. With vivid illustrations and rich descriptions the amazing diversity of mammals is revealed, from the giants of the oceans to the tiny pigmy shrew. Based on the stunning BBC TV series, David Attenborough recounts the success of the different mammal groups, including our closest primate relatives.
The Origin of Humankind (Science Masters) by Richard E. Leakey (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1994)
A clear and accessible book covering the complexities of the development of modern humans on the African Savanna. Looking beyond the physical traits evident in the fossil record, legendary paleoanthropologist Richard Leakey discusses the core qualities of human beings, including co-operation, language, artistic expression and consciousness.
Lucy, the Beginnings of Humankind by Donald C. Johanson and Maitland Armstrong Edey (Simon & Schuster, 1990)
Donald Johanson, who discovered the famous 3.2 million year old, 40% complete Australopithecus afarensis skeleton ‘Lucy’ in 1974, recounts the inside story of his internationally important find and its contribution to our understanding of human evolution.
The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal by Jared Diamond (Harper Perennial, 2006)
Though we share 98 percent of our genes with our chimpanzee cousins, why has that 2% genetic difference resulted in the vast differences between our species? Scientist and Pulitzer Prize-winning author Jared Diamond investigates what makes the human animal special, and how it has rapidly taken over the world and developed the unprecedented ability to destroy itself.
The Variety of Life: A survey and a celebration of all the creatures that have ever lived by Colin Tudge (OUP Oxford, 2002)
A lavishly illustrated insight into the diversity of life, and how all living species, both past and present, relate to each other. This volume explains how the billions of species that have existed since the origin of life have been classified by systematists, and how this can help us to understand the vast and complex evolutionary story.
Neanderthals, Bandits and Farmers. How Agriculture Really Began (Darwinism Today) by Colin Tudge (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1998)
Revealing a group of proto-farmers who may have out-competed the Neanderthal hunter-gatherers, this book counters the traditional view that agriculture began around 10,000 years ago in the Middle East. Arguing that agriculture is at least as difficult as a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, leading science writer Colin Tudge applies evolutionary ideas to human behaviour and investigates why our ancestors made the revolutionary change.
How Humans Evolved by Robert Boyd and Joan B. Silk (W. W. Norton & Co., 2006)
Written by experts in evolutionary theory and primate behaviour, this definitive introductory account of the story of human evolution integrates the scientific methods and evidence into a very readable narrative. Based on the behavioural ecology approach to animal behaviour, it reveals the big themes in human evolutionary history, the many extinct human species, and explains how we became modern humans.
Almost Like a Whale: The 'Origin of Species' Updated by Steve Jones (Black Swan, 2000)
This ambitious and detailed book successfully rewrites Darwin’s classic original with the benefit of 150 years of hindsight and the incredible biological advances that Darwin’s theories enabled. Modern discoveries, including in Steve Jones’ own discipline genetics, have only provided further supporting evidence for Darwin’s central idea of evolution by natural selection, which has become the unifying theory of biological science.
The Human Story: Where We Come from and How We Evolved by Charles Lockwood (The Natural History Museum, 2007)
This enlightening book traces human ancestors back to our divergence from the chimpanzee lineage, from the earliest hominids 6-7 million years ago to our own Homo sapiens species. Leading palaeoanthropologist Charles Lockwood explains the amazing advances in our understanding of the diversity of species in human evolution and what the fossil record can tell us about our origins. Using photographs, drawings and charts, this accessible book clearly outlines the key finds, locations and people involved in uncovering the human story.
Your Inner Fish: A Journey into the 3.5 Billion-Year History of the Human Body by Neil Shubin (Allen Lan , 2008)
Using the latest genetic research, this thought-provoking book highlights the evidence of the 3.5 billion year history of life that we all carry around with us in our own bodies. Tracing the history of the human body, it reveals that many of our most distinctive features evolved when our ancestors were living in the oceans.
The Ascent Of Man: Complete BBC Series (BBC DVD, 2005) ASIN: B000772842
In a classic television series, Dr Jacob Bronowski traces the history of human ingenuity through the ideas that have shaped humanity. Following our scientific imagination around the world through key points in time, from early humans to today, these award-winning documentaries remain an impressive achievement.
Charles Darwin And The Tree of Life (BBC DVD, 2009) ASIN: B001QE1BIO
A personal examination into the origins and impact of Darwin's theory of evolution by David Attenborough, celebrating the150th anniversary of the publication of On The Origin Of Species and the 200th anniversary of Darwin’s birth. This insightful documentary pays tribute to the man who’s ideas have been at the heart of all of Attenborough’s classic natural history series.
The Life of Mammals (BBC DVD, 2003) ASIN: B000088DSM
With too many new and remarkable scenes to mention, David Attenborough and the BBC Natural History Unit present another exemplary exploration of the natural world. Highlighting the success of the mammals, this visually stunning series reveals their development and diversity across the planet.
Darwin's Dangerous Idea (BBC DVD, 2009) ASIN: B001V7P2TK
Tracing the impact of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution beyond science, into society, religion and politics, Andrew Marr’s insightful series reveals Darwin's important and far-reaching legacy. His revolutionary idea has enabled us to understand our place within the natural world, and continues to be relevant to contemporary issues like our inextricable link to the causes and effects environmental change.
Cousins - The Complete Series (BBC DVD, 2000) ASIN: B001EXEEEU
An investigation into the natural history of primates, our closest living relatives, and how they evolved to be such intelligent and social creatures. This illuminating series also sheds light onto our own origins and place within the primate order.
Walking with Cavemen (BBC DVD, 2003) ASIN: B000087LOS
This documentary series recreates the incredible story of human evolution with the latest make up and special effects technology, providing a vivid depiction of different stages in human evolutionary history.
BBC Darwin Season 2009 homepage
Information on Darwin and the BBC’s range of programmes celebrating the 200th anniversary of his birth.
The largest and most widely used Darwin resource ever created. The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online, based at the University of Cambridge, includes all of his published writings and unpublished papers.
Understanding Evolution - Exploring The History of Evolutionary Thought
An education website teaching the science and history of evolutionary biology, promoting understanding of what evolution is, how it works and how it relates to your life.
Natural History Museum - Darwin 200
Darwin200 celebrates the impact that Darwin's evolutionary ideas, as well as his approach to the understanding of the natural world and his outstanding example as a scientist, continue to have on our lives.
Primate Info Net
http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/ Primate Info Net (PIN) covers the broad field of primatology with original content and links to resources about nonhuman primates in research, education and conservation.
The Orangutan Foundation
The Orangutan Foundation charity is the foremost orangutan conservation organisation working actively to conserve the orangutan and the biodiversity of their habitat through the protection of the tropical forests of Borneo and Sumatra.
The Jane Goodall Institute
The Jane Goodall Institute works to prevent the extinction of chimpanzees, our closest relatives in the animal kingdom, through conservation, research and education.
Cameroon Wildlife Aid Fund
The Cameroon Wildlife Aid Fund is a charity working in conjunction with the Cameroon government to protect its indigenous primates, including chimpanzees and gorillas.
The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International
The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International is dedicated to the conservation and protection of gorillas and their habitats in Africa. | <urn:uuid:703ff7e0-3a7f-4508-8716-2c672f091788> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://revealingthelink.com/more-about-ida/resources/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00120-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.866032 | 2,613 | 2.90625 | 3 |
Power & Propulsion
In TNG: "Coming of Age" there is a question about the matter/antimatter intermix ratio in Wesley's exam. Wesley quickly answers this question that there should be only one correct ratio, 1:1. But if we look at the principle of the warp core, there appears to be a flaw in his consideration. The warp power generation is based on the mutual annihilation of matter and antimatter. The key component of the system is the dilithium crystal inside the warp core. Being "porous" to antimatter, the crystal allows a controlled reaction of matter and antimatter to energy. Each deuterium atom reacts with exactly one antideuterium counterpart. At a ratio of 1:1, there would be nothing but pure energy left of the two initial materials. But where does the warp plasma come from? Plasma is excited matter, and it is required to transfer and distribute the generated power to the nacelles and other parts of the ship.
We can presuppose that the plasma runs through the ship in a closed loop and that pure energy is released from the nacelles into subspace to create the warp field. There will always be a certain loss, but for the most part the matter would probably remain inside the system (unless the "used plasma" from the warp power system is fed into the impulse reactors for which there is no evidence). In order to work like this, however, we would expect the warp core to have an inlet for exhausted plasma flowing back from the nacelles. But something like that is missing in any schematics we have ever seen, most notably the ones in the TNG Technical Manual (TNGTM). Moreover, no propulsion system ever seen on screen seems to have something like a dedicated feedback tube. Nonetheless we may and we should assume that the exhausted plasma, basically just hydrogen, is fed back into the warp core. But then it would still add to the matter-antimatter ratio.
Instead of an exact 1:1 ratio, it would rather make sense if the amount of matter were at least insignificantly larger than of antimatter, to form the basis of the plasma and also, for reasons of safety, to go sure that all injected antimatter is being annihilated. In fact, Leah Brahms complains in TNG: "Galaxy's Child" that Geordi has changed the ratio she designed the warp core for. The TNGTM does not mention why, but states that there are indeed greater ratios than 1:1 (although we get the impression this refers to "fresh" matter only). The book mentions a standard ratio of 10:1 for power generation which is gradually lowered for higher speeds. Only above Warp 8, it will eventually become 1:1. While the above problem of generating the plasma and avoiding an antimatter surplus remains above Warp 8, this suggestion makes sense if the amount of plasma stays the same, whereas the total amount of power and therefore of particles per time would have to be increased for higher warp factors. Thus, the matter-antimatter ratio would decrease.
It might be different though, in that the amount of plasma could be increased proportionally to the injected matter and antimatter, so the ratio would always stay the same. Both is possible, considering that the amount of power generated is incredible anyway. A deuterium atom (one proton, one neutron) weighs 3.349*10-27kg. E=mc2 gives us an energy of 2*3,014*10-10J if one deuterium and one antideuterium atom annihilate each other. With the relation E=3*kT/2, this would result in a temperature of 1.456*1018K (that's really hot!) if two additional deuterium atoms per generated pair of photons are heated up with this energy. k is the Boltzmann constant. Of course, this is a very rough estimation and should be taken with a grain of salt. I am assuming two generated photons per atom pair, an ideal gas and otherwise ideal conditions without any loss, and not an indirect and "dirty" reaction as in the photon torpedoes. The intermix ratio in this case would be 3:1.
Another argument in favor of a matter-antimatter ratio larger than 1:1 is that the deuterium tank of every starship is much larger than the antimatter containers (assuming that the antideuterium is not considerably more compressed than the deuterium which would make no sense for reasons of safety). It may be argued that the large amount of deuterium is primarily used for the impulse reactors (as the tank is definitely shared between the two systems), but carrying so much more fuel for a much less powerful system does not seem to be very efficient. More likely the impulse power is only a by-product of the impulse propulsion system and not intended to power considerable parts of the ship. Therefore, no huge tank would be included especially for this system.
Once an antimatter-powered ship gets destroyed, we would expect the antimatter storage pods to blow in a large-scale explosion similar to that of a nuclear bomb and possibly much more destructive than a photon torpedo. This seems to happen in TNG: "Contagion", "Cause and Effect", "All Good Things", DS9: "Emissary" and "Star Trek Generations". In DS9: "The Ship", on the other hand, a Jem'Hadar fighter shoots down the runabout our Starfleet heroes were on. They see the runabout disintegrate in the atmosphere, but there isn't really a big explosion. In DS9: "Rocks and Shoals", the Jem'Hadar vessel crashes, and again there is no big kaboom. In ENT: "Canamar", the Enolian prison transport is destroyed when it breaks up in the atmosphere, and there is no apparent concern about a large-scale antimatter explosion in the atmosphere.
We may imagine that in some cases the antimatter pods are jettisoned in time, at latest a couple of milliseconds before the shockwave of the explosion arrives, which might be sufficient to keep them from blowing. And even If the antimatter pods are not ejected by a dedicated mechanism, it is still possible that the impact of the shockwave hurls them away before they can break up. If we assume that the pods do not necessarily explode, perhaps the remaining amount of antimatter in the warp core is small enough not to cause a huge explosion. On the other hand, warp core breaches, if they are not stopped before the antimatter gets in contact with matter by restoring the confinement of by ejecting the core, are always catastrophic, and there doesn't seem to a possible scenario of a limited explosion. In the above cases the warp core most likely couldn't be ejected in time.
Whenever a Star Trek ship is at warp, it seems that always several stars are flying by when looking at the main viewscreen or out of a window. The effect was probably created only to emphasize the high speed of the ship. It is quite obvious that these "star streaks" can't be actual stars, because even at high warp a ship would pass by only one or two stars per hour but definitely not several stars per second. Here "passing by" means that the relative angle changes by more than 90 degrees, resulting in such an effect like the "star streaks".
We have to find another explanation for the phenomenon, and one may be Cherenkov radiation. Similar to the sound cone as produced by a supersonic aircraft which overtakes its own sound, a starship moving faster than light would create a sort of light cone. At least the shape of such a cone would exactly match the paths of the star streaks which always emerge radially from the center of the screen or window. Maybe parts of this cone would be visible from inside the ship as streaks for some reason. Another, even simpler explanation may be that interstellar particles glow because of the friction with the field created by the navigational deflector.
Going to warp inside a solar system
Although it is definitely possible, there seem to be very different opinions whether it is advised to go to warp inside a solar system. In "Star Trek: The Motion Picture" Kirk speaks of the risk of engaging the warp drive while still in the Sol system. Dax advises against going to warp inside the Bajoran system in DS9: "By Inferno's Light". In ENT: "Demons" T'Pol is worried ("Inside the system?") when Paxton orders the mining facility to go to warp. In TNG: "The Best of Both Worlds" we even see the Borg ship as well as the Enterprise-D slow down to impulse, although several seconds longer at warp speed may have saved precious time.
On the other hand, we have numerous incidents where warp drive is definitely activated inside a solar system without objections. The Enterprise NCC-1701 goes to high warp in the Sol system in TOS: "Tomorrow is Yesterday" and pursues the Denevan ship heading for the sun at the emergency speed of Warp 8 in TOS: "Operation - Annihilate!". In TNG: "Symbiosis" the Enterprise goes to warp to help the Ornaran freighter, in TNG: "Descent II" Beverly orders to approach the planet with the Borg ship in orbit and drop out of warp only in the last moment. In DS9: "Past Prologue" the two runabouts traverse the Bajoran system at warp. Already Cochrane's first warp flight in "Star Trek: First Contact" naturally takes place in the immediate vicinity of Earth, as do the test flights in ENT: "First Flight". Enterprise NX-01 even goes to warp only a couple of seconds after leaving the dock in ENT: "Borderland". Likewise, in TNG: "11001001" we see through the doors of Starbase 74 (located in a planet's orbit) how the automated Enterprise-D warps away.
There must be specific rather than general reasons why going to warp is unsafe in certain cases. Gravity may obstruct warp propulsion in the vicinity of a planet, but most likely the much higher concentration of particles inside a solar system poses a problem. Modern starships have a deflector for that purpose. Cochrane may not yet have been aware of the danger, and he may have just been lucky that nothing collided with his ship. Still, it is possible that the Phoenix already had a navigational deflector. Even with a deflector warp flight may be still a risk at high particle densities. In addition, it is possible that warp ships may endanger intra-system sublight traffic, so regulations may have been set up that generally disallow warp flight inside a (Federation) solar system.
But this certainly wouldn't explain why staying at warp is not even considered an option in an extreme emergency, just like during the Borg incursion in BoBW. The approach in BoBW is also unrealistic because it could have been much easier to enter the Sol system perpendicular to the ecliptic, avoiding Jupiter and Mars instead of passing by the single planets. Any other starship entering a solar system can easily avoid planets, particles and sublight traffic likewise, almost immediately arriving at the destination planet, just as we have seen it countless times.
Finally, there is one extreme case in "Star Trek: The Voyage Home" where Kirk orders the BoP to go to warp while still in Earth's atmosphere. While impulse inside the atmosphere may be hazardous because of the ionization, warp may pose no such problem. Still, it is questionable if the atmosphere provides stable conditions for a warp field, not to mention the air friction at extremely high speeds.
Subspace driver coils
In The Physics of Star Trek Lawrence Krauss discusses the amount of fuel required for impulse speed, based on the energy gained by the fusion reaction, and considering that mass significantly increases at relativistic speeds. His result is that much more fuel than the ship's mass is required to accelerate the ship to high sublight speed. Obviously Sternbach and Okuda took this consideration into account when writing the TNGTM, and they "invented" a subspace field generated in the driver coils, to lower the apparent mass of the ship. The book, however, also states that the subspace driver coil was introduced as late as in the Ambassador class (at least on an experimental basis), although it must have existed before, according to Krauss' calculations. We could either assume that starships always had these driver coils in the impulse drive (even at the time of Enterprise NX-01). Alternatively, the warp coils could have been used to generate a subspace field below 1 cochrane in order to achieve sublight propulsion or at least facilitate impulse propulsion. However, according to the TNGTM, the efficiency of the warp coils is reduced drastically below Warp 1 and therefore the warp drive would not be "wasted" for this purpose.
The principle is put into practice in DS9: "Emissary". Here Jadzia proposes to create a low-level subspace field around Deep Space 9 to lower its inertial mass, so the thrusters could move the station from Bajor's orbit to the Denorios Belt in a matter of hours instead of days. In this exceptional case it certainly doesn't have to be the most efficient way of sublight propulsion. So it appears realistic, provided that the output is still high enough to reduce the mass of the station to an accordingly small fraction of its rest mass and not just by a few percent.
Slowing down the ship
How can a ship stop or quickly decelerate in space? The question sounds trivial, but actually we do not know how this is usually accomplished. What we know is that warp propulsion is non-Newtonian, meaning that it necessitates constant power input to maintain a constant speed. When the warp drive is either deactivated on purpose or when it fails, the warp field collapses immediately, which will cause the ship to slow down to sublight speed, as it was seen on screen countless times. In contrast, all other forms of (sublight) movement in space, using the impulse drive or thrusters, are Newtonian - the ship keeps its velocity vector as long as no force acts upon it. Well, at times it seemed as if the ship were actually stopping after turning off sublight propulsion, but I just assume that the camera was still moving together with the ship.
With an impulse exhaust facing aft, as on all Federation starships, fundamentally only accelerating "forward" would be feasible within the laws of Newtonian propulsion. But how can a captain order a "full stop" or "full reverse" (such as Kirk in "Star Trek: The Motion Picture", when the warp engine control does not respond, or Harriman in "Star Trek Generations") and how can starships like the Defiant perform complicated maneuvers in a battle, involving frequent accelerations and decelerations at sublight speed?
With only a one-directional impulse engine, it would make sense to use the thrusters to turn the ship by 180 degrees in the "horizontal" plane and later stop by using the very same impulse drive. However, except for Picard's unusual maneuver in TNG: "Booby Trap" where he made the ship yaw by briefly activating the thrusters and took advantage of the gravitational pull of an asteroid, we have never seen such realistic ship movements in space.
We may find an explanation how the force of the impulse engines may be effectively reversed for deceleration. Something like a thrust reverser as on jet airplanes may be deployed to redirect the thrust. Or, since there does not seem to be anything mechanical or otherwise visible about it, a forcefield is erected to that end. Such a solution would be very asymmetrical and inefficient though, as the direction of the engines can obviously never be exactly reversed (which would direct the exhaust back into the reaction chamber or even into the hull!).
The way it is mostly shown on screen, it would require a second impulse drive facing forward, preferably of the same size as the one facing aft, to enable the same acceleration in both directions. However, the only ship we have even seen firing forward engines to move in opposite flight direction was the Scimitar in "Star Trek Nemesis". Maybe the deflector dish is employed for that purpose on other ships? Or rather the RCS thrusters? But if the clearly much weaker RCS were sufficient, why would the ship still need big impulse engines for forward motion?
It is also possible that the subspace driver coils of the impulse engines accomplish the deceleration. Without these driver coils, the impulse engine would be not very different to an ion drive as it is already on engineers' drawing boards or even to present-day rocket engines. There could be some strange effect that reverses the force on the ship if something is done with these coils, although this would strain the laws of physics quite a bit. On the other hand, according to the TNGTM, starships prior to the Ambassador class didn't even have these driver coils, but this is still another problem discussed above. The actual solution to the deceleration problem may lie in the ability of the driver coils to lower the apparent mass of the ship.
Mark Temple points out that while a complete stop wouldn't be possible, the subspace coils may be the key to deceleration: "One of the more interesting effects such a scheme would have is that if the field were to be reduced, you'd loose momentum. The inertia the ship carries would be appropriate to the effective mass it was operating at. So a ship that reduced its effective mass via subspace fields to a tenth of its normal mass, if the field is dropped or reduced to almost nil, its velocity from inertia would also drop to a tenth of what it had been, since there is suddenly more mass for that energy to effect."
Garret Beebe suggests a method that wouldn't even need subspace to work: "My hypothetical solution uses the research of Bernard Haisch, formerly of Lockheed's Palo Alto Research Center. In his paper The Zero Point Field and Inertia, Dr. Haisch and his colleagues theorize that inertia is in actuality an electromagnetic drag force experienced by a charge accelerated in the quantum mechanical zero point field. Without going into extraordinary detail for which I have no expertise, the scenario is as follows. As a point charge accelerates in one dimension through the ZPF, an asymmetry similar to the asymmetry created by a Casmir cavity is formed. This asymmetry manifests itself an electromagnetic field. Normally, the ZPF is undetectable because is it uniform in all directions. Much as a person immersed in a pool and lying completely motionless would not be aware of the surrounding water until he moves and experiences a drag force, a point charge would not be subject to a net electromagnetic force until it began to accelerate through the ZPF. When the charge accelerates, the asymmetry is created, and the charge can interact with the field according to Maxwell's Laws. The resultant force experienced by the point charge is equal but opposite to the force accelerating the point charge. This drag force is inertia.
How does this relate to the problem of halting a starship? Because the ZPF is electromagnetic in origin, Dr. Haisch has proposed the modification of inertial mass using electromagnetic fields. He is currently in the process of attempting to detect a change in the inertial mass of electrons passing through a EM field such as a laser. For the purpose of starship operations, my solution is as follows. If we suppose that Dr. Haisch is correct, then inertial mass can be modified by the application of an EM field. If a starship fired its impulse engines to give it some momentum and then used the proposed 'driver coil' to create a suitable EM field, the inertial mass of the starship would decrease. Because of the conservation of momentum (mv = constant unless acted upon by an outside force), velocity would increase. By lowering the apparent mass, the starship could theoretically achieve very high speeds. To arrest this forward motion without reorienting the ship or mounting large bow impulse drives, one could simply eliminate this inertial damping field. As inertial mass returned to normal values, velocity would decrease. If the original velocity was only a few meters per second, the forward RCS thrusters could be used to arrest the remaining velocity. Some problems exist with my solution, however. If the field is applied to the whole ship, including the crew, how are normal actions such as walking affected. Would the reduction in inertial mass be apparent only to the an outside observer? Would the force applied by the leg muscles of a crew member to the deck send him bounding off the walls? Is the apparent strength of a crew member affected by a change in inertial mass of every particle in his body? Are the structural properties of the ship altered because of this change in apparent mass? Would material become weak because of EM induced changes in the bulk modulus? These are questions I am not prepared to answer. For the purposes of the fictional Trek Universe, I hope these issues can be overcome. This is my humble opinion in any event. For more on Dr. Haisch's work, please feel free to visit the following website: http://www.calphysics.org/zpe.html."
Impulse engine balance
Almost all ships we see on Star Trek are symmetrical, but usually only in port-starboard direction. If we look at them from the side, hardly any Federation ships or alien ships have the impulse engines located where we would expect them - with the thrust vector running through the ship's center of mass. The Galaxy class with its central impulse engine comes close to this requirement, and only few designs such as the Defiant look well-balanced with the engines placed in the centerline as seen from the side. The Miranda class and Nebula class, for instance, have impulse engines at the rear end of the saucer, but due to the supposedly heavy nacelles the center of mass is definitely located lower. Almost all these designs require corrections to the impulse thrust vector that could be accomplished by adjusting the impulse exhausts themselves or with the RCS thrusters. As a result, they have to deal with significant lever forces upon parts of the hull and the warp pylons that could be reduced to a minimum if only the impulse engines were located straight behind the center of mass. But exactly this may be one of the main reasons why starships need a structural integrity field (SIF).
The problem would be essentially the same with warp engines, but due to their "exotic" working principle we are allowed to assume an intrinsic asymmetry, so we wouldn't really expect the nacelles to break off once the warp drive were activated.
Whenever two starships meet, be it planned or accidental, be it of the same or two different civilizations, they always face each other "upside up". During early TNG, as depicted in The Art of Star Trek, Andrew Probert devised a new Romulan ship that was supposed to have an unusual vertical orientation (taller than wide) when facing the Enterprise, still, it was supposed to be "upside up" this way (the orientation of the Warbird design was finally changed to horizontal on Roddenberry's request).
The real-world explanation for the upside-up rule is simple, because until a couple of years ago the special effects exclusively used motion control. Every starship miniature had one or more points where mounts could be attached, and they were usually on the ship's bottom - so showing one ship "upside down" might have required to damage the model or the double work of filming two sequences with opposite illumination to be copied together in a way that one of them would be upside down. It was as late as in the Dominion War battles that CGI starships allowed to be moved around in any curves and to be filmed from any angle.
Ironically, the only two occasions (I know of) where a starship was actually turned upside down, a freighter in DS9: "Sanctuary" and the Sydney-class transport in DS9: "Trials and Tribble-ations", it was in situations where it would have made no sense. The Sydney class was obviously supposed to be a different class, but since I don't accept that, I now have to explain why the ship docked upside down... Another exception to the "upside up" rule is Empok Nor, which is always shown as tilted. This may be explained as purely artistic license to distinguish Empok Nor and Deep Space 9, as long as no other vessel is visible. But in DS9: "Empok Nor" the station is tilted even when seen through the windscreen of the runabout. The abandoned station has lost its attitude control, but there is no reason for the runabout not to match the "wrong" orientation of the station long before docking, the way it is done at any other station on any other occasion.
Although there is no up and down in space, there must be a reason why ships always have a certain orientation either relative to each other or relative to the galactic plane, although during the flight they could rotate at any angle around their longitudinal axis. Basically, it would make some sense, at least for great distances, if starships moved in a way that the decks were parallel to the galactic plane, and if only for the right "feel" of the crew and in order to see as many stars as possible from the windows. On the other hand, instead of always traveling parallel to the galactic plane, a starship would have to "dive" very often, to reach a destination "above" or "below" the plane. Another possible explanation is that all space stations may have a certain orientation, and so do the starships. This, however, would make no sense for orbital stations, and again, it would be useless for empires whose territory stretches to regions "above" and "below" to the galactic plane.
The only reasonable explanation in this respect is that there may be some sort of silent agreement between the major galactic powers (and even in the Delta Quadrant) that they turn their starships to match orientations when they meet. Maybe there is a rule that the smaller ship has to adapt its orientation to the larger one, too.
A visitor named Shpenat suggests: "The warp engine needs to be coupled by inertial dampers. But from the scientific point of view there is no reason for inertial dampers to work other way than gravitational plating (from technical point of view there is a difference). So the ship with warp engine will definitely have artificial gravity. On the other hand transporter technology is not connected to warp propulsion in any way (and can be even unknown as in "Caretaker").
Let's assume we have two ships meeting in space. We want to send some personal from one ship to another. Than we have two possibilities: 1) shuttlecraft or 2) dock together. In both cases the smaller ship (shuttle) has to match the orientation of of bigger one. So after some time it may have become the sign of politeness to rotate smaller ships to match the bigger one. This is how the consensus about ship orientation may be known throughout the galaxy (This explanation does not hold in case of transporter technology being developed before warp)."
The idea that it is a historical convention with technical reasons indeed makes a lot of sense.
"Full stop" is a frequently issued command on Federation starships. Examples can be found as soon as in TOS: "The Corbomite Maneuver", also in "Star Trek II", TNG: "Encounter at Farpoint", "Where Silence Has Lease" (even three times), "Q Who", "The Emissary", "Tin Man", DS9: "Armageddon Game", VOY: "Persistence of Vision" and "Star Trek Nemesis". It is often criticized that "stopping the ship" doesn't make sense in open space. A speed and therefore as well a stop always need a point of reference. While we may easily explain a warp or impulse speed relative to the destination, a stop in open space doesn't seem to have a reference. However, the frequent criticism from people who entirely reject the possibly quite practical concept of a "full stop" is ill-considered and unfair, to say the least.
Firstly, during the flight there must be permanent navigation references like stars, in order to verify and correct the course. There are probably various references in the form of near and distant celestial bodies. Hence, I can easily imagine that a full stop may be defined relative to such a nearby object. If the ship itself is moving at warp, the relative motion of stars would be minimal anyway, so I see no problem at all in the order "full stop". Secondly, on several occasions the ship had already slowed down or dropped to impulse to investigate something, so there was a quite definite reference, just like the buoy in TOS: "The Corbomite Maneuver", Q's "fence" in TNG: "Encounter at Farpoint" or the "hole in space" in "Where Silence Has Lease". Thirdly, the command doesn't even need to refer to the ship's speed, but it may simply imply to disengage the engines. Actually, in "The Corbomite Maneuver" Spock literally says "All engines full stop".
In a similar case, Spock states in TOS: "The Doomsday Machine" about the USS Constellation in the solar system L-374 that she has "stopped in space. She appears to be drifting." This sounds like a contradiction, because "stopped" insinuates that the ship rests relative to the solar system (possibly on purpose), while "drifting" would mean that the ship maintains its last speed and direction before the propulsion system went offline. Maybe Spock is just unusually imprecise, and by "stopped" he intends to say that the ship is not on a reasonable course with a reasonably high speed, so it would be equivalent to being adrift. Or the ship really rests because the last thing Matt Decker did was to stop it, and "drifting" means that, in addition, the propulsion system is off.
Weapons - about inconsistent weapon and shield efficiencies etc.
Thanks to Bas Gorris for some suggestions about the "unstoppable" ships, to Garret Beebe for his idea of using driver coils to decelerate the ship, to Matthias Stohr for a thought about the "star streaks", to Glenn Thacker for reminding me of the "warp inside the atmosphere" incident, to Robert Heckadon for the suggestion to comment on antimatter explosions and to johndmes for the thoughts about the impulse engine balance. Finally, Luke corrected an embarrassing error in the antimatter energy calculation. | <urn:uuid:3693e358-0ff2-4d00-8952-8adba51f1f78> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ex-astris-scientia.org/inconsistencies/treknology-power.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00143-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959841 | 6,382 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Preparing For A Hurricane
Wind, Rain And Surge
By Charles Fort
Long-range forecasters have learned that trying to predict the number and intensity of the next season's tropical storms is like herding cats. Weather patterns such as El Niño/La Niña, wind shear, and even Saharan desert dust affect the development of tropical storms, and these intertwined variables can confound the best prognosticators, even as the season is starting. As an example, the 2013 season was predicted to have more than average activity, yet it was (thankfully) a yawn. The 2012 season, on the other hand, had twice as many hurricanes as predicted (including Superstorm Sandy). Tropical storms, it seems, don't care about forecasts, and all it takes is one big storm that comes ashore to make seasonal predictions irrelevant. The lesson: Don't wait for the season's forecast before you develop your tropical-storm preparation plan, which is nothing more than knowing what, where, how, and when.
What To Expect
Tropical storms, including hurricanes, produce wind, rain, waves, and surge in proportions rarely experienced by boaters, and storm damage is usually due to a combination of these factors. A good preparation plan has to take all of these elements into consideration and the time to develop one is now, not when a storm is approaching.
How To Prepare For Wind
By definition, tropical storms have winds of at least 39 mph (which is when storms get a name) while hurricanes start at 74 mph and have been recorded at more than 150 mph. What's not always understood is that as the speed of the wind doubles, its force quadruples. In other words, the damage wind does increases much faster than its speed. This illustrates the importance of reducing your boat's windage — the area your boat presents to the wind — by removing as much rigging, canvas, and deck gear as possible. Whether your boat is stored ashore or stays in its slip, the less stuff the wind is able to push around, the safer your boat will be. Biminis are sure to get shredded in a strong storm, so take off the fabric and the frames. Strip off outriggers, antennas, running rigging, booms, life rings, and dinghies. Remove cowling ventilators and seal the openings. Furled headsails have a surprising amount of windage and are one of the first things damaged by wind, so they must be taken down. Not only can they shake your rig apart when they unfurl (and no matter how well you secure them, in a big storm they probably will), they can cause damage to your neighbor's boat as well. Mainsails are bulky and should be removed also.
How To Prepare For Rain
Rainfall of six to 12 inches in 24 hours is common during a hurricane, and as much as two feet can fall in a day. Cockpit scuppers can be overwhelmed by such torrents, and even boats stored ashore can suffer damage if rainwater overflows into the cabin. Boats stored in the water can be sunk when rainwater backs up in the cockpit and the weight forces deck drains underwater, causing them to backflow.
Make certain cockpit drains are free-running. If your boat is staying in the water, remove heavy items from the stern area, such as anchors, extra fuel tanks, and kicker motors, so that the cockpit scuppers are higher above the water. Close all but cockpit drain seacocks and plug the engine's exhaust port. Use masking or duct tape to seal around hatches, ports, and lockers to keep water from getting below. Seal exposed electronics. Make sure the bilge pump and switch work, and that the battery is topped up; shore power is not likely to remain on throughout the storm. Keep in mind that the ability of the pump and battery to remove water is usually greatly overestimated. Small boats should be covered if possible.
How To Prepare For Waves
Tropical storms build up surprisingly large waves quickly, even in relatively small harbors, bays, and lakes. The longer the distance over which the wind can build up waves, the bigger the waves. Waves make boats bounce in their slips, displacing fenders and increasing strain on docklines.
Double up on docklines and make sure all are well-protected from chafe. While fenders and fender boards won't compensate for poor docking arrangements, if the boat is well-secured, they may offer some additional protection, especially if they are heavy duty. Smaller boats can be overwhelmed, especially if they are stern-to to the waves. The bow is strongest and least likely to be overcome by water and should face into the waves.
How To Deal With Surge
Surge is rising water caused by a tropical storm, and it could very well be the highest an area has ever experienced. The strong wind from a storm causes water to pile up on top of any local tides. On a fixed dock, a boat will rise as much as 10 feet or more and it must be tied loosely enough to allow it to rise, but not so loose that it bangs against the dock. Long lines taken to an adjoining dock or piling and long spring lines will allow the boat to move up and down while still holding it in position. Floating docks rise with the surge, but if it's high enough, the surge can float the docks right off the pilings. If the predicted surge is anywhere near as high as the pilings, the boat must be moved, preferably ashore. BoatUS claims data show that boats are nearly always safer when hauled out. But, as Superstorm Sandy showed, in an exceptionally high surge even hauled boats can be floated off their stands. On average, those boats fared better, though, than those in their slips, many of which were carried away with their docks. (For more on predicting surge, see sidebar.)
Where To Keep Your Boat
Where your boat is kept is one of the most critical factors in preparation. Smaller boats should be put on their trailer and taken inland, but try not to park them under trees that might be blown over or lose large limbs. If you take your boat home, you may want to leave it, and not your car, in the garage. A boat is lighter and more vulnerable to high winds than a car. Boats on lifts are particularly vulnerable and should be taken ashore. Move your trailerable boat early; roads may be traffic-choked in anticipation of the storm. If your boat will be well away from potential flooding, leave the drain plug out and use a cover if you have one (see sidebar).
Boats normally kept in their slip should be hauled out if possible; BoatUS Marine Insurance will pay 50 percent of the cost of a haul-out during a tropical storm warning or watch, up to $1,000. Over the years, the BoatUS Hurricane Catastrophe Team has found that boats stored ashore usually fare much better during a storm than those kept in the water. Even if your boat survives the storm in its slip, it could easily be damaged or destroyed by a neighbor's boat that breaks loose due to poor preparation. If your boat is going to stay in the water, you'll need to have a plan to tie it securely, using extra lines that can be led to the next dock so the lines won't be too tight when the water rises.
Some marinas have begun to haul out boats and use straps embedded in concrete to tie them down, with good results, though the boats must still be stripped of anything removable that increases windage. Pay particular attention to the area's potential for exposure to the storm. A marina with no protection from the storm's winds and waves is going to suffer much greater damage than one that's tucked away. If you're not comfortable with the location, move your boat.
When To Batten Down
As Superstorm Sandy demonstrated, forecasts don't always get it right far enough in advance to allow for much in the way of preparation. By the time the forecast has moved from probable to near-certain, securing the house, gathering emergency provisions, and even evacuating the area will all have priority. Even a hurricane watch, issued when there is a possibility of hurricane-force winds, comes out only 48 hours in advance of tropical storm-force winds. That's not enough time to move your boat to a new location unless you have everything organized well in advance. The best advice is to follow your tropical-storm plan when a storm is a substantial possibility, even before a watch is issued. If you wait too long, bridges may be locked down, preventing you from moving your boat, and your marina may already be too busy to haul your boat. It's far better to prep your boat for a storm that misses the area than to watch helplessly as the one that should have turned makes a beeline for your unprepared boat.
— Published: August/September 2014
The best ways to help you prepare your boat to survive a hurricane
Superstorm Sandy taught us that boats stood a higher chance of surviving if prepared for the storm surge
BoatUS's CAT team takes on its biggest challenge ever, accessing marine insurance claims in the aftermath
Lessons From Sandy
In 2012, Superstorm Sandy reminded all of us that surge can cause at least as much damage as wind. Sandy's surge, which exceeded 10 feet in the hardest hit areas, overwhelmed the infrastructure at hundreds of marinas, floating docks off pilings, destroying fixed docks, and carrying away boats on the hard. It would be easy to conclude that nothing could have prevented the devastation. But boats stood a much higher chance of surviving where boat owners prepared for the surge, and hauled-out boats that were damaged due to the high water suffered significantly less damage than those that remained in the water and floated off with their docks. To know what you're up against, you need to have a good idea of how high the surge will be. In the past, this was mostly guesswork, but now there is a new tool from the National Weather Service (NWS) that can help predict the surge based on your location. The NWS will issue storm-surge prediction maps at around the same time as an initial hurricane watch or, in some cases, a tropical storm watch. These maps will be based on the latest forecast track and intensity for the tropical cyclone and take into account likely forecast errors. They can be thought of as representing a reasonable worst-case scenario for any given location, which can give you advance notice to help you take the appropriate steps to protect your boat.
Drain Plugs In? Or Out?
In the fall of 2012, many boats had already been winterized when Superstorm Sandy came calling. Most of those boats ended up as total losses — because the drain plugs were out. The surge filled the boats with saltwater and sank them on land, destroying the engines in the process. Dante Grover at Al Grover's High and Dry marina in Freeport, New York, had already winterized some of the boats when he saw Sandy coming. But for those that hadn't been winterized, he decided to leave drain plugs in, make sure bilge pumps were working, add extra bilge pumps, and top off batteries. All of the boats floated off their jackstands or dry stacks, but the boats with drain plugs out were almost all destroyed, while those with drain plugs in were not inundated by the surge and most survived.
Normally, we'd recommend leaving the drain plug out during a storm so that heavy rainwater can drain, but if the possibility of an exceptionally high surge exists and your boat is covered, you may want to leave it in, so water doesn't flow back in. One alternative is a one-way drain plug (such as the CR Marine Automatic Drain Plug). That way, water can drain out of the boat but the plug won't allow water in. One downside to these plugs is that they clog easily, so make sure there's no debris in the boat that could jam in the plug.
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Aflatoxins are a type of mycotoxin—a fungi-produced toxin that can afflict crops—that are common and problematic in developing countries, where climate conditions are ideal for the growth and spread of fungi. (See "About Aflatoxin" for more details.) Since aflatoxin contamination can be reduced by controlling the level of humidity in grain and storage facilities, a number of aflatoxin-related studies have developed and tested various storage techniques across Africa.
The scope of these techniques varies greatly, and adaptation differs greatly between medium- and small-scale producers. Observations from studies conducted by ACDI/VOCA in Kenya suggest that small-scale and poor producers are the least likely to adopt technologies since they lack the necessary resources, and, thus, they are the group most susceptible to aflatoxin exposure.
In 2008, the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) partnered with the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), the International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), ACDI-VOCA, the University of Pittsburgh, the U.S. Uniformed Health Service, Institut d’Economie Rurale (IER), and Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) to investigate methods of reducing aflatoxins in Africa’s agricultural crops, particularly maize and groundnuts, by addressing the related challenges and opportunities that poor farmers currently face. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation kindly agreed to provide funding for this research project: "Exploring the scope of cost-effective aflatoxin risk reduction strategies in maize and groundnut value chains to improve market access of the poor in Africa."
The purpose of this project is to provide empirical evidence of the cost-effectiveness of developing-country technologies currently used to reduce the risk of human and animal exposure to aflatoxin contamination and to understand what is preventing these technologies from being adopted as control strategies in Africa. With this evidence and understanding, it is expected that identified cost-effective measures will be implemented, thereby clearing a path for farmers to produce aflatoxin-free crops and improving market access for poor farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. The case studies of interest are groundnut and maize value chains in Mali and Kenya.
The project value for smallholders is twofold: They will benefit economically because they conduct trade in local markets, as well as physically because they consume most of what they grow so, therefore, their health will improve once they begin to produce uncontaminated crops.
To read the specific project goals, please see click on the "Objectives" tab. | <urn:uuid:0970d997-0f43-4765-8a88-60b04365d652> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://programs.ifpri.org/afla/afla.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00090-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923513 | 539 | 3.34375 | 3 |
It's five years before your child trots off to college. That may not seem like much time to maneuver your finances, but there's actually a lot you can do to better position yourself to pay for tuition, room and board, fees, and books.
But you have to do some homework—and make sure you involve your children in the planning process, as they will likely be responsible for at least some of the costs down the road. Before your child starts touring college campuses, make sure you research the financial aid system and the costs of college and that you understand your loan options. Also, it's important to make sure you save adequately and invest properly during the remaining years between now and when your child sets off for college.
"The most important step for preparing for college for both parents and students is to start saving money," said Andrew Schrage, co-owner of Money Crashers, a popular personal finance Web site. "If possible, start saving even earlier than five years before entering college."
Here are five steps you can take before your child starts college.
1. Finesse financial aid.
With the cost of a college education increasing at a rate of 3.5% for the 2013–14 school year,1 it's more important than ever to understand the financial-aid process and how to potentially improve your eligibility.
In particular, the federal government program Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA), which is used by many families to apply for aid, has some factors that you may use to your advantage a few years before your child enters college.
FAFSA calculates your expected family contribution, or EFC, as the amount of money that the parents and student together should pay toward college expenses, based on the cost of attending a particular school. The higher the EFC, the less financial aid you can expect to receive, and vice versa. But keep in mind that it is up to the school to distribute financial aid for each student as it sees fit. Just because you receive a low EFC doesn’t mean that you will have to pay only that amount toward college.
Here's an example of a hypothetical expected family contribution calculation:2
As this example shows, when there are two students in college at the same time, the entering student has a lower EFC than if there were only one student in college. You can also see that student assets/income are taken into consideration to help pay for college.
"Paying down all credit card debt and other consumer debt will reduce assets and improve chances of more federal financial aid," said Schrage. "Assets in the student's name count more than those in the parents' name when determining the Expected Family Contribution, which will reduce the amount of aid available."
Consider spending down custodial accounts in the child's name, and consider adding any surplus monies to retirement accounts in the parents’ name, thus improving a family's chances for more federal financial aid, because these accounts aren't taken into account for the EFC.
Understand college costs
It's important for families to understand the true college costs that they will face (Read Viewpoints: "How much college can you afford?"). The average annual total for tuition, fees, and room and board for an in-state public four year college was $23,410 for the 2014–15 tuition year. The average total for tuition, fees, and room and board for a private four-year college was $46,272 for the 2014–15 tuition year.3
A recent Fidelity study on families' preparedness for college found that, on average, families intend to pay 65% of their children's college costs.4
In reality, few families pay the full sticker price for college. In view of this, colleges have been required to provide a “net price calculator” on their Web sites to provide a rough estimate of what the costs for prospective students are, after grants, financial aid, and certain expenses are taken into account.
"Fidelity suggests performing a dry run with the College Board EFC calculator—even five years before you complete your first FAFSA application—in order to obtain a ballpark EFC figure and get a sense of what family financial data is required to participate in the financial-aid evaluation process," says Steve Devaney, CFP®, a director of financial solutions with Strategic Advisers, Inc., at Fidelity Investments. Then, once you're closer to deciding on which schools to apply for, use the college’s net price calculator.
2. Get familiar with grants, scholarships, and loans.
Your financial-aid award may consist of a combination of grants and scholarships (money you don't have to pay back) and loans (which must be paid back). As the chart below shows, the largest piece of undergraduate aid (40%) comes from federal loans, consisting mainly of two loan types—Stafford loans (subsidized and unsubsidized) and PLUS loans. The average undergraduate aid per full-time equivalent student totaled $13,380 in the 2013–14 school year, including $8,082 in grant aid from all sources, and $4,840 in federal loans.5
Federal Pell grants—up to a maximum of $5,730 for 2014-15 academic year—are awarded based on financial need, as determined through the FAFSA. Colleges and universities award grants based on financial need, merit, or both. State grants vary in amount and are usually need-based awards. Private grants are based on a variety of factors, including background, associations, achievements, interests, and need.
Awarded by the federal government, institutions, states, and private sources, scholarships may be based on different factors such as merit, need, diversity, interests, or cultural background, to name a few.
It is a good idea to research the different types of grants and scholarships available to your child or loved one, to make sure you're utilizing any source of funds you don't have to pay back. To look for scholarships, search fastweb.com and finaid.org.
While your student may or may not qualify for grants or scholarships, there are a variety of loans available to help foot looming tuition bills. Read the Viewpoints Student loan guide for a broad description of what is available.
Probably the most attractive loans are subsidized Stafford loans. These are federal government loans available to any student who meets the FAFSA eligibility requirement and who typically has an unmet financial need after Pell grants and other financial aid are factored in. Typically, they are offered at set amounts for each school year—from $5,500 for the first year up to $7,500 in the third year and beyond—with a lifetime limit of $31,000.
Also to be considered are unsubsidized Stafford loans and private education loans, which you may apply for regardless of financial need. With unsubsidized Stafford loans, the interest on the loan begins accruing immediately. However, the student may defer payments until six months after he or she leaves school.
Parents may borrow for college through PLUS loans, which allow you to defer repayment until six months after the student leaves school, although the interest begins to accrue as soon as the loan is dispersed. Borrowing limits are high, so parents with good credit histories may borrow up to the full cost of the student's education, less any aid the student has received.
3. Revisit how you've invested your child's college savings.
As you prepare for college, take a good look at the investment portfolio within your college savings, and make sure it still makes sense. After all, your savings goals are beginning to shift from growing your savings to getting ready to use them to pay your college bill. In fact, many people don't understand the need to reduce the proportion of their equity investments—and thus their risk—in their college savings portfolio as college approaches.
"As college gets closer, it’s important to review your investments and consider shifting to a less aggressive mix than perhaps seemed reasonable 10 years before college," says Keith Bernhardt, vice president of college planning at Fidelity Investments. "Big swings in savings due to market volatility can be disruptive to your plans, while going too conservative may not give you the opportunity to keep pace with tuition inflation. An age-based investment strategy, such as the age-based investment portfolios in the Fidelity-managed 529 college savings plans, takes this into account by investing in an appropriate mix of assets based on when the student is expecting to enter college. Investments in these portfolios shift from equity to fixed income as the college-entry date gets closer."
Professional portfolio managers handle the asset allocation based on the target date of when the student is expected to begin college. As the portfolio approaches the target date, the allocation shifts over time to reach 20% equities, 50% bonds, and 30% short-term investments within a few years of when the child enters college. The chart below shows how the Fidelity-managed 529 college savings plans manage risk over time.
The federal income-tax-free advantage granted to 529 college savings plans for qualified distributions can be significant. Distributions from 529 college savings plans can be used to pay for qualified higher education expenses (tuition, fees, books, supplies, and equipment required for enrollment at accredited institutions). In addition, the distribution may also be used toward room and board, so long as the beneficiary of the plan is attending the school at least half-time.
A 529 college savings plan may offer added estate planning benefits as well. “Any contributions made to a 529 college savings plan are considered ‘completed gifts’ for estate tax purposes, so they come out of your taxable estate, even though the account remains under your control,” Bernhardt says.
Most 529 college savings plans have lifetime contribution limits of $275,000 or more per beneficiary, and age limits on contributions or withdrawals. You are typically allowed to give an individual up to $14,000 a year ($28,000 per married couple filing jointly) and stay within annual gift tax exclusions, but with a 529 college savings plan, the gift amount can potentially be much higher. For example, you could give $70,000 per beneficiary (or $140,000 per married couple filing jointly) in a single year and treat it as though you were giving that lump sum over a five-year period. This approach can help an investor potentially make very large 529 plan contributions in a short period of time without exceeding gift tax exclusions. Of course, additional contributions to the plan during those same five years would result in going over the gift tax exclusions and result in additional tax filing work.6
But, say you are risk averse and don't want to invest in equities. "You might consider purchasing U.S. savings bonds, which would earn more than cash over five years," Devaney says. Not only are savings bonds safe (they are backed by the U.S. government), but you and a spouse can each purchase up to $30,000 of certain types of bonds and defer federal taxes on any interest earned until you redeem the bonds. Depending on your income, you may be able to exclude the interest from your federal taxes if you use the bonds for qualified educational purposes. Talk to your tax adviser for the best approach for your unique situation.
Also, it’s important to keep in mind that your education savings plan is just that—a savings plan. No matter how much you tweak the investments within your 529 plan, it all comes down to how much savings go into your plan. You may want to revisit your goals as your situation evolves. Look at the schools you and your child are considering, and make sure you’re saving enough to pay for them.
4. Research colleges together.
Some of the greatest missed opportunities begin by not having the right conversations between you and your child when you start planning for college. The Fidelity College Savings Indicator study7 found that 69% of families with older children (age 15+) who had these conversations took action to address how those issues would affect earning potential, job prospects, and future student loan debt. Below is a list of suggested topics parent should have with their college-bound children.
Having conversations with your child about which school he or she would like to attend, the child’s interests, and what you are willing to contribute, are good starting points. Colleges and universities may be pretty strategic about awarding financial aid, so if it is determined that you do qualify for financial aid, you may be eligible for a better package if your child has a background or interests that match a particular school's criteria. Here's where doing college research several years out may be beneficial. If you know what studies, sports, arts groups, or extracurricular activities your college of choice deems attractive, your child may want to start engaging in those same studies and activities in high school in order to potentially garner a better financial-aid package.
“If families commit to saving, planning, and talking about college priorities early, they are better prepared to meet college costs and help their children avoid significant student debt in the future,” said Bernhardt.
5. Consider working with a trusted adviser.
“The best strategy to take here is to consult with a financial adviser before making any financial moves, in order to maximize the amount of federal financial aid, especially if your assets are significant,” said Schrage.
An expert adviser can help you evaluate your family's income, assets, and liabilities, and suggest actions that may allow you to enhance your financial-aid eligibility. For example, having sufficient life insurance and disability insurance to help provide income to cover school and living expenses in the event of an illness or accident can be an enormous help, both for the child and for the parents.
These discussions are more successful when they are conducted well in advance of your child's financial-aid application deadline. This way, there is plenty of time to consider your adviser's suggestions and take appropriate action.
But be careful when selecting college planning advisers, and also keep a look out for financial aid scams and fraud. Make sure that the college adviser has you and your child’s interests in mind, and not the adviser’s own. For a list of professional organizations, see FinAid.org.
"Paying for college is such a balancing act, trying to make your savings, taxes, income, and financial aid work to your advantage," Devaney says. So it helps to work with advisers with college planning expertise, who may be able to help you avoid any potential pitfalls. | <urn:uuid:4ff0f50f-d530-42e9-b4e3-c49443dd5257> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.fidelity.com/viewpoints/personal-finance/get-ready-for-college | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00102-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965919 | 3,015 | 3.0625 | 3 |
In Death Valley, California, history has been repeating itself. In 2005, this desert valley—the lowest, driest spot in North America—received 4 times its average annual rainfall of 1.5 inches. As it has done at several times for thousands of years, the lowest spot in the valley filled with a wide, shallow lake, but the extreme heat and aridity immediately began sucking the ephemeral lake dry.
This pair of images from NASA’s Landsat 5 satellite documents the short history of Death Valley’s Lake Badwater: formed in February 2005 (top) and long gone by February 2007 (bottom). In 2005, a large pool of greenish water stretched most of the way across the valley floor. By May of 2005 the valley floor had resumed its more familiar role as a salt-coated playa. In time, this freshly dissolved and re-crystalized salt will darken.
The western margin of Death Valley is traced by alluvial fans. During flash floods, rainfall from the steep mountains to the west races with incredible speed and power through narrow canyons, picking up everything from fine clay to large rocks. When these torrents reach the mouths of the canyons in Death Valley, they widen and slow, branching out into braided streams. The paler the fans, the younger they are.
During the Pleistocene ice age, which ended roughly 10,000-12,000 years ago, the Sierra Nevada ranges were much wetter. During that time, Death Valley was filled with a huge lake, called Glacial Lake Manly, that was nearly 100 miles long and 600 feet deep.
- U.S. Geological Survey. (2004). The Work of Water, Alluvial Fans. Geology of Death Valley National Park Website. Accessed March 13, 2009.
- U.S. Geological Survey. (2004). Badwater. Death Valley Geology Field Trip Website. Accessed March 12, 2009.
- U.S. Geological Survey. (2004). Shoreline Butte: Ice Age Death Valley. Death Valley Geology Field Trip Website. Accessed March 12, 2009.
- Landsat 5 - TM | <urn:uuid:8be81062-8d84-4cd4-9af9-108a159f44b6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=37536&src=eoa | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00200-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94099 | 447 | 3.6875 | 4 |
Eosinophilic esophagitis is an allergic condition that happens in the esophagus. The esophagus becomes inflamed and does not contract properly. It can get narrowed and develop rings or abscesses. The symptoms happen when your immune system makes white blood cells in reaction to an allergen. The white blood cells are called eosinophils.
The condition is called eosinophilic esophagitis, or EE or EoE. It can happen at any age and is commonly seen in white males.
EoE is caused by an allergic reaction to certain foods or environmental allergens.
Symptoms of EoE vary from person to person and may include:
Food getting stuck in the throat due to narrowing (this is a medical emergency)
Stunted growth or poor weight gain in children
People with atopic dermatitis, asthma, or food or environmental allergies have a much greater chance of developing EoE it. Some other conditions can cause eosinophils to increase in number in the esophagus. Your healthcare provider will need to evaluate you for these possible conditions. Family history of EoE is also a risk factor for the condition.
Your healthcare provider will take your medical history and will likely want to test you for allergies. He or she will probably request an endoscopy by a gastroenterologist, a specialist in digestive (stomach and swallowing) disorders. This is an outpatient procedure that involves passing a thin, flexible endoscope with a camera through your mouth and down your throat to look at your esophagus. The gastroenterologist will check for physical signs of inflammation and an increased number of eosinophils. To confirm the diagnosis, your gastroenterologist will likely need to take a biopsy, or tissue sample, from your esophagus.
For treatment, you will need to work closely with an allergist and/or a gastroenterologist. They’ll help you figure out what substances or foods to avoid. No specific medicines can cure EoE, although certain medicines, such as corticosteroids and proton pump inhibitors, and eliminating specific foods—diary, egg, wheat, soy, peanut, tree nuts, and fish—from your diet can help reduce the redness and swelling in your esophagus.
You can help manage EoE by learning what substances cause your allergic reaction and avoiding them. In many cases, the allergens come from food. It’s also important to know that reactions related to EoE might take days or weeks to develop. Keep this in mind when beginning a food elimination plan. It might take some time after avoiding a particular food to determine whether that strategy worked.
Sometimes the esophagus needs to be dilated (stretched) if it has narrowed.
The long-term complications of EoE are not clearly understood. If left untreated, symptoms will continue and damage to the esophagus causing narrowing may happen.
Call 911 if you have:
Food stuck in your throat
Difficulty breathing or talking
When to call the healthcare provider
Call your healthcare provider if you have EoE and notice any of these symptoms:
Increasing weight loss
Increase in vomiting
Living with EoE
EoE is a life-long condition. Management includes avoiding the foods or allergens that cause the allergic reaction. It is important to work with your allergen and gastroenterologist to develop a management plan that works best for you. It can take patience to identify and then remove allergens from your diet. However, your quality of life will improve as your management plan progresses. | <urn:uuid:cc108abd-98a6-42af-b08c-bb9e7c1ac987> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://healthcare.utah.edu/healthlibrary/related/doc.php?type=134&id=168 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922753 | 753 | 3.5625 | 4 |
Track 1: Community empowerment
7th Global Conference on Health Promotion: Track themes
Community empowerment refers to the process of enabling communities to increase control over their lives. "Communities" are groups of people that may or may not be spatially connected, but who share common interests, concerns or identities. These communities could be local, national or international, with specific or broad interests. 'Empowerment' refers to the process by which people gain control over the factors and decisions that shape their lives. It is the process by which they increase their assets and attributes and build capacities to gain access, partners, networks and/or a voice, in order to gain control. "Enabling" implies that people cannot "be empowered" by others; they can only empower themselves by acquiring more of power's different forms (Laverack, 2008). It assumes that people are their own assets, and the role of the external agent is to catalyse, facilitate or "accompany" the community in acquiring power.
Community empowerment, therefore, is more than the involvement, participation or engagement of communities. It implies community ownership and action that explicitly aims at social and political change. Community empowerment is a process of re-negotiating power in order to gain more control. It recognizes that if some people are going to be empowered, then others will be sharing their existing power and giving some of it up (Baum, 2008). Power is a central concept in community empowerment and health promotion invariably operates within the arena of a power struggle.
Community empowerment necessarily addresses the social, cultural, political and economic determinants that underpin health, and seeks to build partnerships with other sectors in finding solutions.
Globalization adds another dimension to the process of community empowerment. In today’s world, the local and global are inextricably linked. Action on one cannot ignore the influence of or impact on the other. Community empowerment recognizes and strategically acts upon this inter-linkage and ensures that power is shared at both local and global levels.
Communication plays a vital role in ensuring community empowerment. Participatory approaches in communication that encourage discussion and debate result in increased knowledge and awareness, and a higher level of critical thinking. Critical thinking enables communities to understand the interplay of forces operating on their lives, and helps them take their own decisions.
This track of the conference will focus on the conceptual and practical issues in building empowered communities. Through examples and case studies it will analyse how successful partnerships with communities can be forged even in the environment of vertical health programming. It will examine how empowerment oriented health promotion can be practiced both in local and global settings.
Community empowerment in action: Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA)
1. Labonté R. and Laverack G. (2008) Health promotion in action: from local to global empowerment
2. Baum, F. (2008) Foreword to Health promotion in action: from local to global empowerment
3. Waisbord S. (2005) Five key ideas: coincidences and challenges in development communication, in Hemer, O. and Tufte, T. (eds) Media and Glocal Change: Rethinking Communication for Development, Nordicom and CLASCO
4. Concept of 'Accompaniment' taken from the Malaria Community Competence methodology www.malariacompetence.org | <urn:uuid:119f2695-58fe-4d57-a145-048ca17fc901> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.who.int/healthpromotion/conferences/7gchp/track1/en/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00199-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.926961 | 692 | 2.875 | 3 |
As an instructor, you have a lot of material to cover and can’t always take precious class time to teach skills that aren’t directly related to your course content, such as proper formats for research papers or how to develop a presentation.
Atomic Learning and other resources available to University of Alaska staff, faculty and students can help. Atomic Learning itself has more than 1,000 how-to videos, usually two to three minutes in length, that can help students learn new strategies or brush up on skills they already have.
One easy method to get this training in the hands of your students is to include a link to Atomic Learning in your course syllabus: http://atomic.alaska.edu.
–Teaching Tip by Heidi Olson, instructional designer, UAF eLearning and Distance Education | <urn:uuid:86bf3951-d714-47dc-98dd-79098013e043> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://uafcornerstone.net/teaching-tip-online-resources-save-class-time/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00046-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930981 | 165 | 2.578125 | 3 |
1 archaic Listen: he refused to hearken to Tom’s words of wisdom
Más ejemplos en oraciones
- The Torah tells us listen, hear, and hearken on whichever level you are able.
- Basically, the manufacturers are accusing the Government of not hearkening to their submissions, which they say would have done a lot to reduce their production costs.
- At last, the Hebrews have hearkened unto that voice in the wilderness, that great prophet who came down off the mountain.
2 (hearken back to) another way of saying hark back to (see hark).
Oraciones de ejemplo
- But, that - I was not surprised at the initial Soviet response that is - sort of hearkens back to the Cold War days when they tried to deny at first that it happened and then try to cover it up.
- Taylor's funk-influenced style hearkens back to the days when Motown was pounding out hit after soulful hit, without relying on sentimentalism or retro-chic.
- Given the fact that most of this paraphernalia hearkens back to movies of yore, only a modern projection screen, like the ones in Vic's lecture theatres, seems out of place.
Palabras que riman con hearkenAachen, darken, kraken, Marcan, Petrarchan
For editors and proofreaders
Saltos de línea: heark¦en
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= de moda | <urn:uuid:97ee1aef-d90e-4997-9c83-28ccd43c7c13> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/es/definicion/ingles/hearken | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00133-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.72934 | 406 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Guest Author - Preena Deepak
Diwali also pronounced Deepavali means ‘row of lights’ and is the only Indian Festival that is celebrated across the country with exhaustive preparation and much gaiety. The whole festival spans over five days and the third day is celebrated as Diwali and is declared a public holiday in India. Diwali has roots in both religion and culture and is a commemoration of the triumph of good over evil.
Each year Diwali falls on a different date which is determined according to the position of the moon. Diwali is a religious festival mainly associated with Hinduism and has been celebrated for ages in India.
Legends of Diwali
Diwali is a celebration of light and dispelling darkness is one chief highlight of the festival. To symbolically represent this, tiny clay diyas lighted with cotton wicks and candles are placed in Indian homes. Crackers and fireworks to mark Diwali celebrations also emphasize this tradition.
Playing cards is the other legend associated with Diwali. It is popularly believed that the goddess of wealth smiles and brings good luck through the year ahead for all who gamble on Diwali.
Diwali Celebrations in India
Indians get on their toes several weeks ahead of Diwali and prepare to celebrate. Kitchens get busy making mouth watering Diwali sweets and savories, shopping malls are crowded with people buying clothes and gifts for family and friends and special stalls are put up in every nook and corner to sell firecrackers of sorts.
Diwali in Other Indian Religions
Incidentally, Diwali is the only Indian festival that is celebrated by all the four main Indian religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism. The reason for celebration differs for each religion.
Hindus celebrate Diwali as a festival of knowledge, hope and good times. Diwali signifies the birth of a new year and is believed to be an auspicious day to start a new business or venture.
The connotation varies in Buddhism, where Diwali is a day that marks the conversion of the noted Indian Emperor, Ashoka to Buddhism.
On the other hand, observance of Diwali by Sikhs is to remember the return of the sixth Sikh Guru, Guru Har Govindji from captivity.
Jains in India celebrate Diwali as they believe it to be the day when their main prophet, Mahavira attained ‘nirvana’.
Diwali holds the distinction of being the most important Indian festival and no other celebration binds Indians together like this grand festival of lights.
Here is a delightful book on Diwali for further reading.
Buy Diwali from Flipkart.com
Why not try out new recipes to celebrate this Diwali? Buy a cook book and celebrate!
Buy Diwali Cookbook Veg. from Flipkart.com | <urn:uuid:aa9fa0a1-1c7a-4291-b057-43025577083f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art173572.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00163-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933527 | 608 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Researchers have characterised a new multi drug resistant strain of Salmonella Typhimurium that is causing life-threatening disease in Africa.
This type of Salmonella bug normally causes diarrhoea and is rarely fatal. The new strain infects vulnerable children and adults in many regions of sub-Saharan Africa leading to death in up to one in four cases.
The new genome work, a collaboration between the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, the Malawi-Liverpool-Wellcome Trust Clinical Research Programme and the Kemri-Wellcome Trust Programme, shows how genetic changes transformed this infection into a new antibiotic-resistant form of the disease. The new strain, called ST313, appears to be better adapted to affect humans, is resistant to several commonly used antibiotics and may spread from person to person.
The severe effects of ST313 - invasive disease and high mortality rates - are seen predominantly in individuals with the immune compromising conditions, HIV, malaria, malnutrition or anaemia. Until today, it had been widely assumed that this wasn't a new deadly form of the organism but, rather, that the existing diarrhoea-causing strain of the pathogen was taking advantage of the weakened immune system of patients with underlying health problems to cause a more severe disease.
Today's results paint a truer picture
"Multi-drug resistant forms of this deadly type of S. Typhimurium emerged only in the last decade," explains Dr Robert Kingsley from the Sanger Institute and lead author on the paper. "It seems to have evolved to acquire a unique armoury that allows it to efficiently infect vulnerable children and adults in some African regions. The results highlight the power of in-depth genome sequence analysis to challenge basic medical assumptions and distinguish closely related pathogens.
"This is a new form of pathogen."
The team studied approximately 50 samples of the bacterial DNA, extracted from blood samples of African patients with severe symptoms of infection and also suffering HIV, malaria, malnutrition or anaemia. They used these samples to produce a high-quality reference genome sequence. Based on this sequence, the team were able to look in fine detail at the genetic differences between ST313 and strains associated with milder disease symptoms across the globe.
"This work was entirely dependent on close collaboration that brings important samples collected over years together with genomic technology that can pick apart the important changes," says Professor Rob Heyderman, Director of the Malawi-Liverpool-Wellcome Trust, Clinical Research Programme. "This work is a great example of such cooperation: now we must build the capacity to expand this kind of research in affected countries."
"When we started looking in detail at our newly completed reference genome sequence, we saw the genetic signatures that suggested it may be adapting to humans," explains Dr Robert Kingsley. "For example, this deadly strain has lost around one in 50 of the genes found in the 'typical' S. Typhimurium - a classic sign that it may be becoming more closely adapted to one host, in this case, humans.
"We also found similar patterns of genome degradation in ST313 compared S. Typhi - a bacterium which is known to be well adapted to its human host."
Six out of ten of the regions that showed degradation in the invasive ST313 are also degraded in S. Typhi, suggesting that the genomes have converged in their ability to thrive in the human host. This theory is bolstered by the finding that eroded areas of the genome tend to play important roles in the intimate interaction with cells of the human host.
The team's findings suggest that ST313 may be spreading by a new method, not seen before in S. Typhimurium. This pathogen normally circulates among animals and is introduced to humans through food poisoning. It spends much of its time in the animal hosts. However, ST313 may be passing predominantly from person to person and so can adapt more rapidly to its human hosts: it doesn't spend time acquiring mutations to help it thrive in the animal host, but on the contrary may be losing them. This is likely to have helped seal its success and helped it to become the dominant strain among humans.
Multi drug resistant ST313 has swept through humans in remarkable fashion: in an 18-month period beginning in 2002, it came to represent 95 per cent of S. Typhimurium isolates identified in Africa. However, antibiotic-sensitive versions of the same strain may have been evolving in regions of Africa for many decades.
"This new strain of S. Typhimurium has rapidly gained resistance to many of the commonly used antibiotics in the field," explains Dr Chisomo Msefula from the Malawi-Liverpool-Wellcome Trust Clinical Research Programme. "Our findings show that ST313 has acquired a block of genes that make it resistant to the common antibiotics. The genes jumped into ST313 on a mobile genetic element called a transposon, bringing with it additional genes that make the strain more deadly."
"Even when treated using drugs against which the bacterium has not gained resistance, the mortality rate remains staggeringly high, at 25 per cent."
The team hope that the new sequence will open the door for future studies of disease important to populations in Africa
"There are more than 2500 different strains of Salmonella," explains Professor Gordon Dougan from the Sanger Institute and senior author on the paper. "The emergence and rise to dominance of ST313 in Africa is associated with uniquely susceptible host populations: we must be on our guard against the emergence of new pathogens in a rapidly changing world. This isn't simply a story about HIV infection: There is little evidence that this type of disease is a problem in other areas of the world where HIV and malaria infection rates are high, such as southeast Asia.
"If we can understand what's special about the types of Typhimurium that emerge and susceptible populations, we might be able to predict in future where new pathogens will emerge. We may also be able to design vaccines against those pathogens."
Two ST313 isolates in available databases come from outside Africa - one from India and one from the UK. Strikingly, both were from severe invasive disease. Invasive cases are very, very rare outside certain regions of Africa. The researchers don't know whether the additional cases were from travellers to Africa or know the immune status of the patients.
Tracking the transmission pathways and the emergence of new strains can most effectively be done using new sequencing technologies to spot the tiny differences - single letter changes - in the genetic code. The completion of this new high-quality S. Typhimurium reference genome for the emergent ST313 strain opens the door for such investigations in the future.
Notes to Editors
Kingsley RA et al. (2009) Epidemic multiple drug resistant Salmonella Typhimurium causing invasive disease in sub-Saharan Africa have a distinct genotype. Genome Research.
This work was supported by The Wellcome Trust and the Scientific Foundation of Ireland.
- The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge, CB10 1SA, United Kingdom
- Malawi-Liverpool-Wellcome Trust Clinical Research Programme, University of Malawi College of Medicine, Blantyre, Malawi
- Centre for Microbiology Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
- Department of Molecular Biology, Max-Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
- Kenya Medical Research Institute-Wellcome Trust Collaborative Project, Kilifi, Kenya
- Environmental Research Institute and Department of Microbiology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- Department of Bacteriology, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
- Medical Research Council Centre for Immune Regulation, Institute of Biomedical Research, The Medical School, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom
The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, which receives the majority of its funding from the Wellcome Trust, was founded in 1992. The Institute is responsible for the completion of the sequence of approximately one-third of the human genome as well as genomes of model organisms and more than 90 pathogen genomes. In October 2006, new funding was awarded by the Wellcome Trust to exploit the wealth of genome data now available to answer important questions about health and disease.
The Malawi-Liverpool-Wellcome Trust Programme is a leading laboratory-based health research institution led by Malawian and international Scientists in partnership with the University of Malawi College of Medicine. MLW conducts internationally competitive research aimed at improving the health of people in Malawi and elsewhere in the Region. MLW hosts a comprehensive programme of professional development for the research leaders of the future.
The Wellcome Trust is the largest charity in the UK. It funds innovative biomedical research, in the UK and internationally, spending over £600 million each year to support the brightest scientists with the best ideas. The Wellcome Trust supports public debate about biomedical research and its impact on health and wellbeing.
Don Powell Press Officer
Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute
Hinxton, Cambridge, CB10 1SA, UK
Tel +44 (0)1223 496 928
Mobile +44 (0)7753 7753 97 | <urn:uuid:c6068765-e2de-49a8-b92e-9e0ebedf04f0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2009-11/wtsi-boe112709.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00179-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932213 | 1,887 | 3.265625 | 3 |
When the South Asia Development Marketplace for innovative ideas to tackle stigma and discrimination relating to HIV/AIDS was launched in November 2007 by the HIV/AIDS Group in the South Asia Region of the World Bank and its partners, civil society groups across South Asia sent in almost a thousand proposals.
People fear HIV/AIDS because of the association with sex, drugs, illness, and death. In South Asia, the epidemic is driven largely by high risk practices – buying and selling sex, injecting drugs, and unprotected sex among men having sex with men. This compounds the fear and stigma around HIV/AIDS, as sex workers, injecting drug users, and men having sex with men are already stigmatized.
Not only in South Asia, but around the globe, efforts to prevent new HIV infections and allowing people with HIV/AIDS to live without the burden of social exclusion are severely hampered by the persistence of stigma. One study in India shows that 36% percent of students, faculty and technical staff of the public health services felt it would be better if HIV-positive individuals killed themselves and believed that infected people deserved their fate; 34% would not associate with people with AIDS; 42% believed that those with HIV should be quarantined; and, 31% favored barring infected students from college classes (Ambati, Ambati & Rao, 1997).
But the problem goes beyond the personal impact on individuals and their families. By driving underground those most at risk of infection and those living with the virus, stigma and the resulting discrimination makes it difficult to provide preventive and treatment services that are needed to break HIV transmission (e.g., HIV testing, condoms, clinical treatment for sexually transmitted infections and HIV, and needle exchange for injecting drug users). This further fuels the epidemic.
For those living with HIV, stigma is a problem in three ways. First, if concern about social and professional rejection makes people fearful to learn their HIV status, efforts to offer testing will be less effective and they will continue to spread their virus unknowingly. Second, if those who know they are HIV positive fear stigma and rejection, they might refrain from using condoms with their regular partner – often their spouses – to avoid the risk that the partner will suspect that they are living with HIV. Third, positive mothers have been known to refrain from obtaining the health care they need because they fear that if neighbors learn that they are HIV positive their ability to continue to earn a living–or their children’s ability to continue in school and play with their friends – will be threatened.
Dealing with stigma is not easy, but what better way than to ask civil society groups for their ideas on how to do it, and then choosing the best ones in the marketplace of ideas. The winners of the Development Marketplace were announced in Mumbai on May 15, 2008. Twenty-six civil society organizations from across South Asia won grants of US$40,000 each to try out innovative ideas to reduce stigma and discrimination associated with HIV/AIDS. The well-known Indian actress and social activist Shabana Azmi presented the awards, noting that “this initiative is a small but very important step in the fight against stigma and discrimination.” The Marketplace was sponsored by the Government of Norway, the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, UNAIDS, UNICEF, and the World Bank and IFC.
For more information on the World Bank's fight against HIV and AIDS, please visit the World Bank HIV and AIDS website. | <urn:uuid:6cec2970-a61a-4166-b8d0-599cade0eb0f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://blogs.worldbank.org/endpovertyinsouthasia/marketplace-ideas-tackling-stigma-and-social-exclusion | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00022-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964236 | 698 | 3.28125 | 3 |
Analysis of Environmental and Oil Samples for Diesel Dye
Samples of diesel fuel oil and environmental soil and water samples can be analysed by ESG. for the presence of "Diesel Dye"
Fuel Theft Issues:
The Diesel Dye is added to the diesel fuel oil as a marker, turning it a blue colour. The diesel can be tested by ESG. to positively identify in fuel the presence of Diesel Dye, even when other dyes have been added to mask the blue colour, or where the fuel has been diluted to make the blue colour of Diesel Dye ambiguous. Thus enabling a covert application.
Fuel/Oil Leak Tracing:
When companies have issues with leaking fuel/oils into the environment, then fuel/oil tanks can be spiked with Diesel Dye. Subsequently, soil and/or water samples can be collected and analysed by ESG. to determine if any fuel/oil present also contains the Diesel Dye which could then help in ascertaining whether the leak originated from their fuel/oil tanks.
Where the sample to be analysed is soil or water, samples are extracted in dichloromethane, with the resultant extract reduced down to dryness using an automated evaporation unit, before being reclaimed in petroleum ether ready for solid phase extraction.
Where adequate free oil is present, or if the sample is purely a fuel or oil of some description, then a portion of the oil is dissolved in petroleum ether and vacuum filtered as outlined above, foregoing the dichloromethane extraction stage. A silica Solid Phase Extraction (SPE) tube is used to ‘catch’ any analyte dyes, whilst simultaneously allowing unwanted hydrocarbon material to be separated to waste.
Dyes held by the silica are recovered from the SPE tube by washing through with acetone, which is then reduced down to near-dryness under argon, and taken up in a known volume of methanol. The methanol extract is then transferred to a sample vial, ready for analysis. The extracted dyes are analysed by High Performance Liquid Chromatography, utilising Diode Array Detection (HPLC-DAD) which allows us to determine the presence of Diesel Dye in the provided samples.
A high detector wavelength was implemented to remove interference observed from diesel/fuel oils and additives, which would inhibit identification at lower wavelengths. A comparison Diesel Dye standard was prepared by making a dilution of a provided standard in methanol. This was analysed alongside the samples on the HPLC to allow for accurate identification, along with a methanol blank.
When extracted at a higher wavelength, the “fingerprint” chromatogram for Diesel Dye, i.e. the retention data for the set of compounds that make up the dye, along with the photodiode array output for each peak, is shown below: As well as for confirming the presence of the provided control blue Diesel Dye, by using slightly different extraction wavelengths, the method can be modified to I.D. “Sudan” fuel tax markers used to prevent tax evasion on rebated fuels in the UK. | <urn:uuid:f69bc50b-38ae-4e45-82c8-ba434b52171f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dieseldye.com/scientifics.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00106-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93996 | 648 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Economics and the Environment 6th Edition, provides a rigorous and comprehensive presentation of the "standard analysis," including the property-rights basis of environmental problems, efficient pollution control, benefit-estimation procedures, and incentive based procedures. This text examines a broad range of topics in environmental and natural resource economics. It presents in-depth treatment of important issues at the cutting edge of environmental policy debates. The focus is on equipping readers with the tools necessary to analyse current environmental issues as an economist would. Broader topics such as the ethical foundations of environmental economics, an introduction to ecological economics, a safety-based approach to controlling pollution, the economic critique of growth, the potential for government failure, the promotion of "clean technology," and opportunities for sustainable development in poor countries are all covered throughout the text.
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Rent Economics and the Environment 6th edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Eban S. Goodstein. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Wiley.
Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our Economics tutors now. | <urn:uuid:2a4a0b08-a179-4d1c-b55b-8c8e28091dcb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chegg.com/textbooks/economics-and-the-environment-6th-edition-9780470561096-0470561092 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.917934 | 238 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Contact: Sarah Eve Roberts
Nature's nasty side
Space Scoop: Astronomy News for Kids
This beautiful new photograph from one of the European Southern Observatory’s powerful telescopes in the Chilean desert shows a pair of galaxies slowly dancing around each other in space.
This beautiful new photograph from one of the European Southern Observatory's powerful telescopes in the Chilean desert shows a pair of galaxies slowly dancing around each other in space.
Like many things in nature, the large, glowing galaxy in the picture is beautiful, but dangerous. In fact, some scientists are referring to it as a 'galactic bully'.
When galaxies come close enough together, like these two, we call them 'interacting galaxies'. They aren't interacting they way you interact with your friends – the strong pull of each galaxy's gravity is pulling at the other galaxy.
But this isn't a fair tug-of-war. As you can see, one galaxy is much more massive than the other. This means it has stronger gravity, and eventually it will end this friendly game by devouring the smaller galaxy!
The galaxy dominating this picture is called NGC 1316, and there are several clues that this won't be the first time it has devoured another galaxy. For instance, it has some unusual lanes of cosmic dust crisscrossing near its centre and some clumps of unusually small star clusters. These suggest that it may have swallowed a different spiral galaxy about three billion years ago!
Cool Fact: As a bonus, this new picture also provides a window into the distant Universe, far beyond the interacting galaxies. Most of the faint fuzzy spots in the picture are very, very distant galaxies. | <urn:uuid:dcf30f63-d942-41aa-be63-da9c6dd52287> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/features/kids/2014-04/lu-nns033114.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00049-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925617 | 340 | 3.328125 | 3 |
The oceanographer of the Navy and director of the U.S. Navy's Task Force Climate Change discussed the national security implications of the changing global climate at the United Nations climate change summit in Copenhagen Dec. 16.
Formally known as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Conference of Parties 15 (COP-15), the summit, according to a statement on the convention's website, brings together negotiators, ministers, and world leaders as part of a unified international effort to combat climate change.
"The U.S. Navy is committed to addressing global climate change using a science-based approach," said Rear Adm. David Titley, oceanographer of the Navy and director of the U.S. Navy's Task Force Climate Change.
Titley said that the Navy views the implications of climate change in terms of near- and mid-term impacts, and wild card impacts that are not well-understood by science.
As examples of near term impacts, he described the decline in summer sea ice in the Arctic and the opportunity to build partnerships to adapt to the new environment. "In this context, climate change may be viewed as a 'common enemy' that will bring nations together towards a common end," Titley commented.
For mid-term implications, Titley said changes in temperature and precipitation patterns that may require greater humanitarian and disaster relief missions and that could affect naval infrastructure and force structure.
Wild cards include such concerns as the affects of ocean acidification on subsistence food sources for emerging coastal nations, and the impact of glacial ice sheet melting on the rate of rising sea levels. "Much research is needed to better understand these processes," Titley noted.
Titley described the Navy's response to climate change in terms of assessment and prediction, adaption, and mitigation.
For assessment, Titley focused on computer models and data collection. "Near-term efforts include development of a next generation coupled air-ocean-ice operational prediction system to better predict likely regional impacts the Navy may have to respond to over the next 30 to 50 years, and the deployment of a fleet of oceanographic sensors to contribute to national climate observation systems," he explained.
Adaption, according to Titley, includes increasing naval capabilities in the Arctic and "thoroughly assessing the vulnerability of coastal installations to sea level rise and inundation during storms."
Titley noted that the Navy's response to mitigating the effects of climate change include reducing its carbon footprint and increasing its reliance on alternative fuels. "We have a companion task force, Task Force Energy, which is leading our efforts in climate change mitigation," he said.
Titley emphasized that the Navy is focused on new partnerships, improvements in scientific observations and prediction, and rigorous risk-assessment for future investments. "Global climate change presents the U.S. Navy with both challenges and opportunities that we are addressing through Task Force Climate Change," he said. | <urn:uuid:5282546b-55c1-47de-adc7-e526f8593747> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.marinelink.com/news/article/oceanographer-of-the-navy-on-climate-change/332785.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947092 | 602 | 2.875 | 3 |
Bli först att betygsätta och recensera boken Lombard Street.
- Häftad (paperback)
- Språk: Engelska
- Antal sidor: 360
- Utg.datum: 1999-04-01
- Upplaga: 1
- Förlag: John Wiley & Sons Inc
- Medarbetare: Bernstein, Peter (ed.)
- Dimensioner: 217 x 142 x 24 mm
- Vikt: 480 g
- Antal komponenter: 1
- ISBN: 9780471345367
Recensioner i media
"...classic account of the money market...makes vivid reading" (Spectator Business, November 2008)
Bloggat om Lombard Street
WALTER BAGEHOT is one of the most celebrated finance writers ever. One of the most lucid and discerning critics of his time, Bagehot was editor of the highly regarded Economist. Widely acknowledged as an expert on banking and finance, he was frequently consulted by Parliament.
A General View of Lombard Street. How Lombard Street Came to Exist, and Why it Assumed Its Present Form. The Position of the Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Money Market. The Mode in Which the Value of Money is Settled in Lombard Street. Why Lombard Street is Often Very Dull, and Sometimes Extremely Excited. A More Exact Account of the Mode in Which the Bank of England has Discharged Its Duty of Retaining a Good Bank Reserve, and of Administering it Effectually. The Government of the Bank of England. The Joint Stock Banks. The Private Banks. The Bill-Brokers. The Principles Which Should Regulate the Amount of the Banking Reserve to be Kept by the Bank of England. Conclusion. Appendices. | <urn:uuid:d23c0a29-04a1-4ad3-a737-2481595edb78> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bokus.com/bok/9780471345367/lombard-street/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00062-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.745146 | 387 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Etymology.: "Malakia" means ‘the angel of God’.
Saint Malachy’s Biography
He was born in Armagh, Ireland, in 1094, in the O’Morgair family, according to Saint Bernard of Clairevaux. He was baptized by the name Maelmhaedhoc (Latinized as Malachy). He studied with Imhar O’Hagan and after that with Abbad Armagh. He was ordained as priest by Saint Cellach (Celsus) in 1119.
After his ordination, he continued his liturgical and theological studies at Lismore, San Malchus. In 1132 he was chosen abbot of Bangor and a year later he was consecrated bishop of Connor. In 1132, he was raised to the highest rank in Armagh. Saint Bernard says that Saint Malachy had a great eagerness for religion.
When Saint Cellach (Celsus) died, Saint Malachy was consecrated archbishop of Armagh in 1132, even though in his great lowliness it was hard for him to accept. The intrigues didn’t allow him to take charge of his responsibilities for two years. After three years he reestablished the ecclesiastical discipline in Armagh.
In 1139 he travelled to Rome, and on his way he visited Saint Bernard to Clairvaux. In Rome he was named Papal Legate of Ireland. Returning through Clairvaux he co-opted five monks in order to found in Ireland, in 1142, the Mellifont abbey.
During his second travel to Rome, Saint Malachy got sick as soon as he reached Clairvaux and died in the arms of Saint Bernard on the 2nd of November.
A lot of miracles are assigned to Saint Malachy, but the one for which he is more often mentioned is his gift for prophecies. Among these, the best known is the one regarding the Popes. He was canonized by Pope Clement III, on the 6th of July 1190. He is celebrated on the 3rd of November.
Saint Malachy’s Prophecies
About his own death
As Saint Bernard mentions, Saint Malachy accurately announced the day of his death (the 2nd of November) while he was with him at the abbey in Clairvaux.
He foresaw that Ireland, his country, will be oppressed and persecuted by England, that for seven centuries lots of misfortunes will happen there, but Ireland will keep its faith in God and in His Church against all tests. At the end of this period, it will be released and its oppressors will be punished. Catholic Ireland will play an essential role in England’s return to faith. It is said that this prophecy was copied by Dom Mabillon from an old manuscript at Clairvaux.
About the Popes
The most famous prophecy attributed to Saint Malachy is the one regarding the Popes. It consists of some ‘mottos‘ for each of the 112 Popes, from Celestine II, chosen in 1143, until the end of the world.
These ‘mottos’ that describe the Popes, can refer to a symbol of his country of origin, to his name, to his coat of arms, to one of his talents or to any other thing referring to the Pope. For example, the ‘motto’ assigned to Urban VIII is Lilium et Rosa; he was from Florence, Italy, and on the coat of arms of Florence appeared the Lily flower.
These prophecies were lost until the XVIth century, when they were published in the book ‘Lignum Vitae‘ of the Benedictine historian Arnold Wion. According to Abbot Cucherat (1871), Saint Malachy wrote the prophecy in Rome, between the years 1139 and 1140, while he was visiting Pope Innocent II in order to report him the problems of his diocese. Then, he handled this manuscript to the Pope in order to comfort him in his torments. The Pope kept the manuscript in the roman archives, where it remained forgotten until its discovery, in 1590 (Cucherat, ‘The Prophecy of the Popes succession’, chap. xv).
The Last Popes
• #101: ‘Crux de Cruce’ (Cross from Cross). Pius IX (1846-1878)
• #102: ‘Lumen in caelo’ (Light in the sky). Leon XIII (1878-1903).
• #103: ‘Ignis ardens’ (Burning fire). Pius X (1903-1914)
• #104: ‘Religio depopulata’ (Devastated religion). Benedict XV (1914-1922).
• #105: ‘Fides intrepida’ (Intrepid faith). Pius XI (1922 –1939).
• #106: ‘Pastor angelicus’ (Angelic shepherd). Pius XII (1939-1958).
Known as a great intellectual and peace defender.
• #107: ‘Pastor y nauta’ (Shepherd and sailor). John XXIII (1958-1963). John XIII was the Cardinal of Venice, a city of sailors. He ruled the Church at the second Council of Vatican.
• #108: ‘Flos florum’ (Flower of flowers). Paul VI (1963-1978).
On his coat of arms appeared the lily flower (the flower of flowers).
• #109: ‘De meditate Lunae’ (of the crescent moon). John Paul I (1978-1978).
John Paul I (1978-1978). His name was Albino Luciani (white light). He was born in the Belluno Diocese (from the latin bella luna). He was chosen on the 26th of August 1978. On the night of 25 to 26, the moon was in the last quarter (half moon). He died on the 28th of September 1978, after a moon eclipse. Also, his birth, his sacerdotal and Episcopal consecration took place in half moon nights.
• #110: ‘De labore solis’ (from the labor of the Sun). John Paul II (1978-2005).
He did a great and vast work. On his birth day and on the day he died there were solar eclipses.
• #111: ‘Gloria Olivae’ (Glory of the olive). Benedict XVI (2005-).
He takes his name from Saint Benedict and Benedict XV. The Benedictines had an order called the Olivetans. Benedict XV distinguished himself for his peace efforts during World War One.
THERE IS ONLY ONE ON THE LIST:
• #112: ‘Petrus Romanus’ (Peter the Roman).
He will be the last Pope, because during his reign the end will come:
During the final persecution of the Roman Church Petrus Romanus will reign (Peter the Roman), who will nourish his believers in many sufferings. After that, the town of the seven hills will be destroyed and the dreaded judge will sentence his people. The end. | <urn:uuid:2ddd6c91-76ed-4c21-8cb9-ea321e1f2536> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.vopus.org/en/gnosis/prophecies-2012/saint-malachy-and-his-prophecies.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00123-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972505 | 1,534 | 3.125 | 3 |
Where do ticks live where do we Treat?
Properties that border woods, fields present the most risk. When ticks are detected we will treat:
Lyme disease is a threat to dogs and cats. Almost every pet owner in Massachusetts has seen a tick on their pet at some point. The dog tick (Dermacentor variabilis) and the deer tick (Ixodes scapularis) are the two most common ticks in MA. Deer ticks are small, about the size of a pinhead Lyme disease is caused by the bite of an infected deer tick in Massachusetts. The tick life cycle has four stages and completes in 2 years. All through out their life cycle they need blood meals to pass from larva to adult. This is where mammals play a role. Ticks can easily go undetected on you or your pet for days, which is why we recommend doing tick checks daily. Pets can carry ticks into your Massachusetts house and potentially expose everyone to a tick bite. Ticks can live in a house for up to 3 days before dying,due to a lack of moisture. If you let your pet on your bed or furniture you risk a tick bite. Ticks can easily migrate to you and go undetected. By
implementing a tick management program within your yard you will drastically lower you and your pet’s exposure to ticks.
Ticks are active above 32 degrees in Massachusetts. You don’t feel it when a tick bites you, this is why it is very important to do frequent tick checks during and after being outdoors. A daily tick check is still the best protection against Lyme disease and tick-borne illnesses.
How much does it cost and how many treatments are needed in Massachusetts?
Property size and how much tick habitat requires treatment determine the cost. Most programs require treatments spring, summer and fall at different times of the tick’s life cycle. Tick density and the population of host animals varies by location so it ultimately determine how many treatments will be required.
For example, on thickly wooded, tick-dense properties we may need to add additional services and space more treatments closer together. Usually if you have tick habitat and host animals, then it’s a good chance your neighbors do also.
Sampling the Property for Ticks
Drag sampling is a good way to approximate tick presence. This is done by dragging a 3ft square white sheet over the areas that ticks would be found, i.e. wood lines, (up to 3’), tall grass, the first 10’ border of grass that meets the woods, etc. Ticks looking for a host will attach themselves to the drag cloth. When you turn the cloth over after dragging it 50-100 feet you may find ticks crawling on the cloth. This sampling has limitations depending on time of year, growth stages, and weather conditions. If you sample when ticks are not very active, a misleading negative finding may result. Also, a very small amount of the total tick population can be collected at any time. You can also get false negatives depending on time of year. One suggestion is to drag sample the same areas on 3 to 4 different days when conditions are favorable. This will give you a more accurate estimation.
Tickspraying.com is owned and operated by Applied Organics Fertilization Company | <urn:uuid:9209b8d5-76a1-4d73-8f93-7e1a70f822e1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://tickspraying.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00121-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938612 | 683 | 2.875 | 3 |
Before starting on how to design a website effectively, how about clearing some basic web design concepts? Designing Effectively [http://articles.des-us.com/articles.shtm]
Now that you know what web design and related terms mean, lets get down to the real thing: Designing Effectively How to balance artistic design with practicality and functionality.
Use of graphics and content
Unless your website is all about graphics, how to make them, edit them or just a bunch of links to graphics websites, I suggest you use graphics sparingly, especially the flashing, twirling kind. They not only detract readers from the content, but they also take ages to load. You do not want your readers to leave your website because your graphically attractive page does not seem to load fast enough. Then again, too much text is boring. So mix and match the graphics and text on your page, having enough white space so that the page is not plain annoying.
Layout and design
While designing, keep in mind that poor layout and design will make your pages unreadable and difficult to keep your visitors on your website for long. Some of the things that make a poor design and layout:
- Text that is too small to read
- Color combinations of text and background that make the text hard to read
- Large graphic files that take forever to load
- Multiple things that blink
- Unclear navigation; over complex navigation
- Paragraphs of type in all caps, bold, and italic all at once
- Graphics that don’t fit on the screen (assuming a screen of 640×460 pixels)
- Animations that never stop
- Complicated frames, too many frames, unnecessary scroll bars in frames
- Cluttered, not enough alignment of elements
Some of the things that make a webpage stand out from the crowd:
- Stay away from bad design features listed above.
- Background does not interrupt the text
- Navigation buttons and bars are easy to understand and use
- Good use of graphic elements (photos, subheads, pull quotes) to break up large areas of text
- A large site has an index or site map
- Link colors coordinate with page color
- Every graphic link has a matching text link
- Animated graphics turn off by themselves
- Pages download quickly
- All pages have the immediate visual impact within 640 x 460 pixels
Most of the time, all it takes to design your website effectively is a little planning. When designing a website, it needs to be clean, uncluttered, attractive and easy for users to read and find what they need. Begin with a webdesign plan:
- what colors do you want to use?
- Are these colors complimentary?
- What items – text, images, data – do you want to put in your pages?
- What layout do you want? Look at other websites and then decide.
Follow the above steps to get a website that speaks for itself and your business. You can always contact me for suggestions and webdesign projects. | <urn:uuid:0cb356d6-b00c-4e02-a841-803131839d45> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://nonyx.info/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00172-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916237 | 627 | 2.609375 | 3 |
E.coli EDL933 is the prototypic strain for enterohemorrhagic E. coli serotype O157:H7.
The publicly available sequence of the EDL933 genome has gaps and>6,000 ambiguous base calls, researchers presented an updated unambiguous genome sequence with no assembly gaps.
Their analysis includes so-called jumping genes that can move around the same genome, sometimes causing damage to individual genes or enabling antibiotic resistance.
Isolated in early 1980’s
Strain EDL933 (ATCC 43895) was isolated from ground beef linked to a hamburger outbreak in Michigan, USA in 1982.
It gained public attention following its association with an outbreak in 1993 related to the US fast-food chain Jack-in-the-Box.
“With a complete genome sequence, we can now pinpoint the precise location of all such elements, which might help to track and treat future outbreaks,“ said Ramy Aziz, the senior author.
The genome sequence was first published in 2001, but there were many gaps that could not be closed with the sequencing technology available to scientists in 2001.
“Although the full genome of EDL933 was sequenced and published in 2001, the deposited assembled genome has >6,000 ambiguous base calls and a chromosomal gap of 4,000 bp,” said the researchers.
“While the utility of this reference genome…is indisputable, several analyses reliant on a pristine reference (e.g., single nucleotide polymorphism studies) are hindered by those ambiguities and gaps.
“EDL933 has long phage-associated repeat regions >7 kb. Microbial genomes with these characteristics are the most complex to assemble, so we resorted to singlemolecule sequencing using PacBio followed by polishing using Illumina short-reads to complete the EDL933 sequence.
“This produced a gapless genome assembly, with no ambiguous base calls, and an updated genome annotation.”
No place to hide
Aziz, a professor at Cairo University in Egypt, led the research as a visiting scientist working in Bernhard Palsson’s Systems Biology Research Group at UC San Diego Jacobs School of Engineering.
“New sequencing and assembly methods are enabling a full expose of pesky pathogens; there is no place to hide genetic characteristics anymore,” said Palsson, the Galletti Professor of Bioengineering at UC San Diego.
“The full genetic delineation of multiple pathogenic strains is likely to not only improve our understanding of their characteristics, but to find and exploit their vulnerabilities.”
In a separate project, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), University of California, Davis, Agilent Technologies and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) are working on the 100k Foodborne Pathogen Genome Project.
The five-year effort will create the largest public database of 100,000 foodborne pathogen genomes to speed identification of bacteria responsible for outbreaks and reduce public health response time from weeks to days.
Source: Genome Announcements
Online ahead of print, DOI: 10.1128/genomeA.00821-14
“A Gapless, Unambiguous Genome Sequence of the Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 Strain EDL933”
Authors: Haythem Latif, Howard J. Li,Pep Charusanti,Bernhard Ø. Palsson,Ramy K. Aziz | <urn:uuid:97ff8a42-1530-4d91-8957-e9fe35115136> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.foodqualitynews.com/R-D/E.coli-EDL933-strain-complete-genome-sequence-produced | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00072-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.895237 | 739 | 2.96875 | 3 |
What is Asbestos?
Asbestos refers to a set of six naturally occurring fibrous minerals. Asbestos has six primary sub-classifications: chrysotile, crocidolite, amosite, anthophyllite, tremolite, and actinolite. Among these, chrysotile and amosite asbestos are the most common.
Although asbestos fibers are microscopic in nature, they are extremely durable and resistant to fire and most chemical reactions and breakdowns. These properties of asbestos were the reasons that supported its use for many years in a number of different commercial and industrial capacities. The strength of asbestos, combined with its resistance to heat, allowed it to become the material of choice in a variety of products, including, but not limited to, roofing shingles, floor tiles, ceiling materials, cement compounds, textile products, and automotive parts. Asbestos is now strictly regulated as exposure to this toxic mineral can now be directly and scientifically linked to a number of lung and respiratory health conditions.
Why is Asbestos Hazardous?
The use of asbestos sharply declined in the late 1970s when it became evident that asbestos posed a threat to human health and safety. Today, asbestos is classified as a known human carcinogen. The property of durability—which made asbestos so desirable to manufacturers—is that which makes asbestos hazardous. Asbestos fibers are microscopic (roughly .02 the diameter of a human hair), and therefore, are easily inhaled. Once inhaled, the fibers cling to the respiratory system, including the lining of the lungs and inner cavity tissue. As asbestos fibers are typically quite rigid, they become lodged in the soft internal tissue of the respiratory system and are not easily expelled or broken-down by the body.
Hundreds of thousands of people were exposed to asbestos in some capacity as a result of the mineral’s extensive use in domestic, commercial, and industrial products. There is no safe type of asbestos and no safe level of exposure. Nearly all those with exposure history are potentially at risk of serious respiratory health complications.
Who is At Risk of Exposure to Asbestos?
There were hundreds of occupations affected by asbestos exposure. Asbestos was used in thousands of commercial products and industrial capacities and those working with the material in these industries are potentially at risk of harmful exposure. Industries in which asbestos use was particularly prevalent include shipbuilding, commercial product manufacturing, power plants, and construction. Workers employed in these industries prior to 1980 likely encountered asbestos products.
While asbestos exposure is hazardous, not all asbestos products are inherently hazardous. Because asbestos must be inhaled to represent a health risk, only loose asbestos fibers or those in the air supply (a condition known as friable) represent a true hazard. Stable asbestos compounds, such as intact cement, tiles, or other products are generally not an immediate hazard.
Exposure to friable asbestos fibers was common when grinding, chipping, demolishing, or retrofitting asbestos products. Each of these functions could potentially release asbestos into the air supply where it would be easily inhaled.
What Health Conditions are Associated with Exposure to Asbestos
There are three major lung conditions traced directly to asbestos exposure. These are lung cancer, mesothelioma, and asbestosis. Lung cancer risk, typically associated with tobacco use, is known to be exacerbated by exposure to asbestos. Symptoms include coughing, chest pain, and difficulty breathing.
Mesothelioma is a rare and aggressive cancer of the lung and inner body’s cavity lining- a thin membrane known as the mesothelium. Mesothelioma is typically recognized as the most clearly attributable disease resulting from asbestos exposure. Mesothelioma originates in three locations. Pleural mesothelioma forms in the lining of the lungs and is the most common form of the disease. Peritoneal and pericardial mesothelioma are less common and form in the lining of the abdominal cavity and lining of the heart, respectively.
Asbestosis is a degenerative and progressive non-malignant long-term respiratory condition. Asbestosis results from the formation of scar tissue plaques on the visceral surface of the pleura. Asbestosis can represent a pre-cursor to the onset of mesothelioma.
Environmental Protection Agency. Asbestos: Basic Information
American Cancer Society. Mesothelioma: Questions and Answers
The Mayo Clinic: Asbestosis | <urn:uuid:464c582c-02c1-4d45-950a-3115b8dcfa65> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mesothelioma.com/asbestos-cancer/what-is-asbestos.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00082-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933454 | 909 | 3.8125 | 4 |
Physicists have developed a new type of circuit that is little more than a puff of gas dancing in laser beams. By choreographing the atoms of this ultracold gas to flow as a current that can be controlled and switched on and off, the scientists have taken a step toward building the world’s first “atomtronic” device.
In an upcoming paper in Physical Review Letters, the team reports creating this gas by cooling sodium atoms suspended in magnetic fields. The researchers then trapped the atoms in a pair of crossed laser beams and further chilled the atoms to less than 10 billionths of a degree above absolute zero. The two beams also shaped the condensate that formed at these low temperatures into a flattened doughnut with a radius of about 20 micrometers.
This site has covered atomtronics before
Atomtronics probably won’t replace electronics. “Atoms are sluggish compared to electrons, and that means that you probably won’t see atomtronics replace current electronic devices. What atomtronics might be useful for is the field of quantum information.”
The dynamics of our atomtronic devices would be coherent and potentially useful in quantum computing.” He also suggests that there is the possibility that atomtronics could be useful in obtaining sensitive measurements. At the very least, he concludes, “atomtronic systems provide a nice test of fundamental concepts in condensed matter physics.”
A second pair of lasers transferred energy to the doughnut to start it rotating. Because atoms in the condensate behave as a single, coherent quantum particle, such a ring of the substance doesn’t speed up or slow down gradually — it jumps between different speeds, much like a blender would if it could change settings instantaneously. The scientists chose the lowest setting for their ring, about one revolution every second.
Because the condensate also happens to be frictionless, this ring should, in theory, rotate forever. Limited by technical difficulties, the research team kept it going for about 40 seconds, the lifetime of their condensate.
“This is the first time that someone has actually made a ring-shaped condensate,” said team member and physicist Gretchen Campbell. “We’re hoping to use this condensate in much the way that superconductors have been used to make improved devices and sensors.”
Her first idea for a useful device was inspired by superconducting quantum interference devices, commonly known as SQUIDs. These devices reveal the presence of very weak magnetic fields by detecting sudden changes of current in semiconductor loops.
Using a similar principle, Campbell’s team believes that Bose-Einstein condensate could provide an extremely sensitive rotation sensor. They added a “weak link” to their condensate ring — a barrier created by a blue laser that could speed up or shut down the flow. Theoretically, if the condensate were kept still and the barrier attached to a rotating sensor, the barrier would cause a sudden jump in current at certain rotation speeds.
The team’s approach to creating an atomtronic device is only one of half a dozen being pursued in laboratories around the world. “They’ve added another tool that we can start to use to build up the atomtronics toolbox,” said Dana Anderson, a physicist at the University of Colorado at Boulder.
If you liked this article, please give it a quick review on ycombinator or StumbleUpon. Thanks | <urn:uuid:1240fcb0-8309-43ee-808f-969ecc231960> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://nextbigfuture.com/2011/02/first-atomtronic-sensor-from-bose.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00111-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946988 | 730 | 3.75 | 4 |
If there is life on Mars (or, more probable in my opinion, on Saturn's moon Titan) and it is carbon-based, then it most likely (almost positively) will be microbial. Only microbes can evolve in acid-like condtions or extreme temperature environments. There are most likely some form of organic or even inorganic "germs" and "bacteria" on other rocky planets. Thing is, they typically have no built-in capability to conceive, so they aren't able to build interplanetry spacecraft to fly to new worlds and new civiliaztions, to boldly go where no microbe has gone before, to search out new cracks and crevices to colonize....littleguru said:Yeah. It kind of comes late. That's also making me wonder if it is really something to be excited about. Also, I think it really has to do with the geologic stuff that's going on and not with little green people that life on the Mars... but I might be wrong.Charles said:*snip*
It would be cool do find life outside of earth. That might finally proof that we are not the center of the universe and it would be also very cool to see what excatly lifes on other planets. | <urn:uuid:c522e005-ef0e-4107-a404-0f0a1e3b314a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://channel9.msdn.com/Forums/Coffeehouse/453521-Mars-is-Alive/afb4c83c5a0341b88e499deb00c5c029 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951592 | 256 | 2.5625 | 3 |
The Human-Animal Bond
Sharing your life with an animal can enhance your health and well-being in many ways. Evidence of the benefits given to us by our animal companions is quite compelling.
Humans have had companion animals for thousands of years. But why? Something about animals attracted us to them and caused us to seek out and enjoy their company. Acknowledgment of the health benefits of animal companionship can be traced back to 1790s England when animals were brought in to help mental patients.2 In the mid-1940s, pigs, cattle, horses, and poultry helped many World War II veterans at an Army Air Corps Convalescent Hospital who had suffered mental trauma during the war.2
Beginning in the 1960s and continuing today, scientists have studied the effects of animals on human health.3 Most recent research has focused on cardiovascular benefits, alerts about health emergencies, and effects on the health and well-being of children and the elderly.
Cardiovascular and Stress Benefits
In the United States, the first and third leading causes of death—heart disease and hypertension—are cardiovascular in nature.4 High blood pressure, high cholesterol, high triglyceride levels, and the many adverse effects of sedentary lifestyles have reached epidemic levels. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, animal companionship can improve all these problem areas.5 A three-year study by the Baker Medical Research Institute involving over 5000 participants showed that pet owners had lower blood pressure and cholesterol levels than non-pet owners, even after smoking, weight, and socioeconomic levels were taken into consideration.6 In a related study, Erika Friedmann, PhD, of the University of Maryland School of Nursing, found that pet owners who experienced heart attacks had increased one-year survival rates compared to those without animal companionship.3
The presence of animals also has a positive effect on people’s reactions to stress. Investigators at the State University of New York at Buffalo found that patients with hypertension who owned pets had lower blood pressure levels when put in stressful situations.6 Animals’ apparent ability to decrease their owners’ spikes in blood pressure and heart rate due to stress (as measured in New York stockbrokers and children undergoing physical examinations) appears to be more effective than taking ACE–inhibiting medications (which dilate blood vessels, thus lowering blood pressure).7,8 These effects are not limited to cats and dogs; similar decreases in stress have been seen in people caring for parakeets and hamsters, or even staring at fish in an aquarium.9,21
Healing Effects of Laughter
My dogs and cat can be quite a handful, in a good way. Not a day goes by when my fiancé and I are not relieved to come home and spend time with them. And not a day goes by without at least one of them getting involved in some antic that gives us great cause for laughter. Laughter, in turn, has beneficial effects on heart health. In a study at the University of Maryland Medical Center, a group led by Michael Miller, MD, at the Center of Preventive Cardiology concluded that laughter can indeed be the “best medicine” for the heart. Miller’s study, the first to indicate that laughter helps prevent heart disease, found that people with heart disease were 40 percent less likely to laugh in a variety of situations compared to people the same age without heart disease.10
Author Christina Hering with companions | <urn:uuid:b70b9757-98f1-47f7-b174-2cbc9d69dfad> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.healthinsightstoday.com/articles/v1i2/animals_p1.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00085-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963989 | 702 | 3.09375 | 3 |
rainforests, among decaying logs and vegetation on the forest floor
They use their antennae to touch and taste. They have thousands of tiny hairs on their legs and feet to help them. Climb up walls with ease. They have an exoskeleton. The male has “horns” on its head and the females head is flat. They have spiracles on their body used to push air out of to make their hissing noise. They go through 6 molts-after the final molt at about 7 months they are sexually mature.
2 ½ - 4 inches
they live in large groups- males have territories, females wander in and out of territories. Other males will be pushed out of the territories.
decaying fruits and vegetables (Decomposer)
Females are ovoviparus meaning they give birth to live young. Females produce as many as 30-60 nymphs. They have an incomplete life cycle: egg, nymphs and adult stage. Nymphs stay with their mother for about 6 months after hatching.
Of little concern in the wild
There are 3500 different species of cockroaches and 99% of them are not considered pests.
A cockroach can live up to 9 days without a head
A cockroach passes gas every 10 minutes
Cockroaches have changed very little over the past 250 million years
Communicate with hissing-males use the hiss during fights with other males, courtship and for any disturbance. Females and males only use it during disturbances.
The hiss is 90 decibels which is equivalent to the sound made by a lawnmower or a hairdryer.
Adult (13 and over)$9.00
Child (2 - 12)$6.00
Child (1 and Under)FREE
We begin transferring animals to evening (off exhibit) holding at 4:30 each night.
2320 N. Prospect Rd.
Peoria, IL 61603 | <urn:uuid:2a69f8ff-8e33-433c-a45e-cca14b3d0c44> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.peoriazoo.org/animal-groups/invertebrates/madagascar-hissing-cockroach/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00035-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.928611 | 413 | 3.203125 | 3 |
From as long ago as the 1980s, the storage and playback media of choice for audiophiles have been the audio CD and - for die-hard hi-fi enthusiasts - an even older technology, the vinyl long-playing (LP) record. For a short time, the music industry hoped that SACD (Super Audio CD), introduced in 1999, would replace the conventional CD because of its superior fidelity and dynamic range, as well as its higher storage capacity. In fact, SACD has never gained a strong foothold in the mainstream consumer market outside Asia, and the 16-bit, 44.1kHz CD remains the most popular physical medium for hi-fi music.
Until now, the existence of digital file compression formats – most notably MP3 – has not been thought to be relevant to the audiophile market. The main purpose of lossy file formats such as MP3 has been to enable the use of small portable music players. The MP3 codec was developed at the end of the 1980s and initially released in 1993. In its standard configuration, MP3 can compress an audio file by a factor of ten. This compression is important for two reasons:
- a 40MB audio track on a CD may be reduced to just 4MB, enabling 1,000 tracks to be stored on a portable 4GB music player
- a single track can be downloaded from the internet in less than 30 seconds via a broadband connection
MP3 and other lossy compression formats are well suited to personal music systems because the imperfections caused by the compression algorithms do not materially affect perceived audio quality. Limitations in the DACs, power supplies, amplifiers and earphones commonly used in portable music players compromise sound quality as much as the source file does. At the same time, consumers attach a high value to storage capacity, so the more tracks a player can hold, the better.
Various advances in hardware and software technology, however, have made it commercially viable to produce digital audio streaming equipment of hi-fi quality. This article outlines the key elements of the architecture of such equipment, and new board-level technology that developers should consider when evaluating technology for new product designs.
Technology trends supporting high-end digital audio streaming
Three changes in the technology of digital audio support the introduction of hi-fi digital streaming appliances. First, the cost of memory ($/GB) is continually falling, and it is now possible to buy a Hard Disk Drive (HDD) with >1TB of capacity for the same cost as a 1GB HDD would have cost several years ago.
Second, consumer choice has expanded, with high-quality audio files in a variety of lossless compression formats such as FLAC available for purchase online. Software is also freely available that rips music on CDs to FLAC files. Finally, the introduction of very high-speed broadband has made it possible to download lossless (uncompressed) audio files from the internet. So now, consumers can find CD-quality digital files online, download them quickly and store them on a PC or external HDD.
It follows that, by connecting a hi-fi amplifier and speakers to their PC or external storage device, audiophiles should be able to listen to high-quality digital audio files (see Figure 1). This in turn presents a new opportunity to consumer electronics OEMs: conventional computer hardware is unable to provide the high audio quality required. Indeed, it is hard to think of a more hostile environment to high-quality audio than the PC. Low-quality switching power supplies and various RF interfaces interfere with high-performance analogue outputs. And interfaces and signal processing circuitry introduce noise, jitter and distortion into the signal chain.
Fig. 1: options for playing back various types of audio files.
So new audio streamer devices will be required to:
- Provide an interface from the storage medium to the audio codec
- Implement FLAC decoding
- Perform faithful, low-noise and low-distortion conversion of the digital files to an analogue output | <urn:uuid:947d943e-e6d8-461b-9c47-8c4f0a9dcaa7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1279253&piddl_msgorder=asc | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00147-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935441 | 817 | 3.078125 | 3 |
by Francis Orrery Tucknor
Out of the focal and foremost fire,
"Take him and welcome," the surgeon said;
And we watched the war with abated breath,
And didn't. Nay! more! in death's despite
Word of gloom from the war, one day;
I sometimes fancy that were I King
Year of Publication:
Human spirit overcoming adversity
Things to Discuss:
Name the characters in this story poem. Did the story have a happy ending? What did the poet suggest in the last stanza?
About the Poem:
In 1863, following the Battle of Murfreesboro, sixteen-year-old Isaac Newton Giffen was plucked from a makeshift Confederate hospital in Georgia by a country doctor and his wife, who took him into their home and devoted the next six months to nursing him back to health. In addition to tending to his wounds, the doctor's wife taught this uneducated son of a Tennessee blacksmith to read and write. Giffen's recovery was progressing well when news came that his old commanding officer, General Joseph E. Johnston, was being pressed by Union forces near Atlanta, and the boy immediately donned his uniform and returned to the front. Issac Newton Giffen was killed a short time later during the Atlanta campaign.
About the Poet:
Dr. Tucknor was a physician at the Confederate Hospital on Upper Broad St. from 1861-1865. | <urn:uuid:f0d49d04-90a3-460e-a821-c862707260c3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://poetry.literaturelearning.org/?q=node/621 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00119-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97923 | 300 | 3.046875 | 3 |
The Diamond Library: an array of resources for legal historians
The Diamond Library: an array of resources for legal historians Legal historians can't pursue their work without the texts and documents generated by governments, lawyers, and any persons who have had a brush with the law. If the historian is setting cases in context by examining social and economic issues of the time as well as the legal ones, she will need to consult a variety of sources, many of them non-legal. At that point, the Diamond Law Library is called in for assistance and suggestions.
Providing electronic access to documents, articles, and databases, the library supplies legal historians with information from the standard legal repertoire as well as from the ever-increasing electronic resources used by American and English historians. For example, one approach to legal history is through biography, where online access to the American National Biography has simplified fact-checking on thousands of Americans. Additionally, the library has long subscribed to major history journals, such as the American Historical Review and the English Historical Review. Through another powerful database, J-STOR (which stands for Journal STORage), full-text searching can be done in the older journal literature and across disciplinary boundaries, into the major journals of economics, sociology, African-American studies, business, political science, and philosophy. For topics in English legal history, the library holds a complete set of publications of the Selden Society, the organization dedicated to editing legal manuscripts in England.
Collecting historic texts and original documents for study and interpretation is also part of the library's role. Among the early printed sources for American legal history held in the library are laws of the individual colonies, justice of the peace manuals, and the earliest American court report, that of Ephraim Kirby, compiling decisions of the Superior Court of Connecticut during the 1780s. Legal manuscripts, too, contribute an immediacy and freshness to history despite the problems encountered in editing them. The work of Julius Goebel and Joseph Smith in editing documents from the law practice of Alexander Hamilton was a painstaking study of the interrelation of English and American law in the new republic.
More recently, the law library has expanded its collection to include modern papers, such as those of Professors Telford Taylor and Herbert Wechsler. Also recently acquired were the papers of Francis Marion Burdick, who was appointed the first Theodore Dwight Professor of Law at the School.
On the English side, the library holds editions of the works that shaped English legal principles: Bracton's De legibus et consuetudinibus Angliae, Littleton's Tenures, Coke's Institutes, Finch's Nomotechnia, and Blackstone's Commentaries on the laws of England, to name a few. In addition, if the legal historian can read Law-French, there are editions of English Yearbooks offering, in densely packed form, a glimpse into the oldest pleadings and procedures of English courts. | <urn:uuid:22cc7797-6de0-4fa5-8fb8-1b9c3fd09546> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www1.law.columbia.edu/law_school/communications/reports/winter2003/lawlibrary | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00150-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94813 | 601 | 2.6875 | 3 |
by Daniel Brook, Ph.D. & Richard H. Schwartz, Ph.D.
Hope springs eternal. Indeed, it’s always been an integral part of Jewish history, spirituality, and politics. Without hope, there wouldn’t be a Chanukah; without hope, there might not even be a Jewish community. That’s the power of radical hope!
Jewish survival is a miracle of hope. Increasing light at the darkest time of the year to celebrate Chanukah and Jewish survival is also a miracle. This year (2010/5771), Chanukah begins on Wednesday night, December 1st. Each year, we should work and hope for further miracles.
We sincerely hope that Jews will enhance their celebrations of this ancient, beautiful, and spiritually-meaningful holiday of Chanukah by making it a time to strive even harder to live up to Judaism’s highest moral values and teachings. For most of us, we certainly don’t need more “things” in our homes; instead, we need more meaning, purpose, and spirit in our lives. There are a variety of ways to accomplish this. One significant way we can do this, on a daily basis, is by moving towards vegetarianism.
Chanukah commemorates the single small container of pure olive oil — expected to be enough for only one day — which, according to the Talmud (Shabbat 21b), miraculously lasted for eight days in the rededicated Temple on the 25th of Kislev 165 BCE, exactly two years after it was defiled by the Syrian-Greeks, who were ruled by the tyrannical King Antiochus IV. In kabalistic (Jewish mystical) thought, according to Avi Lazerson, “oil is symbolic of chochmah (wisdom), the highest aspect of the intellect from which inspirational thought is derived”.
A switch to vegetarianism would be using our wisdom and compassion to help inspire another great miracle: the end of the tragedy of world hunger, therefore ensuring the survival of tens of millions of people annually. Currently, from one-third to one-half of the world’s grain, and about three-quarters of major food crops in the U.S. (e.g., corn, wheat, soybeans, oats), is fed to animals destined for slaughter, while about one billion poor people chronically suffer from malnutrition and its debilitating effects, tens of thousands of them consequently dying each day, one every few seconds.
Maimonides, the great rabbi, physician, and scholar known as the Rambam, who wrote that the pain of people is the same as the pain of other animals (Guide for the Perplexed), ruled that one must literally sell the clothes one is wearing, if necessary, to fulfill the mitzvah of lighting the menorah and celebrating the miracle (Hil. Chanukah 4:12). Uniting physical needs and spiritual needs is vitally important for the body, the mind, and the spirit. In the joyous process of celebrating our festival of freedom and light, other beings shouldn’t have to be enslaved and killed by our tyranny over them. No one should ever have to die on our account.
Chanukah represents the victory of the idealistic and courageous few, over the seemingly invincible power and dominant values of the surrounding society. We learn through both our religious studies and history that might does not make right, even if it sometimes rules the moment. Therefore, quality is more important than quantity; spirituality is more vital than materialism, though each is necessary. “Not by might and not by power, but by spirit”, says Zechariah 4:6, part of the prophetic reading for Shabbat Chanukah. Today, vegetarians are relatively few in number, though growing, and billions of captive factory farm animals are powerless to defend themselves, but the highest ideals and spirit of Judaism are on their side.
Still believing in brute force, materialism, and greed, the world presently wastes a staggering and nearly unimaginable $1 trillion on total military might annually (over half of that amount is by the U.S. alone), while half the world’s population barely survives on $2 a day or less and, as noted, some don’t even survive. Security does not come from superior physical forces or from authoritarian political conditions, as the Chanukah story and contemporary events remind us. Collective security lies in a just and sustainable society, what Martin Luther King, Jr. described as “positive peace”, just as personal security lies in a healthy and sustainable lifestyle. These are deeply and intimately related.
The Jewish anti-imperialist insurgency, led by the Macabees, was sparked when a pig was killed and Rabbi Eleazar and other Jews were ordered to eat it. Those who refused, including nonagenarian Rabbi Eleazar, were summarily killed. According to the Book of Macabees, some Macabees lived on plant foods — to “avoid being polluted” — when they hid in caves and in the mountains to escape capture. Further, the major foods associated with Chanukah, latkes (potato pancakes) and sufganiyot (jelly donuts), are vegetarian foods — as is chocolate gelt! — and the vegetable oils that are used in their preparation are a reminder of the pure vegetable oil (olive) used in the lighting of the Temple’s Menorah.
The miracle of the oil brings the use of fuel and other resources into focus. One day’s oil was able to last for eight days in the Temple, a miracle of resource conservation. Conservation and energy-efficiency are sacred acts and vegetarianism allows resources to go much further, since far less oil, water, land, topsoil, chemicals, labor, and other agricultural resources are required for plant-based diets than for animal-centered diets, while far less waste, pollution, and greenhouse gases are produced. For example, it can require up to 78 calories of non-renewable fossil fuel for each calorie of protein obtained from factory-farmed beef, whether kosher or otherwise, but only 2 calories of fossil fuel to produce a calorie of protein from soybeans.
Reducing our use of oil by shifting away from the mass production and consumption of meat — thereby making supplies last longer, freeing us from our dangerous dependence on oil as well as oily authoritarian governments, and diminishing the availability of petro-dollar funds for terrorists and others — would surely be a fitting way to celebrate the miracles of Chanukah. By conserving oil, commemorating how one’s day’s worth of oil lasted for eight, and by reducing our dependence on it, we can create what Rabbi Arthur Waskow of the Shalom Center calls a “green menorah” and a green Chanukah. In this way, we support ethical lifestyles and holy communities on this festival and throughout the year.
In addition to resource conservation and economic efficiency, a switch toward vegetarianism would greatly benefit the health of individuals, the condition of our environment, and would sharply reduce the suffering and death of billions of animals. Further, the social, psychological, and spiritual benefits should not be underestimated. Many people who switch to a vegetarian diet report feeling physically, emotionally, and spiritually better. And more and more Jews and others are doing just that!
Chanukah also represents the triumph of idealistic non-conformity. Like the Hebrew prophets, the Macabees fought for their inner beliefs, rather than conforming to external pressure. They were willing to proudly exclaim: this we believe, this we stand for, this we are willing to struggle for. Like the great Prophets and the celebrated Macabees, vegetarians represent this type of progressive non-conformity by an inspired minority. At a time when most people, especially in wealthier countries, think of animal products as the main part of their meals, vegetarians are resisting and insisting that there is a better, healthier, more compassionate, more environmentally sustainable, and ethical choice, one that better fits with our religious values and philosophical beliefs.
Jewish sages compared candles to our souls and the light to the Torah (Proverbs 20:27), noting that the fire of a candle always strives to go upward. In this way, we kindle souls with the ethical light of our tradition. Candles are lit for each of the eight nights of Chanukah, symbolizing a turning from darkness to light, from despair to hope, from oppression to miracles. According to the prophet Isaiah, the role of Jews is to be a “light unto the nations” (Isaiah 42:6). “Light is sown for the righteous” (Psalm 97:11) and, as our sages have said, it only takes a little light to dispel much darkness. Vegetarian activists are like the shamesh, the servant candle, which helps to spread light without itself being diminished. We do not lose anything by helping ourselves and others; indeed, we gain in righteousness. Vegetarianism can be an effective way of adding light and hope to the darkness of a world still suffering with factory farms and slaughterhouses — and their attendant negative consequences — as well as with other systems and symbols of violence and oppression.
The word Chanukah means dedication, while the Hebrew root of the word means education. Each year, we should re-educate ourselves about the horrible realities of factory farming and slaughterhouses, as well as re-dedicate and beautify our inner temples. We can do this by practicing the powerful Jewish teachings and highest values of Judaism, as another way to “proclaim the miracle” of Chanukah and Jewish renewal. These sacred values and holy deeds (mitzvot) include compassion for others, including animals (tsa’ar ba’alei chayim), preserving one’s health (pekuach nefesh), conservation of resources (bal tashchit), proper spiritual intention (kavanah), righteousness and charity (tzedakah), peace and justice (shalom v’tzedek), being partners in creation (shomrei adamah), healing our world (tikun olam), and increasing in matters of holiness (ma’alin bakodesh v’ayn moridim, going from strength to strength, just as Hillel successfully argued that we should light the menorah for the eight days in ascending order).
Chanukah commemorates the deliverance of the Jews from the Syrian-Greeks. In our time, vegetarianism can be a step toward deliverance of society from various modern plagues and tragedies, including global warming, world hunger, deforestation, air and water pollution, species extinction, resource depletion, heart disease, cancer, stroke, diabetes, obesity, rising health care costs, and lost productivity, among others.
One way to achieve the wonderful aspirations of Judaism is by switching to a vegetarian diet. A shift toward vegetarianism can also be a major factor in the rededication and renewal of Judaism, as it would further demonstrate that Jewish values are not only relevant but essential to everyday personal life and global survival.
The letters on a diaspora dreidel are an acronym for nes gadol hayah sham, a great miracle happened there. May the celebration of this joyous holiday inspire another miracle within each of us.
May we all have a happy, healthy, and miraculous Chanukah!
For more information, please visit the Jewish Vegetarians of North America web site at www.JewishVeg.com and The Vegetarian Mitzvah site at www.brook.com/jveg.
Daniel Brook, Ph.D., teaches sociology and political science. He maintains The Vegetarian Mitzvah at www.brook.com/jveg, Eco-Eating at www.brook.com/veg, is a member of the Advisory Committee of Jewish Vegetarians of North America, and can be contacted via firstname.lastname@example.org.
Richard H. Schwartz, Ph.D., is the author of Judaism and Vegetarianism, Judaism and Global Survival, and over 140 articles and interviews located at www.JewishVeg.com/schwartz. He is President of Jewish Vegetarians of North America (JVNA) (www.JewishVeg.com), Director of the Veg Climate Alliance (www.vegclimateallaince.org), Coordinator of the Society of Ethical and Religious Vegetarians (SERV) (www.serv-online.org), and can be contacted via President@JewishVeg.com. | <urn:uuid:bcb03d45-9af0-401e-848d-71938a4fe89b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jewishveg.com/schwartz/AnotherMiracleOfChanukah.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938522 | 2,630 | 2.96875 | 3 |
The Dark Side Of Earthworms
From a young age, we’ve been taught that earthworms are our friends. They help farmers by breaking down organic material and breaking up the soil. They also make great bait for fisherman. Charles Darwin was so fascinated by earthworms that he spent 40 years researching them.
But that’s only half the story. Vermont has at least 16 species of worms and none of them are native. Most of them are, in fact, invasive, meaning they actually compete with native species for resources. And there are other reasons to be wary of the earthworm.
Josef Gorres, a professor of ecological soil management at UVM. He does research on earthworms. He spoke with Vermont Edition about why earthworms might be causing harm to the understory of our forests. | <urn:uuid:15565638-9f88-4aac-99c1-3aac680d0724> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://digital.vpr.net/post/dark-side-earthworms | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00195-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958028 | 166 | 3.09375 | 3 |
The circle time in early childhood is a winter movement adventure where we go on a journey “O’er mountain high and bridges low…ever onward we must go!” The children walk across a balance beam “bridge” over an icy river below. We move from fine motor activities to gross motor movement as we build capacities that will serve us as we journey onward in our learning. One fine motor activity that takes much warmth and will forces to accomplish is our Wednesday morning beeswax modeling (see photo to left). What golden treasures they create!
The Parent-Child class has been enjoying warm and nourishing soups during these cold days…highlights have been Persian lentil soup, Borscht, and Curried Cauliflower In the circle Jack Frost has been visiting, and the gnomes have been carefully watching for children’s footprints in the snow. Seasonal songs and games with our families are a lovely way to stay warm, interact lovingly with our children, and just have fun!
Block: Math- number bonds for numbers 1-12, 2,3,5,& 10 times tables reinforced with rhythmic movement, and simple math problems using manipulatives.
Language Arts Skills: 3-4 letter word families.
Painting: Complementary colors exercises (see photo on right).
Practical Arts– Snow globes (see photo above).
Spanish: A new bingo-like number game with playing cards has kept us thrilled and engaged!
Handwork: Four new kittens have been “born.” Continuing to practice knit stitch.
Music: Introduction to the pentatonic scale and our new pentatonic flutes. Discovering the beauty of 12 in the 12 tones.
Movement: Cooperative games.
Extra Lesson: Spiral foot forms. Clay modeling. Finger strengthening with rods. Relays with partners- leap frog, wheelbarrow.
Block: Mathematics: multiplication and division tables presented in the context of multi-cultural fables.
Language Arts Skills: Vowel sound work as it pertains to spelling. We are preparing to perform a play for the 7-8th grades: writing some of the dialog together, costuming and blocking.
Math Skills: Review of the four processes using bigger numbers both horizontally and vertically. Review of place value.
Nature Fridays: Friday’s lessons are themed with nature. Stories, crafts and activities weave into our studies.
Spanish: Students are reciting large parts of Pollita Chiquita (Chicken Little). They love it!
Handwork: We have begun to knit a gnome in garter and stockinette stitch.
Music: We are gaining fortitude in our flute playing and composing a song about the cold winter!
Movement: Cooperative games.
Extra Lesson: Partnered rod tossing. Pushing and pulling with resistance for balance development and upper body strengthening.
3rd and 4th Grade
Block: Math- Introduction to Fractions. We began by dividing objects into parts and making fractions (and eating them also!), then finding equivalent fractions, adding and subtracting simple fractions, and finally discovering the relationships between improper fractions and mixed numbers. Later in the block, students will learn to use the greatest common factors and least common multiples to aid in solving fraction equations.
Visual Arts: Painting-Finding form through the interaction of the colors. It is often a surprise to see what emerges!
Crafts: paper weaving.
Movement Arts: During morning circle we are walking the balance beam keeping a bean bag on our head and reciting, using copper rods independently and in partnership with skill, and practicing bean bag tossing and passing.
Math Skills: Increasing speed and accuracy of basic facts.
Spanish: We’re taking a peek into Norse Myths…en espanol!
Handwork: Introduction to cross stitch, practicing mirrored image designs for their pencil case.
Music: We continue striving to play our C- flutes with good tone. We have been working with call and response singing and activity songs.
4th Grade Orchestra: We are working to read music from a staff now and identify those tones on our instruments. Watch (and listen) for longer pieces of music coming soon!
Movement: Cooperative team games.
5th & 6th Grade
Block: Ancient Rome.
Math Skills: Reviewing measurement. Grade 5 students are learning to check math by casting out 9’s. All are learning Roman Numerals.
Language Arts Skills: In reading, to tie in with our block, we are reading Detectives in Togas. This has some lovely activities to help us with vocabulary, grammar, and literary analysis.
7th & 8th Grade
Block: Physics- exploration of aerodynamics, hydrodynamics, and electricity. The picture below is of a demonstration that visually showed the students how water supports objects and how the weight of the object is affected.
Math Skills: Group 1- Pre-algebra practice continues, as well as work with ratios and proportions. Group 2- Pre-Algebra, using algebra to solve word problems. Group 3- Algebra.
Language Arts Skills: Verbs and their uses, including: tenses, intransitive and transitive verbs, helping and linking verbs.
Visual Arts: Working with pastels, interpreting the first part of our morning verse in pictures. And exploration of three-dimensional shapes (polyhedrons) and their nets.Looks good to me
Spanish: The novel, Los Pirates del Caribe, has kept us entertained and engaged.
Handwork: We are hard at work with humming machines and three of us have finished our pajama pants!
Music: Understanding the circle of 5ths (how the different keys relate to each other) as well as sight reading in choral parts.
Movement: Wrestling forms and indoor games.
Orchestra: Learning new key signatures with more difficult fingering (see photo, above). | <urn:uuid:f40eda93-b686-4057-85bb-2b5f6db0e29b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://davinciwaldorfschool.org/2014/08/21/in-the-classroom-2-3-14/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00099-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.926059 | 1,237 | 3.34375 | 3 |
Lucy Hutchinson (16201681). Memoirs of Colonel Hutchinson. 1906.
The Life of John Hutchinson
The bishops at that time devised as an anti-covenant, in their convocation house, that execrable oath known by the name of the et cætera, wherein all ministers were required to swear to uphold the government of the church of England by archbishops, deans, archdeacons, etc. After this the Scots enter England, the king makes a second expedition into the north against them, and sends part of his army to keep the passes upon the river Tyne; but the soldiers being raw and heartless in this war, and the commanders themselves inexperienced, they were vanquished,1 and the Scots forced their way, after they had been refused to pass quietly by with their petitions in their hands, and thus possessed themselves of Newcastle and Durham. At that time the Scots had put forth a declaration, wherein they had affirmed their intentions not to lay down arms till the reformed religion was settled in both nations upon sure grounds, and the causers of these present troubles brought to public justice, and that in a parliament. This was so plausible to the English, that the king, finding both the hearts and hands of his people fail him in this occasion, was induced to grant the petition of twelve noble lords,2 who at that time interposed; and, calling together all his lords at York, agreed upon a parliament at London, to convene on the third of November following. In the meantime, a treaty was condescended to, of sixteen lords of each side, Scotch and English, who agreed upon a cessation between both armies for the present, in order to a peace, to be concluded at London with the parliament, who met, as appointed, in November.
They began with throwing down monopolies, and then impeached the Earl of Strafford of high treason, who, after a solemn trial and hot disputes on both sides, was at length attainted of treason, and the king, against his own mind, to serve his ends, gave him up to death.3 The archbishop of Canterbury was also made prisoner upon an accusation of high treason, for which he after suffered; Wren, bishop of Norwich, was likewise committed to the Tower; several other prelatical preachers were questioned for popish and treasonable doctrines; the Star Chamber, an unjust and arbitrary court, was taken away, and the High Commission Court; an act was procured for a triennial parliament, and another for the continuation of this, that it should not be broken up without their own consent. There were great necessities for money by reason of the two armies that were then maintained in England, and the people would give the king no money without some ease of grievances, which forced him, against his inclination, to grant those bills, with which, after he had granted, he found he had bound up his own hands, and therefore privately encouraged plots that were in those times contrived against the parliament. One of them was to have rescued the Earl of Strafford out of prison, and put him at the head of eight thousand Irish, which the king would not consent to disband, when the parliament had some time before moved him to it: then the English army in the north was to have been brought up and engaged against the parliament itself upon a pretence of maintaining the kings prerogative, episcopacy, and some other such things. This plot was managed by Percy, Jermyn, Goring, Wilmot, Ashburnham, Pollard, Suckling, ONeale, and others, of whom some confessed and impeached their fellows, others fled, others were put in prison. While this parliament was sitting, the king would needs, contrary to their desires, take a journey to Scotland, and passed by the two disbanding armies in his journey, where some report that he secretly attempted to urge the Scotch army against the parliament, which then succeeded not. The houses had rejourned for some time, and left a standing committee of fifty to prepare business.4 About that time a plot was discovered to them from Scotland, against the lives of some of the greatest peers of that kingdom,5 the committee, fearing the like attempts from the same spring, placed strong guards in divers parts of the city of London. The kings design in going to Scotland was variously conjectured; but this was a certain effect of it, that it retarded all the affairs of the government of England, which the king had put into such disorder that it was not an easy task to reform what was amiss, and redress the real grievances of the people; but yet the parliament showed such a wonderful respect to the king, that they never mentioned him, as he was, the sole author of all those miscarriages, but imputed them to evil counsellors, and gave him all the submissive language that could have been used to a good prince, fixing all the guilt upon his evil counsellors and ministers of state, which flattery I fear they have to answer for: I am sure they have thereby exposed themselves to much scandal. While the king was in Scotland, that cursed rebellion in Ireland broke out, wherein above 200,000 were massacred in two months space,6 being surprised, and many of them most inhumanly butchered and tormented; and besides the slain, abundance of poor families stripped and sent naked away out of all their possessions; and, had not the providence of God miraculously prevented the surprise of Dublin Castle the night it should have been seized, there had not been any remnant of the protestant name left in that country. As soon as this sad news came to the parliament, they vigorously set themselves to the work of relieving them; but then the king returned to Scotland, and being sumptuously welcomed home by the city, took courage thereby against the parliament, and obstructed all its proceedings for the effectual relief of Ireland. Long was he before he could be drawn to proclaim these murderers rebels, and when he did, by special command, there were but forty proclamations printed, and care was taken that they should not be much dispersed; which courses afflicted all the good protestants in England, and confirmed that the rebellion in Ireland received countenance from the king and queen of England. The parliament, beset with so many difficulties, were forced for their own vindication to present the king with a petition and a remonstrance of the state of the kingdom, wherein they spared him as much as truth would bear, and complained only of his ill counsellors and ministers; but this, instead of admonishing, exasperated him, and was answered with another declaration of his; and upon several occasions the parliament being enforced to justify their proceedings publicly, and the king setting forth replies, these open debates were but the prologue to the ensuing tragedy. The city, declaring their good affections to the parliament by a petition, gave the king distrust, and he was observed to entertain an extraordinary guard of cavaliers, who killed and wounded some of the poor unarmed men that passed by his house at Whitehall; and the parliament, conceiving themselves not safe, desired a guard might be allowed them under the command of the Earl of Essex; but he refused it, with an assurance that he would command such a guard to wait upon them as he would be responsible to Almighty God for, and that the safety of all and every one of them was as dear to him as that of his own person and children. Yet the very next day after this false message, he came to the House of Commons, attended with his extraordinary guard, of about four hundred gentlemen and soldiers, armed with swords and pistols, and there demanded five of their members, whom not finding there (for a great lady at court7 had before informed one of them of his coming, and the house ordered them to retire), he returned, leaving the house under a high sense of this breach of their privilege. At this time the people began in great numbers to bring petitions to the king and parliament, to beg a more cheerful concurrence between them for the relief of Ireland, and to encourage the parliament in their honourable endeavours for the relief of both kingdoms. The king was offended at this, and retired first to Hampton Court, then went with the queen to Canterbury, whom he sent from thence into Holland with her daughter, lately married to the Prince of Orange, under pretence of conducting her to her own court, but really to manage his business abroad, and procure arms to be employed against the parliament, by the sale of the crown jewels, which she carried over with her. After her departure, the king, taking the prince and the Duke of York with him, went to Theobalds, whither the parliament sent a petition to him to return to his parliament and abide near London, and that he would not carry the prince away with him, and that he would grant the militia of the kingdom to be put into such hands as the parliament should recommend, and might confide in; all which he denied, and went immediately to Newmarket, and from thence to York;8 all this while, by many false pretences, really obstructing the relief of bleeding Ireland, and seducing many of the poor people of England into blood and ruin.
In conducting the state of England, in those days, wherein he, whose actions I am tracing, began to enter into his part in this great tragedy, I have been too long for that I intended, and too short to give a clear understanding of the righteousness of the parliaments cause; which I shall desire you to inform yourselves better of by their own printed papers, and Mr. Mays history, which I find to be impartially true, so far as he hath carried it on, saving some little mistakes in his own judgment, and misinformations which some vain people gave of the state, and more indulgence to the kings guilt than can justly be allowed.
To take up my discourse of Mr. Hutchinson where I left it: he was now come to his own house at Owthorpe, about the time when the Irish massacre was acted, and finding rumours begin to be very stirring, he applied himself to understand the things then in dispute, and read all the public papers that came forth between the king and parliament, besides many other private treatises, both concerning the present and foregoing times. Hereby he became abundantly informed in his understanding, and convinced in conscience of the righteousness of the parliaments cause in point of civil right; and though he was satisfied of the endeavours to reduce9 popery and subvert the true protestant religion, which indeed was apparent to every one that impartially considered it, yet he did not think that so clear a ground for the war as the defence of the just English liberties; and although he was clearly swayed by his own judgment and reason to the parliament, he, thinking he had no warrantable call at that time to do anything more, contented himself with praying for peace. At that time Mr. Henry Ireton was in the country, and being a kinsman of Mr. Hutchinsons, and one that had received so much advantage to himself and his family in the country by Sir Thomas Hutchinsons countenance and protection, that he seemed a kind of dependent upon him, and being besides a very grave, serious, religious person, there was a great league of kindness and good-will between them.10 Mr. Ireton being very active in promoting the parliament, and the godly interest in the country, found great opposition from some projectors, and others of corrupt interest that were in the commission of the peace; whereupon, making complaint at the parliament, he procured some of them to be put out of the commission, and others, better affected, to be put in their rooms,11 of which Mr. Hutchinson was one; but he then forbore to take his oath, as not willing to launch out rashly into public employments, while such a storm hung threatening overhead. Yet his good affections to godliness and the interest of his country, being a glory that could not be concealed, many of his honest neighbours made applications to him, and endeavoured to gain his conduct, which he at first in modesty and prudence would not too hastily rush into. The parliament had made orders to deface the images in all churches.12 Within two miles of his house there was a church, where Christ upon the cross, the Virgin, and John, had been fairly set up in a window over the altar, and sundry other superstitious paintings, of the priests own ordering, were drawn upon the walls. When the order for razing out these relics of superstition came, the priest only took down the heads of the images, and laid them carefully up in his closet, and would have had the church officers to have certified that the thing was done according to order; whereupon they came to Mr. Hutchinson, and desired him that he would take the pains to come and view their church, which he did, and upon discourse with the parson, persuaded him to blot out all the superstitious paintings, and break the images in the glass; which he consented to, but being ill-affected, was one of those who began to brand Mr. Hutchinson with the name of Puritan.
Note 2. Viz., Bedford, Essex, Brooke, Warwick, Saye, Mandeville, Hertford, Rutland, Mulgrave, Exeter, Howard of Escrick, and Bolingbroke. [back]
Note 3. It is only fair to give the kings own account of his motives. If my own person only were in danger he told the council, I would gladly venture it to save Lord Straffords life; but seeing my wife, children, and all my kingdom are concerned in it, I am forced to give way unto it. [back]
Note 4. The names of this committee are given in Rushworth, III. i, 387. [back]
Note 5. The plot known as The Incident. It was directed against Argyle and Hamilton. Montrose offered to prove Hamilton guilty of high treason, whilst the Earl of Crawford planned the violent seizure, and if necessary, assassination of the two noblemen.See Gardiner, Fall of the Monarchy of Charles I, ii, 260. [back]
Note 6. Mrs. Hutchinson here seems to take May as her authority, who states that the persons of above 200,000 men, women, and children were murdered, many of them with exquisite and unheard-of tortures, within the space of one month. May himself relies chiefly on the faithful relation of Sir John Temple. Clarendon, Rushworth, and Whitelock give equally high figures. Mr. Gardiner estimates the number of persons slain in cold blood at the outbreak of the rebellion at 4,000, and thinks that about double that number may have perished from ill-treatment. The depositions have been recently examined and criticised by Mr. Gilbert in the appendix to the eighth report of the Royal Commission on Historical Manuscripts. Miss Hickson, in the work entitled Ireland in the Seventeenth Century, has reprinted a selection from the depositions, with a commentary in which she successfully refutes some of Mr. Gilberts statements about the depositions, and gives reasons for fixing the number of sufferers higher than the estimate of Mr. Gardiner. [back]
Note 8. The queen sailed on February 25th. The king was at Theobalds from February 28th to March 3rd. From the 7th to the 14th of the same month the king remained at Newmarket, reaching York on March 19th.Iter Carolinum. [back]
Note 9. Reduce, Latin reducere, to bring back, restore, revive.J. H. [back]
Note 10. As it will be seen in the sequel that Mr. Hutchinson reposed very great confidence in Ireton, and even allowed to the information he received from him such weight in forming his judgment as he did to that of no one else, it may be well to examine how far the one was deserving, and the other discerning, in this. The question will be probably decided to general satisfaction upon the testimony of Whitelock and Ludlow, men of very different dispositions, but both of great good sense and knowledge of their subject. Whitelock, in speaking of some reforms proposed in the election and composition of the House of Commons, says, Ireton was chiefly employed in them, having learned some grounds of law, and having a laborious and working brain and fancy. When he comes to speak of the reforms of the law which Ireton likewise meditated, he says, he was a man full of invention and industry, who had a little knowledge of the law, which led him into the more errors. But when by his death the jealousy lest he should bring about those reforms which Whitelock, and most of the lawyers, were averse to, had ceased, he says of him, page 516: This gentleman was a person very active, industrious, and stiff in his ways and purposes; he was of good abilities for council as well as action, made much use of his pen, and was very forward to reform the proceedings in law, wherein his having been bred a lawyer was a great help to him. He was stout in the field, and wary and prudent in councils; exceedingly forward as to the business of a commonwealth. Cromwell had a great opinion of him, and no man could prevail so much, nor order him so far, as Ireton could. But Ludlow, who viewed him more constantly and closely in a post of great power and temptation, that of deputy of Ireland, being himself next in command to him, gives the following account of his conduct in one instance, which will render all others superfluous: The parliament also ordered an act to be brought in for settling two thousand per annum on the lord-deputy Ireton, the news of which being brought over was so unacceptable to him, that he said, they had many just debts, which he desired they would pay before they made any such presents; that he had no need of their land, and would not have it; and that he should be more contented to see them doing the service of the nation, than so liberal in disposing of the public treasure.J. H. [back]
Note 11. See the journals of the House of Commons for February 28, 1642. Ireton presented a petition from Nottinghamshire, complaining of the obstructions caused by Gilbert Boone, serjeant-at-law, to the last petition presented by the county, and the house ordered that Boone should be put out of the commission of the peace. [back]
Note 12. This probably refers to the declaration of the House of Commons, on September 8th, 1641, on the subject of ecclesiastical innovations. It contained an order that all crucifixes, scandalous pictures of one or more persons of the Trinity, and all images of the Virgin Mary, shall be taken away and abolished. [back] | <urn:uuid:9bd68f12-079b-4c78-8db0-0d60536b1b3d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bartleby.com/362/8.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00146-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.987042 | 3,944 | 2.609375 | 3 |
The third day of the Battle of Gettysburg was hot and humid. The battlefield, littered with thousands of dead and dying, bore grim testimony to the fierce fighting of the previous two days. The smell of decomposing corpses and gunpowder lingered in the air as the heaviest artillery bombardment of the Civil War ended. Then, in three lines of battle, 10,500 Confederates marched across the battlefield and surged up the gentle slope of Cemetery Ridge toward the waiting Federal troops.
On the left of the Federal line on the ridge, Brig. Gen. George Jerrison Stannard and three weary regiments of his inexperienced 2nd Vermont Brigade anxiously awaited the Confederate assault. The Rebels struck farther up the line, directly to the right of the Vermonters. Stannard, seeing this, wheeled two of his regiments around the Confederates’ exposed flank. From their forward position, the nearly 1,500 men of the 13th and 16th Vermont regiments poured devastating point-blank fire into the enemy ranks. Inflicting terrible casualties and ravaging the Confederate flank, the Vermonters helped turn the tide of the battle and of the war itself. Stannard’s performance that day was the high point of his distinguished career.
Stannard was born October 20, 1820, in the town of Georgia, Vermont. Educated in local schools, he worked on the family farm and taught school during winters. He later worked as a clerk and as manager of a local foundry before becoming joint proprietor in 1860. On September 26, 1850, Stannard married Emily Clark. They had four children.
Besides raising his family and working at the foundry, Stannard was a member of the state militia. He joined when he was only 16 and served as an orderly sergeant in 1837 when the Vermont militia was called out during the Canadian Insurrection. In 1857, Stannard was elected first lieutenant of a company he helped organize. A tall, bearded, slightly balding man, Stannard was a commanding character. He possessed a strong ability to lead, and was appointed colonel of the newly formed 4th Vermont Militia in 1858.
Stannard, the first Vermonter to volunteer for service in the Civil War, was appointed lieutenant colonel of the 2nd Vermont Infantry in May 1861. His regiment was sent to Washington, D.C., in June and was assigned to Colonel Oliver Otis Howard’s brigade. At the Battle of First Manassas, the brigade was held back until the closing stages of the contest, when it covered the retreat of the Federal Army.
Soon after Manassas, Stannard was offered command of the 3rd Vermont Infantry. He humbly declined the position, opting instead to remain with his regiment. On October 10, 1861, the 2nd Vermont was brigaded with its sister regiments, the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th Vermont Infantry regiments, forming the famous Vermont Brigade.
Stannard and the Vermonters saw action in the Peninsula campaign in the spring of 1862. During that time, Stannard developed a reputation for courage and success. He was active in leading his regiment, as well as accompanying elements of other commands on scouting and skir-
On May 21, 1862, Stannard was appointed colonel of the 9th Vermont Infantry and returned to Vermont to supervise recruitment of the unit. On July 15, the regiment began its trek south. The Vermonters arrived in Virginia a week later and were assigned to Fort Siegel, near Winchester. After the Federal defeat at the Battle of Second Manassas, the fort was threatened by a superior Confederate force and abandoned. Stannard took his men to Harpers Ferry, where they, along with 11,000 other Federal troops, were cut off when the Confederate army crossed the Potomac on September 5.
Stannard repeatedly urged the post commander, Colonel Dixon Miles, to move the garrison to a more defensible position or else attempt a breakout, but his requests were to no avail. On September 15, after two days of shelling, Miles ingloriously surrendered to Maj. Gen. Thomas J. Jackson. Upon receiving word of Miles’ capitulation, Stannard attempted a breakout of his own with the 9th Vermont. He surrendered only when he was cut off as he tried to cross into Maryland. The 9th Vermont was among the last Federal troops to surrender.
The captured garrison was paroled immediately by Jackson, who was in a rush to link up with the Confederate main body. However, Stannard wished to slow down the Rebels and refused to sign his parole or that of his regiment. He made his Vermonters individually sign their paroles, thus delaying the Confederates for hours. Stannard and his men were sent to parole camp in Chicago, and were not formally exchanged until January 10, 1863. They were then assigned to guard Confederate prisoners at Camp Douglas, Ill.
On March 11, 1863, Stannard was appointed to the rank of brigadier general and given command of the 2nd Vermont Brigade, which consisted of the 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th and 16th Vermont regiments–all nine-month volunteers. Mustered into service in the fall of 1862, the brigade had seen no action except for a minor skirmish in December.
Stannard assumed command on April 20 and was warmly received by the men and officers of the brigade, all of whom were aware of his outstanding reputation. They had been very dissatisfied with their last commander, Brig. Gen. Edwin H. Stoughton, who had been captured in a daring midnight raid on his headquarters by John S. Mosby and his Confederate raiders. During the spring of 1863, Stannard’s Vermonters protected the supply lines below Washington as well as the Orange & Alexandria Railroad from Bull Run to the Rappahannock River, maintaining 20 miles of picket lines and 30 miles of railroads.
On June 20, 1863, Stannard was ordered to take his brigade and join the northward-marching Army of the Potomac. Three days later, with less than a month remaining in their term of service, the Vermonters were assigned to the 3rd Division of I Corps. Stannard’s footsore men covered 120 miles in just six days, and gained a day’s march on the rest of the corps.
When the Battle of Gettysburg began on July 1, Stannard was ordered to rush his brigade to reinforce the embattled I Corps, leaving behind the 12th and 15th Vermont to guard supply trains. The three remaining regiments of Stannard’s brigade arrived at Gettysburg in the evening, too late to see any action that day. The brigade was posted on Cemetery Ridge, with the 16th Vermont deployed as pickets and Stannard appointed as general field officer of the Federal left wing for the night.
The next morning Stannard was placed in command of the infantry support for the Union artillery batteries on the left of Cemetery Ridge. During an ensuing artillery duel, a shell burst knocked him down, but he was uninjured.
Stannard and his 2,200 men did little until late in the day, when III Corps was driven from the peach orchard by repeated Confederate assaults. The Vermonters were called upon to fill a major gap in the Union line and, with a determined charge, helped re-establish the line. The 13th Vermont then handily drove back a regiment of Confederates, saved the guns of the 5th U.S. Artillery and captured 80 Rebels. As night came, Stannard consolidated his brigade’s position on Cemetery Ridge and again placed the 16th Vermont on the picket line. The Vermonters, who had performed gallantly in their first major engagement, spent the night on the battlefield.
At 4 a.m. on July 3, the picket line of the 16th Vermont was probed by Confederate infantry, and heavy skirmishing continued throughout the morning. Later, a brief exchange of artillery fire inflicted a few casualties among the Vermonters, and enemy snipers took an interest in Stannard. Bullets pierced his coat and took off a piece of his hat. At about 11 a.m., almost all firing stopped. The Confederate attack on the Federal right had failed, and for two hours an uneasy lull settled over the field.
Then, at 1:07 p.m., two enemy guns fired, signaling the opening of the greatest artillery bombardment of the war. For the next hour and 45 minutes, the Vermonters clung to the ground behind their crude breastworks as Stannard paced up and down their lines. Shot and shell whizzed over their ranks, but most of the rounds harmlessly overshot the Vermonters. The artillery then stopped, and on a front almost a mile wide, 10,500 Confederate infantrymen advanced toward the center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge. In three lines of battle, with parade-ground order, the ensuing attack known as Pickett’s Charge was an awesome sight.
The skirmishers of the 16th Vermont fired a few shots, then hastily fell back and re-formed behind the 13th Vermont. As the Confederates advanced farther toward the Federal lines, their right wing appeared to be aimed at the 14th Vermont. But as the Vermonters rose to fire, the Confederates changed direction and moved across the regiment’s front to close a gap that had appeared in their line. The 14th Vermont opened fire at about 300 yards. The 13th Vermont soon added its rifles to the fire.
The Confederates advanced to within 20 yards of II Corps on Cemetery Ridge. After exchanging a few volleys, they charged with a Rebel yell. Striking the Union center hard, they charged and drove a Pennsylvania regiment from the soon-to-be-famous ‘Angle.
The Rebels were now concentrated to the right of the Vermonters’ position. Stannard saw the tremendous opportunity presented by the situation. Despite the risk of exposing his brigade’s left flank, he launched a flanking attack on the Confederates. Ordering the 13th Vermont to march right, closer to the point of the enemy attack, he directed the men to change front forward on first company. Swinging out at an oblique angle to the Union line, the regiment opened fire at half pistol range on the exposed flank of the Confederates.
As the 13th Vermont moved into position, Stannard ordered the 16th Vermont to join the 13th. After the 16th Vermont was in line next to the 13th, the two regiments advanced toward the Confederates while continuing to pour deadly fire into the now-shattered butternut ranks. The enfilading cross-fire ravaged the densely packed Rebels, driving them back and crowding them toward their center.
As the Vermonters began their flanking movement, Maj. Gen. Winfield Hancock rode up to Stannard. He, too, saw the opportunity for a flank assault, but Stannard’s men already were in motion when he arrived. Moments later, Hancock was shot in the groin and caught by two of Stannard’s staff as he fell from his horse. Stannard used his handkerchief and revolver to make a tourniquet for the stricken general.
Meanwhile, the fighting in front of the Vermonters ended. They had devastated the Confederate right, inflicting heavy casualties and taking hundreds of prisoners as well as the colors of the 8th Virginia Infantry. Two additional Confederate brigades, sent to support Maj. Gen. George Pickett’s assault, now belatedly advanced directly toward the 14th Vermont. Again the Vermonters promptly opened fire as the Rebels came into range. Stannard, waving his sword and hat, promptly sent the 16th Vermont and four companies of the 14th charging into the Rebels, capturing many additional prisoners as well as the colors of the 2nd Florida Infantry.
The Vermonters fell back to their original positions as Confederate artillery resumed fire, covering the retreat of the defeated infantry. During the final artillery barrage, a piece of shrapnel struck Stannard in the right thigh and passed down three inches into the muscle. Though the wound was extremely painful, Stannard refused to leave the field until his wounded men had been cared for and his brigade relieved.
The 2nd Vermont Brigade performed as well as veteran troops at Gettysburg, but not without loss. Of its nearly 2,400 men engaged, 342 were killed, wounded or missing.
Stannard’s superiors realized the significance of his actions. Major General George Meade said, There was no individual body of men who rendered a greater service at a critical moment then the comparatively raw troops commanded by General Stannard. Major General Abner Doubleday said: It is to General Stannard…that the country is mainly indebted for the repulse of the enemy’s charge and the final victory of July 3. [His] brilliant flank movement… greatly contributed to if it did not completely insure our final success.
The 2nd Vermont Brigade mustered out of service after Gettysburg. Stannard convalesced for a short while, and in September he was placed in charge of the defenses of New York Harbor. In May 1864, he was given command of a brigade in XVIII Corps and was wounded at Cold Harbor. Two weeks later, he led the remnants of his brigade in the initial attack on Petersburg.
On June 20, 1864, Stannard was given command of the 1st Division of XVII Corps. His 3,000 men participated in the early stages of the siege of Petersburg, where he was accidentally shot in the hand by one of his own officers.
On September 29, Stannard led his division in a early morning assault on Fort Harrison, a formidable redan in Richmond’s outer defenses. Advancing over 1,400 yards of open terrain under murderous artillery fire, his men sustained heavy casualties but quickly captured the fort. Fighting for the surrounding positions continued until nightfall.
General Robert E. Lee personally supervised the preparation of the 10 brigades that counterattacked the next day. As the first wave was repelled, a wounded and captured Alabama colonel saw Stannard standing on a parapet. The Rebel officer yelled to him, Well, you had better get out of this, General, for General Lee is over there, and he says he will retake these works if it takes half his army. Stannard replied that he would be happy to see Lee whenever he chose to call, and continued to pace the parapet waving his hat and sword.
As the next wave was repelled, a Minié bullet struck Stannard’s right arm, shattering the bone and spinning him halfway around. As a result of his wound, Stannard’s right arm had to be amputated at the shoulder. A third wave of Confederates also was repulsed, and the fort remained in the possession of the beleaguered Federals. The two days of fighting cost the Confederates about 2,500 men, the Federals 2,272.
Stannard returned to Vermont to recover, and received a hero’s welcome. For his bravery at Fort Harrison, he was breveted major general on October 28. In December, he was appointed commander of the northern frontier of Vermont, and remained as such until the end of the war. He later served in the Freedmen’s Bureau and resigned from the military on June 28, 1866.
In 1868, Stannard was appointed collector of customs for Vermont. Later he served as a doorkeeper of the U.S. House of Representatives. He died of pneumonia in Washington on June 1, 1886, and was buried in Burlington, Vt., after a tremendous state funeral.
Stannard remains one of Vermont’s most distinguished soldiers of any war. The town of Stannard and Stannard Mountain are named after him. A courageous and selfless soldier who inspired his men with his coolness and presence, his actions at Gettysburg and Fort Harrison were critical to those two Federal successes and remain among the most significant contributions to the Union war effort by the brave soldiers of Vermont.
Nevertheless, the Georgians eventually were forced to yield after heavy losses. The Federals poured through the breach, but once again, a Gordon counterattack, aided by Doles’ remnant, restored the Confederate line. Losses in the 44th Georgia, which had borne the initial shock of the breakthrough, were horrendous–26 killed, 28 wounded and 182 captured. Company I lost 38 men out of 63.
The regiment, now reduced to a few squads, participated in the rest of the Spotsylvania campaign, but never regained true fighting strength. It stayed with the brigade until the end, suffering a steady hemorrhage of casualties throughout Early’s Shenandoah Valley campaign in the autumn of 1864. It was present at Fort Steadman on March 25, 1865, and in the final assault at Appomattox Court House, where a flag of truce halted further hostilities on April 9, 1865.
Two days later, when the remnants of the Army of Northern Virginia stacked arms, 62 survivors of the 44th Georgia were present for duty, out of the original 1,115 who had left home in 1862. As Captain John Harris remembered years later, The impartial historian, when he collects up the facts and figures, will show that the 44th Georgia Regiment suffered a greater casualty in killed and wounded, in proportion to the number carried into action, than any other regiment on the Southern side.
After struggling over the fence along the road, the men of the 35th Massachusetts wheezed and crawled part way up the hill toward the crest. Climbing over a split-rail fence on the hilltop east of Otto’s Farm, the regiment continued to advance to the right, in full view of Sharpsburg.
A shellburst from a Confederate battery in the field beyond plowed into the regiment, killing two. The regiment halted momentarily, then started to withdraw. At the same time, a Rebel battery on the heights along Boonsboro Pike also fired. Hudson, once again on an errand for Ferrero, sauntered across the bridge with an order for Hartranft when a shell exploded and sent fragments whizzing along the steep hill in front of him. Two more shells burst nearby.
The barrage caught Bell about 50 yards from the bridge. He had just slapped Private Hugh Brown on the shoulder as he passed, exclaiming, We did it this time, my boy! Barely two steps away, a ball from the second case shot glanced off his left temple. The impact whirled Bell around in a circle and slammed him on his side. Men rushed to his aid as he rolled down the creek bank into the regiment’s stacked muskets. Concerned, they asked if he was badly hurt.
Bell, the left side of his face quickly reddening with blood, put his hand to his temple and calmly replied, I don’t think it is dangerous. He paused. Boys, never say die, he added.
Hudson found the left wing of the 51st Pennsylvania sprawled along the creek bottom. He asked, Where is your lieutenant colonel?
There he is, sir, wounded.
Hudson’s gaze fell on a stretcher being borne toward the bridge. The officer being carried stared fixedly in Hudson’s direction as he was carried south. His dimming glance hurt Hudson badly. An ugly blue bruise was on Bell’s left temple. Bell, a newly made friend, was dying.
Hudson abruptly turned to meet Hartranft, who was coming down the road. Hudson asked why he had not advanced to support the 35th Massachusetts. I’ve no ammunition, Hartranft snapped.
The two frustrated officers stood there in the road, at a loss for words. They both had to answer to the moody Ferrero. Eventually, Hudson ventured, Shall I tell the colonel so?
If you please, said Hartranft.
Hudson jogged toward the bridge. He saw three men from his old company struggling with a very heavy man on a blanket. A quick glance at the hat and the way the men tried to tenderly treat the officer told him that the fellow was Lieutenant James Baldwin.
You must excuse me, Hudson called out. I’ve got something to do across the bridge. With that, he hurried to deliver his latest message to Ferrero.
Lieutenant Colonel Joshua K. Sigfried of the 48th Pennsylvania, upon crossing the bridge, immediately detached Captain Wren and his B Company as skirmishers, with orders to cover the quarry and the ridge to the right. The plucky captain and a couple of his people detoured slightly to check on the Confederate that Wren had shot. They found a dead man lying beside the same tree. Captain, one of the men chimed in, that is your man.
Wren’s men fanned out and began to scramble up the hill. As the ground widened, the captain sent back for more skirmishers. Brigadier General Sturgis personally sent more men to assist.
The skirmishers scrounged the far hillside for souvenirs as they proceeded. They discovered the remains of the 2nd Georgia in a slight entrenchment near the top of the hill. Over 40 Rebels had fallen as a unit in near-perfect formation. Lieutenant Colonel Holmes lay five paces behind his color guard, riddled with bullets.
Union soldiers set upon the colonel’s beautiful dress uniform; one stole Holme’s expensive gold watch, others cut the gilt buttons off his tunic. Captain Joseph A. Gilmour claimed a shoulder knot. Two men pulled the polished boots off his feet, then callously flipped a coin to see who would have the matched pair.
Corporal Dye Davis of Company B happened upon a dead Confederate whose haversack bulged with johnny cakes. Dye coldly jerked the haversack free from the dead man and poured its contents into his own sack. He started to munch a chunk of the captured cornbread as the company moved out. A friend reprimanded him, commenting that he could not eat anything that came from a corpse.
Damn ’em, man, Dye retorted through a mouthful of bread. The Johnny is dead, but the johnny cakes is no dead. He kept eating away.
The Federal regiments down by the creek, on the other hand, acted like vanquished troops. The stubborn Georgians, besides holding the entire corps at bay, inflicting severe casualties and causing the frustrated Yankees to needlessly expend an inordinate amount of ammunition upon inferior numbers, had scored an emotional victory. General Burnside had won his bridge–ever after to bear his name–but the crossing had been so delayed as to render his victory meaningless.
This article was written by Anthony Buono and originally appeared in America’s Civil War magazine. For more great articles be sure to subscribe to America’s Civil War magazine today! | <urn:uuid:7b3ed92d-aa2d-4da8-8802-c75722d06a17> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.historynet.com/battle-of-gettysburg-union-general-george-stannard-and-the-2nd-vermont-brigade.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00160-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978101 | 4,834 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Review of "The Weather of the Future," by Heidi Cullen
THE WEATHER OF THE FUTURE
Heat Waves, Extreme Storms, and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet
By Heidi Cullen. Harper. 329 pp. $25.99
"The Weather of the Future" peers ahead at a world stricken by climate change. Using models to predict weather patterns, climatologist Heidi Cullen, a frequent contributor to the Weather Channel, explores seven regions and their grim futures: the Sahel in Africa, the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, California's Central Valley, two sites in Greenland, Bangladesh and New York City. Massive floods in Bangladesh may produce "climate refugees," Cullen suggests; New York may be battered by a Category 4 hurricane with sustained winds as high as 135 miles per hour; and coral reefs may be eaten away by an acidic ocean. "These predictions and our seeming inability to heed their warning is a potential tragedy," she writes.
Cullen also predicts some geopolitical repercussions of global warming: Pirates run rampant, Osama bin Laden invokes U.S. carbon emissions to recruit terrorists, and Canada and the United States argue over naval authority in an ice-free Northwest Passage. The book is at its best and most insightful when it explores today's environment, such as regreening efforts in Niger. Let models be used to predict the weather, not the politics.
-- Timothy R. Smith | <urn:uuid:c586b78d-6702-488d-9111-3c61c59fd96c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/08/06/AR2010080602815.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.910054 | 287 | 2.84375 | 3 |
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