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The price of milk these days is not a matter of pride for this country’s dairy farmers. Not that this is good news for consumers either, as most of the price associated with milk comes from transportation and labor costs. The situation is so dire that Sen. Arlen Specter, D-Pennsylvania, this week introduced the Federal Milk Marketing Improvement Act of 2009 (S. 1645) to allow the Secretary of Agriculture to determine the price of milk used for manufactured purposes.
To help control labor costs, dairy farmers over the past two decades had come to rely on immigrant labor. Many immigrants had first hand knowledge of working with animals and were not afraid to work the long, grueling hours needed on a dairy farm. And many dairy farmers are calling for an expanded guest worker program.
But the immigration controversy complicates matters for farmers. From the Feet in Two Worlds Project, reporter Valeria Fernandez and producer Rene Gutel bring us the story of two dairy farms in Arizona, where immigration is an extremely hot topic.
Right-click here to download an .mp3 of this segment.
Watch a slide show as you listen. (Photos courtesy of Valeria Fernandez and Terry Green Sterling.) | <urn:uuid:aa9f673c-a9ae-4411-9031-13699dc1a33c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://latinousa.org/2009/09/18/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00086-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932987 | 245 | 2.578125 | 3 |
MELBOURNE, Jan. 14 (UPI) -- The belief that a sixth sense, also known as extrasensory perception, exists has no foundation in science, researchers at the University of Melbourne say.
Instead, people can reliably sense when a change has occurred, even when they could not see exactly what had changed; for example, a person might notice a general change in someone's appearance but not be able to identify that the person had had a haircut.
It's not ESP, the researchers said, but rather -- as proven in their scientific study -- that people can reliably sense changes that they cannot visually identify.
"There is a common belief that observers can experience changes directly with their mind, without needing to rely on the traditional physical senses such as vision, hearing, taste, smell and touch to identify it," Piers Howe from the Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences said. "This alleged ability is sometimes referred to as a sixth sense or ESP."
"We were able to show that while observers could reliably sense changes that they could not visually identify, this ability was not due to extrasensory perception or a sixth sense," he said.
In the study, participants were presented with pairs of color photographs, both of the same female, but in some cases her appearance -- her hairstyle, for example -- would be different in the two photographs.
Results showed the participants could generally detect when a change had occurred even when they could not identify exactly what had changed, the researchers said.
They might "feel" or "sense" that a change had occurred without being able to visually identify it, the researchers said, but that could be explained without invoking an extrasensory mechanism. | <urn:uuid:13d683c9-c5b7-4746-bc94-6ea12471d3ea> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.upi.com/Science_News/2014/01/14/Australia-study-debunks-existence-of-sixth-sense-or-ESP/UPI-88851389737536/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.98069 | 345 | 3.140625 | 3 |
Although most people think of sweet potatoes as being orange, there are white-fleshed varieties as well, such as Sumor and O'Henry. Since they tend to be more dry and less sweet than the orange types, they can often be prepared as regular potatoes are. They too, however, prefer a long growing season, with at least four months of warm frost-free weather, above 70 degrees Fahrenheit, as sweet potatoes will generally stop growing at lower temperatures.
Start your sweet potato slips six weeks before you wish to plant them outdoors. Purchase healthy-looking white sweet potatoes that haven't been treated with growth inhibitors.
Fill a box with moist sand and bury the sweet potatoes horizontally two inches deep. Keep the box in a warm, bright place while the potatoes sprout.
Prepare your garden bed three weeks before you plan to set out the slips. Choose a site in full sun where sweet potatoes haven't grown before, preferably with loamy and slightly acid soil.
Add two or three inches of compost and work it into the soil. Pile the soil into ridges 1 foot high, 18 inches wide and as long as you prefer. Space the ridges three feet apart and cover them with black plastic to help the soil heat up faster.
Cut the slips on the day you plan to set them out, preferably when they are 10 to 12 inches tall. Snip them off two inches above the soil and place them in a cup of water.
Dig your planting holes at a 45 degree angle, 6 inches deep and 12 inches apart. Bury the slips in the holes, so that only their top leaves protrude from the ground.
Water the ridges deeply and keep them damp for the first week until the slips have rooted. Water them once a week after that, making sure the moisture goes down at least 6 inches into the soil.
Mulch the slips two weeks after planting them. Gently lift the trailing vines every now and then, to make sure they aren't rooting at the joints.
Dig your potatoes on a dry day after the vines have yellowed. Handle them carefully to avoid bruising them. Hose them off and dry them in the sun for several hours
Cure the potatoes, if possible, at temperatures of 85 to 90 degrees with high humidity, for a couple of weeks. Store them afterwards in paper bags or cardboard boxes in a cool, dark place at about 60 F.
Things You Will Need
- White sweet potatoes
- Black plastic
- Pruning shears or scissors
- Watering can
- Gardening hose
- Paper bags or cardboard boxes
- You can leave the black plastic on the ridges to suppress weeds. Just cut some planting holes in it.
- Don't use high nitrogen fertilizer on sweet potatoes.
- Don't store sweet potatoes in the refrigerator.
- Jupiterimages/Comstock/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:3d4f7c1b-4934-4208-8ae4-2fddce338f9b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://homeguides.sfgate.com/grow-white-sweet-potatoes-home-45993.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00029-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938359 | 591 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Mayor Gavin Newsom has proclaimed today (Sept. 10) as "Tongass National Forest Day" even as actions pending at the federal level threaten many of the forest's surviving stands of old-growth trees.
Located in Southeast Alaska, the Tongass is America's largest national forest and has significant historic ties with the San Francisco Bay Area, Newsom noted in his proclamation, which honored the 100th anniversary of the forest's founding.
Although plundered by logging interests for decades, the Tongass still has significant groves that are intact and support a myriad of wildlife, including salmon, brown bears and bald eagles -- species that have been under threat of extinction in the rest of the country.
The celebration is marred by political maneuverings this month that pose serious threats to the forest, said Wanda Culp, a Native Alaska spokesperson who is coming to the Bay Area on Sept. 17 to seek public and political support for preserving the Tongass. Culp has campaigned against large-scale logging in the Tongass for two decades.
Culp overcame shyness to organize petition drives, letter-writing campaigns, and protests. She testified before political committees to curb logging and protect traditional uses of the forest. Culp began her advocacy after seeing an elder weep over a clear-cut on the backside of Hoonah Mountain in the early 1980s.
Culp, a native artisan who lives in Hoonah -- the world's largest Tlingit village -- will be bearing gifts from the Tongass and accepting Newsom's proclamation on behalf of all who are fighting on behalf of the forest.
The Tongass was declared a national forest on Sept. 10, 1907 by President Theodore Roosevelt, who was influenced by the writings of naturalist John Muir, a San Francisco resident who made many voyages to the Tongass in Southeast Alaska during the late 1800's.
Muir's trips in support of the Tongass are in sharp contrast to those voyages launched out of San Francisco by ships carrying loggers who devastated the forest's old growth trees. Such destructive harvesting increased in the 1920's when the U.S. Forest Service began seeking bids for logging the forest. The Forest Service has presided over logging of the forest since then, despite growing opposition to its policies by conservation-minded groups and individuals.
"It is astounding that the fate of the Tongass is still hanging in the balance 100 years after it was created," said Tom Waldo, an attorney with Earthjustice, a non-profit environmental law firm that represents a variety of Tongass-area conservation groups, including Native Alaskans.
Earthjustice, which has led modern-day legal efforts to prevent old-growth logging in the remaining wild lands of the Tongass, successfully challenged the Forest Service in court, which kept a harmful forest management plan from being implemented. But, a new version of the plan will be introduced in October. "The new plan is likely to be just as ruinous to the Tongass as the previous plan," Waldo added.
The ball is now in the hands of Congress, having just passed legislation in June through the House of Representatives to put an end to the subsidized logging practices that have been enshrined by the Forest Service and have destroyed some of the most valuable stands of the Tongass' ancient trees," said Sarah Wilhoite, also with Earthjustice.
Meanwhile, long-time logging proponent Sen. Ted Stevens is attempting to use his seniority to make sure the subsidy will be funded. "Stevens isn't satisfied with the subsidy alone -- he wants more," said Wilhoite.
Stevens is trying to win support in the U.S. Senate to pass a legislative rider that will severely limit the amount of time citizens have to challenge the court-ordered Tongass forest plan. "His proposal limits legal challenges to 60 days, which constitutes an outrageous limitation on the rights of citizens to participate in how the forest is managed," Waldo said.
"By strongly supporting the anti-subsidy provision and vigorously opposing any legislation limiting public rights or environmental protections for the Tongass, Sens. Feinstein and Boxer and the rest of the California delegation can help end the era of shameful, destructive special interest giveaways," Wilhoite said.
Terry Winckler, Earthjustice, (510) 550-6716
Earthjustice is the premier nonprofit environmental law organization. We wield the power of law and the strength of partnership to protect people’s health, to preserve magnificent places and wildlife, to advance clean energy, and to combat climate change. We are here because the earth needs a good lawyer. | <urn:uuid:b856b38c-8829-4bf7-ad43-0136556e54cc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://earthjustice.org/news/press/2007/tongass-national-forest-day-marred-by-congressional-actions | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00130-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959308 | 943 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Three Exemplars of Mathematical Exposition Honored
Source Newsroom: Mathematical Association of America
Newswise — Scrawl a shape on a piece of paper. Really. Any shape. Now draw a curve tightly around your shape, as close as you can. Do this again. And again. Do you notice anything as you draw more outlines? Is the doodle getting more circular?
Will this always happen, no matter what shape you start with?
This is the question Stanford mathematician Ravi Vakil tackles in the American Mathematical Monthly paper that has garnered him the 2014 Chauvenet Prize, awarded by the Mathematical Association of America (MAA) at the Joint Mathematics Meetings in Baltimore, Maryland, on January 15-18. Named for a professor of mathematics at the United States Naval Academy, the Chauvenet Prize recognizes outstanding articles on mathematical topics.
Vakil’s paper, titled "The Mathematics of Doodling," begins with the question posed above and then devotes 13 pages to "the mathematics that flows inevitably from it."
The award citation calls the paper "an enticing illustration of how mathematical curiosity can lead us from gentle musings to sophisticated, interconnected, and deep ideas."
While "The Mathematics of Doodling" grew out of the youthful curiosity of its author, another paper honored at the Joint Mathematics Meetings was inspired by a question Martin Gardner featured in his Scientific American column in the 1970s: Can the plane be tiled with the integer squares?
For their treatment of this problem, the father-son duo of Frederick and James Henle have won the David P. Robbins Prize. Awarded every three years, the prize goes to a paper that "has a significant experimental component and is on a topic which is broadly accessible."
The award citation praises the cleverness of "Squaring the Plane," which appeared in the January 2008 issue of the American Mathematical Monthly: The authors’ argument "does not bring in any 'big guns' to settle the problem, rather it uses 'big ingenuity,' which is always preferable."
Ingenuity figures a bit differently into the third MAA publication to receive recognition in Baltimore. In the introduction to A Historian Looks Back: The Calculus as Algebra and Selected Writings, Pitzer College mathematician Judith Grabiner writes: "Mathematics is incredibly rich and mathematicians have been unpredictably ingenious. Therefore the history of mathematics is not rationally reconstructible. It must be the subject of empirical investigation."
A Historian Looks Back, in which Grabiner offers a selection of writings that span her illustrious career as an expositor of mathematics, is the winner of the 2014 Beckenbach Book Prize, which honors "a distinguished, innovative book published by the MAA."
Upon learning that she had received the award, Grabiner gave her students credit: "They've taught me most of what I know about being clear and presenting material in ways that interest others beside myself," she said.
More information can be found in the prize booklet.
The Mathematical Association of America is the largest professional society that focuses on mathematics accessible at the undergraduate level. Formed in 1915, the association members include university, college, and high school teachers; graduate and undergraduate students; pure and applied mathematicians; computer scientists; statisticians; and many others in academia, government, business, and industry who are interested in the mathematical sciences. | <urn:uuid:85b71151-7fd6-48ab-b33f-2d7888455ae5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.newswise.com/articles/view/611646/?sc=rsla | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00068-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955987 | 706 | 3.21875 | 3 |
Young Mexicans navigate border between cultures
The dark-eyed child did not speak a word of English on the day he entered first grade at Clinton Elementary School.
As with so many children of Mexican immigrants, Spanish was Pablo Carranza's first language, even though he was born in the United States.
In February 1986, young Pablo was paired with another first-grader, who tried to tell him what was going on in class. Within four months, Pablo was speaking English, and it quickly became his dominant tongue.
He spoke English at school and with his brother and sister. At home, he spoke a combination of English and Spanish with his father. For many years, his mother understood only Spanish.
Today, 32-year-old Carranza is a bilingual lawyer who represents Spanish-speaking immigrants. The Janesville attorney said he's worked hard to be fluent in his first language and to connect with the culture of his Mexican roots.
"Not a week goes by that people tell me I am so lucky to speak Spanish," Carranza says. "But when we were kids, we did not want our mom to speak Spanish with us when our friends were around."
Like other children of Mexican immigrants, Carranza navigates an intricate and often porous border between two cultures.
Sometimes, he feels apart from both.
Other times, he embraces the advantages of each.
"Americans look at me and think I am Mexican, but I don't fit in in Mexico," Carranza said. "Mexicans look at me as American, but I don't completely fit in here, either."
His coming of age in Rock County reveals how a generation loosens its sense of identity from the old country and binds to the new.
For Carranza, education made the difference.
Throughout much of high school, teachers told him he could do better in his studies, but he didn't appreciate their advice. His father, who worked 12-hour days in the nursery and garden business, went to school until sixth grade in Mexico. His mother finished fourth grade.
"My parents were inexperienced about education," Carranza said. "They had no point of reference to realize how important it was."
Instead of going to college, Carranza figured he would study a trade, maybe construction. He decided he wanted a different life after a gathering with older friends who had graduated from high school. They told him their hard-labor jobs held little promise for advancement.
"I could see by the looks on their faces that they were miserable," Carranza said. "I kicked myself into high gear and figured out how to get into college."
He attended UW-La Crosse to study finance because he had friends there. While in college, he studied two semesters in Mexico in 2000 and 2001. He attended the prestigious Universidad de Las Americas in Puebla, the equivalent of an Ivy League school in the United States.
Carranza soon realized how poor his Spanish was.
"While I looked Hispanic, I couldn't speak proper Spanish," he said. "My roommates poked fun at me all year because of it. Many students even spoke better English than I did. At a minimum, most spoke three languages, maybe five. They knew more about American social issues than I did."
In retrospect, the most eye-opening thing he learned abroad was "how ignorant Americans are about the rest of the world," Carranza said.
He also experienced Mexican culture for the first time.
"I never learned it at home because my parents were never part of it," he said. "Their culture was getting up early to do back-breaking work. In Mexico, my parents were on the brink of malnourishment, and they focused on survival. They were not educated in the culture of the rest of the country."
His mother only knew how to cook beans as Carranza was growing up because that is the only food her family could afford in Mexico.
"We got so sick of eating beans," Carranza recalls. "My mom didn't know how to cook all the things at the grocery store. While shopping, we would pull down boxes of cereal and other things that we could figure out how to eat. In middle school, I began eating at the homes of friends and just loved meatloaf."
Poverty also kept his parents from celebrating Christmas in Mexico. He and his brother and sister began telling them about U.S. holidays.
"We told them we wanted a Christmas tree because there was a lot of pressure to fit in," Carranza said. "We also wanted a Thanksgiving meal. My mom didn't know what to cook, so as an 8-year-old, I would try to tell her. I wanted to be able to say in school on the Monday after Thanksgiving that we ate a Thanksgiving meal."
When Carranza returned home from his studies in Mexico, he was motivated to keep learning. He wanted a career that would earn good money.
"For a long time, I had that American mindset that success is measured in salary," he said.
As part of his major, he was required to take a business law class. Carranza enrolled in constitutional law and got the highest grade. The professor asked if he had ever considered attending law school.
With the help of merit-based scholarships and student loans, he graduated from the University of Wisconsin Law School in 2005. In the last year of law school, he met his wife, Angela, whose father is from Mexico. She works as a surgical technician.
After law school, Carranza started his own practice. He took cases from Rock County with Spanish-speaking clients. He traveled to Janesville from Madison three times a week. He and Angela bought a comfortable home in Madison.
"But we both had to work so hard to maintain our lifestyle," Angela said.
They moved to Janesville in 2010 to simplify their lives.
Angela has a daughter, Kaitlin, from a previous marriage. Their family consists of Kaitlin, 12, who attends Marshall Middle School, and Luci, 4.
Both parents want their children to be fluent in Spanish, but they want them to speak other languages, as well.
"I hope we get them to embrace many different cultures," Carranza said. "We like diversity and want the girls to experience a lot of it."
He and Angela believe in hanging on to the best of both American and Mexican cultures.
"I remember learning about immigrants," Angela said. "I remember learning that America was the melting pot, and every vegetable in the stew was a country. It was so wonderful that all these cultures melted together. But nowadays, it is the 'tossed salad theory.' We don't want things to blend together as much."
Carranza has visited Michoacan, where his parents lived before coming to the United States. At the time, his Spanish was not very good.
"They called me 'el pocho,'" he said. "It is a derogatory word for a person of Mexican descent who does not speak Spanish or who does not speak it well. I was flat out teased. They went out of their way to make fun of how badly I spoke Spanish."
Mexico is not the only place where he was teased. At home, his peers gave him a hard time.
"Growing up in Clinton, I was always 'the Mexican,'" he said. "Back then, there were no others. No matter how hard I tried to fit in, I was always different."
He said he did not feel singled out.
"I would be naïve to say that there was no prejudice," Carranza said. "But I'm not so quick to label it racism. Yes, I was teased a lot because I am Mexican, but one thing I noticed early on is that I wasn't the only one being teased."
Angela also was teased growing up.
"I probably felt it more than Pablo," she said. "For us, we have lived as Americans. But we are also Mexican, and we don't really fit in anywhere. … When I go to Mexico, they say I am an outsider."
Pablo said he is trying to find his identity.
"I have always been reminded that I am different," he said. "In Clinton, I was 'the Mexican.' In Mexico, I am 'el pocho.' So I can't say what I am. But I am finally starting to figure it out."
He strives for something beyond the labels.
"Being American does not make me smarter or better. Being Mexican doesn't make me more cultured. Eventually, when someone asks who I am, I want to be able to answer that I am, above all, a good person."
Last updated: 1:36 pm Thursday, December 20, 2012 | <urn:uuid:d9e2d6e0-2894-44ce-9ee3-8cb10a9e355f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gazettextra.com/news/2012/feb/14/young-mexicans-navigate-border-between-cultures/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.992976 | 1,833 | 2.96875 | 3 |
- that there is a mechanical relationship between the amount of money, the interest rate and the level of investment
- that for every borrower there is a saver
- there is a fixed supply of funds available in any economy at any given time and if the government borrows those funds to pay for its deficits, the private sector will not be able to borrow them
The endogenous view is different
- there is never any mechanical relationship between the amount of money in the system and the rate of investment. Yes, if the interest rate is lowered this may have effects on investment, but these effects are highly indeterminate and always reliant on other variables (like confidence and the outstanding level of effective demand)
- banking in a capitalist economy is inherently and structurally unstable. It is not distribution that matters so much as it is the institutional arrangements of banks themselves. If banks are able to issue credit whenever bubbles begin to inflate in the economy, thus accommodating their expansion, it simply does not matter whether savers are saving – the credits are simply entries on computer balance sheets.
- Crowding out, can never ever be a problem in an economy where the central bank sets a target rate of interest. Interest rates will always be set by the central bank and private sector actors will get access to funds at this price regardless of how big the government deficit is. In this way the quantity of money in the system is never fixed, but fluctuating with regard to how much private sector demand for that money there is at any given point in time
The endogenous nature of money has to be worked with in any policy design. Trying to pretend a Cheetah is a vegetarian and treating it as such is bound to cause problems. You have to work with the nature of the beast. Cheetahs like chasing Gazelles and eating them. You might not like that, but that's the way it is. | <urn:uuid:e2095d0b-8116-4222-8a34-b069815dad28> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.3spoken.co.uk/2012/10/endogenous-money-matters-summary.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00097-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960955 | 383 | 2.640625 | 3 |
|Student Learning Outcomes -|
- 70% of students will be able to correctly identify aural examples contained in the class modules at the final exam.
- 70% of students will be able to correctly name the eras of pre-1970 jazz by date at the final exam.
|Description - |
|Introductory study of the history and development of popular music from the inception of recording through the first televised performances of the Beatles in the U.S. Development of media delivery including recording, radio, television, and how those delivery systems changed both the content of music, and its use by the public. The influence of media on the development of styles such as jazz, swing, country, rockabilly and rock and roll, including societal changes brought about by media delivery of music and how it became associated with graphic imagery such as television and cinema.|
|Course Objectives - |
|The student will be able to: |
- Describe and discuss the history of Popular Music since the introduction of recording.
- Analyze media delivery systems and how they affect musical content and aesthetics.
- Identify popular musical styles from each decade of the 20th century.
- Compare and contrast media delivery systems and their impact on music styles and content.
- Write comprehensive analyses of changes in musical styles and delivery since the introduction of recording.
|Special Facilities and/or Equipment - |
- When taught on campus: access to a CD and DVD player; sound system, screen, overhead projection system.
- When taught via Foothill Global Access: on-going access to computer with Email software and capabilities; Email address; Java-script enabled internet browsing software.
|Course Content (Body of knowledge) - |
- History of recorded music delivery systems.
- Performance vs. recording and broadcast.
- Examples of how music has changed due to delivery medium.
- Vocabulary of modern (20th century) music.
- Technical characteristics (including pitch, rhythm, melody, dynamics, timbre, texture, form, harmony)
- Changes in characteristics due to delivery medium.
- System development
- Recording and its development 1878-1970.
- Radio system development/AM to FM
- Engineering and its impact on musical content
- Early engineering/live recording.
- Multitrack recording and the rise of the producer.
- Production as part of content.
- Technical Innovations and their impact.
- Dynamic microphones.
- Condenser microphones.
- The PA system.
- The LP.
- Major Innovators and Performers
- Thomas Edison and recording.
- Bing Crosby and dynamic microphones.
- Frank Sinatra and condenser microphones.
- Phil Spector and modern production.
- Brian Wilson and multitrack engineering.
- George Martin and sound manipulation.
|Methods of Evaluation - |
|The student will demonstrate proficiency by: |
- Weekly worksheets for guided reading and listening.
- Listening assignments via online delivery.
- Weekly quizzes.
- Written Concert Reports.
- Midterm and Final exams.
|Representative Text(s) - |
|Online text materials provided by the instructor. |
Mills, Peter. Media And Popular Music: Edinburgh. Edinburgh University Press. 2012.
|Disciplines - |
|Commercial Music |
|Method of Instruction - |
- Lecture in the form of 10 online modules.
- Discussion both in person, and in online discussion forums.
- Listening assignments of representative works from 1920-1970.
|Lab Content - |
|Lab content includes directed listening and viewing from the following areas: |
- Early Media (1890-1920)
- Media since sound recording on a mass scale.
- Movies (cinema) with sound.
- Media since television.
- Music and media since the Beatles' first appearance on television in 1964.
|Types and/or Examples of Required Reading, Writing and Outside of Class Assignments - |
- Write a review of a concert DVD taking into consideration the era in which the event took place, and the state of media interaction at the time.
- Read an article from a music trade magazine, and write a review of the article focusing on the media "spin" it contains.
- View a film that contains a substantial amount of music, and write a paper discussing the impact of the music on the overall cinematic content. | <urn:uuid:a4c4c012-6a88-4dfe-a116-c0c3b6e63e45> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.foothill.edu/schedule/outlines.php?act=1&rec_id=5631 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00186-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.869976 | 923 | 3.625 | 4 |
Scrabble word: FLANKS
In which Scrabble dictionary does FLANKS exist?
Definitions of FLANKS in dictionaries:
- noun - the side of military or naval formation
- noun - a subfigure consisting of a side of something
- noun - a cut from the fleshy part of an animal's side between the ribs and the leg
- noun - the side between ribs and hipbone
- verb - be located at the sides of something or somebody
- verb - to be located at the side of
There are 6 letters in FLANKS: A F K L N S
All anagrams that could be made from letters of word FLANKS plus a wildcard: FLANKS?
Scrabble words that can be created with letters from word FLANKS
Images for FLANKS
SCRABBLE is the registered trademark of Hasbro and J.W. Spear & Sons Limited. Our scrabble word finder and scrabble cheat word builder is not associated with the Scrabble brand - we merely provide help for players of the official Scrabble game. All intellectual property rights to the game are owned by respective owners in the U.S.A and Canada and the rest of the world. Anagrammer.com is not affiliated with Scrabble. This site is an educational tool and resource for Scrabble & Words With Friends players. | <urn:uuid:7e9b8ff5-1a59-40ad-b4a2-1c609474ca42> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.anagrammer.com/scrabble/flanks | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934374 | 295 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Commiseration refers to feelings of sympathy for other people. If a friend's pet dies, you will probably want to express your commiseration.
If you are feeling commiseration for someone, they are probably going through difficult times. We feel commiseration when others suffer or feel pain and we understand that pain. We commiserate with them. The Latin root com- means "together with." Just as communication and community are words involving getting people together, commiseration is about feeling other people's pain. | <urn:uuid:747c2d5c-83cf-415f-a2ee-3a951152b50b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/commiseration | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969247 | 106 | 3.34375 | 3 |
On December 3rd, 2010, the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) will officially retire its remaining General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark strike aircraft. The date will mark the end of more than four decades of service for this remarkable plane.
The F-111's story is so complex that we can't possibly do it justice in a single Weekend Wings article. I'll therefore break the story into two parts. This article will examine the genesis of the program, and focus on the new and complex technologies that went into it. The second instalment, next weekend, will discuss the aircraft's development and operational career, and the numerous variants that were produced.
The F-111 was perhaps the most unfortunate and problem-plagued aircraft program since World War II. It was conceived at a nexus in military-industrial development, a 'sea change' from old ways and technologies to new. The story of its genesis is one of industrial trench warfare, slogging away at almost intractable obstacles. Its operational debut was marred by the effects of these problems, and it would be many years before it became an effective aircraft. However, despite all these issues, the F-111's story is ultimately one of triumph over adversity.
One factor affecting the F-111 program was the growing cost of modern aircraft. Earlier planes had usually been designed to fulfill a single function or purpose. This had simplified their design, as they didn't have to take multiple roles into account, and they could be oriented towards a specific mission and built to suit its demands and requirements. However, the ever-increasing cost of aircraft was beginning to restrict this approach. Financial reality dictated that new aircraft designs should be capable of performing as many different roles and missions as possible. It would cost an air force a lot less to buy, say, three types of aircraft that could handle nine or ten different missions, than it would to buy nine or ten purpose-built designs, one for each mission. Not only would all the research and development costs of the latter programs be saved, but training, maintenance and other operational requirements would be greatly simplified and rationalized, saving even more money. Furthermore, mass production would lower the cost per individual airframe.
In the USA, this concept was taken a step further with the appointment of Robert McNamara as Secretary of Defense in the Kennedy administration in 1961. He came from a corporate management background, with a strong emphasis on management systems and integration of operations. He recognized that air operations were carried out by the US Air Force, the US Navy and the US Marine Corps. This offered opportunities for synergy. Why could an aircraft not be designed to meet the needs of more than one service, thereby taking economies of scale to the next level? This had never been attempted before, and indeed was actively opposed by many military leaders because of their ingrained 'not invented here' cultural perspective. This opposition was aggravated by competition between the services for their share of the overall defense budget, and by inter-service conflict over who would be in charge of high-prestige national programs such as the nuclear deterrent, or specific missions such as amphibious assault.
Another problem was the simultaneous evolution of new levels of performance and capability in several technologies; electronics, engines, metallurgy and aircraft design. Each had been 'pushing the envelope' since World War II, and considerable progress had been made. However, technology incorporated into a production aircraft is usually at a stable level, where it is understood and can be readily supported. By contrast, the F-111 demanded such high performance in so many areas that older, more stable technologies simply would not suffice. Instead, 'cutting-edge' technology - untried, untested, in many cases not even ready for production - from all of the disciplines mentioned above had to be integrated into a single airframe. This was to cause enormous problems. A number of USAF personnel were to be killed and injured because of shortcomings in the F-111 that were directly attributable to so much new technology being shoehorned into it without adequate opportunity for debugging or operational testing. The 'cutting edge' of technology became, all too literally, the 'bleeding edge' in this program.
These technological problems were intensified by McNamara's insistence on a greatly speeded-up development process. Coming from the commercial world, he applied business management principles to military systems development. This could be, and was, beneficial in many ways: but no commercial system of the time even approached the complexity of the F-111 program. McNamara wanted development to run in parallel with early production of the F-111. Lessons learned from testing were to be incorporated into the first production aircraft at a later date if necessary. Indeed, much of the testing normally done in development would, in practice, be done by the first units to operate the aircraft. This might have worked with a less complex plane, but it proved disastrous with the F-111. More than a decade of operational service was to pass, and lives would be unnecessarily lost, before all of the major problems it experienced had been 'ironed out'.
Let's begin by examining the history behind the F-111. How and why was it conceived? What led to its development?
In the late 1950's the USAF's strike aircraft fell under the aegis of Tactical Air Command.
It had developed the Composite Air Strike Force concept following the Korean War. This envisaged the deployment of strike (i.e. interdiction and close air support) and fighter aircraft, complete with troop carrier, transport, reconnaissance and air-to-air refueling tanker units, to trouble spots throughout the world. TAC had begun to accept the famous 'Century series' of combat aircraft into service, but was experiencing all the problems associated with their brand-new technology, which was not yet mature and frequently proved unserviceable.
TAC was also developing a tactical nuclear strike doctrine. Early nuclear weapons were large, heavy and cumbersome, requiring a large aircraft to deliver them. However, by the late 1950's newer, smaller, lighter versions were being deployed. These could be carried by tactical aircraft, and their lower yields meant they could safely be used against targets in closer proximity to friendly forces, or against areas through which friendly forces might be expected to move in the short term. TAC wanted a more reliable low-level strike aircraft for this purpose, able to hit targets with pin-point precision. It should preferably have greater bomb-carrying capacity than the Century series, plus the ability to deploy over long distances at high speeds to trouble spots.
To meet TAC's needs, in June 1960 the USAF issued Specific Operational Requirement number 183 (SOR-183). It required an attack aircraft capable of speeds of Mach 2.5 at altitude and Mach 1.2 at low level. It was to be capable of operating from short, unprepared airfields, with runways as short as 3,000 feet. It was to have a low-level operational radius of not less than 800 miles (including at least 400 miles actually at low level, plus higher-altitude transit flight), and a ferry range (i.e. without weapons, but with full fuel) sufficient to cross the Atlantic Ocean. It had to lift between 15,000 and 30,000 pounds of payload, with a minimum of 1,000 pounds to be carried in an internal bomb bay. In order to meet these requirements, the USAF considered that variable geometry wings and a turbofan engine would probably be required. (More about both of these technologies later.) The project was labeled Tactical Fighter Experimental, or TFX.
The US Navy had something completely different on its mind. During the 1950's it became increasingly preoccupied with the difficulties of defending its aircraft-carriers and their task groups against enemy air attack. The advent of high-speed jet-powered strike aircraft meant that they could close with the fleet much faster than during previous conflicts. The limited detection range of contemporary shipboard radars meant that there would be much less time available to intercept such threats. For example, given an effective radar range of 100 miles, an aircraft traveling at Mach 2 would need less than 5 minutes from initial detection to reach the carrier. Defending aircraft could not possibly be prepared, launched, and directed to intercept the enemy in so short a time. Furthermore, the advent of anti-ship guided missiles meant that attacking aircraft no longer needed to actually reach the carrier - they only had to get within missile range of it. This meant that even less reaction time was available to defend against such threats.
In response, the Navy decided to develop a complete system of fleet defense. It would have a long-range airborne radar component, to detect attackers at the furthest possible range: this became operational in 1964 as the Grumman E-2 Hawkeye early warning aircraft. This was originally intended to pass interception information to fighters armed with the proposed Bendix AAM-N-10 Eagle long-range air-to-air missile, which was to have a range of over 100 miles at a speed of up to Mach 4.5, and be capable of operating at altitudes up to 100,000 feet. To guide the missiles, the launching aircraft was to carry the proposed AN/APQ-81 pulse doppler radar system.
There were serious disagreements within the Navy as to what sort of aircraft was needed to carry the radar and missiles. To cut a long story short, it was initially decided that the aircraft would be no more than a launching platform for the missiles. It would not need to be highly maneuverable for dogfighting, and would not carry cannon, but would have to be able to loiter on combat patrol for extended periods at great distances from its parent carrier. This meant using economical engines at subsonic speeds to minimize fuel consumption. Side-by-side seating was preferred for the pilot and co-pilot, allowing them to share a single large radar display unit.
Douglas Aircraft Company began development of the F-6D Missileer to meet this requirement.
This aircraft would have been very large in comparison to its carrier-based contemporaries, weighing up to 60,000 pounds, with a crew of 3. However, early in its development serious doubts were raised within the Navy about its suitability. Opponents argued that once it had fired its missiles, the Missileer would be utterly defenseless, having to return to the carrier to rearm. While doing so, its low speed and poor maneuverability would render it highly vulnerable to enemy fighters. These arguments proved persuasive, and led to the Missileer program being canceled in December 1960. (However, its radar and missiles would continue in development, and emerge after many iterations as the AN/AWG-9 radar and AIM-54 Phoenix missile, both of which entered US Navy service aboard the Grumman F-14 Tomcat fighter in the 1970's.)
The Navy issued a revised requirement for its long-range fleet defense fighter. It now wanted supersonic capability and greater maneuverability, but retained the need to loiter on combat air patrol for extended periods at long distances from the parent carrier. Only a large, heavy aircraft would be able to combine all these attributes. The Navy had experimented unsuccessfully with variable geometry wings (of which more later) during the 1950's, but advances since those experiments had made the technology more viable. It offered a means of increasing payload and reducing landing speed (very important for carrier-based aircraft) without compromising combat performance. It was therefore specified as a likely solution to the new requirement.
So, by early 1961 there were two requirements on the table, one from the USAF and one from the USN. Both called for large, long-range, high-performance aircraft. The new Secretary of Defense, Robert McNamara, recognized a high-profile opportunity to apply the business management principles he wanted to implement across the Department of Defense and in all the armed services. He seized it. On February 14th, 1961, he ordered the USAF and USN to examine the possibility of uniting their differing specifications so that a single aircraft could satisfy both of them, thereby avoiding duplication of effort and saving a considerable amount of money.
Initial consultations between the two services led to agreement on the need for twin engines, variable geometry wings, and two crew members. However, their requirements for aerodynamic stress limits, top speed and physical size of the aircraft differed substantially. Nevertheless, in June that year McNamara ordered the two services to attempt to develop the TFX specification into an aircraft that could meet both services' needs. By September McNamara had decided to proceed on the basis of the USAF's requirements (which were the most complex and demanding), and adapt the resulting aircraft to meet the USN's needs as well.
In October 1961 a Request for Proposals was circulated to the US aerospace industry. By December initial responses had been received from Boeing, General Dynamics, Lockheed, McDonnell, North American and Republic. None of the preliminary proposals were deemed acceptable, but Boeing and General Dynamics were asked to prepare more detailed submissions. They did so by April 1962. The revised proposals were still not satisfactory to all parties, and two more rounds of submissions followed, until later that year a selection board picked Boeing's proposal for further development. However, McNamara overrode the board's choice, on the grounds that the General Dynamics submission offered greater commonality between the proposed USAF and USN versions of the plane, thereby offering (at least in theory) better economies of scale. His action caused controversy, including a Congressional inquiry, but he was able to enforce his choice. General Dynamics signed a development contract for the TFX program in December 1962.
It can't have taken long before the management team at General Dynamics must have wondered whether signing the TFX contract had been a wise decision. There were many new technologies involved in TFX, all of which had to be developed to production status and prepared for operational use in parallel with each other. It wasn't possible to develop one technology, test and approve it, and then go on to the next one. The complexity of so many new and untested elements being developed simultaneously was to prove extraordinarily difficult, and would continue to cause problems for the F-111 in operational service for many years. To make matters worse, the project was to be developed as a matter of urgency, with aircraft being put into production before all the problems encountered in development had been fully tested and resolved. This factor, more than any other, was to prove a recipe for disaster.
Five new technologies caused the greatest difficulties. They were:
- Variable geometry wings incorporating high lift devices;
- Turbofan powerplants and associated systems and structures;
- The need for new metal alloys;
- A sophisticated, automated navigation and weapons delivery system; and
- A novel crew escape system.
The remainder of this article will examine each of these technologies in turn.
VARIABLE GEOMETRY WINGS.
Variable geometry wings, or 'swing-wings' as they're sometimes called, were first conceived by Messerschmitt AG in Nazi Germany. In July 1944 the company responded to the Emergency Fighter Program with a revised version of its P.1101 project, initial design of which had begun as early as 1942. It included an adjustable wing whose angle of sweep could be altered on the ground before flight. A prototype was constructed, but did not fly before the end of World War II, when it was captured in an incomplete and damaged state by US forces.
The P.1101 prototype was brought to the USA and delivered to the Bell Aircraft Company for analysis. There it inspired chief designer Robert J. Wood to develop the Bell X-5 experimental aircraft. It was visually similar to the Messerschmitt P.1101, but incorporated a mechanism to change the angle of the wings in flight, rather than requiring them to be manually adjusted on the ground.
The X-5 first flew in 1951. It proved very difficult to control, not least because as the wings were swept further back, the lift vector they generated also moved, making the aircraft unstable. It also had vicious spin characteristics, which were to lead to the loss of one X-5 in October 1953, killing the test pilot, USAF Major Raymond Popson.
The surviving prototype was not further developed, due to the limitations of technology at the time, but the X-5 program provided valuable initial insight into the challenges of flight with a variable geometry wing. It holds an honored place in aviation history as the first aircraft to fly with this technology. The surviving X-5 aircraft is in the USAF Museum in Dayton, Ohio.
The US Navy was also interested in the use of variable geometry wings for its carrier aircraft. The technology held out particular promise for such an environment as aircraft grew larger and heavier. They needed larger wings, to reduce their wing loading to an acceptable level: but larger wings were a problem in terms of hangar and maneuvering room on board an aircraft carrier. Wings that could be swept back to take up as little space as possible offered a real advantage. In addition, when fully extended they offered slower landing speeds and better low-speed handling, always desirable for carrier operations, whereas in the fully swept position they offered the prospect of good high-speed performance.
Grumman developed the XF10F Jaguar for the Navy to investigate swing-wing technology.
It first flew in 1952, almost a year after the Bell X-5. Its wings could sweep in flight from 13½° to 42½°, less than the X-5, but adequate for the XF10F's rather sluggish performance (caused by having to fit a lower-powered engine than that for which it had been designed).
As with the X-5, serious stability and control problems were encountered, leading the Navy to terminate the XF10F project in April 1953 with only a single example built. Sadly, it hasn't survived.
Another experiment with variable geometry wings took place in Britain at about the same time. Short Brothers developed the SB5 in response to Air Ministry requirement ER.100.
The SB5 was more akin to the Messerschmitt P.1101 than to the Bell X-5 or Grumman XF10F. It was designed to test different wing sweep angles for a forthcoming proof-of-concept fighter prototype, the English Electric P1A. Its wing couldn't be moved in flight, but could be adjusted on the ground to 50°, 60° or 69° of sweep. Since testing the wing was its only reason for existence, other aspects of the SB5's design were relatively primitive - deliberately so, to save money. It didn't even have a retractable undercarriage!
The rear fuselage was detachable. Two were built, one with the tailplane above the fin and one with it below, to test which was the most efficient configuration. The SB5 first flew in December 1952. Experience gained with it provided the information designers needed to proceed with the P1A prototype, which in turn evolved into the English Electric Lightning fighter.
Happily for aviation enthusiasts, the SB5 survived its test program. It may be seen today in the RAF Museum, complete with both tail assemblies. In the in-flight photographs above, the upper-tailplane fuselage is shown; as displayed in the museum, below, the lower-tailplane fuselage is attached. (The latter configuration proved most efficient, and was subsequently used on the P1A and the Lightning.) The upper-tailplane unit may be seen next to the aircraft's nose.
Thus, by the mid-1950's, the viability of variable geometry wings had been proven in theory: but the handling of the aircraft using this technology had been so difficult as to render it useless for practical purposes. The reason wasn't hard to find, as examination of the photographs and line drawings above will show. As the wing's angle of sweep was increased, the portion of the wing nearest the aircraft body had to retract into the fuselage, thereby decreasing the overall wing area. This also had the effect of moving the center of the remaining lifting surface - the center of balance, if you will - further out, down the wing. If the aircraft's controls and trim were set up for the wing at one angle, they proved inadequate - sometimes dangerously so - when this was changed. The contemporary understanding of aerodynamics and control systems was not sufficiently advanced to find a solution to this problem.
The technology was not further developed until 1959, when researchers at NASA came up with a revolutionary idea. Instead of pivoting the 'swing-wing' at a single point, they suggested a double pivot, so that the wing root could move in and out as well as angle forward and back. This necessitated the use of a wide 'shoulder' joint in the fuselage, which kept the moving parts of the wing further away from the fuselage. Since it no longer had to retract into the latter, more of the wing's lifting surface or area was preserved at any given angle of sweep. The 'shoulder' could also be shaped as an airfoil, providing additional lift, and could conceivably support weapons pylons, thereby taking at least some of that burden off the wings themselves. The 'shoulder' concept is clearly illustrated below in this line drawing and photograph of the F-14 Tomcat fighter. Note how little of the wing area is obscured by the fuselage or 'shoulder' as its angle changes. Almost all of its lifting surface remains usable.
This new approach held out the promise of greatly improved handling for variable geometry aircraft, and was adopted for the F-111. However, note that the F-111's 'shoulder', shown below, is not as broad or pronounced as it is on the later F-14, shown above.
The concept of the 'shoulder' (also known as the 'glove') was not yet fully developed, and the designers at General Dynamics didn't make it sufficiently large or aerodynamically efficient. This was to plague the F-111 all its life (although designers of subsequent swing-wing aircraft [such as the F-14, shown above] would learn from this early mistake and avoid it). In particular, its performance in supersonic flight was initially unacceptably poor.
On December 19, 1962, representatives of General Dynamics and Grumman visited NASA Langley for discussions of the supersonic performance of the F-111. The manufacturers were informed that the supersonic trim drag of the aircraft could be significantly reduced and maneuverability increased by selecting a more favorable outboard wing-pivot location. Unfortunately, the manufacturers did not act on this recommendation, and it was subsequently widely recognized that the F-111 wing pivots were too far inboard. (It should be noted that the F-14 designers, aware of this shortcoming, designed the F-14 with a more outboard pivot location.) The F-111 subsequently exhibited very high levels of trim drag at supersonic speeds during its operational lifetime.
Incremental steps were taken to improve the situation, although they didn't completely cure the problem. (In fairness, let's remember that the F-111 was the first service aircraft to use variable geometry. It represented the state of the art at the time, so inevitably its designers had more to learn, and made more mistakes, than those who followed them.) The engineers at NASA Langley were to play a very important part in solving the F-111's aerodynamic problems.
The F-111's wings were long and thin. They could sweep from 16° (fully forward) to 72½° (fully back), as shown in this series of photographs of the F-111A, the first production model.
The wings were designed to flex under the g-forces imparted by heavy loads and high-speed maneuvers (when fully forward, the wingtips could displace from their position of rest by almost 7 feet under their designed maximum load of 7.33 positive g). The photograph below, showing a RAAF F-111 demonstrating a high-g turn at an air show, shows clearly how the wings bend under the aerodynamic stresses involved.
The stress of constant flexing was to lead to metallurgical problems, of which more later. To reduce wing loading for improved low-speed handling, full-length double-slotted flaps were provided, as well as full-length leading edge slats. Flaps and slats together greatly increased the wing area, as can be seen in the photographs below.
In addition, spoilers rose from the top of the wing to interrupt the airflow and assist with deceleration after landing. They are visible above the wing in the photograph below.
A set of pivoted surfaces were provided on the wing 'shoulder' or 'glove'. They were normally flush with the wing, but at slow speed, when maximum lift was required, they could be extended to smooth the airflow over the 'shoulder' and around the leading-edge slats. This helped to reduce the drag caused by the less-than-fully-efficient 'shoulder' design, as described above. They are shown below, circled in red.
The tailplane or horizontal stabilizer was set at the same height as the wing, so that when the latter was fully folded to the rear, wing and tailplane together formed the shape of a large delta wing, as shown below. This offered aerodynamic advantages.
The tailplane did not have an attached elevator: instead, the entire tailplane moved, forming an ultra-large control surface for the roll (i.e. longitudinal) and pitch (i.e. lateral) axes of rotation. The movement of the tailplane is clearly illustrated in this photograph of the tail of an RAAF F-111C, below.
The wings would carry most of the weapons, as the fuselage's internal bomb bay was small. Four pylons were fitted to each wing, each with a load capacity of up to 5,000 pounds. They could carry weapons or auxiliary fuel tanks. The two inboard pylons on each wing (closest to the fuselage) could swivel to keep their load aligned with the fuselage as the wings swept forward or back, thereby minimizing aerodynamic drag. Each could carry a single large or multiple smaller weapons such as bombs, missiles and rockets.
The two outermost pylons on each wing could not swivel. They were set up to be aligned with the fuselage when the wings were swept forward - i.e. for low-speed flight. For this reason, they were usually reserved for auxiliary fuel tanks. After takeoff, the aircraft would fly at lower speed with its wings swept forward while the fuel in these tanks was consumed. When they were empty, the tanks would be dropped, following which the wings could be swept to any desired angle, depending on the aircraft's speed.
The F-111's normal combat radius, using internal fuel only, was about 1,000 miles, or about 1,300 miles with two external tanks, as shown above. For very-long-range missions, all of the wing pylons could be used for fuel tanks, carrying only a small weapons load in the internal bomb bay. The F-111's maximum range (in ferry mode, without weapons, carrying external tanks plus more fuel in the weapons bay) could be stretched as far as 4,200 miles, allowing trans-oceanic deployments. In-flight refueling could extend the range even further, of course.
In order to reduce the wing loading and improve low-speed handling for the purposes of carrier landing, larger wings were designed for the US Navy version of the F-111. That version was canceled (as we'll discuss later), but its larger wings were adopted for a bomber version of the F-111 for the USAF's Strategic Air Command, and subsequently used on other models, providing additional fuel capacity and improved maneuverability.
The F-111's wings were technically very complex for its time, difficult to design and manufacture. The 'state of the art' had to be significantly improved in order to make them work. The F-111 was the 'guinea-pig' in this endeavor, and while its wings were never as good as they could have been with the benefit of later advances in technology, those advances were to a large extent the fruit of experience gained with this program.
TURBOFAN POWERPLANTS AND SYSTEMS
The first jet engines were so-called turbojets.
Turbojets consist of an air inlet, an air compressor, a combustion chamber, a gas turbine (that drives the air compressor) and a nozzle. The air is compressed into the chamber, heated and expanded by the fuel combustion and then allowed to expand out through the turbine into the nozzle where it is accelerated to high speed to provide propulsion.Turbojet engine (click diagram for a larger view). Image courtesy of Wikipedia
Turbojets offered excellent high-speed, high-altitude performance compared to piston engines, but had several shortcomings. They were very 'thirsty', consuming large quantities of fuel in relation to the distance covered. Early turbojets were also notoriously slow to respond to throttle input, so that a change in power might take several seconds between the engine controls being adjusted and the power actually being delivered. This caused more than a few accidents at low altitude.
The high fuel consumption of turbojet engines was of concern to both military and civilian aviation. If a more economical jet engine could be developed, flights over longer ranges could be undertaken. To achieve this, the turbojet engine was developed into what became known as the turbofan. Wikipedia describes the evolution as follows:
In a single-spool (or single-shaft) turbojet, which is the most basic form and the earliest type of turbojet to be developed, air enters an intake before being compressed to a higher pressure by a rotating (fan-like) compressor. The compressed air passes on to a combustor, where it is mixed with a fuel (e.g. kerosene) and ignited. The hot combustion gases then enter a windmill-like turbine, where power is extracted to drive the compressor. Although the expansion process in the turbine reduces the gas pressure (and temperature) somewhat, the remaining energy and pressure is employed to provide a high-velocity jet by passing the gas through a propelling nozzle. This process produces a net thrust opposite in direction to that of the jet flow.
After World War II, 2-spool (or 2-shaft) turbojets were developed to make it easier to throttle back compression systems with a high design overall pressure ratio (i.e., combustor inlet pressure/intake delivery pressure). Adopting the 2-spool arrangement enables the compression system to be split in two, with a Low Pressure (LP) Compressor supercharging a High Pressure (HP) Compressor. Each compressor is mounted on a separate (co-axial) shaft, driven by its own turbine (i.e. HP Turbine and LP Turbine). Otherwise a 2-spool turbojet is much like a single-spool engine.
Modern turbofans evolved from the 2-spool axial-flow turbojet engine, essentially by increasing the relative size of the Low Pressure (LP) Compressor to the point where some (if not most) of the air exiting the unit actually bypasses the core (or gas-generator) stream, passing through the main combustor. This bypass air either expands through a separate propelling nozzle, or is mixed with the hot gases leaving the Low Pressure (LP) Turbine, before expanding through a Mixed Stream Propelling Nozzle. ... Turbofans also have a better thermal efficiency. ... In a turbofan, the LP Compressor is often called a fan. Civil-aviation turbofans usually have a single fan stage, whereas most military-aviation turbofans (e.g. combat and trainer aircraft applications) have multi-stage fans.Turbofan engine (click diagram for a larger view). Image courtesy of Wikipedia
Rolls-Royce in England was the first company to produce a turbofan engine, which they christened the Conway. Other companies followed suit. Early turbofans showed promise, giving better fuel consumption, better throttle response, and proving to be less maintenance-intensive than contemporary turbojets.
However, applying turbofan technology to military aircraft posed a host of problems. Air intake geometry for turbojets was well understood by the late 1950's, but the low-pressure bypass systems of early turbofan engines would require a new approach, which was not fully understood at first. Furthermore, the engines would have to function at widely varying extremes of operation, from low-level to high altitudes; from low speeds to high supersonic dashes; and at extreme angles of attack. The demands on military turbofans would be far greater and more complex than on their commercial equivalents. However, their greater fuel efficiency meant that their adoption was inevitable. So it proved for the F-111.
Pratt & Whitney won the competition to design the F-111's engines. They had begun development of a low-bypass turbofan for the Navy's proposed subsonic F-6D Missileer aircraft, which we discussed above. When that program was canceled, they continued to develop the engine into what became the TF30, adapting it to use an afterburner for supersonic flight. It's perhaps appropriate that the intended successor to the F-6D would use the engine originally intended for the earlier program.
The TF30 was the first afterburning turbofan engine to be developed. Its initial version, which flew aboard the prototype F-111 in 1964 and entered service on the F-111A initial production model, developed 12,000 pounds of static thrust when 'dry' or normally aspirated, and 18,500 pounds with afterburner. Later versions would increase these figures, and would be used on subsequent models of the F-111 and on the later F-14 Tomcat, discussed above.
The TF30 was a very advanced engine for its day, but - perhaps precisely because of its advanced nature - was plagued with problems. On the F-111, many of these were attributed to defective design and placement of the air intakes. These were mounted beneath the leading edge of the wing 'shoulder' box, also known as the wing glove. Each intake had a triangular wedge in its upper inner corner, and a large planar wedge was mounted in front of each intake, parallel to the fuselage. The intake cowls could be moved forward or backward, depending on air speed and angle of attack, to optimize airflow to the engines. Vortex generators were provided inside each intake to stabilize the airflow.
Regrettably, the airflow management of early intake models proved seriously deficient, resulting in compressor stalls and even flameouts at certain angles of attack. The problem would not be resolved for many years, during which several redesigned air intakes were tried and found wanting before the final configuration, known as 'Triple Plow II' (shown below), was adopted in the 1970's. Note, in the second photograph below, the circled auxiliary air inlets in the side of the air intake, allowing a greater volume of air to reach the engines at low speeds for takeoff.
The F-111's intakes are larger than they first appear, as may be seen in this photograph of a technician working inside one of them. Note the vortex generators, some of which are circled in red.
In addition to their aerodynamic problems, the low placement of the intakes meant that runway debris was easily kicked up into them by the nosewheel. This caused a number of accidents, and meant that the original design objective of operating the F-111 from rough, unprepared airstrips was never really feasible. In practice, the aircraft was restricted to long, hard-surface runways, which had to be carefully inspected for foreign objects before takeoff.
However, air intakes were not the only cause of problems with the TF30. Being the first engine of its kind in the world, it had ventured into unknown territory. Some of the metal alloys and other materials used in its construction proved unequal to the demands upon them, causing serious serviceability issues and maintenance headaches. Redesigned components would have to be introduced to replace them. Designers of subsequent engines would benefit from such experiences, but that didn't help the TF30 to cope with the many demands upon it. It was used in initial models of the F-14 Tomcat fighter, but continued to prove less than fully satisfactory, and was eventually replaced in later models of that aircraft by more modern, more powerful and more reliable engines.
Nevertheless, let's give credit where credit is due. As the first of its kind, the TF30 was a remarkable achievement, for all its problems. Despite its limitations, it's continued to serve on the F-111 to this day (although requiring due care from pilots, who throughout the service life of the aircraft had to learn when they could 'push' their engines, and when it was best to be very cautious with their throttles).
NEW METAL ALLOYS
The variable geometry wings and turbofan engines of the F-111 posed entirely new challenges to engineers in terms of finding metals that would stand up to the stresses involved. They succeeded . . . but not before numerous problems that almost destroyed the program.
Originally it was intended to use titanium for many airframe components. Titanium is extremely light, very strong, and offers excellent heat resistance. Unfortunately, it also poses many difficulties, not least of which is its very high price. Cadmium-plated tools (common in production environments) interact with titanium parts, meaning they can't be used. Titanium must be heat-treated before use, an added complication, and is so hard that it dulls drill bits prematurely. Titanium also reacts with oxygen in the air during welding, meaning that it can only be welded in a nitrogen environment. All these factors made it cost-prohibitive to use titanium for the F-111.
Therefore, it was decided to use steel and aluminum alloys for the project. Unfortunately, the steel alloy selected, known as D6AC, was new and relatively untried in aircraft production. Furthermore, the aluminum was not in sheet form (which was well understood in the aerospace industry of the day), but in honeycomb panels that would be layered onto the fuselage frames. This was certainly innovative and efficient, but it was also untried, new technology. General Dynamics would encounter enormous problems in resolving all of the difficulties raised by such new approaches.
A particular problem, one that almost destroyed the program, was the wing carry-through structure in the fuselage (incorporating the gearbox that swept the wings forward or back). Extensive modifications and changes in material were incorporated during development, but these proved inadequate.To add to the project's woes, it was later found that the manufacturer of the wing carry-through box, Selb Manufacturing Corp., had bribed production-line quality-control inspectors to approve unauthorized weldings. This was only discovered after many F-111's had already entered service. The fleet was immediately grounded. (Selb was subsequently convicted on criminal charges, and was successfully sued by General Dynamics for civil damages.)
NASA Langley, which had been so helpful in dealing with the F-111's aerodynamic issues, would again provide a solution to these problems.
In December 1969, an F-111 experienced a catastrophic wing failure during a pull-up from a simulated bombing run at Nellis Air Force Base. This aircraft only had about 100 hr of flight time when the wing failed. The failure originated from a fatigue crack, which had emanated from a sharp-edged forging defect in the wing-pivot fitting. As a result of the accident, the Air Force convened several special committees to investigate the failure and recommend a recovery program. James C. Newman, Jr. and Herbert F. Hardrath represented Langley on the recovery team deliberations, and along with Charles M. Hudson and Wolf Elber, they conducted fatigue crack growth and fracture tests on specimens made from the D6ac steel used in the aircraft. These tests were conducted in the Langley Fatigue and Fracture Laboratory under conditions that simulated aircraft operations. The original material had low fracture toughness due to the heat-treatment process. The committee recommended that every F-111 be subjected to a low-temperature proof test. This proof-test concept had been developed and successfully used in the Apollo program, as well as other missile and space efforts. To screen out the smallest possible flaw size, the F-111 full-scale proof tests were conducted at temperatures of about -40¾ F, where the fracture toughness of the D6ac steel was lower than the fracture toughness at room temperature. The heat-treatment process was also corrected to provide improved toughness for the D6ac material in newer aircraft. ... As a result of the revised proof-test approach and the improved toughness material, there were no F-111 aircraft lost due to structural failure in almost 30 years of operations before the aircraft was retired from service in 1996.
The F-111 failure was most responsible for the U.S. Air Force developing the damage-tolerant design concept, where flaws, such as a 0.05-in. crack, are assumed to exist in critical aircraft components. The structural components must then be tolerant of these defects during flight conditions. This concept relies on fatigue crack growth and fracture criteria to establish an inspection interval to insure the safety and reliability of the aircraft.
The USAF continued its Cold Temperature Proof Testing program until it retired the last of its F-111's in 1998. The RAAF used USAF facilities to test their F-111's, and built their own test facility after the USAF's closed down. An interesting technical account of their procedures and experiences 'down under', which were of course similar to those of the USAF, may be found here.
AUTOMATED NAVIGATION AND WEAPONS DELIVERY SYSTEMS
The USAF wanted the world's most sophisticated navigation and weapons delivery system on its new strike aircraft. Different components provided for communications, navigation, terrain following, target acquisition and attack, and suppression of enemy air defense systems. A radar bombing system was required for use at night or in bad weather.
To satisfy these requirements, different companies developed components that were then integrated into an overall system. The Mk I avionics system in the first production models included a Litton AJQ-20 inertial navigation and attack system, a General Electric AN/APQ-112 attack radar, a Honeywell APN-167 pulsed-type radar, a Texas Instruments AN/APQ-110 terrain-following radar, and Collins ARC-109 UHF and ARC-112 HF radio transceivers. Electronic countermeasures systems included the ALE-28 chaff/flare dispenser, APS-109 radar-warning receiver (RWR), and Sanders Associates ALQ-94 noise/deception set.
The terrain-following radar (TFR) was integrated into the automatic flight control system, allowing for "hands-off" flight at high speeds and low levels (down to 200 ft). The system allowed the aircraft to fly at a constant altitude, following the Earth's contours through valleys or over mountains, day or night, regardless of weather conditions. If any of the system's circuits failed, the aircraft automatically initiated a climb.
It proved very difficult to develop and integrate the various components involved. However, the result was (at the time) the finest navigation and weapons delivery system in the world. It was so good that it would not be surpassed until the 1980's, with the B-1 Lancer program. Indeed, the Soviet Union and China sought (and obtained) the wreckage of F-111's shot down over North Vietnam in the early 1970's, in order to reverse-engineer their systems. In particular, China tried to do so (unsuccessfully) for its later-canceled Nanchang Q-6 project.
Later versions of the F-111 would employ upgraded avionics and weapons systems, which are too numerous to describe here. They would also employ external weapons guidance systems such as the AN/AVQ-26 Pave Tack target designator pod, shown below, in conjunction with laser-guided bombs.
While we're speaking of low-level flight, this is a good time to note that such flying involves a greatly increased risk of bird strikes. The photograph below shows a RAAF F-111 that suffered a bird strike to the side of its radome (the luckless bird bounced off and continued down the side of the aircraft into the engine intake). Notice how the radome's construction of woven synthetic fibers (chosen for their light weight and transparency to radio and radar emissions) has 'unraveled' due to the impact.
The impressions of a USAF pilot who suffered a bird strike during a flight in an F-111 may be read here.
The internal bay of the F-111 was designed to carry a pair of nuclear weapons, either the B43, B57, B61 or B83 free-fall bombs or the AGM-69 SRAM missile. The bay could be used for conventional bombs as well, accommodating two of the 500-pound Mk. 82, the 1,000-pound Mk. 83, the 2,000-pound Mk. 84 or the M118 3,000-pound weapons (although in actual operations the latter two bombs were never carried internally, but beneath the wings, as a Pave Tack laser designator pod would be fitted inside the bomb bay). The diagrams below show the location of the bomb bay within the F-111's fuselage, and how weapons would be mounted in it.
Auxiliary fuel tanks could be carried in the bay instead of bombs, or a 20mm. M61 Vulcan cannon and 2,000 rounds of ammunition could be fitted there. (The cannon was primarily intended for air-to-air combat by the US Navy's F-111B fighter-optimized version, which was subsequently canceled.) As far as I know, the cannon was never carried operationally by USAF or RAAF F-111's. RAAF aircraft were also equipped to carry the AGM-84 Harpoon anti-ship missile and the AGM-142 Popeye/Have Nap, shown below.
Two stations were provided beneath the aircraft to carry electronic countermeasures (ECM) pods and/or datalink pods. One was beneath the weapon bay (shown earlier in the photograph of an F-111 with a Pave Tack designator pod, which was always mounted on this station), and the other on the rear fuselage, between and below the engines. Weapons could not be carried on these stations.
The F-111A could, in theory, carry up to 31,500 pounds of ordnance, although in practice only up to 20,000 pounds was usually loaded. The heaviest conventional bombing loads (such as were used in Operation Desert Storm) usually comprised up to 24 Mk. 82 500-pound bombs, carried on the four inner weapons pylons beneath the wings, or up to four laser-guided Mk. 84 2,000-pound bombs, with a laser designator mounted beneath the weapons bay. In the photograph below, an F-111 releases 24 Mk. 82 bombs during a training exercise.
Sometimes, for very-low-level attacks, it was necessary to use bombs with braking or retarding devices, to ensure they fell sufficiently far behind the aircraft to avoid damaging it with their blast. A parachute retarding device was developed for the Mk. 82 bomb, as shown below.
A clamshell-type air-brake retarding device was also available, which could be retrofitted to any standard US bomb. One is shown below, fitted to a Mk. 117 750-pound high-drag bomb.
These apparently proved more reliable in service than the parachute devices, some of which are said to have failed to open.
CREW ESCAPE SYSTEM
As with so many other innovations in aircraft technology, the development of assisted escape systems for aircrew began in Germany, prior to and during World War II. Jim Griff's excellent ejector seats Web site describes them as follows:
In Germany, developments in aeronautical technology were accelerating with the introduction of the jet engine, while by 1939, the Luftwaffe’s Aviation Medicine branch was actively experimenting with ejection systems, using physiological testing devices that included instruments for measuring the forces of gravity and acceleration on the human body. Their tests has determined rough physiological parameters of human ability to withstand G force onset of about +20G for a duration of about 0.1 second. The German preference was at this time for a compressed gas system of ejecting the aircrew seat, although explosive cartridge propelled seats were also under development. The need for adequate aircrew escape from dive-bombing aircraft such as the Ju-87 Stuka, with its sustained high positive G loading during pull-out, significantly motivated investigations into use of high-pressure systems to eject aircrew. The German manufacturer Heinkel maintained chief engineering responsibility for development of all aircraft escape systems, throughout the war, and by late 1942 all German experimental aircraft being flight tested were equipped with some form of Heinkel ejection seat.
With aircraft development feverishly continuing in wartime Germany, Heinkel-developed ejection seats finally started being installed in production aircraft, as radical new designs came into use. Although the singular Messerschmitt 262 twin-engined production jet fighter-bomber (Schwalb) did not feature such a schleudersitzaparat (the German term for 'ejection seat', which translates roughly to "seat catapult device"), reports suggest that at least a few versions (Sturmvogel) had what has been described as a catapult-seat (although it is not clear whether the seat was driven by an explosive charge or by a spring mechanism). Other aircraft, such as the Heinkel He-162 Volksjäger, were provided with a compressed air propelled ejection seat. Other aircraft to feature similar systems included the Dornier Do-335 Pfeil, the Arado Ar-234B Nachtigal, the Heinkel He-177, the Heinkel He-219 Uhu, the DFS-228, and the rocket-powered Messerschmitt Me-163 Komet (this last system was spring powered). Additionally, earlier research begun in the late 30s by Heinkel had resulted in the first recorded example of a completely ejectable crew compartment being developed. The rocket-powered Heinkel He-176 (the world’s first rocket propelled aircraft) featured a nose section which could be jettisoned in the event of an emergency. Development problems involving successful deployment of the main parachute designed to slow descent of the ejected crew compartment resulted in several innovative engineering designs, and subsequent testing demonstrated that in the event of the crew being disabled, the He-176’s crew compartment would enable its occupant to survive a landing within the escape pod with only minor injuries.
There's more on the history of ejection seats and capsules at the link. Very interesting reading.
Ejection seats were used in most jet-powered combat aircraft from the late 1940's onward. By the early 1960's their technology was mature, but was also proving to be inadequate for the very high speeds and altitudes then being attained. Wind blast and oxygen starvation injured or killed a number of pilots. Clearly, an improved crew ejection system was needed, particularly for an aircraft like the F-111. It would operate from very low level to very high altitude, from zero to more than 60,000 feet, and from subsonic to high-supersonic speeds. (Indeed, the F-111 proved to be the second-fastest aircraft ever developed in the Western world during the 20th century: it had a sustained high-altitude speed of Mach 2.6, second only to the famous SR-71 Blackbird, which cruised at Mach 3+.) Its crew might have to abandon the aircraft at any point in this extraordinarily wide flight envelope.
In the late 1950's Stanley Aviation developed an encapsulated ejection seat (shown below) for the B-58 Hustler supersonic bomber.
It closed a clamshell-like protective covering over the crew member before he abandoned the aircraft, protecting him from high-speed wind blast and buffeting during the ejection process. It contained survival equipment for use after landing, including food, flotation gear for use at sea, etc. An excellent description of its operation, including more pictures and diagrams, may be found here. Unfortunately, it did not always prove reliable in service, but being the first of its kind to be developed, that's perhaps not surprising.
General Dynamics developed this idea further. Someone there came up with the very bright idea that if the entire crew compartment was ejected intact, no retractable shields or other devices would be necessary. The F-111's crew compartment was therefore designed to be blasted free of the aircraft, remaining sealed against the environment and deploying its own parachutes for descent.
The pod was later used for training, then restored for display purposes.
The capsule was fully pressurized. The pilot and navigator sat side-by-side in a 'shirt-sleeve' environment, needing neither oxygen masks nor pressure suits. In the event of an emergency, the entire pod was fired from the aircraft by a powerful rocket motor, which could function at any point in the flight envelope, from zero-zero (i.e. zero speed and zero altitude, with the aircraft standing still on the ground) all the way to maximum speed and altitude (Mach 2.6 at 60,000-plus feet).
parachute already deployed below and behind the capsule.
The capsule would then descend to earth under its own parachute, with the crew still safely inside. It would float in water, with the added assistance of inflatable flotation bags, or provide a shelter on land until the crew could be rescued. Survival equipment was carried in the capsule to cater for almost any emergency.
being used for aircrew training in a swimming-pool.
Note the inflated flotation bags behind the cockpit.
The capsule proved difficult and time-consuming to develop. The first F-111's flew with conventional ejection seats, as the capsule could not be finished in time. However, the eleventh and subsequent F-111's received the capsule on the assembly line, and earlier aircraft were retrofitted with it.
Despite its complexity, the escape capsule proved highly successful in operation, saving the lives of many aircrew over the service life of the aircraft. The only problem encountered was that impact forces on landing were very high, sometimes measured at over 30 g's, which caused injuries to some survivors. However, considering the alternative, one suspects they put up with the injuries relatively cheerfully!
The capsule below is from an FB-111A which crashed in Vermont on February 2nd, 1989. The pod landed safely one mile from the crash site. The crew escaped without serious injury.
We've looked at the development of five of the F-111's most complex systems and structures. Next week, in Weekend Wings #38, we'll examine the testing and operational deployment of this aircraft; how problems with these and other systems were overcome; and how the F-111 became one of the premier strike aircraft of its day. | <urn:uuid:c1faa6e6-43db-4d41-886d-5571fb4b5845> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://bayourenaissanceman.blogspot.com/2010/11/weekend-wings-37-f-111-aardvark-part-1.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00138-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974123 | 11,483 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Izanagi (イザナギ, recorded in the Kojiki as 伊弉諾) is a deity who was a child of the seven divine generations in Japanese mythology and Shintoism, and is also referred to in the roughly translated Kojiki as "male who invites", or Izanagi-no-mikoto.
He and his wife Izanami created many islands, deities, and forefathers of Japan. When Izanami died while giving birth to a child, Izanagi tried (but failed) to retrieve her from Yomi (the underworld). In the cleansing rite after his return, he created Amaterasu (the sun goddess) from his left eye, Tsukuyomi (the moon god) from his right eye, and Susanoo (tempest or storm god) from his nose. When Izanagi looks at his wife in Yomi, he sees her monstrous and hellish state and she is ashamed and angry. She chases him in order to kill him. She fails, but promises to kill a thousand of his people every day. Izanagi says that he will create a thousand and five hundred every day.
Mythic Texts and Folktales: | <urn:uuid:a4dea952-bc2d-4f3c-951b-2bdbd9b993ce> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izanagi | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00158-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.988954 | 244 | 2.546875 | 3 |
How long does it take to make consumer goods safer? More than a year ago, Fast Company writer David Case published an air-tight investigation showing that some plastic manufacturers were using the big tobacco playbook, manufacturing doubt about the harmfulness of BPA, a chemical used to make everything from baby bottles to canned food package liners more shatter proof. High doses of the chemical can leech out and are believed to contribute to a range of developmental, neurological, reproductive, and immune disorders. The message to companies was obvious: Innovate assembly lines or face more brand contamination.
But wait. Some actually listened. This week, as two New York Senators finally call for a ban on BPA for products marketed to children and pregnant women, a handful of new BPA-free goods are already available. Yes, some food companies have merely switched from plastic to glass, but baby companies like BornFree, thinkbaby, Green to Grow, Nuby, Momo Baby, Mother's Milkmate, and Medela's offer a new line of durable, non-polycarbonate-based bottles and containers. That Consumer Reports just released a study showing BPA present in larger concentrations within an even bigger range of range of products than first thought means that production formula is about to get a lot more valuable. | <urn:uuid:aab3f979-1dac-40c0-ad48-79327e5b4ef9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.fastcompany.com/1491404/finally-new-york-state-senators-deal-bpa-holes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00130-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945561 | 261 | 2.6875 | 3 |
What is the I-Ching (Yjing)?
The I-Ching originated from Ancient China. It is at least a few thousand years old although its exact age is uncertain. “Yi” means change, while “jing” refers to the text itself; hence its literal English translation “Book of Changes.” I-Ching is the Wade-Giles Romanization of the Yijing.
On the one hand, the Chinese viewed it a classic text and a book of wisdom. Its study was mandatory amongst scholars. On the other hand, it was also used for divination purposes to guide one’s choices in life. From emperors to statesmen to common folk, many turned to the I-Ching for its advice on dealing with life’s problems.
Life is a series of tests and challenges caused by change. Thus, in my opinion, the I-Ching is an instruction manual to manage these tests and challenges well.
What can the I-Ching do? It can show me how to align my actions and choices with the times. It can guide me in handling any problem I face. Through it, I know what is possible and what is not. With its wisdom, I know when to act, retreat or wait. This helps me to make the best choices, attain the goals I seek and manage any challenge in the best possible way.
What is I-Ching Divination?
Divination is a skill by which one foresees the outcome of events in advance. This foresight involves the use of intuition.
I-Ching divination is the use of the I-Ching to divine the outcome of events. The I-Ching serves to enhance one’s intuition and foresight. Through this process, you will be able to know how to align your actions and choices with the circumstances you face. Flowing with the times instead of against it makes it likelier for you to achieve your goals.
How Does I-Ching Divination Work?
A part of us is at one with the Universe and its wisdom. Connected through time and space, it knows all that we cannot know through logic alone. By tapping the full extent of our intuition, we will be able to foresee events in advance. Through this, we can make the best choices in any situation.
Because of the limits of my intuition alone, I rely on the I-Ching to enhance it. The I-Ching also serves to provide me with the answers to any questions that I may have. But here, I must be careful not to allow my logic to tamper with the process. To this end, I toss three coins to obtain my answers through chance and synchronicity. After that, I turn to the I-Ching to interpret my answer in the context of my question.
The Benefits of I-Ching Divination: How can it help you?
1. Have Good Fortune Avoid Misfortune
Misfortune can be a shock to most people. This is especially so when they do not expect it. To worsen matters, it is often hard to make the best choices as they react to the dangers they face in the midst of chaos. In the process, they may worsen the misfortune they face.
I-Ching divination can help you to avoid misfortune. It can reveal dangers to you early. With this foresight, you may be able to avoid or pre-empt the potential misfortune. If you cannot avoid the danger, you should still have time to prepare to manage it better. By reducing the misfortunes you face in life, you naturally prolong the good fortune you have.
2. Avoid Needless Problems and Costly Mistakes
At critical times, with much at stake, there are two things to avoid. The first thing is fatal mistakes that can cost you dearly. The second thing is needless problems that complicate the situation.
I-Ching divination can show you how to avoid needless problems and costly mistakes. It can show you how to manage any situation in the best possible way. Doing so will make it likelier for you to attain your desired outcome.
3. Increase Support and Lessen Resistance Towards Your Goals
To attain your goals, you need to increase the factors that support you and reduce the elements that oppose you. Here, I-Ching divination can help you to achieve both ends. It does so by showing you how to align your actions and choices with the times and circumstances you face. You will know what to do, how to do it and when to do so. You will know which action and choice is best, which is not so good and what you must avoid.
Acting in the right way at the right time and place increases the factors that support you. At the same time, this also reduces the resistance against you. When you act in a way that is appropriate to the situation you face, you increase the chances of getting what you want.
A Note on Free Will
Life consists of many cycles both human and environmental that have recurring patterns. For instance, there are business cycles and the seasons. Cycles are never stagnant. They are always changing. The I-Ching with its deep understanding of change is a guidebook on how to deal with these changes.
My time with the I-Ching has taught me that it is possible to alter the course of events through the choices you make. Your future and destiny is not fixed or pre-determined. Your choices and actions shape the kind of life and future you will have.
Having said that, it is easier for you to drift along the natural course a cycle takes than it is for you to change it. It is always easier to follow the path of least resistance. Trying to change the course of events is like trying to kick a bad habit; it requires effort. But you can alter the course of events at the right moments. And if you align yourself with the times and circumstances, your efforts to do so will be easier.
I can show you how to change the course of events in your life. But while I can lay out the options you have, it is up to you to decide what to do with this foresight. For example, I could tell you that a heavy thunderstorm is coming. Whether you choose to stay indoors until the storm passes or brave the rain with a brolly is up to you.
My goal is to help and empower you to the best of my abilities. But at the end of the day, you and you alone are responsible for the choices you make. This is the free will that you and everyone else have in life. And because of this free will, how your future turns out is up to you. | <urn:uuid:0989e501-3f82-471a-88e8-cb7eddd6e2b6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://hanofharmony.com/ask-the-vizier/yijing/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00010-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956979 | 1,390 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Contado d'Ollanda Parte Settentrionale. - Contado d'Ollanda Parte Meridionale.
1692 (undated) 35 x 23 in (88.9 x 58.42 cm)
A spectacular example of Coronelli's two part map of Holland or the Netherlands. The upper sheet covers from Friesland to Amsterdam including all of the Zuyder Zee. The southern map covers from the Haarlem Meer south to Breeda and east to Batenborg. Identifies countless cities and towns throughout with larger centers appearing in block form. This map also prominently displays Holland's elaborate canal and irrigation network. Cartographically Coronelli probably drew the material for this map from earlier work by the prominent Dutch cartographers Claes Jansz Visscher or Fredrick de Wit. Each sheet has its own decorative title cartouche, though that of the upper sheet is notably more elaborate being dramatically engraved in the Italian baroque style. The upper sheet additionally boasts a second cartouche in the upper left quadrant that has been left blank - this was most likely intended for a legend that was never completed. Though this map was issued in both Coronelli's 1697 issue of the Atlante Veneto and the 1692 Corso Geográfico, we are able to firmly associate this example with the later due to its blank verso.
Vincenzo Maria Coronelli (August 16, 1650 - December 9, 1718) was an important 17th century cartographer and globe maker based in Venice. Coronelli was born the fifth child of a tailor in Venice. Unlikely to inherit his father's business, he instead apprenticed in Ravenna to a woodcut artist. Around 1663, Coronelli joined the Franciscan Order and in 1671, entered the Venetian convent of Saint Maria Gloriosa dei Frari. Coronelli excelled in the fields of cosmography, mathematics, and geography. Though his works include the phenomenal Atlante Veneto, Coronelli is best known for his globes. In 1678 Coronelli was commissioned to make his first major globes by Ranuccio II Farnese, Duke of Parma. Each superbly engraved globe was five feet in diameter. Louis IV of France, having heard of the magnificent Parma globes, invited Coronelli to Paris where he constructed an even more impressive pair of gigantic globes measuring over 12 feet in diameter and weighing 2 tons each. Coronelli returned to Venice and continued to published globes, maps, and atlases which were admired all over Europe for their beauty, accuracy, and detail. He had a particular fascination for the Great Lakes region and his early maps of this area were unsurpassed in accuracy for nearly 100 years after their initial publication. He is also well known for his groundbreaking publication of the first accurate map depicting the sources of the Blue Nile. At the height of his career, Coronelli founded the world's first geographical society, the Accademia Cosmografica degli Argonauti and was awarded the official title Cosmographer of the Republic of Venice. In 1699, in recognition of his extraordinary accomplishment and scholarship, Coronelli was also appointed Father General of the Franciscan Order. The great cartographer and globe maker died in Venice at the age of 68. His extraordinary globes can be seen today at the Bibliothèque Nationale François Mitterrand in Paris, Biblioteca Marciana in Venice, in the National Library of Austria and in the Globe Museum in Vienna, in the library of Stift Melk, in the Special Collections Library of Texas Tech University, as well as lesser works in Trier, Prague, London, and Washington D.C. Coronelli's work is notable for its distinctive style, which is characterized by high quality white paper, dark intense impressions, detailed renderings of topographical features in profile, and numerous cartographic innovations.
Coronelli, V. M., Corso Geográfico, 1692.
The Atlante Veneto was a Venetian cosmographic atlas issued by the Jesuit Minorite friar, geographer, and globe maker Vincenzo Maria Coronelli. The Atlante Veneto was a massive work consisting of some 13 volumes in four parts. The first section focused on a general introduction to geography and included notes a various geographic systems and globes. The second part consisted of world maps from various periods and in various styles, including double page maps of the continents and poles derived from his earlier globe work. The third part focused on hydrography and included nautically styled maps of important rivers, bays, oceans, lakes, and gulfs. The fourth and final section detailed exploration and describing noting various explorers and their discoveries. The whole consisted of some 191 engraved charts and maps as well as an assortment of views and decorative plates. The atlas was conceived as a continuation of Blaeu's Atlas Major and in many respects follows Blaue cartographically. Many of the other maps are derived from Coronelli's own earlier globe work and exhibit various distinctly globe-like elements. Coronelli first issued the Atlante Veneto in 1691. A second edition was prepared and issued between 1695 and 1697. Most of the individual map plates remain identical between editions. The maps of the Atlante Veneto are universally admired for their exquisite engraving and high production quality, including fine paper and premium inks. All examples were issued uncolored and have typcially been left as such by dealers and collectors.
Very good condition. Original centerfold. Pressmark visible. Blank on verso.
Blonk, D. and Blonk-van der Wijst, J., Een kartobibliografie van Holland, Hollandia Comitatus, 73. | <urn:uuid:06e726d1-6d10-4fdf-bee3-5265a814243f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.geographicus.com/P/AntiqueMap/Holland-coronelli-1692 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00115-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953215 | 1,227 | 2.609375 | 3 |
First views of Earth from Sentinel-3A
Just two weeks after launch, the latest Sentinel satellite has offered a taster of what it will provide for the EU’s Copernicus programme.
Sentinel-3A’s very first image, captured at 14:09 GMT on 29 February, shows the transition from day to night over Svalbard, Norway.
As well as showing the snow-covered archipelago, the image also details Arctic sea ice and some cloud features.
Another image delivered on the same day shows California, USA. It also captures Los Angeles, which coincidentally is where the International Ocean Colour Coordinating Group Meeting is taking place.
The following day, one of the images shows Spain, Portugal, the Strait of Gibraltar and North Africa.
These images were captured by its ocean and land colour instrument, OLCI. With heritage from Envisat, this new instrument has 21 spectral bands, a resolution of 300 m and a swath width of 1270 km.
Offering new eyes on Earth, this improved instrument will allow ocean ecosystems to be monitored. It will also support vegetation, crop conditions and inland water monitoring as well as provide estimates of atmospheric aerosol and clouds – all of which bring significant benefits to society through more informed decision-making.
Volker Liebig, ESA’s Director of Earth Observation Programmes, said, “This first image already reveals the true versatility of Sentinel-3A.
“The mission will be at the heart of a wide range of applications, from measuring marine biological activity to providing information about the health of vegetation.
“Given its extensive payload, Sentinel-3A is a real workhorse that is set to make a step change in the variety of data products provided to users.”
Carrying a suite of instruments working together, Sentinel-3A is arguably the most complex of all the Copernicus Sentinels. Once commissioned, it will systematically measure Earth’s oceans, land, ice and atmosphere to monitor large-scale global dynamics and provide critical near-realtime information for ocean and weather forecasting.
Philippe Brunet, Director of the European Commission’s Directorate-General for Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and Small- and Medium-sized Enterprises, said, “The launch of Sentinel-3A further expands the fleet of dedicated missions for Copernicus services.
“This mission is particularly important as it will contribute to the Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service and the global land component of the Copernicus Land Service.”
Following the satellite’s launch and early operations phase, which was completed in record time, it is spending the next five months being commissioned for service. The satellite is expected to be in its ‘reference’ orbit by 3 March.
Once commissioned, ESA will hand over satellite operations to EUMETSAT. The mission will then be managed jointly, with ESA generating the land products and EUMETSAT the marine products for application through the Copernicus services.
Alain Ratier, EUMETSAT’s Director-General, added: “This first image is a promise to the marine user community. As the operator of the Sentinel-3 marine mission, we are delighted to see the first fruit of our cooperation with ESA and the European Commission, and we are looking forward to delivering many more images and products to users after the commissioning.”
These first images are just the beginning. OLCI was the first instrument to be switched on. In the coming days there will be more news from Sentinel-3’s altimeter, which measures the height of the ocean surface, and the radiometer, designed to measure land and sea-surface temperatures. | <urn:uuid:79f5544c-8e38-4ad9-a751-7c38c9c4ef54> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Observing_the_Earth/Copernicus/Sentinel-3/First_views_of_Earth_from_Sentinel-3A | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00049-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.917888 | 777 | 2.765625 | 3 |
1507 – Fernando Alvarez de Toledo was born on the 29th of October.
1525 – He was engaged with distinction at the Battle of Pavia.
1527 – He fought against the Turks in Hungary.
1535 – He took a part in the siege and successfully defended Perpignan against the dauphin of France.
1547 – He was in the Battle of Muhlberg and the victory gained.
1552 – He was entrusted with the command of the army intended to invade France.
1556-1559 – He served as viceroy of Naples.
1567-1573 – He served as a Spanish General and Governor of the Spanish Netherlands.
1573 – He was definitively relieved of his office and succeeded by Don Luis of Requesens on the 19th of October.
1580 – He defeated Antonio in the Battle of Alcantara.
1582 – He died on the 11th of December. | <urn:uuid:8dfeb59f-8a58-4bfb-98bf-a943899e82cc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.s9.com/Biography/Alvarez-De-Toledo-Fernando | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00129-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.989498 | 199 | 3.3125 | 3 |
Part B: Weak Acid and Strong Base
© Silvia Kolchens
Pima Community College
B. Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base
When tritrating a weak acid with a strong base we obtain an acid-base titration curve with the following characteristic features (Figure 2):
How to calculate pH values for weak acid/strong base titration curves:
Example: Titrate 50 mL 0.1 M acetic acid (CH3COOH) with 0.1 M NaOH solution:
CH3COOH + NaOH ó
CH3COO- + H2O + Na+
(1) What is the pH of the acetic acid before any base is added?
When dealing with weak acids in aqueous solutions, we can no longer assume total dissociation. In fact, the equilibrium lies predominantly on the left hand side of the equation:
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ç CH3COO- (aq) + H3O+(aq)
In this case, the hydronium ion concentration is not immediately known, but can be determined from an iCe table:
We make the approximation that x is much smaller than the initial concentration (x<<0.1) and can be neglected. This will greatly simplify our expression and we can solve for "x", the hydronium ion concentration:
The value for Ka of acetic acid is 1.8x10-5 and we obtain
x=[H3O+] = 0.003 M
The pH of the 0.1 M acetic acid solution is then
pH=-log 0.003 =2.52
(2) What is the pH value at the equivalence point:
At the equivalence point we have equivalent amounts of acids and bases are present. In our example this means that 50 mL of 0.1 M CH3COOH and 50 mL of 0.1 M NaOH solution have been combined. The total volume is now 100 mL.
At this point, all acid has been neutralized, i.e. all CH3COOH has been converted to CH3COO-. The acetate ion (CH3COO-) itself is a weak base and will react with water (hydrolysis):
CH3COO- (aq) + H2O(l) ó CH3COOH + OH-(aq)
This hydrolysis reaction will produce hydroxide ions, hence the equivalence point will be higher than pH 7. We can calculate the pH at the equivalence point using an iCe table and the base dissociation constant (Kb) for the acetate ion:
First, we have to calculate the molar concentration of the acetate ion:
Now we can use this concentration in the iCe table:
We assume that x is much smaller than 0.05, and 0.05-x~0.5. The expression for Kb can then be written
Kb for the acetate ion is 5.6x10-10 and we solve for x;
x= [OH-] = 5.29 x 10-6
pOH = 5.27
pH = 14-pOH = 8.72
The equivalence point is in the basic range.
(3) What is the pKa value of the acid?
What is a pKa value? The pKa value is the negative logarithm of the acid dissociation constant Ka:
pKa = -log Ka
The midpoint can be determined from the equivalence point: it is located where just half the volume of titrant has been used to neutralize the acid. Consequently the solution contains equal amounts of acid (CH3COOH) and its conjugated base (CH3COO-) or
[CH3COOH] = [CH3COO-]
Using this equation in the equilibrium constant and solving for H3O+ yields
Taking the negative logarithm on both sides yiels
Which can also be expressed as
This last equation is known as the Henderson Hasselbach equation. What does the equation mean?
If the concentrations of acid (CH3COOH) and its conjugated base (CH3COO-) are the same, then the ratio CH3COO-/CH3COOH will be "1". Since the logarithm of "1" equals zero, this equation simplifies to
pH = pKa
At the mid point the pKa value of an acid equals the measured pH. Thus we have a very simple method to determine acid dissociation constants.
© copyright Silvia Kolchens, Pima Community College 2000 | <urn:uuid:17463fe0-86d1-4df5-8c8c-a9c98145a82b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://wc.pima.edu/~skolchens/C152OL/Ch18/titrat2.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00035-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.828218 | 999 | 3.78125 | 4 |
With The Brain@McGill, the University launches its knowledge into the public arena
As the organ most central to our being, the brain and its functions have presented an inexhaustible series of challenges for scientists. Whether we are making decisions, enjoying music or enduring pain, the brain governs and influences most of our reactions.
For close to a century, McGill University and its researchers have made major advances in our understanding of the brain. A world leader in the field of neuroscience, the institution is launching a new era with The Brain@McGill, an initiative based on interdisciplinarity and the transmission of knowledge.
“The brain is at the very core of human activity,” said Rémi Quirion, Vice-Dean for Science and Strategic Initiatives at the Faculty of Medicine and Senior Advisor on Health Sciences Research at McGill University. With The Brain@McGill, we hope to reach out to the general public and raise awareness of our most fascinating discoveries. Our research finds many applications in the cultural and economic domains that sometimes go unrecognized."
Building on the strength of the McGill network in neurosciences, which includes the Montréal Neurological Institute, the Douglas Mental Health University Institute, and the McGill University Health Centre, The Brain@McGill will unite some 200 researchers and 275 graduate and postgraduate students.
The initiative entails the development of projects that will allow scientists to take advantage of popular events on the Montréal cultural scene in order to communicate information concerning their research work and to collaborate with key sectors of the local economy, including the aerospace and video-game industries.
The Brain@McGill also involves setting up interdisciplinary teams to study manifestations of brain functions in everyday life. For example, the International Laboratory for Brain, Music and Sound Research (BRAMS) – a joint initiative of McGill and the Université de Montréal – studies how the structures and functions of our nervous system influence the way in which we perceive or learn music, among other things. Other teams will work on improving the understanding and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases or pain. Another initiative, “Brain to Society,” by a group of researchers from the faculties of management, law, and medicine will explore the links between mental health and the economy.
"By drawing upon the many varied areas of expertise in its network, McGill will be able to make even more rapid progress in its research in areas that are constantly evolving," concluded Dr. Quirion, who is also Executive Director of the International Collaborative Research Strategy for Alzheimer's Disease at the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, and Scientific Director of the Douglas Mental Health University Institute Research Centre.
This initiative also seeks to increase the number of partnerships with foreign higher education institutions. The first exchange program established under this component – with Oxford University – was unveiled today.
About McGill University
McGill University, founded in Montreal, Que., in 1821, is Canada’s leading post-secondary institution. It has two campuses, 11 faculties, 10 professional schools, 300 programs of study and more than 34,000 students. McGill attracts students from more than 160 countries around the world. Almost half of McGill students claim a first language other than English – including 6,000 francophones – with more than 6,400 international students making up almost 20 per cent of the student body. | <urn:uuid:b4b1eceb-8241-4eab-a065-c40c24ba695f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mcgill.ca/newsroom/channels/news/toward-better-understanding-brain-107577 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93302 | 687 | 2.796875 | 3 |
What is Redistricting?
Every ten years, the Federal Government conducts a census to determine the number of individuals living in the United States. After the census is completed, the Charter requires the Director of Elections to determine whether the existing supervisorial districts meet the legal requirements established by federal, state and local law. If the existing supervisorial districts no longer comply with these legal requirements, the Charter requires the Board of Supervisors to convene a Redistricting Task Force to redraw the supervisorial district lines. The process of redrawing the supervisorial district lines is known as redistricting.
How Does Redistricting Work?
The Redistricting Task Force consists of nine members. The Mayor, the Board of Supervisors and the Elections Commission each appoint three members. These nine individuals work with City staff and outside consultants to determine how the supervisorial district lines should be redrawn so that the districts comply with the legal requirements established in federal, state and local law. As part of this process, the Redistricting Task Force holds multiple community hearings to receive input from the people of San Francisco. Throughout this process and based on community input, the Redistricting Task Force will make several changes to the existing supervisorial district lines. The Redistricting Task Force must present a final plan outlining the new supervisorial district lines to the Board of Supervisors by April 15, 2012.
What are the legal requirements for supervisorial districts?
The members of the Elections Task Force (Redistricting Task Force) must consider federal, state and local legal requirements when redrawing supervisorial district lines.
San Francisco Charter Sec. 13.110 (d)
- Within 60 days following publication of the decennial federal census in the year 2000 and every decennial federal census after that, the Director of Elections shall report to the Board of Supervisors on whether the existing districts continue to meet the requirements of federal and state law and the criteria for drawing districts lines set in the Charter.
The criteria for drawing districts lines are:
Districts must conform to all legal requirements, including the requirement that they be equal in population. Population variations between districts should be limited to 1 percent from the statistical mean unless additional variations, limited to 5 percent of the statistical mean, are necessary to prevent dividing or diluting the voting power of minorities and/or to keep recognized neighborhoods intact; provided, however, that the redistricting provided for herein shall conform to the rule of one person, one vote, and shall reflect communities of interest within the City and County. Census data, at the census block level, as released by the United States Census Bureau, statistically adjusted by the Bureau to correct the unadjusted census counts for any measured undercount or overcount of any subset of the population according to the bureau's Accuracy and Coverage Evaluation or other sampling method, shall be used in any analysis of population requirements and application of the rule of one person one vote. In the event such adjusted census data, at the census block level, are not released by the Bureau, population data, at the census block level, adjusted by the California Department of Finance for any measured undercount or overcount maybe used.
If it is determined that the districts are in compliance with all legal requirements, including the requirement that they be equal in population, the current districts as drawn will be valid for the next decade. If it is determined that any of the districts are not in compliance, the Board of Supervisors by ordinance shall convene and fund a nine-member elections task force. Three members shall be appointed by the Board of Supervisors, three members shall be appointed by the Mayor, and three members shall be appointed by the Director of Elections unless an Elections Commission is created in which case the appointments designated to the Director of Elections shall be made by the Elections Commission. Task Force shall be appointed by January 8, 2002 and following the publication of each decennial federal census thereafter, shall be appointed within sixty days after issuance of a report by the Director of Elections to the Board of Supervisors that the districts are not in compliance, pursuant to this subsection.
Members of the Task Force previously appointed by the Director of Elections shall serve on the Task Force until the Elections Commission, if established, appoints three members to the Task Force, whereupon the terms of the members appointed by the Director of Elections shall expire.
The Director of Elections shall serve ex officio as a non-voting member. The task force shall be responsible for redrawing the district lines in accordance with the law and the criteria established in this Section, and shall make such adjustments as appropriate based on public input at public hearings.
The Task Force shall complete redrawing district lines before the fifteenth day of April of the year in which the first election using the redrawn lines will be conducted. The Board of Supervisors may not revise the district boundaries established by the Task Force.
If the Task Force determines that the adjusted population data to which this subsection refers are not available a sufficient period of time before the fifteenth day of April in order to use the adjusted population data in redrawing the district lines for the following supervisorial election, and the adjusted population data demonstrate more than a five percent variance from the figures used in redrawing the district lines for the [sic] that supervisorial election, the Task Force shall by the fifteenth day of April immediately preceding the next supervisorial election redraw the district lines for that supervisorial election in accordance with the provisions of this section. The procedures for redrawing supervisorial lines following the publication of every subsequent decennial federal census shall follow the procedures established by this Section.
The City Attorney shall remove the description of district lines found in this subsection from the Charter after the Elections Task Force has completed redrawing the district lines as set forth above. Following each redrawing of the district lines thereafter, the City Attorney shall cause the redrawn district lines to be published in an appendix to this Charter. | <urn:uuid:04629022-4a0e-4ae5-a124-a5ada79d1e10> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sfgov2.org/index.aspx?page=2622 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00183-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941335 | 1,222 | 2.71875 | 3 |
There are a number of hydrocephalus causes all of which are either developmental or genetic. Genes are not passed from generation to generation unchanged. They go through a process called meiosis, during which they divide to form gametes resulting in the mixing of genetic material between the genes. Genes can also be changed by external forces; some substances can cause alterations of the genes, as can radiation. These genetic mutations can lead to developmental changes that were not passed down from the parents. Most cases of genetically caused hydrocephalus lead to several malformations. One or more of these will affect the nervous system.
Blockage of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) can be caused by a variety of conditions such as: spina bifida and other birth defects of the brain; certain brain infections like meningitis (pus can cause a blockage); haemorrhage within or around the brain, usually due to prematurity or a ruptured aneurysm; and brain trauma, or tumouhyrors. The blockage can occur within the ventricles themselves (obstructive hydrocephalus), or outside the brain in the areas where the spinal fluid is reabsorbed back into the blood stream (communicating hydrocephalus).
The term congential refers to cases where hydrecephalus is present at birth, but without any genetic factors. In cases of congential hydrecephalus it is usually not possible to determine the cause, and this is refered to as 'idiopathic'. In these cases one assumes that the condition arose before birth, in the form of developmental problems due to infections, problems with blood supply, etc.
Spina bifida is a condition where the neural tube, which surrounds the nerves in the spine, does not develop correctly and close fully. The vertebrae of the spine will also fail to close around the affected area. This results in a space between one, or several, of the vertebrae. Spina bifida will in most cases affect the spine in the lower back.
Aqueductal stenosis is a condondition where the Aqueduct of Sylvius, which connects the 3rd and 4th ventricles, becomes damaged and blocks the flow of CSF. There are several possible cause for stenosis, eg. the aqueduct may develop without having any openings to the ventricles, or it may have developed with a membrane of cell blocking the aqueduct.
Cases of hydrocephalus which are caused by aqueduct stenosis are usually present at birth, or develope soon there after. Chiari malformations are a possible cause of stenosis as this malformation will squeeze or bend the aqueduct.
The cerebellum is made up of two hemispheres, which are connected by the vermis. The cerebellar tonsis hang from each of the two hemispheres.
Chiari malformations (CM) are a group of disorders in which cerebellar tonsils protrude into the foramen of Magendie, thereby blocking the CSF flow between the ventricles and the spine.
There are four variants of the Chiari malformation, the first, refered to as CMI, involves only the cerebellar tonsils.
Type II also involves the brain stem tissue and the vermis may be malformed. This type may be accompanied by spina bifida and myelomeningocele.
In CM Type III both the brain stem and cerebellum herniate through the foramen magnum and into the spinal cord. Type III may also involve the fourth ventricle protruding into the spinal cord.
Types IV is where the cerebellum does not fully develope, or my be absent. The cerebellar tonsils will hang further down along the spinal canal. Areas of the spinal cord and skull may be exposed.
Hydrocephalus causes also include various types of cysts. A cyst is a closed area of tissue forming a fluid filled pocket. A cyst will have its own membrane.
Porencephalic cysts are located within the brain (adjacent to the ventricle), and arachnoid cysts are located inside the ventricles or in the subarachoid space.
The arachnoid cyst may require a separate shunt if they go unnoticed before the original surgical proceedure.
The Dandy-Walker syndrome refers to cyst of the posterior fossa. This cyst affects the cerebellum, and may involve atrophy of the cerebellar vermis. Dandy-Walker syndrome also involves enlargement of the fourth ventricle, and increase the size of the arachnoid space.
Platybasia is a deformity of the base of the skull, and a frontwards displacement of the cervical vertebrae, and the brainstems bony protrusions. This is caused by the softening of skull or other developmental abnormality.
Obstructive hydrocephalus is caused by many childhood tumours, since these often occur in the mid-line posterior fossa; the suprasellar region; the 3rd ventricle; and the pineal region. Although controversial, it is not common practice to perform a preoperative shunt placement unless the child is very symptomatic from hydrocephalus and cannot be taken straight to surgery for tumour removal. In most childhood tumours, the hydrocephalus is treated preoperatively, blocking carbonic anhydrase and decreasing CSF production. This relieves elevated intracranial pressure.
The the main goal of the surgery to remove the tumour should be to open the blocked CSF pathways, frequently avoiding a shunt. Only 20% of children will need a shunt postoperatively. A temporary ventriculostomy is usually needed to control ventricular size in the immediate postoperative period.
Postmeningitic and postinflammatory hydrocephalus are usually a communicating hydrocephalus due to obstruction at the basal cisterns. E. Coli meningitis and Hemophilus influenza meningitis are the usual infectious agents. Moderate ventricular enlargement is very common. This will either resolve itself; progress into hydrocephalus which requires a VP shunt; or evolve into a case of atrophy with hydrocephalus-ex-vacuo. The finding of progressive ventricular enlargement and an enlarging head circumference confirms the need for a shunt.
In premature infants weighing less than 1500g, 50-60% will develop intraventricular haemorrhage (IVH). Shortly after the haemorrhage, nearly 3/4 of infants will develop ventricular enlargement. Signs that are indicative of bleeding include: stupor, respiratory difficulty, seizures, unstable vital signs, and a bulging fontanelle. Several pharmacological agents can be used to prevent intraventricular haemorrhage.
When IVH occurs, and is accompanied by hydrocephalus, the initial treatment is to relieve the hydrocephalus without a shunt. This is done because: the blood would occlude (block) the catheter; the infant is usually too small to support a shunt; and the hydrocephalus may resolve itself over time. While the incidence of acute hydrocephalus is up to 60%, the long term incidence of progressive hydrocephalus requiring a shunt has fallen to 10 - 20%.
Vascular lesions can cause childhood hydrocephalus. In particular, vascular malformations of the vein of Galen can be a cause of hydrocephalus in infancy. The pathophysiology involves blockage of the cerebral aqueduct by the enlarged Vein of Galen, as well as elevated venous pressure due to the arteio-venous shunting which reduces CSF absorption. Hydrocephalus as a presenting sign of a vein of Galen AVM (arteriovenous malformation) is usually not seen in the neonatal period, where the leading cause is high flow cardiac failure. Shunting should be performed in cases of progressive hydrocephalus, although some children show progressive thrombosis of the malformation and resolution of the ventricular enlargement. When a VP shunt is required, a catheter trajectory should be designed which is kept as far away as possible from the AVM and dilated vessels. This is usually done by placing a frontal ventricular catheter.
Thrombosis of the dural sinuses can lead to hydrocephalus. The condition "otitic hydrocephalus" is seen in children with middle ear infection with thrombosis of the lateral sinus adjacent to the petrous bone. Sagittal sinus thrombosis can occur in children due to direct extension of an infection, or in cases of severe hypernatremic dehydration. This can lead to a pseudotumour-like picture with a swollen brain. However, enlarged ventricles are also seen in this disorder. Thrombosis of the superior vena cava, in cases of mediastinal tumour or long standing indwelling catheter, can lead to a progressive communicating hydrocephalus. Tissue Plasminogen Activators (TPA) have been used in a variety of cerebrovascular disorders to dissolve clotted blood. TPA may play a role in these thrombotic disorders and avoid progressive hydrocephalus.
A papilloma of the choroid plexus will increase the amount of CSF being produced. They usually occur after infancy and are associated with signs of inter-cranial pressure.
Meningeal scarring can be caused by arachnoidal haemorrhage or bacterial meningitis. If this scarring blocks the exits from the cisterns, or affects the arachnoidal villi, the CSF-flow will be impeded. This will cause enlargement of the ventricles and the subarachnoidal spaces.
In-utero infection, which involves the central nervous system, can lead to impairment of CSF flow. Mumps meningoencephalitis and bacterial meningitis are also believed to be possible hydrocephalus causes.
Bickers-Adams syndrome is transmitted by a recessive gene of the X-chromosome. It is characterised by stenosis of the aqueduct of Sylvius, and severe mental retardation. This accounts for ca. 4% of hydrocephalus cases.
Achondroplasia dwarfism can also lead to hydrocephalus due to the fact that the skull develops abnormally, leading to the foramen magnum and spinal canal being abnormally narrow. The narrowing of the foramen magnum may restrict the CSF flow between the brain and the spinal cord. Narrowing of the foramen magnum, due to stenosis of the sigmoid sinus, may also be the cause of increased intracranial venous pressure. | <urn:uuid:997d5783-711b-41a7-8a40-09bc96f1d0ec> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://hydrocephalus.allanach.dk/causes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00128-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.912843 | 2,278 | 3.609375 | 4 |
GWEN IFILL: Finally, new guidelines are out today from the American Academy of Pediatrics. They recommend that, during routine checkups, physicians also screen children for poverty.
Hari Sreenivasan has that.
HARI SREENIVASAN: Census figures show one in five children in the country lives in poverty, which can contribute to higher rates of asthma and obesity, poor language development, and increased infant mortality.
The new guidelines encourage doctors to ask patients about basic needs, such as food, heat and housing during well-child visits, and to help them connect with community resources that might be of help.
Dr. Renee Jenkins is a former president of the American Academy of Pediatrics who currently teaches at Howard University Medical School, and joins me now.
Dr. Jenkins, what does it mean to screen for poverty?
DR. RENEE JENKINS, Former President, American Academy of Pediatrics: So, there are now tools that help us in the office when we do well-checks to really ask parents about food insecurity, housing insecurity, whether their young children are in childhood educational situations, like Head Start or Early Head Start, because we recognize that if we can intervene early on, very often, we can make a difference.
HARI SREENIVASAN: Now, I know people are very comfortable sharing confidential information with their doctors, but how do you start this conversation, and do people open up to you about it?
DR. RENEE JENKINS: Right.
Generally, we start with something very broad, like, do you have any problem making ends meet, OK, and does this happen often or does it just happen sometimes?
And then that opens up a conversation about what some of the issues might be. And I think we are trying to — what we’re recommending is that we screen everyone. We ask an very open-ended question like that and then we see where that takes us.
I’m sure some people are going to be uncomfortable to start to do that, but I think once patients understand that, each time I come, they’re going to ask me something like that, because it’s a common problem. And as you mentioned, you know, one in five children is living if poverty.
And if it weren’t for the safety programs, safety net programs that we have, it would be even more children. So we’re just trying to connect parents to the safety net programs.
HARI SREENIVASAN: So, how solid are the links between poverty and adverse health outcomes? What does the research show?
DR. RENEE JENKINS: The research shows that there really are.
We have known for quite a long time about the relationship, for example, with asthma and poor housing, OK? We have also known about nutrition and how, when you’re poor, you tend to buy cheaper foods. Healthy foods are pretty expensive. And so in order to make the food last for the entire month, you have got to do that.
So we have always known that. But there is new information now about the stressors that children go through when they’re in poverty and how these stressors do handicap them in terms of their developmental milestones.
HARI SREENIVASAN: Now, you’re also talking about longer-term issues.
From the report, you talk about gene expression, brain function, language development and possible leads to psychiatric disorder. All of that comes from childhood poverty?
DR. RENEE JENKINS: Well, poverty certainly contributes to it.
But when you take the big picture and you look at what’s happening within the neighborhood that these poor children may live in and those kind of safe — unsafe issues, as well as the stressor on parents, parents, you know, want to provide the best for their children. And when they can’t, that’s stressful for them, also.
Very often, there are not the same sort of ways that we relax when you are someone who has resources. People who are poor can’t do that. And so they don’t have ways to necessarily relieve the stresses that are associated with their living conditions.
So we have got stressed parents, and obviously, it impact the child.
HARI SREENIVASAN: Now, what you’re describing is a much greater role for a pediatrician to play now. It’s almost like they’re doing some of the things that a social worker traditionally does in connecting needs with resources.
DR. RENEE JENKINS: That’s true, but I think now there are — there is more availability.
We have the Internet, where there are lots of resources. We have Web sites. There are 800-phone numbers, and so the recommendations are not to try to tackle all of it. OK? What we want people to do is, where is your comfort level? Is your comfort level the nutrition, so you can get your patients connected with the WIC program, Women, Infant and Children, or with the food stamp program?
Or is your comfort level housing, so that you can refer someone to a resource for that? So, we’re not asking people to do it all, but we’re saying, you know, we can make a difference, we can start small, and, you know, here are some guidelines and here are some screening tools that you can use to do that.
HARI SREENIVASAN: All right, Dr. Renee Jenkins, thanks so much.
DR. RENEE JENKINS: You’re quite welcome. Thank you. | <urn:uuid:95d2fcec-c5a1-4667-a713-4762e1c227c3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/pediatric-guidelines-now-urge-holistic-health-and-wellbeing-checks/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00039-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96541 | 1,208 | 2.890625 | 3 |
It all began in 1935 because of a young aeronautical engineer with a high school education and two years study in the School of Mechanical Engineering at Oregon State College, who later became a World War I flier. His name at that time was Jonathan E. Caldwell and he lived near Glen Burnie, Maryland. He invented and built a tighter than air machine which in addition to conventional nose propulsion, was driven by a nine cylinder, 45 horse power French engine with controlled speed blades, each three feet long by 12 inches wide, mounted on top of midship which enabled the plane to ascend or descend vertically and even hover. The blades were attached to the cardinal points of a 14 foot wooden disk which was free revolving, deriving its momentum from the puwer driven nose prop blast.
The canvas covered, tubular steel plane, christened the "Grey Goose", had been constructed in a tobacco warehouse and then tested on the Maryland farm of Caldwell's friend Lewis Pumpwrey on State Road Number 3, Anne Arunder County. The machine flew fairly well; it was actually the wingless forerunner of today's helicopter.
Not satisfied with his initial achievement, a few months later Caldwell completed a fundamentally different design named the "Rotoplane", similar to an earlier model, the spectacular lifting capability of which had been tested successfully in Denver, Colorado in 1923. Notwithstanding its lifting power, this machine proved to be less maneuverable. Its energy source consisted of six large, pitched, rotor blades encased in a single 12 foot diameter rim or flange, above and in the center of which the operator sat. A news story at the time referred to the contraption as a "flying joke".
But regardless of critics and lampooners, Caldwell was not deterred from his dream of a round wing air machine. He began his final prototype which would indeed prove successful. The latest model was 28 feet in diameter and would disappear before the press or public was allowed to examine it closely, although it had been used openly to provide rides and give demonstrations to interested observers and investors.
The machine resembled a huge tub with a set of six blades projecting out from both the top and bottom of the "tub". In the center of the affair was a round tubular housing or cockpit containing seats for two persons, plus gauges, gears and levers and of course the motor. (The first motor was an eight cylinder Ford V8 gasoline engine with the block cut in half. This motor was considered heavy and troublesome in operation and was later replaced by a newly cast four cylinder lightweight aluminum block, along with aluminum gears which were later substituted with bronze.)
The operator sat in the top of the center tubing or hub with his head and shoulders above for the purposes of sight navigation. Hands and feet operated with ease the levers and pedals for speed and direction. The bottom set of six lift blades were wide, fixed at a slight angle, and they turned clockwise. They had a controlled speed operated by one of the gears.
The six, maneuverable pitch blades located topside were for lateral direction, projecting from the housing; they turned counterclockwise. In essence, the structure and design of the craft, as well as its mechanical movements and controls, were of utmost simplicity.
The two sets of rotors, set six feet apart, revolved in opposite directions around the ship. They were power driven during ascent but turned freely in pure aerodynamic descent if the motor failed, thus allowing the craft to float down under direction from its chosen height at a slower speed than that of a parachutist.
Airborne directional control was attained by changing the angle of the upper set of rotors: that is, forward or reverse thrust was accomplished by a tilting mechanism attached to the top bank of rotors. Thus slippage took place toward the lower side with advancing blades riding down-grade and retreating blades gaining altitude. According to Caldwell's description it was the same principle which birds used in flight, substituting rotors for feathered wings and tail.
The bottom of the craft could be made water tight, enabling it to take off from land or water. To raise capital for his forthcoming enterprise and float costs, Caldwell attempted unsuccessfully and repeatedly to sell stock in his aviation marvel names "The Rotoplanes Inc.," even offering up to $5.00 for a trial ride in the machine. The stock certificates read in part: "That the stock is for an invention, which invention is used in the development of an aeroplane designed to fly on the bird principle of flight, and that the stock is worth $10.00 to $100.00 per share, depending on his (Caldwell's) success in developing the aeroplane."
Eventually, a curious Army- Air Corps Colonel, Peter B. Watkins, dressed in civies, appeared as a prospective buyer whom the delighted inventor took for a test flight. The Colonel was permitted to take the controls, and was astonished at the craft's advanced maneuverability over the bi-wing and mono- wing airplanes of the 30s.
The Colonel flew the machine 45 miles to Washington, D.C., where he made 100 mile per hour passes over Washington Monument, and the White House. The Colonel was elated when he actually stopped the forward motion of the machine and hovered for a few minutes directly over the 241 foot high Washington Monument. Upon return to the city he was granted an interview with President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
He told the President that Caldwell's mystery plane was so advanced in design that to avoid copy by foreign military, the United States should immediately obtain control of patents and production. Roosevelt agreed with the Colonel, asking him to reevaluate the project and report back in 30 days for Congressional approval.
Within 30 days, without apparent Congressional approval, Roosevelt acted. Caldwell received a letter from the Attorney General of Maryland, advising him to cease and desist the sale of the stock in his new company. Previous solicitations to sell stock in New York (1934) and New Jersey (1932) had likewise been stopped by their State Attorney Generals. Caldwell, in effect, was forced out of his new aviation venture before it got off the ground.
In the autumn of 1936, Caldwell disappeared and officially was never heard of again. | <urn:uuid:03eb9fb3-de0b-4f86-b9ed-3d0cdb0ce918> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.godlikeproductions.com/forum1/message1754547/reply34385615/abusive | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00170-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977019 | 1,276 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Culturing the voice depends on the inherent texture of the voice and the genre of singing as in classical (Indian, Western), folk, light. The singing voice and the voice with which we speak aren't the same. While speaking is an action that doesn't need any conscious effort (Do not refer to speaking as in stage orations), singing does demand. The technique of bringing the voice under our command is termed as "voice culture". This comes with breath control techniques, healthy body, and more importantly a sound and focused mind.
While for an instrument, oiling, tuning, selecting the instruments made out of the right materials (depending on the instrument kind - percussion, string, air instrument) etc. would matter, culturing a voice needs an ardent effort and a personal care. Every voice is unique and beautiful. The voice needs to be understood by its owner to nourish and culture it in a way that it gets strengthened. Each voice has its traits and limitations. Voice culture must aim at reducing the shortcomings and enhance the impressive traits of the voice.
Dos and DONTs:
• Practicing early in the morning, soon after waking up may not suit everyone. Give sufficient time to your voice to even out. Warm water gargling would help. Talk to people. Get your tongue to movement and leave your voice chords moist before you start the first practice for the day.
• DO NOT practice at (very) high pitch (Shruthi) when the sun is right on head (that's between 12 and 4) i.e., in the noon . If your pitch is five and half, it will do good to stick to five (say half a pitch lower than yours) at this time of the day. This would avoid ware and tear.
• Every saadakam (practice) should start with a varnam preferably; varnams are structured in a way that would exercise the voice from all possible angles.
• Learn to modulate the voice. DO NOT sing with the maximum voice beyond upper sthayi rishabham. Soften the voice to reduce the stress on the vocal chord. This doesn't mean you bring in false voice. Using false voice may help in effortless singing but wouldn't reach the audience in effect. Know the difference between singing with open voice and singing loudly and the difference between singing with a false voice and singing softly.
• Proper physical posture is required for a good voice production. Certain voice types would get strained with 2-3 hours of practice but some people can go upto 5-6 hours in one stretch. It is important that you understand the nature of your voice and its limitations. One should know his/her own competence to practice and NOT overdo! If the posture and the singing technique followed are acceptable, at the end of the practice session, the abdominal muscles should get strained and not the voice chords. This could be a self check. (Nabhi hruth khanta rasana-Origin of voice is from the abdomen)
• Nasal touch is required for a proper alignment with Shruthi, but nasal twang shouldn't inhabit your voice completely. Open mouth singing helps reduce the nasal twang.
• Diet plays an important role in maintaining the voice health. Drinking warm water helps; hot tea, clove in honey, ginger kashayam, and pepper milk do wonders and soften the voice. Avoid road-side food, oily food, and cold items.
• Avoid overuse of the voice- don't scream; talk softly; have limited talks; Last and the most important being "Get rid of the fear of falling sick!" Have a strong mind and a committed soul.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
How do I maintain/improve base voice?
-To begin with, sing (in the lower range) even if your voice is not heard. It may sound silly enough; a simple lip movement with the composition sung in the head would help.
-As days go by, with gradual effort the base voice would get heard.
-Practice Om kara in three octaves...as u do with "sa-pa-sa"
Why should we not practice at high shruthi during noon ?
The vocal chord is a/like a sensitive tissue. Different pitches/scales are controlled by the vibration of these vocal chords. Higher pitches will need higher rate of vibrations. During the mid-day when the sun is high on head, the vocal chords would be relatively dry. And a high rate of vibration on these less moist chords would be more prone to damage than otherwise.
How to get the voice from nabhi?
A self check is, at the end of the practice session, one should feel the strain on/around the abdomen and not on the throat. " Om " is one shabdh that makes use of the abdomen, chest and the head voices.
"A(comes from abdomen) - U(chest) -UM(head)".Practicing Om kara is itself a good voical exercise.
Can I practice even after a tiresome day?
It is difficult to focus after a tiring day, specially for working people. It is better to have music classes/practice sessions leisurely when the mind and body are under focus. In case it's unavoidable, take a few deep breaths before you start singing/practicing on a long day. Do not sit on empty stomach; do not load yourself as well. Have something an hour before singing which is ideal.
How should I make my voice sweeter?
Few drops of honey every morning helps. Regular practice is “the” way to culture the voice.
Which is best time to practice?
The right time depends on the individual. It is said early morning is a good time, but most people's experience is that early in the morning the voice range is limited. We would find it difficult to reach higher octaves. Select a time which is comfortable for you.
Is it wrong if I sing through nose?
Singing through nose is not a problem, but isn't very appealing. It is good to have some nasal touch; nasal sound should not dress your voice completely though. Open mouth singing will help to reduce the nasal twang. Pronounce “a” as “a” and not as “e” or “ae”. Practicing simple varasais in akaras with open voice helps.
Click here for free carnatic music audio by Ms. Revathi S.
Please click here to view other articles on carnatic music authored by Ms. Revathi S. | <urn:uuid:8eeeae9b-4dfa-4ac5-ab44-95aadb0043bb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://carnaticindia.com/tips.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00046-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95428 | 1,370 | 2.96875 | 3 |
Delete an existing Linux POSIX volume. You cannot delete the root (/) volume. You must unmount the volume before you can delete it.
If the volume is a clustered LVM volume group and logical volume, you must take the cluster resource offline, and then delete the resource before you can delete the volume.
nlvm [nlvm_options] delete linux volume <volume_name>
You are automatically prompted to confirm the delete action. Respond by typing yes or no, then press Enter. Use the --no-prompt NLVM option to suppress the confirmation prompt.
You can use the nlvm list linux volumes command to find the volume_name. A Linux POSIX volume is preceded by a forward slash, such as /vol1. This is the last directory of the mount point path that you provided when you created the Linux POSIX volume with NLVM or NSSMU. An LVM volume name is the volume name you used when you created the volume, such as lvvol1.
Mandatory. Specify the name of the volume to delete.
For a Linux POSIX volume mounted at /home/bob, the volume name is /bob.
For an LVM logical volume that you named lvvol1 that is mounted at /mnt/lvvol1, the volume name is lvvol1 (with no forward slash).
For an LVM logical volume that you named lvvol2 that is mounted at /home/users, the volume name is lvvol2 (not /users).
Optional. Specify this NLVM option to prevent a confirmation message from being displayed.
Delete the Linux POSIX volume that is mounted at /home/bob.
Delete the Linux LVM logical volume lvvol1 that is mounted at /mnt/lvvol1.
Delete the Linux LVM logical volume lvvol2 that is mounted at /home/users. The confirmation message is not displayed. | <urn:uuid:f123b127-b1b4-44ec-a7e8-c91480b18d19> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.novell.com/documentation/oes11/stor_nlvm_lx/data/delete_lxvol.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00156-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.825733 | 411 | 2.90625 | 3 |
An appealing but potentially confusing concept book about opposites.
Cheerful animal characters help to present basic opposites such as big/small and fast/slow. Initially, it seems that the size of the print is supposed to help convey meaning—on the first spread “Big,” accompanying the picture of an elephant, is printed in enormous letters, while “Small” appears in diminutive type next to a bee, and in the second spread, “Loud” appears in large type next to a group of monkeys, while “Quiet” is printed in tiny letters next to a butterfly. The pattern doesn’t hold up, though, as the next page arbitrarily presents “Hairy” in large type and “Smooth” in small print. Confusion appears elsewhere as well; for example, the “loud” monkeys, with mouths closed, appear more serene than raucous. With an adult to help sort out the concepts, though, children will enjoy this title for its standout illustrations; bold, appealing animals are set in interesting positions on solid backgrounds that appear as though they might have been colored by crayon. A companion title, Counting, presents more adorable animals to illustrate numerical concepts and asks readers to identify and count them.
Not the best for clarifying concepts but too visually striking to ignore. (Board book. 1-3) | <urn:uuid:2b620f1d-e3eb-436b-830a-718c11d3f0f9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/britta-teckentrup-3/my-book-of-opposites-teckenrup/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955932 | 293 | 3.28125 | 3 |
Posted on 11 Jun 2012 00:54
Recipes often call for one small, medium, or large onion without any indication of the amount in cups of chopped onions these sizes should yield.
For example, if all you have is small onions, how many do you need to equal one large onion?
The following table gives gives the general size, weight and the amount in cups of each size onion.
This information should correspond to the common varieties of onions such as yellow, white, red, or sweet.
|Onion Size||Approx. Size||Weight||Amount Chopped|
|Small||Lemon||4 oz (0.25lbs)||1/2 cup|
|Medium||Navel Orange||8 oz (0.5lbs)||1 cup|
|Large||Small Grapefruit||16 oz (1lbs)||2 cups|
Yellow Spanish Onions
Around Medium Sized | <urn:uuid:efbe4719-2215-4a73-a283-fe1d6c0cbc22> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.culinarylore.com/measurements:onion-sizes-and-amounts-chopped | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00112-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.872858 | 190 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Sir Antonio Genesio Maria Panizzi (September 17, 1797 – April 8, 1879), was an Italian-born British librarian and a man of letters. He was exiled from Italy for his involvement in a patriotic group aiming to unite Italy through revolution, and took up residence in London. Although he remained in London until his death, Panizzi also played a significant role in the unification of Italy, providing support to those imprisoned and to Giuseppe Garibaldi.
In London, Panizzi came to work at the British Museum Library, later the British Library. Under his leadership, the library became the largest library in the world, containing more than 540,000 volumes. He is best remembered for his role in the design of the Circular Reading Room within the British Museum, which became one of the most famous rooms in the world, used by many great writers. It stands as a great legacy to this hard working, and creative man.
Antonio Panizzi was born on September 17, 1797, in Brescello in the Duchy of Modena, (today’s Italy). He obtained a degree in law from the University of Parma in 1818. While in Parma, which was then ruled by Francesco IV, the Duke of Modena, Panizzi joined one of the secret patriotic societies which aimed to unite Italy as an independent country. After obtaining his degree, Panizzi returned to Brescello where he practiced law and in 1821 became inspector of the town's schools.
In 1820, following a short lived revolution in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Francesco IV started to arrest and imprison suspected patriots on trumped-up charges. When in May of 1822, the Duchy's Chief of Police, Giulio Besini, was assassinated, the tempo of arrests picked up, many were convicted, and a priest executed. Panizzi, tipped off that he also faced arrest and trial as a subversive, fled to Switzerland, where in 1823 he wrote and published a book decrying the repressive regime and trials against citizens of the Duchy of Modena. Following the book's publication, he was indicted, tried, and condemned to death in absentia in Modena, and pressure was brought to have him expelled from Switzerland.
In May of 1823, Panizzi moved to England, becoming a British citizen in 1832. Upon arrival in London, Italian poet in exile Ugo Foscolo gave him a letter of introduction to Liverpool banker William Roscoe and Panizzi moved to that city, where he made a meager living teaching Italian. In 1826 Panizzi met lawyer and political figure Henry Brougham and helped him in a difficult abduction case; when Brougham became Lord Chancellor of England, he obtained for Panizzi the professorship of Italian at the newly-founded University of London and later a post at the British Museum Library.
Panizzi held a string of posts at the British Museum Library: first Assistant Librarian (1831-1837), then Keeper of Printed Books (1837-1856) and finally Chief Librarian (1856-1866). Panizzi retired in July, 1866. For his extraordinary services as a librarian, in 1869 he was knighted by Queen Victoria.
In addition to his work in London, Panizzi was in constant contact with his homeland. He used his personal influence with English Liberal statesmen such as Lord John Russell, Henry John Temple, and George William Frederick Villiers, to help his countrymen fight for the unification of Italy. During the revolution of 1848-1849 and again in 1859 he was in touch with Giuseppe Garibaldi and other Italian patriots. In 1868, he was appointed as a senator in the Italian Parliament and asked to return to Italy, but he thought he could do more for the Italian cause if he remained in London.
Panizzi died in London on April 8, 1879, and was buried in the Kensal Green Catholic Cemetery.
Before Panizzi’s tenure, the British Museum Library was in dire need of re-organization. A parliamentary committee was appointed in 1835 to probe the conditions of the institution and devise needed measures for its re-organization. Panizzi was appointed the Keeper of Printed Books in 1837, and one of the first things he had to do was to organize the move of almost the entire collection from Montagu House to its new building.
In 1845, Panizzi published a report on the state of the library, revealing the library’s deficiency in general literature. Based on the report, the library increased the annual grant for the purchase of books to £10,000. He also added to the general collection the unique Grenvilie library, worth some £50,000, which was obtained thanks to his friend Thomas Grenville (1755-1846).
While at the library, Panizzi undertook the creation of a new catalog, based on the 73 rules which he devised with his assistants in 1839. These rules served as the basis for the 91 rules adopted by the British Museum in 1841, which became the foundation for all subsequent library catalog rules of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and are at the origins of the ISBD of the twenty-first century and of digital cataloging elements such as Dublin Core. Panizzi also instituted the copyright system which, by law, made British publishers give the library a copy of every book printed in England.
In the early years of his tenure, Panizzi became aware that library needed a new reading room. Due to lack of space to store books, purchases of new books were discouraged. Panizzi himself made a design for a new building—inside the Great Court, enclosed by existing museum buildings. The design was eventually perfected by architect Sydney Smirke and accepted by the museum trustees in 1854. The Reading Room was opened in 1857. Many great writers including Charles Dickens, Karl Marx, and Virginia Woolf are known to have used it.
Panizzi was a personal friend of British Prime minister Lord Palmerston and William Gladstone, conducted an active correspondence with Sardinian Prime Minister Count Camillo Benso di Cavour, and through French archaeologist and writer Prosper Merimee, was well acquainted with French Emperor Napoleon III and Empress Eugenie. In 1844, Panizzi also assisted Giuseppe Mazzini, then in exile in London, by publishing an influential article denouncing the practice ordered by the Home Secretary of ordering Mazzini's private letters opened by the Post Office and giving copies of their contents to the Austrian Embassy. He also orchestrated a visit of Giuseppe Garibaldi to England, and convinced Gladstone to travel to Naples to view personally the inhumane conditions in which political prisoners were kept.
When his efforts to have these prisoners released failed, he raised money to buy a ship and mounted an expedition to rescue the prisoners from the island fortress of Santo Stefano in the Gulf of Gaeta. Unfortunately, the ship sank in a storm shortly after leaving England. In 1859, the prisoners were released by Neapolitan King Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies and put on a ship bound for New York. Panizzi then mounted a new expedition led by his son, who commandeered the ship and made port in England, where the former prisoners received asylum and were assured support.
The British Museum library, which was, in fact, the national library of the United Kingdom in all but name, during Panizzi's tenure as Keeper of Printed Books, increased its holdings from 235,000 to 540,000 volumes, making it at the time the largest library in the world. Its famous circular Reading Room was designed and built by architect Sydney Smirke from a sketch drawn by Panizzi. The British Museum library formed the bulk of what became the British Library in 1973 and the Circular Reading Room became one of the most famous rooms in the world, despite being accessible only to those with a Reader's ticket. In 1997 the Library moved to its current site at St. Pancras; the Reading Room is now open to any member of the public who wishes to read there.
Since 1985, British Library hosts an annual series of bibliography lectures, called the Panizzi lectures, established in his honor.
Panizzi also prepared and published editions of Matteo Maria Boiardo's Orlando Innamorato and Ludovico Ariosto's Orlando Furioso, reviving interest in some of the best of Italian narrative poets.
All links retrieved March 19, 2015.
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Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed. | <urn:uuid:29623b7d-a736-4a82-bda0-786362d2db4a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Antonio_Panizzi | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00142-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978284 | 1,918 | 2.984375 | 3 |
The Important Role of Biomes
Travel the world from the comfort of your classroom with this unit on the Earth's biomes.
By Lynsey Peterson
In the ecological hierarchy, biomes come between ecosystems and the biosphere. They represent the major ecosystem types on Earth. A terrestrial biome is defined by its climate and an aquatic biome is defined by other abiotic factors. These nonliving parts of the ecosystem dictate the adaptations that plants need to survive. The plants and the abiotic factors dictate the adaptations that animals need.
I start my biome unit by teaching the difference in climates due to the tilt of the Earth on its axis and other factors, such as the movement of air masses. Next, we move on to climatograms. The simple brilliance of a climatogram allows you to quickly notice the differences in the temperature and precipitation between biomes. I give each lab group a set of temperature and precipitation data for a biome and they must make a large scale climatogram on a poster board. Students get hands-on experience with climatograms and we have posters to remind us for the remainder of the unit.
Once students understand the factors that determine climate, we look at the global locations of the biomes on Earth. The geography of the biomes helps link the climate and biome type for students. After a brief introduction on each biome, students pair up and pick a biome to research. Depending on the size of your class, you can include both terrestrial and aquatic biomes, or just stick to the terrestrial ones for this unit.
In my classroom, the major project of this unit, and of the grading period, is an ecotourism advertisement campaign. Students research their biome and create a PowerPoint presentation detailing the climate, plant and animal adaptations, and environmental threats for their chosen ecosystem type. They also work to create a brochure, billboard, or commercial advertising an ecotourism trip to their biome. I give students a rubric that uses the same grading requirements for each type of advertisement and allows them to choose which one they would like to complete. The brochure can be done by hand or using Microsoft Publisher. The billboard can be created on a large poster board. The commercial is a fun way to incorporate technology and is really no more difficult than the other options. Students can use Movie Maker or Photo Story to create their commercial. No matter what they choose, the advertisement must persuade me to visit their biome and tell me what to expect when I arrive. I assign points for the content and creativity of each advertisement.
Students work hard on this project and love to show their classmates their work. I encourage my students to pay attention to the presentations by having them take basic notes on each biome. This is essential to keeping the class engaged and it helps students prepare for their test on the biomes. I also break up the presentations into a few days, so that we avoid watching presentations for extended periods of time. I might include a study guide, crossword puzzle, or other review to work on after the class has had their fill of presentation time for the day. I find this unit to be one of the most engaging for myself and for my students. I hope that you will, too! You can also try these ideas to teach your students about the diverse biomes of our world.
In this lesson students learn about biomes, and locate them on a world map. They learn how to read a climatograph and identify corresponding biomes.
Students do experiments to see how plants grow in different types of biomes. They plant seeds from plants, such as lima beans, and have them grow in egg cartons. For each of the plants they create different biome conditions by varying the amount of light and water.
In this lesson students learn about biomes. They create maps which describe individual biomes. They use a color-coded system to identify the climate, vegetation, and animals that live in the biome. They then write about their biome and present to the class.
Students do research on three biomes. They then arrange the data and analyze it. Students work in cooperative groups, and engage in hands-on, outdoor activities. | <urn:uuid:d36e2e67-58a0-48a7-9dd8-0eef5a6373b5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.lessonplanet.com/article/biology/the-important-role-of-biomes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00042-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94298 | 848 | 3.90625 | 4 |
A new discovery could take corn farming to perhaps the last place you'd expect to see it: in underground mines and caves. Perhaps, eventually, even to other planets. It sounds like science fiction, but it's real, and it could drastically change the future of food production as we know it.
It all started when researchers at Purdue University tried growing corn in an abandoned limestone mine. Despite the seemingly non-ideal conditions of the mine (specifically, higher concentrations of carbon dioxide and artificial light), the crops actually thrived. "We coddled the plants with such luxurious conditions that the corn was touching the lamps before it had even tasseled," then-postdoctoral student Yang Yang said.
So the team tried a technique used to keep holiday poinsettias from growing too large: a blast of cold air. The control group grew at 80 degrees Fahrenheit in light and 65 degrees in darkness (simulating day and night); the test group's conditions were identical except for a two-hour blast of "day" spent at 60 degrees.
The group that experienced the temperature dip produced the same grain yield, but the stalks were 10 percent shorter and weighed less than the control group. In other words, same amount of corn in less space.
That means that corn—a species that normally requires bright light, lots of heat, and infinite headroom—could grow in cool, cramped areas—you know, like caves. Cary Mitchell, professor of horticulture at Purdue, explains:
"This is a technique you could easily do in a mine or cave. It is an affordable, non-chemical means of taking genetically modified crops to harvest maturity without getting any kind of pollen or seed into the ecosystem."
In other words, GMO crops for those who want them, without opponents having to worry about modified cross-pollination tainting their heirloom crops.
Okay, so corn can grow in caves, and with the right temperature control, it'll put out normal yield without bumping its head. But there's another important implication straight out of science fiction: if we can grow corn in caves and mines, without having to worry about the unintended effects of cross-pollination, we could use genetically-modified crops to produce medicinal products, like antibodies or components for vaccines.
And as Michael Byrne points out, if we can reliably grow corn in closed environments hidden from the sun, maybe we could eventually grow crops in caves on other planets. "In this way, underground farms could one day become terraforming machines, converting high levels of underground carbon dioxide into oxygen, to be released on the surface," he theorizes.
Image: Shutterstock / Vasiliy Koval | <urn:uuid:32ec0c78-a1fe-473c-b286-30563be8a46b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://gizmodo.com/corn-grown-in-space-caves-could-be-the-future-of-farmin-1575927305 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00135-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95604 | 550 | 3.859375 | 4 |
Eating raw rice isn't unhealthy in and of itself, but it could be a sign of a condition called pica. Pica is feeling compelled to eat things that aren't normally food. Raw rice is one of the common things people with pica eat. Sometimes pica is caused by a mineral deficiency-- the people in the previous poster's examples who said that they got anemia from eating raw rice are right about the relationship but they've got the order mixed up. They started eating raw rice because they already had anemia.
Pica can also be a form of OCD, but if it started after you started dieting, it's more likely that it's a deficiency of iron or one of the B vitamins. (If you're vegetarian or vegan, it's almost a sure thing that it's nutrition rather than OCD, because it's extremely hard to get B vitamins without animal products.)
See your doctor and tell him/her about the rice. Depending on where you live, the doctor might instantly say you need to be tested for anemia; if not, suggest it yourself.
Fitness Minutes: (2,095)
6/7/11 12:15 P
really?... A rice cooker costs like $10 at wal-mart...
It is the first time I'm hearing this, so i did a google search and came up with this:
It's not unhealthy, but the rice will swell in your stomach. If you eat a large amount, you could certainly have discomfort. In extreme cases, your stomach could even burst. This has actually happened to people, mostly children.
Here is more advice and input •If you soak the rice in warm water for a few hours, it will absorb the water and will not expand in the stomach.
•It's also probably not the best for your teeth.
•Actually, if you don't boil the rice, you will receive more nutrition. The only problem is the swelling of the rice inside your body. Don't eat too much!
•Also try soaking with lemon juice or vinegar or whey. this will decrease the anti-nutrients.
•If left out for more than 45 minutes, don't eat it or you'll get food poisoning.
•Yes, eating uncooked rice is bad for you. I've had an experience with eating uncooked rice and I guess I just got addicted to the taste. I kept eating it and eating it, until my blood level just dropped. To the point where I had to be hospitalized for anemia because of eating uncooked rice. They had to do a blood transfusion on me because I was really pale. Take it from someone with experience: Eating uncooked rice is very unhealthy. Trust me... you will slowly get sick.
•From my experience from eating dry rice yes, you do lose a lot of blood; something in the rice makes your menstruation longer. It just keeps making the blood flow out every time you eat dry rice.
•I ate a pound of dry rice once for a bet. I was a bit tipsy at the time, but it was okay - though I felt a bit funny in the morning. I guess something was going on in my tummy.
SparkPeople, SparkCoach, SparkPages, SparkPoints, SparkDiet, SparkAmerica, SparkRecipes, DailySpark, and other marks are trademarks of SparkPeople, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
SPARKPEOPLE is a registered trademark of SparkPeople, Inc. in the United States, European Union, Canada, and Australia. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:a103528b-0c94-43af-a36b-01bbf358eafa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sparkpeople.com/ma/Eating-Raw-Uncooked-rice/7/1/24357331 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00188-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969776 | 737 | 2.734375 | 3 |
preparation for this lesson, place a car in a safe location for the
students to measure the tire footprints and pressure. In case of bad
weather, find a covered location. Be sure to measure the tire footprint
and the pressure (in PSI) of each tire ahead of time, so that you will
be able check the accuracy of students' measurements. Also, check the
accuracy of your calculation by comparing to it to the weight of the
car listed on the sticker inside the driver's door or in the vehicle
By the end of the day, data may change because air has leaked out of the tires while students were using the tire gauge. For safety, check the tires before driving home.
The table below represents sample data from a 2002 Toyota Camry.
| ||Length of Tire|
|Area of Tire Footprint|
in Each Tire (psi)
|Calculated Weight Tire|
is Supporting (lbs)
|Driver-Side Front Tire||5 3/4||6 1/2||37 3/8||33||1233 3/8|
|Driver-Side Rear Tire||5 1/8||6 1/4||32 1/32||32||1025|
|Passenger-Side Rear Tire||5 1/2||5 3/4||31 5/8||34||1075 1/4|
|Passenger-Side Front Tire||6||6 1/2||39||32||1248|
To introduce the lesson, discuss weight and pressure with the class.
Ask, "Would it hurt more if a cat or a cow stepped on your toe? How
much weight would be on your toe?" Have students speculate on why the
cow hurts more than the cat. Lead the students into a discussion about
pounds per square inch and distribution of weight on each of the
animal's four feet. Ask, "What else is measured in pounds per square
inch (psi)?" [Tire pressure.] Also, ask questions that might remain
unanswered until the lesson is complete:
- About how much air pressure is in a car tire?
- How do you measure it?
- Would knowing the pressure in a car tire tell us anything about the weight of the car?
- Why do large vehicles have larger or more tires?
These questions are meant to generate a discussion that will perk
the interests of the students before doing the activity. They will
discover answers as the lesson proceeds.
Students may have learned in science that Pressure = Force ÷ Area.
This means that pressure is a measure of how the applied force is
distributed over an area. In our case, the force is the earth's
gravitational force on the car (i.e., the weight of the car.) This
weight is distributed over the ground by the surface area of the tire
touching the ground.
Arrange the groups of four students so that there are multiple
levels of students in each group. Give each student in the group a job:
- Recorder: records all information on the
Activity Sheet and makes sure that each student completes their own
Activity Sheet. Recorder is a good job for someone who has low math
- Area Measurer: measures the footprint of the tire and reports information to the recorder
- Pressure Measurer: uses a tire gauge to measure the air pressure in each tire and reports the information to the recorder
- Multiplier: does the multiplication in the chart without a calculator.
All students in the group should assist each other when needed and verify accurate results on all measurements and calculations.
Have students answer the Questions 1 and 2 on the How Much Does a Car Weigh? Activity Sheet.
How Much Does a Car Weigh? Activity Sheet
Give students directions for how to find the data for the table in
Question 3. Explain that they will use two pieces of poster board to
find the length and width of the tire's footprint. They should slide
one piece of poster board in front and one behind the tire, or one on
either side, to see where the tire is touching the ground. They need to
be sure that the poster board is straight at both ends. Students will
use a ruler to measure the distance between the two pieces of poster
board. (See photo below.) Because using a tire gauge can be
challenging, they should have have a second group member check the
pressure before recording it. For calculating the area, they can assume
the footprint is a perfect rectangle, and to find the weight that the
tire is supporting, they can multiply the area of the footprint by the
When all the measurements and calculations are complete, have
students complete Question 4. Then, discuss as a class the actual
weight of the car before having students complete Question 5.
Prompt students to review what they have learned with a question
they must answer on paper before they can leave the class. The
following are possible questions that could be asked.
What have you learned today about:
- Weighing cars?
- Using a tire gauge?
- Tire footprints?
- Distribution of weight?
- Multiplying with fractions?
- Anything else?
Other questions might deal with how the students worked together in groups.
What have you learned today about:
- Working as a team?
- Being responsible for your job?
- Helping others?
Every Student Counts Problem Based Instructional Task | <urn:uuid:64b5931b-8b00-4860-a76f-91260c6facee> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://illuminations.nctm.org/Lesson.aspx?id=3117 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.926727 | 1,147 | 4 | 4 |
- 1 1.1(of church, school, clock) campana (feminine)(on cow, goat) cencerro (masculine)(on cat, toy) cascabel (masculine)(on door, bicycle) timbre (masculine)(of telephone, timer) timbre (masculine)also: handbellto ring the belltocar el timbre/la campanaas clear as a bellhis voice was as clear as a belllo oía como si estuviera a mi ladobells and whistles [colloquial]it comes with all the bells and whistlesviene con toda la parafernalia de accesorios [humorous]as sound as a bellen perfectas condicionesto give somebody a bell (British) [colloquial]darle un telefonazo a alguien [colloquial]darle un toque a alguien (Spain) [colloquial]to ring a bellit rings a bellme suenathe name rings a bellme suena el nombredoes that ring any bells with you?¿te suena (de algo)?1.2also: bells plural(Music)campanas (feminine plural)Example sentences
- He made me an unbelievable trumpet with carvings and designs and a big double bell, like a space-age trumpet.
- The bell of the trumpet is decorated with a garland bearing the maker's name and the place where the instrument was made.
- Researchers in Germany have been looking carefully at the after glow of the big bang and have decided that the universe is shaped like a trumpet bell.
- 2 2.1 (Sport)the bellla campanashe was in third place at the bellal sonar la campana iba en tercera posiciónto be saved by the bellhe was saved by the bellse salvó de milagro
lo salvó la campana(in boxing) lo salvó la campanaExample sentences2.2 (in seafaring) at four bells
a las dos horas de empezar el turnoto sound two bellsdar dos campanadas
- Two minutes after the bell for round one, Liston was the new undisputed champ.
- Just as the bell ended the fifteenth round, Frazier put his hands up and yelled something at Ali.
- Right before the bell for the first round the anticipation was high.
- The wood in the half-light waking at daybreak to the belling of stags that bursts into barks.
- During the rut in October and November you can hear the stags belling or roaring.
- My very earliest memories are of picnics with my mother beneath the great trees in Richmond Park in London, of red deer stags belling in rut, of lightning and thunder.
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed. | <urn:uuid:b853aefa-4cd2-4a3a-a8ac-cc59c8b1de19> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/translate/english-spanish/bell | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00050-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.821533 | 636 | 2.875 | 3 |
The positive health effects of bicycling are well-known, and have been extensively documented, especially within the public health sector. Health professionals tout that regular bicycling can have significant impacts on a person's well being, leading to weight loss, lowered blood pressure, increased strength and mobility, and ultimately lower healthcare costs both to individuals and society.Adams County Coummunity Health Needs Assessment and the health benefits of bicycling and walking -one page
Burning calories while bicycling
A 190 pound person rides his bicycle for work, school, church and errands etc. for 30 weeks per year (May through Nov.) for 5 days per week at 10 miles per day for these various trips. That takes into account bad weather days. In total that person uses their bicycle for 1,500 miles per year for daily living, not including pleasure trips. Weight loss: 345 calories/hour X 150 hours = 51,750 calories or 14.79 pounds/ year. (actual weight loss depends on personal eating habits)
If the person's car gets 25mpp there is a savings of 60 gallons of gasoline or 2.14 barrels of crude oil per year. Money savings @ $3 gallon of gas = $180. If 10% of the Gettysburg area (or 1,000 people) did that in a year, then the gasoline saved would = 60,000 gallons and the crude oil saved per year would = 2,143 barrels.
Reduction in carbon dioxide emissions
Carbon dioxide reduction for one person = 60 gallons of gasoline X 19.564 pounds/gal = 1,174 pounds CO2/year plus immeasurable convenient, hassle free transportation. For 1,000 people the carbon dioxide reduction would = 1,173,840 pounds of CO2/year.
Walking health benefits | <urn:uuid:b141f400-2492-4186-9712-61e6e2abc752> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.habpi.org/pages/healthbenefits.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00096-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934167 | 367 | 2.859375 | 3 |
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A vivid, unprecedented account of why Union and Confederate soldiers identified slavery as the root of the war, how the conflict changed troops' ideas about slavery, and what those changing ideas meant for the war and the nation. Using soldiers' letters, diaries, and regimental newspapers, Chandra Manning allows us to accompany soldiers--black and white, northern and southern--into camps and hospitals and on marches and battlefields to better understand their thoughts about what they were doing and why. Manning's work reveals that Union soldiers, though evincing little sympathy for abolitionism before the war, were calling for emancipation by the second half of 1861, ahead of civilians, political leaders, and officers, and a full year before the Emancipation Proclamation. She recognizes Confederate soldiers' primary focus on their own families, and explores how their beliefs about abolition--that it would endanger their loved ones, erase the privileges of white manhood, and destroy the very fabric of southern society--motivated even non-slaveholding Confederates to fight and compelled them to persevere through military catastrophes like Gettysburg and Atlanta, long after they grew to despise the Confederate government and disdain the southern citizenry. She makes clear that while white Union troops viewed preservation of the Union as essential to the legacy of the Revolution, over the course of the war many also came to think that in order to gain God's favor, they and other white northerners must confront the racial prejudices that made them complicit in the sin of slavery. We see how the eventual consideration of the enlistment of black soldiers by the Confederacy eliminated any reason for many Confederate soldiers to fight; how, by 1865, black Union soldiers believed the forward racial strides made during the war would continue; and how white Union troops' commitment to racial change, fluctuating with the progress of the war, created undreamt-of potential for change but failed to fulfill it. An important and eye-opening addition to our understanding of the Civil War.
Select your format based upon: 1) how you want to read your book, and 2) compatibility with your reading tool. To learn more about using Bookshare with your device, visit the Help Center.
Here is an overview of the specialized formats that Bookshare offers its members with links that go to the Help Center for more information.
- Bookshare Web Reader - a customized reading tool for Bookshare members offering all the features of DAISY with a single click of the "Read Now" link.
- DAISY (Digital Accessible Information System) - a digital book file format. DAISY books from Bookshare are DAISY 3.0 text files that work with just about every type of access technology that reads text. Books that contain images will have the download option of ‘DAISY Text with Images’.
- BRF (Braille Refreshable Format) - digital Braille for use with refreshable Braille devices and Braille embossers.
- MP3 (Mpeg audio layer 3) - Provides audio only with no text. These books are created with a text-to-speech engine and spoken by Kendra, a high quality synthetic voice from Ivona. Any device that supports MP3 playback is compatible.
- DAISY Audio - Similar to the Daisy 3.0 option above; however, this option uses MP3 files created with our text-to-speech engine that utilizes Ivonas Kendra voice. This format will work with Daisy Audio compatible players such as Victor Reader Stream and Read2Go. | <urn:uuid:c0f14f34-3bfd-449d-b097-622b28065db8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.bookshare.org/browse/author?key=Chandra%20Manning | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937679 | 729 | 3.25 | 3 |
Clarkson University's K-12 Project Based Learning Partnership Program works to illustrate the relevance and interconnectedness of math, science and technology and improve math, science and technology education in local K - 12 school districts. The K-12 program provides opportunities for undergraduate and graduate students from Clarkson and St. Lawrence Universities to improve their professional skills and experience classroom teaching.
The K-12 Partnership Program was developed with funding from the National Science Foundation, and continued with added financial assistance from the GE Foundation. GE funds were used to expose more girls and minority students to the diversity of engineering applications. Major additional funding from the National Science Foundation allowed the program to expand in conjunction with faculty and staff from the Teaching Scholar Partnership Program (TSPP) at nearby St. Lawrence University.
The goal of the Energy and Environment Curriculum is to get students to think about energy issues and increasing global energy challenges. In the curriculum, students learn about basic energy concepts such as: energy, work, and power; renewable and nonrenewable resources, energy forms, states and conversions, and energy systems. They also learn how to apply those concepts to the problem. The importance of using models to explain larger scientific problems is presented and students get to design, build and test models of energy systems.
Throughout the Energy and the Environment curriculum, students are encouraged to think about and how their own choices can affect the situation. They do this as they explore possible solutions to the global energy problem. | <urn:uuid:f5e71136-78a0-4163-b487-0ea9bfa46947> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.clarkson.edu/highschool/k12/curriculum/energy_systems/index.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00057-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947779 | 297 | 3.1875 | 3 |
At Ozette two brothers undertook whaling, although their father had not been a whaler. The elder was unsuccessful, but the younger killed several whales the first season. Thereafter he was always lucky, while his brother always failed. The elder often asked how he got his power, but the younger whaler told nothing.
The younger brother often lay all day with his back to the fire, and he slept there at night. He seldom ate, and then only a little. The way he obtained his power was this: He dreamed of forty ghosts, and then cleared a place in the woods back of the village. Around it was a thick jungle of crab trees, which he made impenetrable by interweaving the trees and brush he had cut down, leaving only a narrow entrance. In the clearing he arranged some brush and small poles in the form of a canoe and four whales in a row. The whales were so large that he could place two corpses under them. Around the edge of the clearing he placed boards so as to make a shelf about two feet from the ground, and on it, bough to upright stakes, he stood forty dead bodies. Each held a stick in it's right hand, and he arranged a rope so that by pulling it he caused all of them to strike with their batons the board on which they stood. Another line raised the left arms of the corpses at the will of the whaler. In the brush canoe he had a full crew of seven dead men, and by means of ropes he made them paddle when he gave the order. In visiting this place the whaler always rested four times after leaving the burial ground, and on reaching the clearing he walked around it four times inside the line of corpses.
One day a son of the elder brother died, and the body was placed in a hole and covered with stones. On the fourth night the younger brother left the house. The other heard him, and softly followed him to the new grave, and silently watched him remove the stones, take out the body, and fill the hole with stones. With the body on his back, and walking in the fashion of whalers at such times, the young man went along the beach and then turned into the woods. The elder brother cautiously followed, pausing when the other rested. Whenever the whaler stopped he screeched like an owl, and prayed, "May I be given a chance to spear a whale, and may the people say it was I that did it!" When finally they reached the clearing, it was dawn.
The whaler threw the body beside the first whale, and made the dead men strike the boards with their sticks. Then he stood the new body beside the stake and lashed it there. He slowly got into the canoe, took up a harpoon, and hurled it at the first brush whale. At that instant his brother sprang through the hedge. The whaler fell unconscious, and the elder leaped upon him. When the whaler opened his eyes, he begged, "Spare my life, and I will show you how to do everything! I will let you use all this, and tell you the best places to wash!"
"Why did you not let me have this when I asked you?" demanded the elder man. "The people have been laughing at me long enough! I asked you this many years ago, but you told me nothing. Now I can take everything you have. If you had told me, this would never have happened. And you took my dead son so soon after I buried him! Though you are my brother, I cannot spare your life!" He stabbed him, but did not kill him. Still the whaler pleaded, "Let me go! Whatever I have shall be yours! If you kill me, you will have no good from these things, because you will not know how to use them. If you try to use them by yourself, you will die soon!" But the elder brother stabbed him to death. Then he lashed the warm body to the other side of the stake that supported his own son. It was now broad daylight, adn the man went home and told his wife all.
Four or five days later he returned to the clearing. He pulled on the rope, and the sticks struck the boards. Then he prayed as he had heard his brother do. He got into the brush canoe, threw the harpoon at the first wahle, and said, "I have forty dead men for my power! May I spear a while, and may the people say it was I that speared it!" He heard a sound from his dead brother, then the words: "You should be ashamed! You are not doing it the right way!" Then he went home feeling very ill, and that night he died.
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Back to Main Page | <urn:uuid:effa7a49-71d0-404b-ae69-a0c47cbfc491> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.angelfire.com/ca/Indian/FortyDeadMen.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00001-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.987948 | 991 | 3.140625 | 3 |
From: Arizona State University
Posted: Wednesday, September 26, 2001
Miraculous things happen to the desert when it rains - everything changes from brown to green and organisms that have not been seen for months make a brief emergence from underground lairs.
In fact, even the desert's soil turns visibly green following the rare desert rain, as hidden filaments of photosynthesizing cyanobacteria suddenly hydrate. Lying a few millimeters deep, these primitive prokaryotes quickly glide upward, migrating en mass to the surface for an hour or so of light exposure until the dirt begins to dry. Then, just as suddenly, they return again to the subsurface, where they begin the long wait for the next rain.
The existence of such "cryptic" communities of microbes has long been known, and it has long been assumed that the organisms' behavior can be explained by common light-responsive behavior. Now, a new finding by Arizona State University microbial ecologist Ferran Garcia-Pichel and Olivier Pringault of the Biological Oceanography Laboratory at the University of Bordeaux shows that phenomenon is actually more complicated, with significant implications for the behavior and ecology of other underground microbes. The research is reported in the September 27 issue of the journal Nature.
Observing several different species of soil crust-inhabiting cynobacteria, the team found that the bacteria's movements were affected by the presence or absence of water, not just light - the first time such behavior has ever been observed in bacteria.
According to Garcia-Pichel, the team was first intrigued by a "serendipitous" field observation. "What we discovered was that when one of these wetting events took place, the cyanobacteria came up to the surface of the soil. But once the soil started drying out, the cyanobacteria returned to the subsurface though the light didn't change. Essentially nothing changed except the availability of water," he said.
Subsequently, the bacteria were moved to a laboratory setting and were tested under controlled lighting conditions, using microprobes to measure the relation of bacterial movement to water content in the soil surface. Test results showed clearly that the bacteria "tracked" the water.
"These migrations are really population migrations that occur in millimeter scale -- close to 100 percent of the population will come up to the surface," Garcia-Pichel noted. "Their tendency to track the water overwhelms their tendency to track the light. We've never seen this before."
Water, Garcia-Pichel hypothesizes, is critical to the bacteria not just for metabolism, but also for movement. "They go down because by tracking the water, they protect themselves. They will get dry eventually, and when they get dry they can't move. At the surface they would be more subject to hazardous conditions."
Garcia-Pichel points out that the finding may have large implications for investigating the ecology of the still poorly understood bacterial species that live deep beneath the earth's surface.
"Once traits like this are found, they're usually not restricted to one organism. We've seen this in a variety of cyanobacteria. If this really a widespread ability of bacteria, it also has implications on how we understand the bacterial communities in the deep subsurface. Bacterial communities may be following water in the subsurface over large distances," he said.
Similarly, there are implications for locating life in another extreme environment - Mars. Though cyanobacteria are among the most primitive living things, they have developed sophisticated skills for dealing with an environment where water is both scarce and transitory.
"Desert soils are one of the earthly ecosystems that may have some significance on Mars. If Mars had some water in the past, then these desiccation-resistant environments are probably going to be the last to have existed there. This is one of the most likely ecosystems to have left an imprint that we can find some evidence for," Garcia-Pichel said.
"'Follow the water' has become a productive shorthand for expressing the scientific directions of our exploration of Mars, and beyond," said Rose Grymes, Associate Director of the NASA Astrobiology Institute, of which Arizona State University is a member. "This fascinating research contributes directly to our understanding of how living systems adapt to and impact the planetary environment, and how they leave their signature; even in places that appear highly inhospitable."
The research was funded by a grant from the U.S. Department of Agriculture.James Hathaway,
Source: Ferran Garcia-Pichel, 480-727-7534
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Child Abuse Prevention
Child abuse is not only traumatic to the child, but can cause life-long problems for the abused and the family.
About 28,000 child abuse cases were reported in Illinois last year. Child abuse can cause many emotional and physical issues for the individual. It can arise in several forms says, Dr. Careyana Brenham, assistant professor of family and community medicine at SIU School of Medicine in Springfield.
“... probably the most prevalent is neglect. People sometimes forget about that as a form of child abuse, but children not getting proper food, nutrition, taken to school. We’ll see medical neglect, where parents fail to seek medical services for their children for either preventive health issues or even seeking care for their children for chronic medical problems or acute medical issues.”
Dr. Brenham says these children’s medical problems are often the result of physical and sexual abuse or lack of a safe home environment.
She says the role of the medical community is to provide medical care to child abuse victims, assist the families with services and to report the abuse to the Department of Children and Family Services. Other organizations including the Child Advocacy Center also provide support services.
“The Child Advocacy Center in Springfield and Sangamon County works with particularly sexually abused children and helping coordinate and offering a family-safe place for children and their families to go to receive services, whether that be counseling, help with if there are trials that end up happening, supporting the family through that, supporting the investigation.”
Dr. Brenham urges parents, teachers and other adults to watch for signs of possible abuse to children and report it to DCFS or other community organizations that can help the child. To learn more about protecting children from abuse, go to www.state.il.us/dcfs.Ruth Slottag | <urn:uuid:159493ed-5505-40cc-b979-3ea3456f9a17> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.siumed.edu/news/Newsline%20TEXT13/4-16-13.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00196-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959914 | 378 | 2.9375 | 3 |
|The cultivar, 'Alba Plenissima' has white flowers and greenish white sepals. It has 6 to 7 inch green leaves and purple undersides. One plant may develop into a clump of several plants. Not too many blossom until the plants have established a small colony. Commonly referred to a "Water Lilies" these plants have adapted to living in total water environment. The leaves of these plants are individually supported on leaf stalks called petioles. Water Lily blossoms vary greatly in color and size. They enjoy neutral to alkaline water and grow best in full sun. Planting should be done in water no cooler than 75 degrees F. If the water is too cool the plant will enter a dormant state. The following planting times correspond to each hardiness zone; for Zone 4 plant in mid to late June, Zone 5 plant in early to mid June, Zone 6 plant in late May to early June, Zone 7 plant mid to late May, Zone 8 plant in mid April, Zone 9 plant in early April and for Zone 10 plant March through April. | <urn:uuid:e4f4ae93-5550-4bc3-9815-f9a23c78e3f3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.backyardgardener.com/plantname/pda_5ecb.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957121 | 223 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Uh-oh. You've found a lump on Kitty. You'll have to take him to a vet for a definite diagnosis, but don't panic. It's likely just a cyst, not a tumor. It might be unsightly, but it's not life-threatening. After diagnosis, you and your vet can decide whether to remove it.
Cysts consist of sacs filled with fluid or solids -- they form the lump you found on Kitty's skin. These sacs have a lining which secretes the filling found inside the cysts. Over time, they might decrease or increase in size; they may disappear slowly on their own. Usually, surgical removal takes care of the problem, although occasionally a cyst returns. Cysts aren't contagious, so Kitty can't spread them to other pets. Different types of cysts contain different fillings and appear on various parts of the body.
If you find a lump or bump on Kitty that lingers, take him to the vet for an examination. If you're lucky, it is a cyst that your vet will either remove relatively easily or advise you to leave alone. The possibility exists that the lump is a tumor, either benign or malignant, or an abscess. You can't tell what it is simply by feeling the lump. The vet draws makes a diagnosis by inserting a fine needle into the lump and withdrawing fluid. Microscopic examination of the cells from this fluid can confirm whether it's a cyst.
The most common type of feline cyst, a sebaceous cyst forms because of an obstruction in a cat's hair follicles. Sebaceous cysts are also known as epidermoid or follicular cysts. Sebum, created by the cat's sebaceous glands on his skin, acts as a lubricant. If there's a blockage in the hair follicles, this substance accumulates, resulting in a cyst. Any cat can develop sebaceous cysts anywhere on the body. Varying in size, these cysts may appear bluish-gray. Inside, they're full of cheesy white-gray matter. Since it's not harming the cat, you don't have to take off a sebaceous cyst.
Also known as sweat gland cysts, apocrine cysts aren't that common in cats, and they tend to disappear quickly. These cysts fill with water that often eventually seeps out. Your vet might recommend leaving these alone as they'll probably disappear on their own. If the vet drains the cyst rather than removes it surgically, it's likely to fill back up.
Dilated Pores of Winer
If your old cat looks like he's growing a horn in the middle of his head, he could have a rare cyst called a "dilated pore of Winer." He may look like he's developing a giant zit on his noggin; it may have keratin poking out of it. This cyst doesn't hurt him ... but if you don't like the look of a cat with a bizarre growth on his head, your vet can cut it out.
- Hemera Technologies/Photos.com/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:c2798ac4-402b-46ef-bb0f-485f04ff6dc6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://pets.thenest.com/reasons-cysts-cats-9022.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00031-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972253 | 656 | 2.515625 | 3 |
The research appears as the "Paper of the Week" in the April 8 issue of the Journal of Biological Chemistry, an American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology journal.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis, is responsible for more morbidity in humans than any other bacteria. The emergence of multi-drug resistant strains of M. tuberculosis has prompted the search for new drug targets and a better understanding of the mechanism of resistance in this bacterium.
Several spans of DNA in the M. tuberculosis genome have been annotated as antibiotic resistance genes due to their sequence similarity to existing antibiotic resistance genes. Dr. Edward N. Baker of the University of Auckland in New Zealand explains, "Generally the sequence of the open reading frame is compared with the sequences of genes for other proteins (most of which are from different species) in sequence databases. If a close match is found, it is assumed that the function is the same or similar."
Rv1347c is one of these annotated antibiotic resistance genes in M. tuberculosis. It encodes a putative aminoglycoside N-acetyltransferase that is thought to be involved in resistance to aminoglycoside antibiotics such as streptomycin.
"The aminoglycoside antibiotics have sugar rings with amino groups attached," explains Dr. Baker. "The N-acetyltransferase chemically modifies the sugar amino group by transferring an acetyl group to it. This inactivates the antibiotic because it can no longer fit into its target."
However, in vitro biochemical assays have failed to demonstrate aminoglycoside N-acetyltransferase activity in Rv1347c. By solving the three-dimensional structure of Rv1347c, Dr. Baker and his colleagues have discovered that the enzyme most likely plays an entirely different role in M. tuberculosis.
"What the structure showed, when combined with careful analysis of the sequence, its neighbors in the genome, and the fact that its gene was also regulated by iron, was that Rv1347c was almost certainly a "missing enzyme" from the pathway for biosynthesis of the iron scavenging agent mycobactin," recalls Dr. Baker.
"Mycobactin is a small molecule which binds iron very tightly. Bacteria synthesize it so that they can acquire the iron they need to grow ?it is secreted out into the external environment where it scavenges iron and then (with iron bound to it) it is taken up by the bacterium again."
Although Rv1347c is not involved in antibiotic resistance, it still remains a target for the design of new anti-TB drugs. "Enzymes that synthesize mycobactin are drug targets, because if mycobactin biosynthesis is stopped, the bacterium cannot acquire the iron that it needs for survival," explains Dr. Baker. "Importantly this seems to be true even of the bacteria that are taken up by macrophages in the lung and enter a dormant state ?these are the hardest to attack with drugs." | <urn:uuid:392a9820-184a-4207-917f-c7085fcd84e4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://bio-medicine.org/biology-news/Scientists-find-missing-enzyme-for-tuberculosis-iron-scavenging-pathway-103-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00079-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954879 | 634 | 3.203125 | 3 |
To see the relationship between T-carrier, E-carrier, and DS0 multiples, see digital signal X.
The T-carrier system, introduced by the Bell System in the U.S. in the 1960s, was the first successful system that supported digitized voice transmission. The original transmission rate (1.544 Mbps) in the T1 line is in common use today in Internet service provider (ISP) connections to the Internet. Another level, the T3 line, providing 44.736 Mbps, is also commonly used by Internet service providers.
The T-carrier system is entirely digital, using pulse code modulation (PCM) and time-division multiplexing (TDM). The system uses four wires and provides duplex capability (two wires for receiving and two for sending at the same time). The T1 digital stream consists of 24 64-Kbps channels that are multiplexed. (The standardized 64 Kbps channel is based on the bandwidth required for a voice conversation.) The four wires were originally a pair of twisted pair copper wires, but can now also include coaxial cable, optical fiber, digital microwave, and other media. A number of variations on the number and use of channels are possible.
A T1 line in which each channel serves a different application is known as integrated T1 or channelized T1. Another commonly installed service is a fractional T1, which is the rental of some portion of the 24 channels in a T1 line, with the other channels going unused.
In the T1 system, voice or other analog signals are sampled 8,000 times a second and each sample is digitized into an 8-bit word. With 24 channels being digitized at the same time, a 192-bit frame (24 channels each with an 8-bit word) is thus being transmitted 8,000 times a second. Each frame is separated from the next by a single bit, making a 193-bit block. The 192 bit frame multiplied by 8,000 and the additional 8,000 framing bits make up the T1's 1.544 Mbps data rate. The signaling bits are the least significant bits in each frame.
You can compare these rates with those of other carrier technologies by seeing the data rates in The speed of.... | <urn:uuid:f242ee6a-2a69-4bba-98ba-0aa5b4c3a5f2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://searchtelecom.techtarget.com/definition/T-carrier-system | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00054-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944118 | 469 | 3.328125 | 3 |
What keeps you up at night?
That’s the question economist Gary Yohe, one of the architects behind the White House’s 2014 Climate Assessment report, posed to several of his co-authors during a May 6 panel in Washington D.C. Unsurprisingly, the assembled team of climate experts and other academics had no lack of answers, ranging from the possibility of more extreme weather events to the risk of climate-induced mental health degradation. But what keeps Iowa State University climate scientist Gene Takle up at night is what climate change could do to one of humanity’s most basic needs.
“I worry about food security, both globally and in the U.S., because social unrest happens very quickly under food insecurity,” he told the panel. “And I’ve talked about the production side of it, but that’s only one part of food security. It involves transportation, it involves processing, it involves storage. So any breakdown in any of those from any of the factors that we’ve already talked about could lead to food insecurity, which could lead to social unrest very quickly.”
America already has a food security problem, but not one which can be attributed entirely to climate change. An estimated 49 million Americans currently suffer from food insecurity, which is defined by the U.S. Department of Agriculture as lack of access to “enough food for an active, healthy life.” That lack is driven by politics, not scarcity. Billions of pounds of food go uneaten each year, even as increasingly harsh food stamp cuts make it more difficult for food insecure populations to buy any of it.
Now, a growing body of evidence suggests that climate change could make the situation even more unstable. The 2014 Climate Assessment paints a grim portrait of declining crop yields, rising food prices, and disrupted supply chains. And that’s just in the United States.
“In an increasingly globalized food system with volatile food prices, climate events abroad may affect food security in the U.S., while climate events in the U.S. may affect food security globally,” according to the report. “The globalized food system can buffer the local impacts of weather events on food security, but can also increase the global vulnerability of food security by transmitting price shocks globally.”
In late March, the United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change projected that climate change could raise global food prices by as little as 3% and as much as 85% over the next three and a half decades. In the United States alone, dairy production could drop by as much as 30%. When yields go down and prices rise it can have serious public health consequences, according to Oxfam America climate change policy manager Heather Coleman.
“As the price of food goes up, diets shift in relation to food prices,” she said. “So the pattern is that people purchase lower quality food, and therefore less nutritious food.”
A related dynamic could already be playing out on the West Coast, where California is currently getting blasted by a drought of epochal proportions. That drought—which may have been exacerbated by man-made climate change—has jacked up food prices made it harder for food banks in the area to access fresh produce, according to California Association of Food Banks executive director Sue Sigler.
“There are an awful lot of unemployed people needing assistance and food prices continue to rise, so that hits both food banks and households,” she said.
Gov. Jerry Brown, D-Calif., approved a drought relief package at the beginning of March which takes some of the pressure off by giving additional funding to emergency food assistance programs. But that package is a one-time response to a once-in-500-years emergency, not an attempt to adapt to a new normal. It remains to be seen whether the United States will be able to adapt its agricultural infrastructure for the worsening climate ahead. | <urn:uuid:5a3f265c-6f37-491f-ac22-cb3706202336> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/climate-change-could-worsen-hunger-crisis | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00078-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96515 | 814 | 3.25 | 3 |
The 1893 Women's Suffrage Petition led to New Zealand becoming the first self-governing nation where women won the right to vote, comprised 546 sheets of paper, all glued together to form one continuous roll, 274 metres long. It was presented to the House of Representatives in 1893; the actual number of signatures on the surviving petition is 23,853. Some places are under-represented as women may have signed smaller regional petitions which have not survived. There are 1312 signatories from South Canterbury, the majority from Timaru and Waimate. Missing are the Fairlie, Temuka, Pleasant Point and Geraldine names. Sheets 220 - 236 covers the Waimate names and sheets 270-276 covers the Timaru names. At the next election, two months later, on 28 November 1893, 65% of the women over 21 exercised their new right. Women did not gain the right to stand for Parliament until 1919. The roll is preserved at Archives NZ. The international significance of the document has been recognised by its inclusion on the UNESCO Memory of the World register of documentary heritage. Digital images are online at Archways. Keyword Women Suffrage Petition Roll
286 Stewart Annie Temuka 287 Langridge A. Temuka 287 Lynch Mrs E. Temuka 201 Morrison Susie Geraldine 270 Mahon Mary J. Geraldine 270 Shaw Margaret Geraldine 270 Shaw Ellen Adela Geraldine 282 Humphries H Cox Street Geraldine 285 Quin Mary B. Geraldine 285 Andrews K. A. Waitohi Flat Waitohi 288 Kingston Mrs T. Geraldine 270 Stewart Annie Pleasant Point
Kate Sheppard National Memorial Reserve, on Oxford Terrace beside the River Avon, Christchurch. The Memorial, the work of sculptor Margriet Windhausen, comprises a 3.3m by 2.1m bronze bas-relief supported by a 5m pebbled wall. The camellia and white ribbons were symbols of the suffrage campaign. White camellias were given by the suffragists to male members of parliament who supported the cause. Unveiled 19th Sept. 1993.
From left to right on the centre panel are:
•Meri Te Tai Mangakahia of Taitokerau who requested the vote for women from the Kotahitanga Maori Parliament.
•Amey Daldy a foundation member of the Auckland WCTU and president of the Auckland Franchise League.
•Kate Sheppard of Christchurch, the leader of the suffrage campaign.
•Ada Wells of Christchurch who campaigned vigorously for equal educational opportunities for girls and women.
•Harriet Morison of Dunedin, vice president of the Tailoresses’ Union and a powerful advocate for working women.
•Helen Nicol who pioneered the women’s franchise campaign in Dunedin.
Evening Post, 13 September 1893, Page
A deputation from the Wellington Women's Franchise League waited on the Hon. R. Oliver yesterday, and presented a congratulatory address, also a basket of white camellias (20) for presentation to each Legislative Councillor who voted in favour of the Women's Franchise. Each camellia had attached the name of the gentleman for whom it was intended, and was tied with white ribbon The Hon. Mr. Oliver received the deputation cordially, and in expressing his pleasure at the kindly recognition of the League, said he believed the politics of the colony would be very much improved when the women had a voice in the legislation.
Timaru Herald, 10 July 1893, Page 2
"We learn from the president of the Women's Franchise League that owing to the enthusiasm evinced it is expected that by petition to Parliament 30,000 women will this session demand enfranchisement immediately. Yesterday huge petitions, 776ft in length and containing 25,570 signatures, were forwarded from Christchurch to Sir John Hall by Mrs Sheppard, the franchise superintendent. If the moral force of this demonstration is not at once recognised by the Government, it is alleged that a position of a very determined character will be taken up which will cost the party in power dear."
Timaru Herald, 12 July 1893, Page 3
Mr Oliver presented a petition, signed by 25498 women, in favour of the franchise being granted to women. Petitioners also expressed the hope that they would be enabled to vote at the next General Election. The Colonial Secretary being to unwell to be present, the Council adjourned till next day.
The 1892 suffrage petition had over 17,000 names, including some from places missing on the 1893 petition. 593 names from South Canterbury with more names from Waimate than Timaru.
366 204 PLEASANT POINT MACKAY JESSIE 424 238 PLEASANT POINT SCOWEN M L 368 205 POINT GIBBS JANE 381 211 TEMUKA ANDREWS K A 361 201 GERALDINE EVERY HENRIETTA 371 206 GERALDINE MAHAN SARA I 361 201 GERALDINE FLAT MAHAN ELLEN ADELA 209 120 TEMUKA EDWARDS A 381 211 TEMUKA ANDREWS K A 366 204 CLAREMONT CAMPBELL MARGARET 368 205 KINGSDOWN ELLIS MARTHA 398 221 MAKIKIHI RODGERS M 366 204 RAKAIA HARDY ELEANOR E 341 187 TIMARU VOGELER MINNIE 345 190 TIMARU GOWHER CAROLINE L 360 200 TIMARU BLACKMORE NANCY 360 200 TIMARU CALVERT ANNIE 360 200 TIMARU HILLARY EMMA 360 200 TIMARU VOGEL D 360 200 TIMARU WILLIAMS ALICE M 361 201 TIMARU COWAN JEANIE K 361 201 TIMARU GILLESPIE MARGARET 361 201 TIMARU HUGHES BESSIE 361 201 TIMARU KARTON SARAH 361 201 TIMARU KENNEDY ELIZABETH 361 201 TIMARU SMALE MARY G 361 201 TIMARU TONEYCLIFFE JANE 361 201 TIMARU TONEYCLIFFE JULIE 361 201 TIMARU TOSHACK JANET R 361 201 TIMARU WAKE ADA E 361 201 TIMARU WHITMARSH MARTHA A 363 202 TIMARU ADAMS LETITIA 362 202 TIMARU ALLSOP E A 363 202 TIMARU ANDERSON A 362 202 TIMARU BOOTHROYD M 362 202 TIMARU BOULDEN ELLEN 362 202 TIMARU BOYCE MAY 363 202 TIMARU BROOKS LILIAN 363 202 TIMARU BURGESS CATHERINE 363 202 TIMARU CHAPMAN ANNIE 362 202 TIMARU CLOUGH M A 363 202 TIMARU COX ANNA 362 202 TIMARU DEPKINS K E 362 202 TIMARU DRISCOLL MARY 362 202 TIMARU FADAN ELLEN 362 202 TIMARU FALLAR S 362 202 TIMARU FRANCIS NELLIE 363 202 TIMARU FUSSELL ANNIE G 363 202 TIMARU GIBBS JANE 362 202 TIMARU GILLIES I R 363 202 TIMARU GRANDI FRANCES 362 202 TIMARU HALL H 363 202 TIMARU HUBBARD GRACE 362 202 TIMARU HUGHES SARAH 363 202 TIMARU JOHNSON ADELAIDE 362 202 TIMARU KENNEDY MARY ANN 362 202 TIMARU KING ELLEN 362 202 TIMARU LAMBERT L 363 202 TIMARU LAWRY JANE MARIA 362 202 TIMARU LISSAMAN H 363 202 TIMARU MACKENZIE J H 363 202 TIMARU MASSEY ELIZABETH 362 202 TIMARU MCKAY JESSIE 363 202 TIMARU MCKENZIE JOAN 363 202 TIMARU MCKEOWN M 363 202 TIMARU MCRAE B 363 202 TIMARU MCRAE JANE 362 202 TIMARU MURRAY M E 363 202 TIMARU PADGET M 362 202 TIMARU PARKER L 363 202 TIMARU PENROSE L 363 202 TIMARU MRS POWELL A 362 202 TIMARU POWELL SARAH 362 202 TIMARU RAWSTOM E 362 202 TIMARU REID J M 363 202 TIMARU RICE E 363 202 TIMARU RINTOUL M J 363 202 TIMARU ROWBOTHAM J 363 202 TIMARU ROWE M A 362 202 TIMARU RUSSELL G M 362 202 TIMARU SAMMS M 363 202 TIMARU SIBLY I 363 202 TIMARU SIBLY U 363 202 TIMARU SMITH SARAH 362 202 TIMARU STERLING MAY 362 202 TIMARU STEVENS MARY 363 202 TIMARU STEWART I 362 202 TIMARU TODD JANE M 363 202 TIMARU TODD M S 362 202 TIMARU TUBB J 362 202 TIMARU WAUGH A J 362 202 TIMARU WEBB MABEL 365 203 TIMARU BEZZANT NORA ELLEN 365 203 TIMARU BOWLES ROSIE 365 203 TIMARU BURNESS ELIZABETH 365 203 TIMARU CLARKSON CAROLINE 365 203 TIMARU COCK ANN 365 203 TIMARU EMMERSON ELLEN 365 203 TIMARU EVANS ROSE 365 203 TIMARU FAIRBOURN FRANCES 365 203 TIMARU JOHNSON MATILDA 365 203 TIMARU KIDD MARY 365 203 TIMARU MUNRO MARY 365 203 TIMARU PATTESON AMY 365 203 TIMARU WHITELAW MAGGIE 366 204 TIMARU BAMFIELD A M C 366 204 TIMARU BAMFIELD ELIZABETH 367 204 TIMARU BARKLEY SUSAN 366 204 TIMARU BELL M 366 204 TIMARU BILTON MAY 366 204 TIMARU BILTON ELIZABETH 366 204 TIMARU BOND HARRIET 366 204 TIMARU BROOKER LILLA C 367 204 TIMARU BRYDGES HANNAH 366 204 TIMARU BUDD LILLIE 367 204 TIMARU CAMPBELL EMMA G 366 204 TIMARU CAMPBELL ELIZABETH 366 204 TIMARU CLEMENTS A L RACHEL 366 204 TIMARU CONDON ANNIE 367 204 TIMARU CURRIE JANE 367 204 TIMARU DAWSON M 367 204 TIMARU DEPHOFF MARGARET 367 204 TIMARU EMMERSON ELLEN L 366 204 TIMARU FOSTER KATHERINE J 366 204 TIMARU FUSSELL H 367 204 TIMARU GOSHACH JANET B 366 204 TIMARU HANKINS ADA E 366 204 TIMARU HEALEY A H 366 204 TIMARU HOPE LIZZIE 366 204 TIMARU HUGHES ANNIE 366 204 TIMARU HUGHES MARGARET J 366 204 TIMARU IRVING MARY 366 204 TIMARU IRWIN ANNA M 366 204 TIMARU IRWIN ELIZABETH 366 204 TIMARU IRWIN ELLLA I 366 204 TIMARU IRWIN MARGARET 366 204 TIMARU KANE MARY 367 204 TIMARU KEENE AGNES 367 204 TIMARU KEENE EMMA 367 204 TIMARU LATIMER ELISANN 367 204 TIMARU LAURIE MARGARET 366 204 TIMARU LEWIS E 366 204 TIMARU MAHON MARIE 366 204 TIMARU MCLEAN AGNES 366 204 TIMARU MCLEAN MARY 366 204 TIMARU MILLER ELIZABETH 366 204 TIMARU MONTGOMERY MARIA 367 204 TIMARU MORGAN MARY JANE 367 204 TIMARU OPIE JANE 367 204 TIMARU OWENS ELIZABETH 366 204 TIMARU PEACH CONSTANCE 367 204 TIMARU PEARSON AGNES 367 204 TIMARU PEARSON CHARLOTTE 366 204 TIMARU PEARSON EMMA J A 367 204 TIMARU PEEBLES LIZZIE 366 204 TIMARU RIDELL MARY 367 204 TIMARU SELWOOD MARY 366 204 TIMARU THOMAS ALBINA 367 204 TIMARU WARNER SARAH 366 204 TIMARU WHITE MARY JANE 366 204 TIMARU YOUNG NELLIE 368 205 TIMARU BALLANTYNE C 368 205 TIMARU MRS BEZZANT 368 205 TIMARU BLACKWOOD F M 369 205 TIMARU BROWN E E 369 205 TIMARU MRS BROWN S A 369 205 TIMARU BROWN JANE W 368 205 TIMARU MRS BUNDESEN A 368 205 TIMARU BUSSELL A S 369 205 TIMARU CAYGILL F 369 205 TIMARU CLARKE A 368 205 TIMARU COE A H 368 205 TIMARU ELLIS C 369 205 TIMARU MRS FLEMING 369 205 TIMARU FODEN P 368 205 TIMARU GABITES P A G 368 205 TIMARU GARDNER E M 369 205 TIMARU GARDNER I 368 205 TIMARU MRS GARDNER G W 369 205 TIMARU GARDNER L 368 205 TIMARU GARDNER I L 369 205 TIMARU GRANGER A 369 205 TIMARU GRANGER JANE 369 205 TIMARU GRANGER JESSIE 368 205 TIMARU GUILBERT ELLEN 369 205 TIMARU GUILBERT NANCY AGNES 368 205 TIMARU HALSTEAD A 369 205 TIMARU HITCH IDA 368 205 TIMARU MISS HOLDGATE 368 205 TIMARU MRS HOLDGATE 368 205 TIMARU HOLDGATE A 368 205 TIMARU HOWE M A E 368 205 TIMARU MRS JACKSON J 369 205 TIMARU KOHN A F 368 205 TIMARU KOHN S C 368 205 TIMARU MACINTOSH C H 369 205 TIMARU MACINTOSH CHRISTINA 369 205 TIMARU MACINTOSH MARGARET 369 205 TIMARU MANN JEAN 369 205 TIMARU MCCAHON LILIAN 369 205 TIMARU MCCLELLAND JANET E 369 205 TIMARU MCILROY A 368 205 TIMARU MCKNIGHT M 368 205 TIMARU MCMEEKIN A 368 205 TIMARU MRS MCMEEKIN S K 369 205 TIMARU MOODY A C 369 205 TIMARU MOODY ANNE 369 205 TIMARU NAPIER I R 369 205 TIMARU MRS PARKS 369 205 TIMARU PARKS H 368 205 TIMARU MRS PEARCE 369 205 TIMARU SEALEY CHRISTINA 368 205 TIMARU SIBLY A 368 205 TIMARU SIBLY E G 369 205 TIMARU SIBLY H M A 369 205 TIMARU SILVERTON CAROLINE 369 205 TIMARU SMELLIE N C 368 205 TIMARU MRS TARGUSE S 368 205 TIMARU WADCLIFFE L 371 206 TIMARU ADAMS ADA 372 206 TIMARU ALLPRESS EMMA 372 206 TIMARU ARSCOTT HARRIET 372 206 TIMARU AVISON ANN 372 206 TIMARU AVISON MARTHA 371 206 TIMARU BOWKER CAROLINE L 372 206 TIMARU BURFORD ALICE E 372 206 TIMARU MRS CALDWELL D J 372 206 TIMARU CHRISTIE MARGARET 372 206 TIMARU CLARKE ACHSAH R 371 206 TIMARU CLITHEROE BESSIE 372 206 TIMARU MRS CLOSE 372 206 TIMARU MRS CONDLISH 372 206 TIMARU MRS CONWAY 372 206 TIMARU COURTIS E S 372 206 TIMARU MRS CRAIGIE SARAH 372 206 TIMARU DONN AGNES M 372 206 TIMARU DONN SUSAN 372 206 TIMARU MRS DONN JESSIE 372 206 TIMARU DONN CHRISTINA C 372 206 TIMARU DUNLOP MARGARET 371 206 TIMARU ELLIOTT SARAH JANE 371 206 TIMARU ELLIOTT MAGGIE 371 206 TIMARU EVANS FANNIE M 371 206 TIMARU EVANS ADDIE 372 206 TIMARU MRS HALL BETTY 371 206 TIMARU HAY BESSIE 372 206 TIMARU HITCH MINNIE 371 206 TIMARU HOLLOW LOUISA J 371 206 TIMARU HOOPER EMMA 372 206 TIMARU HOOPER NELLIE 372 206 TIMARU MRS HORNE MARY 371 206 TIMARU IRWIN CATHERINE 371 206 TIMARU IRWIN LIZZIE 371 206 TIMARU IRWIN MARY 372 206 TIMARU MRS IRWIN S 371 206 TIMARU JENKINS FRANCES S 371 206 TIMARU JENKINS KATE 372 206 TIMARU JONES EDITH 371 206 TIMARU MRS LEWIS W 371 206 TIMARU MAHON MAGGIE C 372 206 TIMARU MARQUIS MARY 372 206 TIMARU MILLIN CHRISTINA 371 206 TIMARU NORTH KATEY 371 206 TIMARU NORTH ROSINA 371 206 TIMARU OGG E W 372 206 TIMARU MRS RAWSTON (JNR) 371 206 TIMARU MRS REILLY J 371 206 TIMARU MRS REILLY W G 372 206 TIMARU MRS ROONEY MARY 372 206 TIMARU ROONEY MINNIE E 372 206 TIMARU MRS SHEARS 371 206 TIMARU SIMPSON KATE 371 206 TIMARU SMITH HARRIET A 371 206 TIMARU SMITH M C 372 206 TIMARU MRS THOMSON MARY 372 206 TIMARU WELSH JANE 372 206 TIMARU YOUDALE ELIZA 398 221 TIMARU DASH ANN 398 221 TIMARU RICHARDS FANNY 416 232 TIMARU CABOT ALICE M 435 246 TIMARU HALL A 361 201 WASHDYKE BARTLETT SARAH 361 201 WASHDYKE DAWE NORAH 361 201 WASHDYKE GARDNER ELLEN 361 201 WASHDYKE HAMILTON MARY 361 201 WASHDYKE IRVING ISABEL 361 201 WASHDYKE KEENE LYDIA 361 201 WASHDYKE MCMURCHIE MARY 361 201 WASHDYKE MORGAN MAGGIE 361 201 WASHDYKE NICHOLLS ADELINE 361 201 WASHDYKE NICHOLLS ELIZABETH 361 201 WASHDYKE NICHOLLS HETTIE 361 201 WASHDYKE NICHOLLS JENNIE 361 201 WASHDYKE SELLARS ANNIE 361 201 WASHDYKE SMITH MARGARET 361 201 WASHDYKE STEVENSON ELIZABETH 361 201 WASHDYKE TONKIN ANNE
393 218 WAIMATE ?GISBINE MARY 392 218 WAIMATE ADAMS E 393 218 WAIMATE AKHURST L 392 218 WAIMATE ARCHER CAROLINE 392 218 WAIMATE AVERY ANNIE 392 218 WAIMATE BATCHELOR MARY ANNE 392 218 WAIMATE BATEMAN CAROLINE E 393 218 WAIMATE BEATON MINNIE 392 218 WAIMATE MRS BEESLY E 393 218 WAIMATE BEGG MARION 392 218 WAIMATE BITCHENER AGNES 392 218 WAIMATE BITCHENER LOUISA 393 218 WAIMATE BLACKMORE AMELIA G 392 218 WAIMATE BOYCE E 392 218 WAIMATE BUCHANAN AGNES 392 218 WAIMATE CAMERON ELIZA 393 218 WAIMATE CHAMPION ROSEANNA 393 218 WAIMATE CHAMPION ROSEANNA 392 218 WAIMATE CHEVERTON LOUISA 392 218 WAIMATE CHEVITON LOUISE 393 218 WAIMATE CLARKE MARIA 392 218 WAIMATE CLEAR ELLEN 393 218 WAIMATE FLA[H]ERTY ADA 392 218 WAIMATE FOWERAKER HARRIETTE F 392 218 WAIMATE GAITT DONALDNA 393 218 WAIMATE GARDNER A 392 218 WAIMATE GOLDSMITH E A 392 218 WAIMATE GRAY N 392 218 WAIMATE GUILFORD ANN 392 218 WAIMATE HARRIS ELISABETH 393 218 WAIMATE JACKSON ANNE 392 218 WAIMATE JOHNSTONE MARY ANNA 393 218 WAIMATE MANCHESTER E 392 218 WAIMATE MAYFIELD E 392 218 WAIMATE MCKEE A 393 218 WAIMATE MELTON A 393 218 WAIMATE MILLER J 393 218 WAIMATE MITCHELL JESSIE 393 218 WAIMATE MORRISON KATE 392 218 WAIMATE MYER CATHERINE 393 218 WAIMATE MYERS SOPHIE 392 218 WAIMATE O'BRIEN ANNIE 392 218 WAIMATE OBRIEN ANNIE 392 218 WAIMATE PASCOE E 392 218 WAIMATE MRS PETTIT 393 218 WAIMATE SULLIVAN A 392 218 WAIMATE SWAINE MINNIE 393 218 WAIMATE SWANN MINNIE 392 218 WAIMATE TAYLOR JUDITH 392 218 WAIMATE TAYLOR L 392 218 WAIMATE TILLIE MARY 392 218 WAIMATE TREGONING MARY 393 218 WAIMATE TURNER E L 392 218 WAIMATE VIRTIE E Z 392 218 WAIMATE WACHMANN MARY 392 218 WAIMATE WALKER HANNAH 393 218 WAIMATE WALTON J E 392 218 WAIMATE MRS WATSON E G 393 218 WAIMATE WYCHERLEY M J 394 219 WAIMATE ALLEN J 395 219 WAIMATE ARMOUR C 394 219 WAIMATE BATEMAN NANCY 394 219 WAIMATE BATEMAN MARY E 394 219 WAIMATE BAXTER E 394 219 WAIMATE BERRY ELLEN 394 219 WAIMATE BISHOP MARY 395 219 WAIMATE BOYD S I 394 219 WAIMATE BUTCHER C A 394 219 WAIMATE CLAYTON JANE 395 219 WAIMATE COCHRANE M S 394 219 WAIMATE CORDNER I 394 219 WAIMATE CRONE JANE 394 219 WAIMATE DASH S E 394 219 WAIMATE DASH A E 395 219 WAIMATE DELLOW SARAH 395 219 WAIMATE DELLOW S A 395 219 WAIMATE ELLIS M 395 219 WAIMATE FERRITER CECILY 394 219 WAIMATE FOX J 394 219 WAIMATE GARDYNE T 395 219 WAIMATE GRIFFIN ANNIE 395 219 WAIMATE GRIFFIN LAURA 395 219 WAIMATE HARDY M 394 219 WAIMATE HART E 394 219 WAIMATE HAWKINS INA 395 219 WAIMATE HAZLETON A F 394 219 WAIMATE HILL ELIZA 394 219 WAIMATE HOLLAMBY E 395 219 WAIMATE HUTT R 394 219 WAIMATE JACKSON AGNES 394 219 WAIMATE JACKSON EMMA 394 219 WAIMATE JAMES MARY ANN 395 219 WAIMATE KEAN JOHANNA 394 219 WAIMATE LEWIS M 394 219 WAIMATE LUCAS J C 395 219 WAIMATE MARRIOTT E 394 219 WAIMATE MEYER CATHERINE 394 219 WAIMATE MILLS JANE 395 219 WAIMATE MORRISON MARY 395 219 WAIMATE OTTLEY ANNIE 394 219 WAIMATE OTTLEY M E 394 219 WAIMATE PINNELL E 395 219 WAIMATE PRICE E J 395 219 WAIMATE RANKIN MARION F 394 219 WAIMATE REEVES ELIZABETH 394 219 WAIMATE ROBERTS ELLEN 395 219 WAIMATE RONALDSON EUPHEMIA 394 219 WAIMATE RUSSELL SUSAN 394 219 WAIMATE SMITH C 394 219 WAIMATE SMITH E 394 219 WAIMATE SMITH JOHANNA 394 219 WAIMATE THOMAS MARY W 395 219 WAIMATE TOFIELD ANNIE 394 219 WAIMATE TREGONNING M A 394 219 WAIMATE TURNER G 394 219 WAIMATE WALSH M 394 219 WAIMATE WANKLYN A 394 219 WAIMATE WEIR BESSIE 395 219 WAIMATE WILSON M J 396 220 WAIMATE AGENT W 396 220 WAIMATE AGENT J 397 220 WAIMATE MRS ANSELL 396 220 WAIMATE BANNERMANN J G 397 220 WAIMATE BOYD L J 396 220 WAIMATE BROKENSHIRE J 396 220 WAIMATE BRUCE S C 397 220 WAIMATE BURRELL E 397 220 WAIMATE BUTCHER I S 396 220 WAIMATE CALVERT E 396 220 WAIMATE CLEGHORN A 396 220 WAIMATE MRS COULBECK 396 220 WAIMATE COUSINS A 396 220 WAIMATE CRAWFORD M H 397 220 WAIMATE DOWLE F P 396 220 WAIMATE DUCKETT E 396 220 WAIMATE DUNBAR G A 397 220 WAIMATE ELY SARAH 396 220 WAIMATE FERGUSSON J 397 220 WAIMATE FOW SUSANNAH 397 220 WAIMATE FULTON ANNIE 397 220 WAIMATE HARRIS E M 397 220 WAIMATE HOARE A 397 220 WAIMATE HUNT A 396 220 WAIMATE INKSTER F 396 220 WAIMATE INKSTER S 396 220 WAIMATE JOHNSTON E 396 220 WAIMATE JOYCE E 396 220 WAIMATE JOYCE M E 396 220 WAIMATE KARSTEN C 396 220 WAIMATE KENNARD E 396 220 WAIMATE KENNARD S 397 220 WAIMATE KNIGHT LOUISA 396 220 WAIMATE MARSHALL E 397 220 WAIMATE MAYFIELD E 396 220 WAIMATE MCCULLOCH E 397 220 WAIMATE MCGIMPSEY E 396 220 WAIMATE MCGINN E A 397 220 WAIMATE MELTON C 396 220 WAIMATE MINES C M 396 220 WAIMATE NELSON C 396 220 WAIMATE OTTLEY L 396 220 WAIMATE PECK M 397 220 WAIMATE REVILL M 397 220 WAIMATE ROGERS E 397 220 WAIMATE RUMBLE J 397 220 WAIMATE SAAFFE ANNIE 396 220 WAIMATE SAUNDERS E 396 220 WAIMATE SCHMITH L 396 220 WAIMATE SOPER A 396 220 WAIMATE SOPER N 397 220 WAIMATE STRONG I J 397 220 WAIMATE SUTHERLAND M 397 220 WAIMATE TREGONING E C 396 220 WAIMATE WERGES M 396 220 WAIMATE WHEELER T A 396 220 WAIMATE WHITE A 396 220 WAIMATE WILLIAMS C 396 220 WAIMATE WILLIAMS N 397 220 WAIMATE WILLOUG[H]BY E 396 220 WAIMATE WILSON E 400 221 WAIMATE ANDERSON ISABELLA 399 221 WAIMATE AUFFLEY ANN 398 221 WAIMATE BATEMAN MARY ELIZABETH 398 221 WAIMATE BISHOP MARY ANN 398 221 WAIMATE BITCHENER ELIZABETH 400 221 WAIMATE BRUCE A G 398 221 WAIMATE BRYSON MARY LYDIA 398 221 WAIMATE BUTCHER KATIE 400 221 WAIMATE CAPSTICK M E 398 221 WAIMATE CHAPMAN JANE 400 221 WAIMATE COLSON MARION M 400 221 WAIMATE CORDNER MARY 398 221 WAIMATE DEANS ROSA 400 221 WAIMATE DODD MARY 400 221 WAIMATE DUFFIELD SUSAN 398 221 WAIMATE FOW ELLEN 398 221 WAIMATE FRAMPSTON HARRIET 398 221 WAIMATE FRANKLIN CHARLOTTE 398 221 WAIMATE GARRETT MARY ANN 399 221 WAIMATE GORDON CHRISTINA 398 221 WAIMATE GUY E 398 221 WAIMATE HARDING E 398 221 WAIMATE HARPER ELIZABETH 398 221 WAIMATE HARRIS GEORGINA 398 221 WAIMATE HAWKE ELIZABETH 400 221 WAIMATE HUNT MARY 398 221 WAIMATE INKSTER MARGARET 398 221 WAIMATE KAYS ELIZABETH 398 221 WAIMATE KENNEDY JESSIE 398 221 WAIMATE KENT CATHERINE 398 221 WAIMATE LOCK JANE 400 221 WAIMATE MABERLY ELIZA 398 221 WAIMATE MABERLY LYDIA 400 221 WAIMATE MACKIE M D 398 221 WAIMATE MANCHESTER EMILY 400 221 WAIMATE MECKENZY ELIZA 398 221 WAIMATE MISSEN JANE 398 221 WAIMATE NICHOLAS ANN MARY 398 221 WAIMATE NICOL EREANA 400 221 WAIMATE PAGE MARGARET 400 221 WAIMATE PHILIP ISABELLA 398 221 WAIMATE RUBY JANE 400 221 WAIMATE RUSSELL MARINA 398 221 WAIMATE SHAW MARIA 398 221 WAIMATE SINCLAIR MAGGIE 398 221 WAIMATE SMITH JANNET 400 221 WAIMATE SMITH MARY 400 221 WAIMATE SPALDING MARY L 398 221 WAIMATE ST GEORGE K 398 221 WAIMATE STRONG CHRISTINA GILMOUR 400 221 WAIMATE TOMLIM CHARLOTTE 400 221 WAIMATE TREGONING CHRISTINA 398 221 WAIMATE VERNON ANN ALICE BERTHA 398 221 WAIMATE WAYMOUTH M 399 221 WAIMATE WILCE E 398 221 WAIMATE WILLIAMS EMMELINE 459 262 WAIMATE ALLAN BELLA 459 262 WAIMATE BAKER JESSIE 460 262 WAIMATE BEAN CHARLOTTE JANE 459 262 WAIMATE BERRY SARAH ANN 460 262 WAIMATE BLACKMORE MINNIE 460 262 WAIMATE BOYCE KLASINA 459 262 WAIMATE MRS BRINKMAN 459 262 WAIMATE BROADBENT ANN 460 262 WAIMATE BUCKINGHAM C 460 262 WAIMATE COCHRANE MAGGIE 459 262 WAIMATE COTTEE SOPHIA 459 262 WAIMATE DAVIS ANN 459 262 WAIMATE EATHORNE CLARA 460 262 WAIMATE EVANS ELIZABETH 460 262 WAIMATE EVANS ANNIE 460 262 WAIMATE EVANS SARA 459 262 WAIMATE FAGAN JANE 460 262 WAIMATE GASCOYNE J 460 262 WAIMATE GASCOYNE E C 459 262 WAIMATE GILKES ELIZABETH 459 262 WAIMATE HAWKINS ELIZA 459 262 WAIMATE HIORNS EMMA 459 262 WAIMATE HORE ELIZABETH 459 262 WAIMATE HOSKING EMILY 459 262 WAIMATE JOHNS ELIZABETH 459 262 WAIMATE JULIAN MARY 459 262 WAIMATE JULIAN MARY S 459 262 WAIMATE KAAN SARAH 459 262 WAIMATE KENT ANNIE 460 262 WAIMATE LACK ELIZABETH 459 262 WAIMATE MRS MABERLY E 459 262 WAIMATE MANCHESTER BELLE 459 262 WAIMATE MANCHESTER M F 459 262 WAIMATE MANCHESTER O M 459 262 WAIMATE MCKENZIE ISABELLA 459 262 WAIMATE MCKEOWN HARR[I]ET 459 262 WAIMATE MCTAGGART CHRISTINA 460 262 WAIMATE MENZIES JESSIE A 460 262 WAIMATE MRS MYERS L 460 262 WAIMATE NEWTON MARY ANN 460 262 WAIMATE O'BRIEN A 459 262 WAIMATE PARKER FRANCES E J 460 262 WAIMATE PATTERSON A H 460 262 WAIMATE PHILIP C 460 262 WAIMATE RATLEY JANE 459 262 WAIMATE RIND EMMA 460 262 WAIMATE SHEARER MARY JANE 459 262 WAIMATE SMALLEY J A 460 262 WAIMATE MRS SMITH D 459 262 WAIMATE SMITH MARY 459 262 WAIMATE TAYLOR CHARLOTTE 459 262 WAIMATE THOMSON MARTHA 459 262 WAIMATE TREGONING M R 459 262 WAIMATE URQ[U]HART JESSIE 460 262 WAIMATE MRS VIGERS E M 459 262 WAIMATE VINING EMMA 459 262 WAIMATE WATT JANE 459 262 WAIMATE WELSH ANNE 460 262 WAIMATE WHITE FANNY 460 262 WAIMATE WIECHMANN MARY 459 262 WAIMATE WILLIAMS LOUISA ANN
Timaru Herald, 28 September 1893, Page 3
WOMEN'S FRANCHISE - History of the movement in New Zealand
Early in 1871 Sir Robert raised, the question of the admission of women to the electoral franchise. His advocacy was received with laughter and applause. After this the question cropped up at various meetings from time to time. Sir Robert spoke in favour of it in the Otago Provincial Council, and strongly urged it in the Press. It was not until 1878 that its parliamentary history commenced. In that year the subject was introduced by Dr Wallis, a member for Auckland, who moved " That in the opinion of this House the electoral disabilities of women should be entirely removed, and the same political rights and privileges should be granted to women as to men." The debate was adjourned, and when it came up again the motion was met by the previous question," and Dr Wallis was defeated by 44 to 8. The eight were Sir Robert Stout, Mr Bowen, Mr George, Mr Morris, Mr Bees, Mr Barth, and Drs Wallis and Henry, and the division was taken on the 15th August. Dr Wallis was persistent, and on the 16th September he moved to omit the word "male" clause 15 of the Government Electoral Bill of the day. His motion was lost by 36 to 26. In the following year Dr Wallis introduced a Bill for extending the franchise to women. This was read a first time, but went no further, and it was not till 1887 that Sir Julius Vogel introduced his Woman Suffrage Bill which was at last read a second time by 43 to 11. In committee clause 2 the operative clause was thrown out by 27 to 19. The Bill was not gone on with further, and was discharged. Three years later, on the 6th August, 1890, Sir John Hall proposed a resolution confirming the justice of granting the franchise to women which, after considerable discussion, was carried by a majority of 26 (Ayes 37, Noes 11). A Bill was thereupon introduced and read a first time, but owing to the late period of the session it, was not possible to proceed further with it. This brings us down to the present Parliament, in the first session of which (1891) Sir John Hall again introduced hit Bill. It was read a second time by 33 to 8 and passed the House of Representatives. In the Council it was read a first lime, but the second reading was negatived by a majority of two which included the two Maori members. Next year however, saw the reform figuring in a Government Bill — the Electoral Bill of Mr Ballance, which was passed after some opposition in the House by 43 to 26. It was also passed by the Council, but with amendments providing that women might be allowed to send their votes by post. Upon this question an irreconcilable difference of opinion arose between the two Houses, and the Bill was consequently wrecked, Sir John Hall also in that session introduced a Bill for conferring the franchise of women, which was not proceeded with. And now I come to the present session. Sir John Hall again introduced his Franchise Bill, and it was read a second time by 33 to 3, but as woman suffrage was included in the Government Electoral Bill Sir John's Bill was not pressed further. The only division on woman's suffrage in the passage of the Electoral bill through the House was on a motion by Mr Blake, and this was defeated by 83 to 12. The Bill passed both Houses, and received the Governor's assent on September 19.
Timaru Herald, 20 September 1893, Page 2 Editorial
All doubt with regard to the Electoral Bill has at length been removed. His Excellency the Governor assented to it yesterday morning, and it comes into operation at once. Henceforth the women of New Zealand have precisely the same franchise rights as the men have, but are not eligible as candidates for seats in Parliament. We observe that the Premier claims to have been sincere from the first in the desire which be expressed that the Bill should pass as it now stands. The Government have sent plenty of registration forms to the various Post Offices, and to the Registrars of Electors, and extra clerical assistance will be given for the purpose of facilitating the placing of women on the rolls. The women, now put on an equality with men with regard to the franchise, should begin by displaying at least as much alacrity and intelligence as the men in securing registration. There is no mystery about the matter, and no more trouble in getting registered than there is in exercising the franchise. We earnestly trust that there will be no holding back on the part of any who have the right to be registered. On this point something has already appeared in our columns, but the issues at stake are so large that we consider it adviseable to revert to the subject. We are the more strongly impelled to do so in consequence of statements and opinions which have come under our notice during the last few days. We gather that there are many women who have no intention of exercising the franchise, and therefore do not see the necessity of getting registered. In some instances we have heard the statements from their own lips, and in others the information has come to us at second hand, but from sources scarcely less trustworthy. Some of those whose present intention is to stand aloof think that women ought not to have the franchise, and regard that as a sufficient reason for not exercising the right now that the legislature has thrust it upon them. Others have in reality no opinions about the franchise, but dislike exceedingly the idea of going to a a polling-booth, and will therefore stop a away. These dissentients are of all classes, but include many of the more intelligent and better educated. With all seriousness we urge it upon them, as something which they owe to the country, that they reconsider the position They cannot shake themselves clear of their responsibility, and by abstaining from registering and voting they will inflict a great wrong on the community and may be the means of bringing about much mischief. An intelligent and educated woman who will not exercise the franchise, making her choice to the best of her ability, will simply be abandoning her duty, and she will commit the wrong with her eyes open.
Timaru Herald, 2 October 1893, Page 3
The following pastoral letter from the Bishop of Christchurch, was read by the Ven. Archdeacon Harper at both services at St Mary's Church yesterday - "To the woman of the Church of England in the Diocese of Christchurch: - Grace and peace be with you: A most important change in your relation to the State has been brought about by the passing of the Act for extending the franchise to the women of this colony, which seems to call for a few words of counsel from your Bishop. What is your duty under those now conditions? It may be that some of you, averse from interference in public matters, or for other reasons, will refrain front claiming and exercising the powers which have been conferred upon you, and I hear that comparatively few women have as yet enrolled. Now it is quite clear that unless the great majority of sensible intelligent Christian women of the colony qualify themselves to vote, the privilege of the female franchise will be exercised only by a small and fanatical selection of the community, or will serve only to put a few more votes at the disposal of the men. In either case the true and proper influence of women will be lost to the State. The completeness of humanity is found not the men alone, nor in the women alone, but in the two combined. Women are specially endowed. Their influence is moral and religious In the intuitive sense of righteousness, and in obedience to duty, they are superior to men. Hitherto this side of our nature has been moat imperfectly represented. Now is the time for womanhood to express itself. It is quite vain to ask whether women desire the franchise. You have it, and you must use it. The power is conferred upon you by God, not by man. In the interests of morality and pure religion, I urge upon you to claim and exercise your right of voting, soberly, fearlessly, and as in the sight of God."
Timaru Herald, 25 September 1893, Page 3
THE WOMEN'S FRANCHISE.
TO THE EDITOR OF THE TIMARU HERALD. Sir, — This week the women
of New Zealand learned that they had obtained the franchise, and now have a
right to vote equally with men. This is fair. If we are to live under law and
government, be punished for failing to keep the laws, and pay the taxes, it is
only a matter of common justice that we should have a voice in choosing our
representatives and law-makers, the men who direct the country in which our sons
and daughters may find prosperity — or the reverse.
But it is such a pity that just as we are feeling proud and happy about it, we should find ourselves in danger of being mispresented - as women - by some advanced young "leaders." In spite of what these enthusiastic young people say, women know they are quite unfit to fight "side by side" with men. The gospel of Work for Women, the is the new cry. Not only as mothers, nurses, housekeepers, and helpmates, but as lawyer doctors, engineers, surveyors, masons, police, scavengers, lamplighters, gravediggers and jacks-of-all trades. Of course it an advance into these interesting and earn positions it follows naturally that we must don the bifurcated garments. When we at a grubbing in trenches, or a scaling of ladder or even amputating limbs, or pleading in court for baby-slayers or swindlers, the knicker bockers will be the most suitable wear. Dignity would be sadly in the way of our success. In advocating two-legged apparel for the emancipated woman the advance is at least consistent. A woman in a skirt on a bicycle is very funny, and petticoate footballers and wrestlers are impossible people. Even the women who have spent great part of their lives in gymnasiums and on bicycles would make oh such miserable athletes!
But, as fellow-workers with men should we be happier. Think of it, women. Even so far woman is pressing into places formerly occupied by man have made life harder for both men and woman! It has thrown hundreds of men out of work, lowered their wages, and made marriage almost an impossibility, and complicated the relation of the sexes to an extraordinary extent. What then will it when they join the lists of workers in all departments. Already, even in this country we hear of nothing but competition. Too many men for every post. The other day in Canterbury 76 men were applicants for a road board clerkship. Every day machinery and mechanical improvements are making men's labour superfluous. Out steamers employ less than half the men formerly employed in sailing vessels. In the harvest field, the reaper and binder hurrie the harvest to an end, making only a few weeks' work for anybody. So with the higher departments of work. Indeed, if such a thing occurred as women becoming co-labourers with their husbands and brothers in all the world's work, it is difficult to realise the chaos of complications which it would cause. Homes simply would be a thing of the past, and people's lives would be a thousand times more full of disenchantment than they are even now. The halo of hope would forever have disappeared from the palpitating and weary world.
But I believe that though this woman's movement is doing much harm, it arose out of a need, and it will be modified and dignified, and freed from its extreme and unpractical advocates, as women themselves become more thoughtful. This is the very reason why many of us, though quite opposed to the woman's movement," believe in the enfranchisement of women. It will compel them to think on matters of general interest concerning the welfare of the state and the world, and in time widen their views and make them more noble. But let them cling fast to their womanhood, let them certainly choose the men who are to govern and represent them, as they did their champions in other days of chivalry, but they will make one vast mistake if they descend themselves into the arena.
We working women have views, though we are not "leaders," as to the happiest state for women. They are directly opposed to the advanced school. We have a dream. I suppose, though we are not Olive Schreiners, we may have our humble dreams. It is that some happy day we shall be delivered from the burden of having to work except in the sacred circle of home. No linger toiling in offices, schools, factories and shops, all the posts in these public places being filled by men, well paid, and possessed of homes in which live contented and intelligent women, and happy children. Thousands of simple country homos scattered over the land, m which men and women live at peace, free from care and anxiety, and the cankering curse of striving for the fast diminishing prizes of the world, nay! even for the very smallest prize, a common livelihood. It is only a dream but could it be realised here, New Zealand would have solved the great pressing problem of the day. I am, etc. A WORKING WOMEN. Reply from Another working women
Colonist, 14 March 1918, Page 7 W.C.T.U.
Timaru, March 13. The annual Dominion conference of the Women's Christian Temperance Union opens to-morrow and continue all next week. To-night the delegates were welcomed at a public meeting in the Lyceum Theatre. There was a large attendance, and Mrs Rule the Timaru president was in the chair. The Mayor (Mr J. Maling) the Rev. T. Jouglin, and Mr J. Craigie MP gave addresses of welcome. Mrs Don the Dominion president in acknowledging the welcome, said the W.C.T.U. was out to sweep the liquor interests away altogether. The present restrictions were insufficient. It was out also for equal rights with men.
Wanganui Herald, 13 May 1893, Page 2
Timaru Herald, 5 May 1893, Page 2
The army of commercial travellers in New Zealand numbers a new recruit in the shape of a lady, who is now in Timaru. The local Herald states that she is doing good business as the representative of a Home firm of manufacturing chemists, and she "very evidently knows how to do it." She is no mere vivandiere, but takes her place in the ranks. The lady, Mrs T. G. Sawkins.
The white ribbon is the emblem of the WCTU
Women’s Christian Temperance Union
Miss Jessie Mackay
Star 27 July 1893, Page 3
Woman's Franchise — An excellently written article on this subject, from the pen of Miss Jessie Mackay, appears in this week's Canterbury Times. Opponents as well as supporters of woman's franchise will find much of interest in the article.
Southland Times 22 April 1896, Page 2
The readers, regular and casual, of newspapers throughout the colony have been within the last few days diverted, and then perhaps a little startled, by the report of a convention of certain enthusiastic political ladies at Christchurch, who have styled themselves the "National Council of Women," but are really delegates of local societies in the principal centres, which are by no means representative in character, but are mainly run by a few " new women " of the more advanced type. It would indeed be a very serious matter if the women of New Zealand as a body, or even any large proportion of them, approved the action of the so-called National Council, or endorsed all the resolutions passed, which embrace questions political, social and moral, and are mainly conspicuous for indifferent appreciation of the science of logic, and that jumping at conclusions which is characteristic of the sex. The Parliamentary tone was hardly dropped into at the outset. On the first day of session for instance, Miss Jessie Mackay recited an original poem entitled "The battle march of the women" and the enthusiasm with which it was received augurs ill for the unfortunate men against whom, of course, the battle is to be waged. Mrs H. W. Sheppard, who recently returned from England, gave an account of the objects of the International Council of Women, and said it was intended at a later stage that that convention should resolve itself into a National Council of the women of New Zealand. ODT
Timaru Herald, 18 August 1896, Page 2
The last fortnightly meeting of the Fairlie Mutual Improvement Society was the most successful yet held. The Rev. W. J. Comrie presided over a numerous attendance of both members and visitors. Mr J. Goodwin introduced the subject of " Old Age Pensions" in a carefully thought out speech. The discussion which followed was mostly favourable to the scheme, but the speakers fully recognised the difficulty of ways and means. A forcible, well written paper on Women in Parliament by Miss Jessie Mackay, provoked much trenchant, and a little humourous, criticism. The proposition that women should be admitted to Parliament was negatived by 17 votes to 4.
Colonist, 1 June 1916,
An address urging the enfranchisement of women in Great Britain and throughout the Empire was drawn up by a committee of women in Christchurch, of which the convener was Mrs. K. W. Shepherd (ex-Franchise Superintendent) and the secretary (Miss Jessie Mackay). It has been signed by over one hundred prominent women of the Dominion—heads of important societies, leaders of social, philanthropic, religious or patriotic organisations, or women of attainment on professional, academic, artistic, or literary lines. This representative memorial has been courteously received and promised full consideration by Mr. Massey and Sir Joseph Ward, in view of their contemplated visit to London.
Evening Post, 20 July 1934, Page 13 OBITUARY
MRS. LOVELL-SMITH [1847-1934]
Many women throughout New Zealand will, deeply regret the death of Mrs. Kate-Wilson Lovell-Smith, which occurred in Christchurch on Friday, at the age of 86 years. More than forty years ago Mrs. Lovell-Smith was in the forefront of the work for the enfranchisement of women. She was intensely interested and her work was recognised by the presentation, to her of the pen with which the Governor signed the Act. Mrs. Lovell-Smith was a member of the first National Council of Women established in this country, and was also an enthusiastic member of the W.C.T.U. Mrs. Lovell-Smith was twice married, her first husband being the late Mr. W. A. Shepherd [sic Walter Allen SHEPPARD], who died many years ago in England. Miss Jessie Mackay contributes a very fine tribute to Mrs Lovell-Smith's personal beauty of character.
Katherine W. Malcolm, age 24, married Walter A. Sheppard 21st July 1871, a prosperous grocer and a city councillor. They lived in Clyde Rd, Riccartion. Walter Sheppard died in Bath, England, on 24 July 1915. Katherine Wilson SHEPPARD married William Sidney Lovell-Smith 25 Aug. 1925.
Their only son, Douglas, was born in 8
Dec. 1880 died in March 16 1910 in Glasgow, electrical engineer for Siemens.
Douglas Sheppard married 29 June 1908 in Edinburgh, to Miss Wilhelmina
Sievwright, youngest daughter of the late Mr and Mrs Margaret Home Sievwright,
of Gisborne, (19 March 1844 – 9 March 1905) who trained as a nurse under
Florence Nightingale. Margaret, a friend of Kate's, was also a
political activist, community leader in the North Island. Has a statue in Fitzherbert St. Gisborne unfortunately her surname was engraved in stone was
misspelled. Engraved on the memorial is a quote What do women want? We want
men to stand out of our sunshine, that is all. The memorial was originally
a drinking fountain that stood in the middle of Peel Street, near the Gladstone
Road intersection. Douglas was survived by Wilhelmina and one child, Margaret
Isobel Sheppard, who died in 1930. 'Ever a friend to the friendless,
and uncompromising upholder of all that is merciful, temperate and just'.
Kate was born in Liverpool c.1847. Her father, Andrew W. Malcolm, died in 1862 and in 1869 Kate came to NZ with her mother, two brothers and a sister. They arrived at Lyttelton in February 1869 on the Matoaka as cabin passengers. Another sister, Marie BEATH (d. 26 Jan. 1930), was already living in Christchurch. Kate led the campaign for votes for women, in a quiet and orderly manner. She was first editor of the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) periodical “The White Ribbon.” She was the founding president of the National Council of Women (NCW) of NZ. Kate died at her home in Riccarton on 16th July 1934. She is buried at Addington Cemetery with her mother, Jemima Crawford Malcolm late of Dunfermline, SCT (died 27 June 1881, aged 59), a brother and a sister.
Poverty Bay Herald, 2 February 1886, Page 2
At Timaru the worthy Mr Turnbull, M.H R., addressed a school of young ladies, the gravamen of his discourse being an earnest advice to the young ladies not to be too fine, not to confine themselves to the drawing-room and the piano, and fine crotchet work, and creptoleen, and so on, but to take an earnest part in the common work of the household. He pointed out that Rebecca, although a young lady of rank and wealth, did not stay indoors twanging the timbrel, or whatever musical instrument was in fashion in Mesopotamia, but was in the habit of going to the well to draw the water wanted for the household. On being civilly requested she gave a traveller a drink, and also performed the menial and laborious office of drawing water for the camels. A young lady of Timaru, however, writes thus: "I would respectfully remind our worthy M.H. R. that there are 5000 girls in this town who would willingly draw water for camels or any other animals if they could make sure of getting an Isaac at the well, and get up quite as early in the morning as Rebecca did. We consider that young lady highly favored in having a husband provided for her. In these days we have to use the best means at our command to attract, and then fail to get husbands.
Wanganui Herald, 8 March
1916, Page 8
March 1916: The words of Miss Jessie Mackay ring truer to-day than ever before; “Adversity may shatter us, but never bend or divide us. We will do our part.” | <urn:uuid:f78747f7-11b0-49b3-999b-9b47d0ddc7df> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~nzlscant/women_franchise.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00195-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.879044 | 12,140 | 3.34375 | 3 |
The lovable panda Little Pim teaches 3 to 6 year old kids their first words and short sentences in one of the three foreign languages offered by the i Learn With program (Spanish, French and Chinese). This app is based on the Entertainment Immersion Method™ and the Little Pim DVD series, winner of 22 awards.
This app is part of the i Learn With program for kids 3 to 6 designed to get your child ready for school while having fun!
- Cross curricular game based learning program in math, science, literacy and more
- Self adjusting levels of difficulty
- Designed with educational and child development experts
The Entertainment Immersion Method™ For each game level, Little Pim first demonstrates both visually and aurally the vocabulary word or phrase, helps the player acquire the vocabulary, and then validates and reinforces the newly acquired knowledge. Animation and interactivity help provide context in this immersive language learning experience. All instructions are in the language being taught. There are three themes: waking up in the morning, playing and mealtimes. In each activity your child plays three progressive levels with Little Pim. Level 1 - Nouns: Little Pim will introduce some words to be learned by comparing different pictures and working on listening skills. Level 2 - Verbs: Little Pim will teach how to use nouns with basic verbs to explore simple actions. Level 3 - Sentences: The last level is a combination of everything that was learned, Little Pim will help the child build short sentences.
Primary skill taught
- Listening and comprehension
- Visual and kinesthetic learning
- Knowledge of category and subcategories
"iLearn with – Little Pim Spanish is a great introduction to Spanish for toddlers and kindergarten. We really like the fact that it allows kids to learn nouns, verbs and then combines the 2 in a sentence so kids can start building sentences. The design is bright, colourful and very easy to use for little fingers… Another nice app from the iLearn with educational program which offer fun game-based learning.” - Funeducationalapps.com | <urn:uuid:8fc75902-6567-4afb-894e-719df46117b5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ilearnwith.com/our-apps/little-pim/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00199-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930972 | 426 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Commandments, the Ten
(Ex. 34:28; Deut. 10:4.) The Hebrew name for these is the “Ten Words,” hence the Greek name Decalogue. They are also called the Covenant (Deut. 9:9) or the Testimony (Ex. 25:21). The giving of the Ten Commandments by God to Moses, and through him to Israel, is described in Ex. 19:16–20:21; 32:15–19; 34:1. They were engraved on two tables of stone, which were placed in the Ark; hence the Ark was called the Ark of the Covenant (Num. 10:33). There has been a difference of opinion as to the way in which the commandments were divided into ten. The Roman Church, following the example of St. Augustine, unites what we know as the first and second and divides the last into two. Our Lord, quoting from Deut. 6:4–5 and Lev. 19:18, has summarized the Ten Commandments in “two great commandments” (Matt. 22:37–39). To get their full significance we must read them in the light of our Lord’s Sermon on the Mount (see also Mark 2:27 and Matt. 15:4–6 for interpretation of fourth and fifth), where it is shown that they are intended to control our thoughts and desires as well as our acts.
The Ten Commandments have been reiterated in latter-day revelation, certifying as to their genuineness and importance, as also Moses’ experience on Sinai has been thus verified. See Mosiah 12:32–37; 13:5; D&C 42:18–28; 59:5–13. | <urn:uuid:bb8bd3d0-07dc-4451-a60f-d546b57fdf8d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.lds.org/scriptures/bd/commandments-the-ten?lang=eng&letter=c | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00129-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978086 | 363 | 3.484375 | 3 |
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Los Alamos National Laboratory exists as a major development center for engineering and scientific national security features. To date, their major responsibility is developing and maintaining systems related to national nuclear determent.
Sadly for history teachers, although not particularly unexpectedly, the laboratory's offerings appropriate to K-12 education are nearly all focused on the sciences. That said, a couple of resources may still be of use to history educators, and teachers should feel welcome to pass on the site information to their science co-workers, particularly those within New Mexico, where the laboratory is located.
What history teachers should take a look at is a history of Los Alamos National Laboratory and national security. Sections include the "Road to Los Alamos," "People of Wartime Los Alamos," "Building the Atomic Bomb," "Postwar to H-Bomb," and "H-Bomb to Stewardship." Each section offers related materials, often primary sources, such as Einstein's letter to President Roosevelt, under "Related Reading." Also included are several image galleries, including one with pictures of the Trinity Test. On the history home page, teachers should also be aware that the "Some Staff" list to the right includes J. Robert Oppenheimer, scientific director of the Manhattan Project, and Stan Ulam, a mathematician and another major figure in the project.
Classes located near Los Alamos, NM, may also be interested in the Bradbury Science Museum, which presents the laboratory's history and current research. | <urn:uuid:6747fe9d-69b6-4bf1-b012-09692cb2ae70> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.teachinghistory.org/history-content/national-resources/22916 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00114-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949634 | 307 | 3.203125 | 3 |
There are many different kinds of telescope.
In the refracting telescope, the objective lens is usually composed of two lenses, made out of different kinds of glass. Such a lens is called an achromat. A glass prism can be used to produce a rainbow of colors from white light. This is because glass bends different colors of light to different degrees.
When one wants to have a clear and sharp image of something one is looking at, this effect becomes an annoyance, known as chromatic aberration. An achromat is designed to cancel this effect, by using lenses made of two different kinds of glass. One lens is convex, made of crown glass. The other is concave, made of flint glass, which is denser, and which bends light more strongly, if made into a lens of the same shape, than crown glass. However, not only does it bend light more strongly, but the difference in how it bends lights of different colors is also more pronounced, even in proportion to the increased amount of bending.
Thus, two lenses close together, one of flint glass, and one of crown glass, bending light in opposite ways, can be made so that the difference in bending different colors cancels out, but the lens itself still performs a net function of bending the light that goes through it in one direction.
However, because the behavior of light of different colors in glass doesn't follow a simple fixed law, this cancellation can only be exact for two colors. This still gives a great improvement over a plain lens. But sometimes a larger improvement is desired, and then a lens is designed out of three elements of three different kinds of glass. Such a lens is called an apochromat, and these are used as objective lenses on some more expensive telescopes.
The objective lens on a telescope, instead of being like an ordinary magnifying glass lens in profile, equally fat on both sides, usually has a crescent-shaped profile, and such a lens is called a meniscus lens.
This is done to minimize another aberration, called spherical aberration. The bending of light by a lens is due to the mathematical law called Snell's law, and is due to the fact that light travels more slowly in glass than it does in air.
A spherical surface is relatively easy to produce when grinding lenses, but it is only an approximation to the shape of a surface that would focus incoming rays of light to a single point in an image.
Sometimes, particularly when many lenses are being manufactured for a fixed purpose, by being molded from plastic, it is worth the expense to make the mold the exact shape needed to produce the ideal surface for bending light to form an image. Lenses like this are called aspheric lenses. Sometimes such lenses are even made from glass for special purposes, but such lenses are expensive, and thus not commonly used.
The term aspheric, because it means "not spherical", is sometimes applied to other kinds of lenses which are not as difficult to make. They still have curved surfaces which are circles instead of the complicated curves needed to make perfect images. For example, you may have seen cylindrical lenses that can make a line of printing taller, even though they don't make it wider. Such lenses can make optical instruments that do one thing in one direction, and a different thing in another.
One application of this is the anamorphic lenses that are used to squeeze in the wide picture on a movie screen (2.35 times as wide as it is tall) in the frame of motion picture film designed for the original motion picture aspect ratio that is 1.33 times as wide as it is tall, like the screen on your TV set. (Actually, since Edison, motion picture standards were changed slightly to make the regular film aspect ratio 1.37:1; however, movies in the 2.35:1 aspect ratio are recorded in an area on the film that is actually only 1.175 times as wide as tall, because not only is the picture wide and spectacular, but the film also carries several extra sound tracks as well.)
Another application of this is eyeglasses. The lenses in eyeglasses are usually toroidal rather than spherical, so that they can correct not only for a wrong overall focal length in the lens of the eye, but for differences in that focal length in different directions, or astigmatism.
Usually, telescope objective lenses in refracting astronomical telescopes don't use aspheric elements.
A refracting telescope is illustrated below:
A thin lens has less spherical aberration than a thick one. Even after correcting for chromatic aberration has made the two elements of the objective considerably thicker, spherical aberration is still fairly low. Making the objective a meniscus lens minimizes it, because then the overall shape of the lens follows the curve of the surface where the incoming rays of light would be bent into their new desired direction while retaining a uniform spacing between them. (Of course, why that should make a difference is complicated.)
But the next common type of telescope, the Newtonian telescope, does usually make use of an aspheric element. In the Newtonian telescope, the place of the objective lens is taken by a concave mirror, which can magnify and form images in much the same way as a convex lens. An extra mirror, a small flat mirror called the diagonal, is used to keep the head of the person using the telescope out of the way of the incoming light.
This type of telescope is illustrated below:
In the Newtonian telescope, the mirror which functions as the objective, called the primary mirror, usually is not left as spherical, but is carefully adjusted during grinding to take on a parabolic shape. (Thus, this adjustment step is called parabolizing the mirror.)
A very expensive and high quality kind of telescope is known as the Maksutov telescope. In this telescope, the primary mirror is left as spherical. A thick glass element at the front of the telescope, with the same curvature on the front and back, acts as a corrector for the spherical aberration of the mirror. It also has a circular spot in the center that is coated on the inside to be a mirror; this mirror reflects the light that would normally be brought to a focus shortly beyond it, and, because of its curvature, delays the focusing of the reflected light until it goes out the back of the telescope through a hole in the center of the primary mirror.
Some effort has been made to draw this diagram to scale, based on the actual design in Dimitri Maksutov's notebooks. However, the distance from the mirror surface out of the back of the telescope to the focal plane in the eyepiece is still exaggerated.
A similar, but less expensive, and thus highly popular kind of telescope is called the Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope. Here, instead of a thick piece of glass with two spherical surfaces, correction is provided by a very thin piece of glass, flat on one side, and with an aspheric surface on the other.
It happened that the aspheric surface needed for this kind of telescope could be very closely approximated by a simple and inexpensive method: take a thin, flat piece of glass, and put it on top of a round hole, behind which you pump out the air. This bends the glass slightly, and while the glass is thus bent, you grind it flat in the normal manner.
Here, the mirror for reflecting the light back through the end of the telescope is bolted to the front element.
The Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope is an example of a catadioptric telescope, one that uses both mirrors and lenses. A refracting telescope, which uses lenses only, is called dioptric, and one which uses mirrors only (not counting the eyepiece) such as the Newtonian is called catoptric.
The fundamental types of reflecting telescopes are illustrated in the diagram below:
In each case, the primary mirror is ideally a paraboloid. In the Cassegrain, the secondary mirror should be a hyperboloid, and in the Gregorian, the secondary mirror should be an ellipsoid. However, there are modified versions of these designs that allow one element to have some spherical aberration, with the other element counterbalancing it.
In the case of the Cassegrain telescope, the possible forms are:
The Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope combines the principle of a Cassegrain reflecting telescope with that of the original Schmidt camera:
This form of telescope used the symmetry of a spherical mirror, and a curved, spherical field of focus at which a curved photographic plate was placed, to allow a telescope with a very wide field to be constructed. The fact that the corrector plate, located at the center of these two concentric spheres, made the symmetry slightly less than perfect did not prevent it from giving good images.
To illustrate the principle, the diagram shows a very large focal field, which could not be fully used in practice, because a photographic plate at that location would block too much of the incoming light.
Note, though, that in the typical Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope, the corrector plate cannot be located at the center of curvature any longer, because the Cassegrain secondary is mounted directly on the corrector plate, which requires that the corrector plate be located closer to the mirror than the focus, which is at half the distance of the center of curvature.
The Maksutov design originally involved a similar symmetry principle:
note that there are two possible positions for the corrector plate, both shown in this diagram, which preserve the symmetry.
In practice, of course, only one of the two meniscus correctors is present. However, one telescope design,
known as the Super-Schmidt telescope, actually includes two symmetrical meniscus correctors, as well as a doublet lens at the center of curvature of the primary mirror. The flint element of the doublet corrects for the chromatic aberration of all three crown components; as well, the doublet's spherical aberration supplies part of the correction needed by the spherical primary mirror, which is, presumably, the reason for not calling it a Super-Maksutov telescope. Splitting the correction in this fashion between the two meniscus correctors and the lens allows a very fast focal ratio to be achieved. This form of telescope was designed by Dr. James Baker in 1947, and was used for a system of specialized cameras used for taking photographs of meteors.
A variant, with only the rear meniscus present, also exists, known as the Meniscus-Schmidt camera.
All this makes me wonder why no one has ever designed a telescope like this:
or even like this:
a silvered spot on a deeply curved meniscus provides a Cassegrain mirror of a convenient focal length, but most of the correction for the spherical shape of the primary may come, for example, from a thicker meniscus which either is concentric with the primary or is slightly less steeply curved to compensate for the excessive curvature of the thin meniscus. Of course, the only purpose for any of these designs, which attempt to return to the original forms of the Maksutov, Schmidt, or Super-Schmidt designs with their spherical symmetry or near-symmetry, is to reduce coma, and as the fact that these are Cassegrain designs breaks the spherical symmetry, and the spherical secondary mirror introduces other complications, correcting for coma may not be as simple as would lead to designs like these.
Since the corrector plate of a Maksutov telescope, in the more common orientation, is closer to the mirror than the corrector plate in a Schmidt camera, yet Gregory-Maksutov telescopes tend to be longer than Schimdt-Cassegrain telescopes of similar aperture, this means that the mirrors in the Maksutov telescopes are less strongly curved, and therefore have less spherical aberration to correct. This is another reason for their superior optical quality. In addition, less of a compromise is required in regards to the overall symmetry of the basic Maksutov design for a Gregory-Maksutov telescope, although it is likely that some compromise is required, in order that the silvered area serving as the secondary mirror have enough curvature to function in an effective manner as a Cassegrain secondary.
One could have a Schmidt-Newtonian telescope, or a Schmidt-Gregorian telescope as well, of course.
Similarly, in addition to the type of Maksutov telescope shown above, which is a form of Maksutov-Cassegrain telescope, there are also Maksutov-Newtonian telescopes offered for sale.
Also, the following illustration:
shows how the large meniscus of the Maksutov design can be replaced by small meniscus lenses in two possible locations; either just behind the Cassegrain secondary, where light passes through it twice, as in a design by the Australian amateur astronomer Ralph W. Field, and (using two elements for color correction) in some designs offered commercially by the Novosibirsk Instrument-Making Plant of Russia, or at the exit of the telescope tube. In that position, however, other kinds of corrector lenses, such as coma correctors or focal reducers are also used, so I am not certain if a particular brand of inexpensive telescope with an achromatic two-element lens in that position uses it to correct for a spherical primary mirror or not.
The Gregorian reflecting telescope was designed by one James Gregory in 1663. The particular form of the Maksutov-Cassegrain telescope in which the secondary is created by placing an aluminized circular area on the corrector, to simplify construction, was designed by one John Gregory, during the decade of the 1950s. (In fact, Maksutov did design such a version of his telescope in 1943, but it did not become generally known until later. On the other hand, the basic idea of a telescope with a meniscus corrector was discovered by Bouwers in 1941, shortly before it was discovered by Maksutov.) Hence, the most popular form of Maksutov-Cassegrain telescope is also referred to as a Gregory-Maksutov telescope, although it most definitely is not a Maksutov-Gregorian telescope. It is important not to allow oneself to be confused by this difficulty in telescope nomenclature.
Incidentally, when an aluminized spot on the corrector is used as the secondary mirror, it is necessary to deviate from the spherical symmetry of the basic design in order to correct aberrations more effectively, and to avoid a secondary mirror with an unreasonably long focal length.
The Schmidt camera design and the basic Maksutov design both exploit the symmetry of the spherical primary mirror as a means of allowing off-axis rays to be focused correctly. The usual Schmidt-Cassegrain and Maksutov-Cassegrain telescopes encountered, however, no longer retain this symmetry. The Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope gives it up so that the secondary can be located on the corrector plate, rather than somewhat closer to the primary than to the corrector plate, thus avoiding the need for vanes holding the secondary that obstruct light. The Maksutov-Cassegrain often has a secondary that is an aluminized spot on the corrector plate; in a spherically symmetric design, that spot would simply reflect the light back out of the telescope, and so the corrector plate has to have a steeper curve.
Even without changes in overall design, the fact of having a Cassegrain secondary means the design is no longer spherically symmetric.
Among the several modified versions of the purely catoptric Cassegrain design we examined, the Pressmann-Camichel design gave the poorest off-axis performance; eliminating coma required going in the opposite direction, to the Ritchey-Chrètien design. Given that off-axis performance is already compromised in the common catadioptric Cassegrains, the idea of a Maksutov-Pressmann-Camichel design where a meniscus corrector of reduced thickness is combined with an ellipsoidal secondary to provide part of the correction for spherical aberration may not be entirely preposterous. Actually, though, existing Schmidt-Cassegrain and Maksutov-Cassegrain telescopes are already making use of that principle in a sense; their secondaries are spherical, and as we saw above, the spherical secondary of the Dall-Kirkham design compensates for an undercorrected primary: a fully-corrected primary would require the hyperboloidal secondary of the classical Cassegrain.
Thus, while the symmetry principles illustrated above for the original Schmidt and Maksutov designs are of historical interest, it would be misleading to conclude that Schmidt-Cassegrain or even Maksutov-Cassegrain telescopes are highly corrected against coma. Some Maksutov-Cassegrain designs are better than others in this respect; having the secondary mirror an aluminized spot on the corrector is one thing that involves a compromise; but the compromise is still a minor one, and such telescopes do deserve their good reputation. Instead, for that one needs to consider a telescope based on the Ritchey-Chrètien design.
The Maksutov telescope, whether Maksutov-Newtonian or Maksutov-Cassegrain, is one example of a telescope that can be well-corrected and yet use only spherical surfaces. Another possible design is the Lurie-Houghton telescope:
At first, this design looks like it offers the worst of both worlds; a doublet lens as the objective, and a mirror as well, so one is paying for the optics of both a Newtonian and a refractor. However, the main mirror is now spherical, not parabolic, and the corrector is made from two lenses both of plain crown glass, so one does not need to use flint glass. Also, even after this is recognized, it might be asked what advantage such a telescope has over a Maksutov-Newtonian, which requires just one corrector element, also with two spherical surfaces.
But for an amateur telescope maker, creating two corrector elements that are relatively thin lenses, rather than the steeply-curved meniscus of a Maksutov design, avoids the need to either work from a very thick piece of glass, and remove a lot of material, or somehow find a blank that has already been molded into an approximation of the desired shape.
In addition, the additional lens does allow an additional correction, for curvature of field. Remember, a Maksutov-Newtonian is essentially equivalent to the original Maksutov camera, which like the Schmidt camera avoids coma by being spherically symmetrical everywhere, including the surface on which the image is produced. As a result, a number of amateur astronomers have made themselves telescopes of this type, with focal ratios of f/5 or f/4. Of course, simple Newtonians with very fast focal ratios have been used as well, despite the coma, which can be corrected with commercial attachments at the eyepiece end of the telescope.
One of the best pages on the Web about the Lurie-Houghton telescope is this page by Rick Scott.
The most important thing about a telescope is its aperture. Because of the high magnifications used with telescopes, diffraction limits their performance. Normally, one would think of diffraction as a phenomenon associated with things like the microscopic rows of pits on the inner reflective surface of a Compact Disc.
Aperture, which means "opening", is normally determined by the narrowest part of the telescope up to and including the main lens or mirror of the telescope. Thus, many telescopes will have a front opening somewhat larger than the main mirror, so that objects in the edge of the area seen by the telescope do not have some of their light blocked from reaching the mirror (an example of vignetting). A Schmidt camera, on the other hand, has a mirror that is larger than the corrector plate as another way to achieve a uniform image area, and in that case the corrector plate determines the effective aperture of the telescope.
A common rule of thumb is that the maximum reasonable magnification with a telescope is 60x per inch of aperture. Thus, an 8-inch (20cm) telescope could be used with magnifications up to 480x. Even this is considered quite high, although one can use larger magnifications to make fine detail easier to see, even if after that point no new details will become visible.
A magnifying glass makes things bigger, but it doesn't make them any brighter. The same is true for a telescope, for example, when you use it to look at the surface of the Moon. But for point objects like stars, making them bigger is effectively the same as making them brighter; their brightness per unit area has not increased, but even after the highest possible magnification is applied to them, their area is still too small to see. If one uses a telescope as a camera lens, however, as in prime focus astrophotography, where film or a CCD is placed at the spot where the telescope forms the image that an eyepiece normally would magnify, the film registers light hitting it from all directions, unlike our eyes, which see only the light coming in from the right direction for any object, and so the required exposure time for film decreases as aperture increases.
One reason why amateur astronomers will emphasize the importance of aperture to newcomers is that sometimes inexpensive small-aperture refractors are advertised as having high magnifications, and this can be impressive to the unwary.
If aperture is what really counts, then does it follow that the cheapest kind of telescope is the best? Although money is certainly a big limit on what most people can do, other things must be considered besides the cost of the telescope itself. Most people live in brightly-lit cities. Since a house in the country costs considerably more than a telescope that is easy to take with you on a short trip out of town, one can't consider the telescope's cost in isolation.
The Newtonian telescope is perhaps the cheapest telescope per inch of aperture. A general-purpose Newtonian, like the one shown in the diagram above, might be an f/6 or f/8 design, depending on size; that is, the focal length might be 6 or 8 times the aperture. (Thus, a camera lens that can be opened to f/1.4 is one which has a very wide aperture compared to its focal length, allowing it to put a very bright image on the film.)
An f/6 8" telescope, or an f/8 6" telescope, has a focal length - and (approximately) a length length - of 48 inches, or four feet. This makes it somewhat cumbersome to move from place to place.
However, another form of Newtonian telescope combines increased portability with even lower cost. This is the Dobsonian telescope (named after John Dobson of the San Francisco Sidewalk Astronomers) which places a large but thin mirror in a telescope with a simple altazimuth mounting making use of ultra-high molecular weight plastics (such as DuPont Teflon). This kind of telescope has a short focal length in proportion to its aperture, which requires a larger diagonal mirror, meaning a larger central obstruction, and the wider cone of light places extra demands on some eyepiece designs.
An equatorial mounting, particularly if motorized, enables a telescope to rotate in the direction opposite to the Earth's rotation, and thus naturally follow stars and planets as they appear to move in the night sky. An ordinary Newtonian telescope may make use of the "German equatorial mount", which involves the use of a counterweight.
Refracting telescopes do not have a diagonal mirror in the middle of the light path, so they avoid the diffraction caused by the central obstruction. However, chromatic aberration caused by the objective lens is the main limiting factor for these telescopes. Thus, even with an achromatic objective lens, refractors often have focal ratios of f/12, f/15, or longer. This allows the lens to be less strongly curved, which reduces all forms of optical aberrations.
The apochromat is a refracting telescope which uses a three-element objective lens, and usually one of the elements is made from a special type of glass instead of simply normal crown and flint glass. This reduces chromatic and other aberrations enough to allow a shorter telescope to be made, but such telescopes are quite expensive.
Using more exotic forms of glass in a two-element lens also allows chromatic aberration to be reduced significantly, and some telescopes with lenses of this type are now being advertised and sold as apochromats. Although this is not in line with what has been understood as the original technical meaning of the term, the telescopes so advertised are still, at this time, generally comparable in quality to many three-element apochromat designs. However, those same glasses are also used in three-element designs to provide even better quality.
The Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope, although more expensive than a Newtonian, is still relatively inexpensive, and is very convenient. The tube is sealed, so both dust and accidents are less of a worry. Even more important, because the tube is sealed, problems inherent in taking the telescope from a warm storage area out into the cold night are reduced, at least initially. (This is actually a somewhat complicated tradeoff: the worst effects of a temperature difference are eliminated with the sealed telescope, but not all of them, while the open telescope will eventually match the temperature of the surroundings, so for a patient observer, the open telescope comes out ahead.) Although the Cassegrain secondary mirror increases the effective focal ratio of the telescope as a whole to around f/10 or f/12, the telescope is short, lightweight, and portable. Usually, an equatorial fork mount is used with such a telescope; this holds it very steady, and requires no counterweight, as the telescope is centered within the fork. Their drawback is that the central obstruction is relatively large.
Maksutov-Cassegrain telescopes are very similar to Schmidt-Cassegrain telescopes in their convenience, but the design offers better optical quality. This has led to these instruments being considered premium telescopes, and this has meant that their higher prices have translated into a much higher quality of manufacture, offering advantages in addition to the inherent ones of the design.
A Richest-Field Telescope (RFT) is a phrase used for a particular kind of telescope. One doesn't hear this phrase used too often to describe telescopes offered for sale these days, because it describes a condition that involves the magnification of a telescope, and thus is only really applicable to a telescope which doesn't allow you to change its eyepiece.
As has been noted, 60x per inch of aperture is considered to be the usable limit of magnification on a telescope. There is also a limit to how low the magnification on a telescope can usefully be made.
The objective lens on a refracting telescope, or the aperture of a telescope in general, is acting on behalf of the pupil of your eye when you are looking through the telescope. The light that enters the telescope must also enter your eye as well, if that light is to serve to allow you to see the heavens.
The ratio between the focal length of the eyepiece, and that of the telescope, determines not only the magnification of the telescope, but also the factor by which the stream of light entering the telescope is compressed before it enters your eye.
A pair of 7x50 binoculars has an aperture (in each half) of 50 millimeters, and, because it has a magnification of 7 times, compresses the light entering that aperture down to one-seventh of its width, which is just over 7mm. This is a value typically used for the size of the dark-adapted pupil of the eye. The actual value actually changes with age, but 7mm is an average for a 30-year-old adult, who is considered typical for many applications of optical equipment.
Such binoculars, therefore, are called "night glasses", because their large aperture (compared to lighter 7x35 binoculars) admits light to the entire area of the pupil of the eye when it is fully dark-adapted.
For a given magnification, therefore, increasing the aperture until it corresponds to 3.5x per inch, or 1x per 7mm, will make everything seen in a telescope brighter, because more light is entering the eye.
For a given aperture, increasing the magnification beyond 3.5x per inch will take the scene presented at 3.5x per inch and enlarge it, without adding any light to it. Extended objects, like the Moon, (or, at much higher magnifications, planets) will become dimmer as that happens. Stars, however, are point objects. So they will remain at the same level of brightness, the magnification will only spread them apart.
This is why a telescope operating at 3.5x per inch of aperture is called a "Richest-Field Telescope"; at (or below) this level of magnification, the sky will appear through the telescope to be filled with bright stars close together, on average, to the same extent as it does when viewed with the naked eye.
Telescopes are often described in terms of their focal ratio. A telescope with an aperture of 6 inches and a focal length of 48 inches is an f/8 telescope, one whose aperture is 1/8th of its focal length. (This is the same rule as used for camera lenses; an f/1.4 camera lens with a focal length of 50mm therefore has an aperture of 35mm.)
A telescope with a focal length of 1000mm and an aperture of 180mm would normally be termed an f/5.6 telescope. If you use a 40mm eyepiece with it, the magnification will be 25x (1000/40 = 25), and 25 times 7mm is 175mm, close to the telescope's aperture. Doubling the focal length would double the magnification and double the aperture required for this condition to be met, so on any f/5.6 telescope, using an eyepiece with a 40mm focal length turns it into an RFT.
Here is a very short table of focal ratios, and the correponding eyepiece focal lengths that meet this condition:
28mm f/4 36mm f/5 40mm f/5.6
The table is short because although one could add more entries, in general eyepieces are not available in focal lengths much above 40mm.
One question which often causes animated discussions among amateur astronomers is whether or not there is such a thing as a "planetary telescope". Are refractors and long-focus (f/12, f/16) Newtonians really any better than short-focus (f/5.6) Newtonians and Schmidt-Cassegrain telescopes, as some people say, or is that a myth?
What does central obstruction do?
It isn't a myth that central obstruction changes the character of the little dot into which a telescope focuses the light from a point object. It does do that. What happens is that the brightest part of that dot, in the center, remains the same size, but the ring of scattered light around it becomes a little brighter.
This effect is quite slight, unless the central obstruction is very large, as this table (based on information from Amateur Astronomer's Handbook, 4th edition, Sidgwick and Muirden) of how much light is found in the rings surrounding the Airy disc for various sizes of central obstruction shows:
No central obstruction: 16.2% 10% of aperture: 18.2% 15% of aperture: 20.5% 20% of aperture: 23.6% 25% of aperture: 26.8% 30% of aperture: 31.8%
A central obstruction of 10 or even 15 percent of the aperture is not a significant problem, but one of 30 percent of the aperture would be noticeable, and even then, not too serious a problem.
What this means is that while the overall contrast in the image remains the same, contrast of the finest details in the image is reduced. Since very fine detail is hard to see in any event, it might even mean you will no longer see the finest details.
Because the brightest part of the dot in the center remains the same, though, the resolution of the image isn't changed; all the detail is still present, it's just a bit harder to see.
Back in 1965 or so, most amateur astronomers really had only one choice of telescope, a Newtonian on a German equatorial mount, for apertures of 3 1/2 inches and above, while for smaller apertures, there were refractors with achromatic objectives.
Under those circumstances, the difference in cost and portability between an f/5.6 Newtonian and an f/12 Newtonian was not major. As well, many amateurs ground their own optics, and a shallower curve is simpler to handle. In addition to a smaller central obstruction, a longer-focus Newtonian has less coma, an important optical aberration. Thus, it made sense to recommend the longer focus telescope as being a better choice for planetary observing. Central obstruction may have been a fine point, but it was worth attending to it, because other things either were equal, or else also tended to favor the longer-focus design.
Today, the situation has changed, making it necessary to put the importance of central obstruction in perspective, because there are wider choices available to the prospective amateur astronomer.
There are Dobsonian telescopes, which have made very large apertures reachable by amateurs, but which, in these large apertures, need to have a short focal length to be practical.
There is the Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope, which offers convenience and portability to an extent that ordinary Newtonians and refractors cannot hope to match.
Should the potential benefits of these kinds of telescopes be dismissed because they have relatively large central obstructions? And if not, why not?
Since it is no longer true that other things are equal, but one instead can, through saving money or gaining portability, have a larger aperture of telescope in return for accepting the central obstruction, it doesn't make sense to put a fine point in telescope quality ahead of the characteristic that determines its ability. It does not make sense to prefer a 4" refractor over an 8" Schmidt-Cassegrain on the basis that the lack of central obstruction will improve image quality.
As well, two things mitigate the effects of central obstruction.
The Earth's atmosphere limits the amount of magnification that can be put to effective use with a telescope. A telescope with an aperture of more than 10 inches already is in collision with that limit most of the time. Hence, in a telescope of 24 inches aperture, the detail the contrast of which is reduced by central obstruction is largely detail which will not actually be available when looking through the Earth's atmosphere at a celestial object. At 17 inches, a size that many enthusiastic amateurs have, there is still some effect of central obstruction at times of perfect seeing, but it is now only a partial effect.
Because the central bright spot isn't expanded, and the information in the image is still present, it is possible when using a CCD to take astrophotographs with a telescope, to subject the image to digital processing which will remove the effects of the telescope's central obstruction.
That the central obstruction is an issue in telescope quality is not a myth; this is a real effect, and has a limited degree of importance. But it is a serious error to assign too much importance to it. Since it's easy to change "its importance is limited" to "it isn't real", and it's also easy to change "it is real" to "it is very important", when the truth lies in this particular region, it's rather easy for arguments to start.
Copyright (c) 2001, 2002 John J. G. Savard | <urn:uuid:e68e6f99-6e05-403b-8965-6f382dba23e2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://members.shaw.ca/quadibloc/science/opt02.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00186-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953054 | 7,562 | 4.15625 | 4 |
CLIMATES OF THE WORLD
Milk yields are a product of animal genetic and environmental interactions. Milk yield for a specific genotype, especially in tropical environments or ecosystems, is a function of climate and its interactive influences on the quantity and quality of feed, the presence of disease and parasites and the utilization of technology to alleviate nutritional, thermal and health limitations. Each climate zone and/or ecosystem includes variations in the environmental complex which influences milk yields and dairying practices in the tropics. Zones of the world between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn include the majority of the cattle and buffalo of the world and the climate in these regions is especially limiting to milk yields, growth and reproduction when both the temperature and humidity is high.
Emphasis in this paper will be on the thermal or direct climatic aspects of the environmental factors as they influence the cows ability to eat, maintain heat balance, produce milk and reproduce. Of the meteorological factors (temperature, humidity, wind, radiation, photoperiod and rainfall), the temperature and humidity (including rainfall) are the limiting factors most difficult to alleviate.
Figure 1 presents the average monthly temperature-humidity-index (THI) for numerous temperate zones and tropical countries. Generally, the climate of the countries in the left section, depending on the numbers of months above 72 THI, does not preclude the use of Holstein dairy cows. However, the introduction of Holsteins into the countries on the right section (humid tropics) results in moderate to severe limitations in milk yield due largely to the temperature/humidity and related nutritional factors. Adaptable but lower yielding indigenous cattle have been used for centuries as a source of meat, milk and fibre in the tropical zones.
Figure 2 is an illustration of these calculations showing the number of months throughout the year that THIs were greater than 72 (B). THI average of months above 72 (C), which is a multiple of A × B, best expresses the comfort or adversity of climate zones. The annual THI average also reflects the relative limitation of the various climate zones of the world for dairy cows (Figure 3). Table 1 lists these indices which express the adversity or comfort as indicated by Columns A, B, C and D.
|Ave. months above 72||No. months above 72||Time index: A × B||Average Annually|
|5||Egypt (So. Delta)||76.5||4||306||68.8|
|6||Costa Rica (Atenia) (low-land-dry)||71.9||2||144||69.5|
|7||Costa Rica (CATIE) (mid-altitude-humid)||71.4||2||144||70.7|
|8||Saudi Arabia (Hufuf)||80.5||7||563||71.9|
|9||Mexico (Cardenas, Tabasco)||76.0||8||608||74.0|
|10||Costa Rica (Guapiles) (low-humid)||73.2||11||805||73.2|
|12||Costa Rica (Limon) (low-humid)||74.2||11||816||73.0|
|13||Puerto Rico (San Juan)||75.0||12||900||75.0|
|15||Dominican Republic (Santiago)||76.2||12||915||76.2|
|16||South America (Guyana)||77.2||12||926||77.3|
|17||Malaysia (Kuala Lumpar)||78.7||12||944||78.7|
THE ENVIRONMENT, THERMAL BALANCE, FEED INTAKE AND MILK YIELD
A model of major factors of the ecosystem (not including other animals) which influence the ability of the cow or other livestock to lactate, grow and reproduce has been described by Johnson, 1987b. The meteorological factors include temperature and photoperiod and involve physiological mechanisms; the most important non-meteorological factors are quantity and quality of feedstuffs and disease factors. Environmental temperature (thermal factors) and possibly emotional factors signal the hypothalamus and central nervous system to alter feed intake, hormonal functions and heat production and/or loss with resultant declines in milk yield and fertility.
In a thermal environment in which the animal's heat production exceeds heat loss, an increasing amount of heat is stored in the animal's body, resulting in increased body temperature. When the body temperature is significantly elevated, a myriad of homeothermic events are initiated. These events include increases in evaporative heat loss by respiration and skin. However, when high temperatures and radiation lessen the ability of the animal to radiate heat from the body, feed intake, metabolism, body weight and milk yields decrease to help alleviate the heat imbalance (Johnson, 1980a,b). Even though tissue substrates are mobilized, energy metabolism, growth and lactation declines.
To avoid this excessive acclimatization or adjustment to an adverse environment or to alleviate the stressor effects on less adaptable individuals, various management decisions and practices may be used to alleviate the severity of the climatic influences on the animal. These practices can help maintain the efficiency of production and prevent disintegration of the animal system.
The level of feed intake as indicated in Figure 4, is determined partially by the thermal balance of the animal which in turn alters milk yields and reproductive performance. Feed or hay intake declines in relation to THI which is illustrated clearly in Figure 4. The decline is about 0.23 kg/day for each unit increase in THI or increase in rectal temperature. The related decline in milk yield with increasing THIs is approximately 0.26 kg/day, milk decline/unit increase in THI (Johnson et al., 1961, 1962; Johnson, 1987b). A more recent study with 52 cows at each stage of lactation demonstrated the relative time changes in rectal temperature and milk yield and feed intake (Johnson et al., 1988). Milk yields of Jerseys and Holsteins from some of the countries previously discussed (Table 1) have been affected by the total environmental complex. These declines in milk yields for Holsteins or Jerseys in a temperate climate as compared to the tropics are very great (approximately half of genetic potential). The somewhat lesser decline in Puerto Rico (half of genetic potential) may be due to data from the “hills” region, with improved genotypes and management practices (Table 2).
Figure 4. Regressions of milk yield, rectal temperature and feed intake on THI for many temperature-humidity conditions above thermoneutral (Jhonson et al., 1962).
Figure 5. Seasonal heat effects in a temperate climate (Missouri) on conception rates.
|Region||Annual Milk Production kg||Lactation Length days||Daily Milk Production kg||THI Animal (D)|
|Costa Rica, CATIE3||2218||“300”||7.7||71|
1 Wiggins, G.R., C.A. Ernst, U.S.D.A. Summary, 1987, Herd Averages,Beltsville, Maryland. Official National Cooperative Dairy HerdImprovement Program (NCDHIP), 1987.
2Roman-Ponce, H. 1987. Lactation of Dairy Cattle in Humid TropicalEnvironments. Chapter 6, pp. 81–90. From: Bioclimatology and theAdaptation of Livestock. H.D. Johnson, Editor. Elsevier Publishers,Amsterdam.
3 Costa Rica, CATIE, 1986. Rolling Herd Average for Jersey.
MILK YIELDS AND REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE AS AFFECTED BY ENVIRONMENTAL HEAT AND THI
The effects of THI on milk yields of Holstein dairy cattle have previously been summarized by Johnson et al. (1961, 1962) and Johnson (1987b). The influence of environmental heat and THI is especially critical to conception rates of temperate zone lactating cattle during summer heat (Figure 5; Rabie, 1983) and in the subtropics (Ingraham et al., 1976). Most evidence suggests that reproductive failures associated with hyperthermia in cattle are due to embryonic death (Thatcher and Roman-Ponce, 1980; Putney et al., 1988) rather than insufficient LH, high prolactin or progesterone, which are responsible for ovulation and fertilization actions. Embryonic death may be due to thermal or uterine environmental changes (including hormonal or immunological changes; Spencer, 1988).
ALLEVIATION OR PARTIAL ALLEVIATION OF PRODUCTION LIMITATIONS
Decreased feed intake and a resultant decline in metabolizable energy (ME) intake is a major problem for the exotic (temperate) breeds of cattle imported into the tropics.
The composition of the diet is believed to be important in alleviating heat stress. There are, however, no reliable scientific guidelines for feeding cows in hot climates. Milk yields did not change significantly in earlier studies where animals were forced to eat diets containing various ratios of forage/concentrate or isocaloric diets in which the ratio of fibre was varied (El-Khohja, 1979) or fat was added (Moody et al., 1971). We do know that cattle under heat stress will reach a hyperthermic state and will refuse forage but continue to eat concentrate.
Since cows reduce their voluntary feed intake during hot temperate season weather and in the tropics (Collier et al., 1982), their mineral intake may also be less than optimal in hot weather, adding an additional limiting factor in hot humid environments. Kamal and Johnson (1978) also found negative mineral balances of cattle in which ration and total (urine and faeces) excretion were analyzed for Na, K, Ca, Mg, Zn, Cu, Fe, Co, Mo, and P.
Numerous hormones that are depressed in hot or tropical climates may warrant consideration as a means to prevent or restore milk yields of dairy cattle. Most promising is the bovine somatotropin (BST) which may soon be available commercially as a recombinant hormone. Prolonged heat stress was shown by our laboratory to lower plasma levels of growth hormone. Thus, assuming over-compensation may have occurred, the supplementation of growth hormone would increase milk yields and efficiency of energy conversion in hot climates. Recently Johnson et al. (1988), using the recombinant BST, increased milk yields under summer farm conditions by 18% and, in a subsequent laboratory simulated thermoneutral environment, by 25% and summer heat conditions by 26% over controls (Figure 6). The increase in milk, feed intake and metabolism did not increase body temperature more than controls due possibly to increased heat loss and/or efficiency of energy utilization (Johnson et al., 1987) (Figure 7).
Environmental (Shelter) Modification
Technology to avoid solar heat loads or increase heat losses from the animal to maintain heat balance is especially important for exotic temperate cows introduced into the humid tropics and during temperate zone summers. Shades have been shown by many scientists to minimize incoming radiation as much as 30% for the dairy cow and thus reduce heat loads (Roman-Ponce et al., 1977; Wiersma et al., 1984). Even in humid climates water sprays and high intensity fans can greatly improve milk yields (Igono et al., 1987, Johnson et al., 1987).
The effects of various temperature, humidity, wind combinations on milk yield and related heat balance measures were measured on lactating Holstein cows (Figure 8).
Genotype Modification: Production Adaptability Measures
Our goals are to provide the optimal micro-climate and micro-environment for the animal genotype, identify the genotype for adaptability as well as production potential and modify the genotype either by hormonal therapy (see above), or selective breeding. There are numerous examples of individual cows that are more heat tolerant and productive when subjected to heat stress (Johnson et al., 1962 Johnson. 1965; Johnson et al., 1967; Johnson, 1967; Johnson, 1987). Thus, selection can offer the potential to increase milk yield/cow in an existing microclimate, especially if selection includes production and adaptability indices (Horst, 1983; Johnson et al., 1988). These indices should improve stress resistance and avoid production compensation and excessive acclimatization.
A recent laboratory study on 51 cows at each stage of lactation demonstrated again a wide range of the ability of the individual cow with similar levels of milk yields (at thermoneutral) to produce when subjected to heat stress (Johnson et al., 1987) (Figure 9). These data clearly demonstrate that the milk yield and food intake of animals producing about 15–25 kg milk/day at thermoneutral (18°C) and were in the heat-tolerant portion of the population (Figure 9) declined less than the cows in the heat-sensitive portion of the distribution curve. This relationship of rectal temperature to performance (milk yield and feed intake) clearly describes the functional significance of thermal balance and energy-related functions.
Figure 6. Milk yields of control and BST-treated cows during summer farm and laboratory simulated TN and heat conditions.
Figure 7. Milk production and rectal temperature of control and BST-treated cows.
Figure 8. Changes in rectal temperature (°C) and % changes in milk yields under laboratory simulated and various combinations of temperature, humidity and wind. Control or base conditions wa 20°C, 40% RH and wind at 0.5 m/sec (MLS).
Figure 9. Frequency designations (-), (+) or (Intermediate) for productive adaptability indices (R = rectal temperature, °C; MP = milk production, % decline/day and F = feed intake, Mcal/day).
Collier, 1982 R.J., Beede D.K., Thatcher W.W., Israel L.A. and Wilcox C.J. Influences of environment and its modifications on dairy animal health and production. J. Dairy Sci. 65:2213.
El-Kohja, 1979 M. Effect of environmental temperature on lactating dairy cows fed high and low fibre rations. M.S. Thesis, University of Missouri.
Horst, 1983 P. The concept of “productive adaptability” of domestic animals in tropical and subtropical regions. J. S. African Vet. Assoc. 3:159.
Igono, 1987 M.O., Johnson H.D., Steevens B.J., Krause G.F. and Shanklin M.D. Physiological, productive, and economic benefits of shade, spray, and fan system versus shade for Holstein cows during summer heat. J. Dairy Sci. 70:1069.
Ingraham, 1976 P.H., Stanley R.W. and Wagner W.D. Relationship of temperature and humidity to conception rate of Holstein cows in Hawaii. J. Dairy Sci. 59:2086.
Johnson, H.D., Kibler H.H., Ragsdale A.C., Berry I.L. and Shanklin 1961 M.D. Role of heat tolerance and production level in response of lactating Holsteins to various temperature-humidity conditions. J. Dairy Sci. 44:1191.
Johnson, 1962 H.D., Ragsdale A.C., Berry I.L. and Shanklin M.D. Effect of various temperature-humidity combinations on milk production of Holstein cattle. MO. Agric. exp. Sta. Res. Bulletin No. 791.
Johnson, 1965 H.D., Response of animals to heat. Meteor. Monographs. 6:109.
Johnson, 1967 H.D., Hahn L., Kibler H.H., Shanklin M.D. and Edmonson H.D. Heat and acclimation influence on lactation of Holstein cattle. MO. Agric. Exp. Sta. Res. Bulletin 916.
Johnson, 1976 H.D. Environmental temperature effects (including humidity, radiation and wind) on animal functions and processes. IN: The Effect of Weather and Climate on Animals. Vol. 1, Part 1. S.W. Tromp (Editor-in-Chief) and H.D. Johnson (Editor). Swets and Zeitlinger BV, Amsterdam.
Johnson, 1980a H.D. Depressed chemical thermogenesis and hormonal function in heat. In: Environmental Physiology Aging, Heat and Attitude. Horvath and M.K. Yousef (Eds.), Elsevier Publishers, North Holland; New York.
Johnson, 1980b H.D. Environmental management of cattle to minimize the stress of climatic changes. Int. J. Biometeorol. 24:65–78.
Johnson, 1987a H.D. Bioclimates and Livestock. IN: Bioclimatology and the Adaptation of Livestock. Chapter 1. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam. pp. 3–16.
Johnson, 1987b H.D. Bioclimate Effects on Growth, Reproduction and Milk Production. In: Bioclimatology and the Adaptation of Livestock. Chapter 3. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam. pp. 35–57.
Johnson, 1987 H.D., Li R., Spencer K.J., Manalu W., Meador N.F. and Katti P.S. Influence of water sprays and wind in hot humid environments on milk yield, metabolic and thermo-regulatory functions. 18th Conf. Biometeor. and Aerobiology, Amer. Meteor. Soc., Sept.
Johnson, 1987 H.D., Shanklin M.D. and Hahn L. LXXV. Productive Adaptability of Holstein Cows to Environmental Heat. Part I. MO. Agric. Exp. Sta. Res. Bulletin 1060.
Johnson, 1988 H.D., Becker B.A., Spencer K.J., Collier R.J. and Baille C.A. Effect of field and laboratory heat stress on milk and physiological response of lactating dairy cows supplemented with Sometribove (Bovine Somatotropin, BST). J. Dairy Sci. Mtgs., Edmonton, Alberta.
Kamal, 1978 T.H. and Johnson H.D. Effect of high environmental temperature and age on trace elements metabolism in cattle. J. Middle Eastern Regional Radioisotope Centre.
Moody, 1971 E.G., Van Soest P.J., McDowell R.E. and Ford G.L. Effect of high temperature and dietary fat on milk fatty acids. J. Dairy Sci. 54:1457.
Putney, 1988 D.J., Drost D. and Thatcher W.W. Embryonic development in dairy cattle exposed to elevated ambient temperatures between days 1–7 post-insemination. Biol. Reprod. 34:100.
Rabie, 1983 H.M. Climatic effects on reproduction of dairy cattle. M.S. Thesis, University of Missouri.
Roman-Ponce, 1977 H., Thatcher W.W., Buffington D.E., Wilcox C.J. and Van Horn H.H. Physiological and production responses of dairy cattle to a shade structure in a sub-tropical environment. J. Dairy Sci. 60: 424.
Spencer, 1988 K.J. Influences of heat stress and related endocrine and uterine environmental changes on embryonic survival. M.S. Thesis, University of Missouri.
Thatcher 1980 W.W., and Roman-Ponce H. Effect of climate on bovine reproduction and lactation. J. Dairy Sci. 57:360.
Wiersma,1984 F., Armstrong D.V., Welchert W.T. and Lough O.G. Housing systems for dairy production under warm weather conditions. World Anim. Rev. 50:16. | <urn:uuid:bcc1a2f7-eb4b-44e2-972a-efdda614b370> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.fastonline.org/CD3WD_40/LSTOCK/004/t0413e/T0413E02.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00027-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.849221 | 4,222 | 3.453125 | 3 |
Environmentally-friendly spending looks to have taken a back seat to the financial meltdown, with many companies scaling back on alternative energy spending. And, just like the economic crisis, it looks like governments will have to jump in and help.
Spain's Iberdrola Renovables plans to cut sharply its investment in renewable energy, while BP and Shell are also trimming green budgets.
As a result, environmentalists, as well as some officials, say that governments should step in to pick up the slack, and thus avoid an environmental crisis that may be even more severe than the financial one.
Plus, they argue, investing in green issues now will help take the world out of recession by creating sustainable jobs and a cleaner environment.
"These private companies have their own social responsibility but at the same time it's the governments that have to act, if (companies) fail their responsibility," Joris den Blanken, Greenpeace EU climate and energy policy director, told CNBC.com.
In the European Union alone 14 countries have suffered water shortages since 1998, while 100 major cases of flooding have left about 700 people dead and half a million displaced, causing a total of 25 billion euros ($33 billion) of water damage, according to EU Environment Commissioner Stavros Dimas.
Seen by some as the leader in the governmental fight to combat climate change, the EU has agreed to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 20 percent from their 1990-levels by 2020 and to raise the target to 30 percent if the rest of the developed world agrees to do the same.
Meanwhile, the US appears to be stepping up its commitment under President Barack Obama.
Obama, who pledged billions of dollars for clean energy in his economic stimulus plan, also pushed for US greenhouse gas emissions cuts of 14 percent from 2005-levels by 2020 and more than 80 percent by 2050.
The United Nations estimates up to 20 million new jobs could be created worldwide in the renewable energy sector by 2030, while improving energy-efficiency in buildings alone has the potential to create up to 3.5 million green jobs in Europe and the United States.
Too Little, Too Late
Dimas, however, has warned it may be too little, too late.
"Our economies will recover in a few years but the environmental damage we are causing will take generations to repair," he said in a recent speech. "We must work hard to reduce carbon emissions, but even with the emission reductions we are committed to achieving, some amount of climate change is inevitable."
Governments need to provide both short-term incentives such as tax breaks for eco-firendly investment, as well as a long-term framework that will instill confidence in investors in such projects, den Blanken said.
More importantly, a deal must be reached to help developing countries—which are racing to catch up with living standards in richer nations—to put in place ways to reduce greenhouse gases and deal with the impact of climate change, he added.
To do this, developing states need at least 110 billion euros a year by 2020 from rich countries, according to Greenpeace. This would mean 35 billion euros per year from the European Union, and any country with capita GDP above $15,000 should chip in, den Blanken said.
"These countries have the responsibility for creating the climate crisis," he said.
The funds, for example, would be used to help developing countries switch to low emissions or slow or stop deforestation.
Regulation Also Important
The EU has tripled the amount allocated to environmental projects to 105 billion euros for the 2007-2013 budget period; the money would promote environmentally-friendly products, invest in railways, water and waste management, as well as nature protection. The EU, however, has yet to earmark funds to help the developing world in these areas.
Some analysts say more than money is needed.
"I think they should increase regulation and enforcement of regulation. Regulation requires spending by companies. That's more efficient," Kimberly Tara, CEO, FourWinds Capital Management, told CNBC.com.
"You need to put the regulation in place today but leave enforcement for later, in three to five years," Tara added.
Investors wondering if there is a future in green projects should mainly look at the water and waste management areas, says Tara.
"I think it's a long-term investment. The cost of investing today is low and the growth is significant going forward," she said. | <urn:uuid:834e953e-ac41-40ec-b62e-ad41b4bd4167> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cnbc.com/id/30194848 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00183-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96311 | 907 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Did You Know?
The "ambiguous" sense of homonymous refers mainly to words that have two or more meanings. In the 1600s, logicians and scientists who wanted to refer to (or complain about) such equivocal words chose a name for them based on Latin and Greek, from Greek hom- ("same") and onyma ("name"). In time, English speakers came up with another sense of homonymous, referring to two things having the same name (Hawaii, the state, and Hawaii, the island, for example). Next came the use of homonymous to refer to homonyms, such as see and sea. There's also a zoological sense. Sheep and goats whose right horn spirals to the right and left horn spirals to the left are said to be homonymous.
Origin and Etymology of homonymous
Latin homonymus having the same name, from Greek homōnymos, from hom- + onyma, onoma name — more at name
First Known Use: 1621
Medical Definition of homonymous
1: affecting the same part of the visual field of each eye <right homonymous hemianopia>
2: relating to or being diplopia in which the image that is seen by the right eye is to the right of the image that is seen by the left eye
Learn More about homonymous
Medical Dictionary: Definition of homonymous
Seen and Heard
What made you want to look up homonymous? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible). | <urn:uuid:af9c5fa6-37f0-4409-a913-59272df23177> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/homonymously | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00134-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948771 | 322 | 3.625 | 4 |
Unitarians (like the Watchtower Society) and modalists (like Oneness Pentecostals) often directly affirm that Trinitarianism is derived from paganism. They commonly quote various publications as well to support such affirmations. For example, the Watchtower society (so-called "Jehovah's Witnesses"), representative of modern Bible-affirming Arianism, states, “‘New Testament research has been leading an increasing number of scholars to the conclusion that Jesus certainly never believed himself to be God.’—Bulletin of the John Rylands Library.” In fact, as “Yale University professor E. Washburn Hopkins affirmed: ‘To Jesus and Paul the doctrine of the trinity was apparently unknown; . . . they say nothing about it.’—Origin and Evolution of Religion.” Why? “The Encyclopedia of Religion admits: ‘Theologians today are in agreement that the Hebrew Bible does not contain a doctrine of the Trinity.’ . . . The Encyclopedia of Religion says: ‘Theologians agree that the New Testament also does not contain an explicit doctrine of the Trinity.’” If, as Arians affirm, Trinitarianism does not come from the Bible, where does it come from? The Watchtower references the book “The Paganism in Our Christianity [which] declares: ‘The origin of the [Trinity] is entirely pagan.’” In fact, these Unitarians affirm in “the book A Statement of Reasons, Andrews Norton says of the Trinity: ‘We can trace the history of this doctrine, and discover its source, not in the Christian revelation, but in the Platonic philosophy . . . The Trinity is not a doctrine of Christ and his Apostles, but a fiction of the school of the later Platonists.’” Similarly, the modalist leader David Bernard writes, “[T]he idea of a trinity did not originate with Christendom. It was a significant feature of pagan religions and philosophies before the Christian era, and its existence today in various forms suggests an ancient, pagan origin. . . . The Scriptures do not teach the doctrine of the trinity, but trinitarianism has its roots in paganism.” However, the allegation that Trinitarian doctrine comes from paganism, rather than from Scripture, is entirely false. This notion has several severe problems.
First, since the word “Trinity” is not found in pre-Christian pagan writings, this objection to the Trinity contradicts another common anti-Trinitarian retort, namely, that Trinitarianism is unbiblical because the word “Trinity” is not in the Bible. If the fact that the word is not present means that the idea is not present, then the fact that the word “Trinity” is not in pre-Christian pagan authors means the idea is not found in paganism. The two objections are contradictory. Anti-Trinitarians should make up their minds to stick to the one or the other, but not employ them both. However, despite their contradictory nature, Unitarians and modalists generally do advance both allegations. For example, the Unitarian and modalist compositions quoted in the previous paragraph both employ the “the word ‘Trinity’ is not in the Bible” attack. Anti-Trinitarian compositions often do not worry about the logical consistency of their allegations, but simply employ whatever attacks sound good at the time, even if they are contradictory.
Second, the affirmation that Trinitarianism came from paganism is not sustainable historically. As demonstrated in The Triune God of the Bible, Trinitarianism is taught from Genesis to Revelation. The idea that, centuries after the inspiration of the New Testament, paganism somehow crept in and brought forth the idea of the Trinity is impossible in light of the clear Biblical evidence for Trinitarianism and the testimony of post-Biblical Christianity from even the earliest period.
Furthermore, the writers quoted in anti-Trinitarian literature to support their affirmations of the non-Biblical, pagan origin of the Trinity are usually extremely suspect. While, since “of making many books there is no end” (Ecclesiastes 12:12), it is not possible to trace and evaluate every single quotation in every anti-Trinitarian composition, an evaluation of some of the sources employed in the Watchtower’s Should You Believe in the Trinity? quoted above will be evaluated as representative of much of the distortion and misinformation advanced in the anti-Trinitarian cause.
The Arian Watchtower Society, as referenced above, states, “‘New Testament research has been leading an increasing number of scholars to the conclusion that Jesus certainly never believed himself to be God.’ —Bulletin of the John Rylands Library.” The quote is prominently displayed in the exact middle of the page, set off in bold print within a special box. No author of the article, page number, or other information is provided. The quotation was deemed important enough to be made twice in this Arian publication, once in a special box on the side of a page highlighting its importance. One can with difficulty discover the very poorly referenced source of the quotation. Upon acquiring the periodical, one notices that the Watchtower left out, without any indication of the removal, the underlined words in the quotation: “New Testament research over, say, the last thirty or forty years has been leading an increasing number of reputable New Testament scholars to the conclusion that Jesus himself may not have claimed any of the Christological titles which the Gospels ascribe to him, not even the functional designation ‘Christ,’ and certainly never believed himself to be God.” The author of the article, G. H. Boobyer, is a radical Bible-rejector who denies that the Lord Jesus ever claimed to be the Christ, and thus rejected the idea of Scripture that He was God as well. While Boobyer will deny that Jesus is the Christ and that He is God, he will in his article reference the conclusion of another writer with approval that early “Christians might, in certain senses, have been willing to recognize the deity of the emperor.” Why such egregious misrepresentation of Boobyer’s claim—leaving out his claim that Jesus never said He was the Christ to quote only his rejection of the Scriptural testimony to His Deity? Is this the kind of “scholarship” that the Arians in the Watchtower society will employ—people who will say that Christians were willing to recognize the deity of the emperor, but will say that Jesus never said He was the Christ, and thus not God? And why will they rip the actual quotation of Boobyer into pieces, and leave out the parts that radically change his meaning?
The Watchtower also attempts to support its anti-Trinitarianism by affirming that “Yale University professor E. Washburn Hopkins affirmed: ‘To Jesus and Paul the doctrine of the trinity was apparently unknown; . . . they say nothing about it.’—Origin and Evolution of Religion. . . . [Therefore] the Christian Greek Scriptures provide . . . [no] teaching of the Trinity.” Again, no publisher, page number, or other information is provided for the quotation. With considerable effort, one can discover the location of the quotation. One begins to see why such incredibly poor citation of the source is made when one discovers that Hopkins, in the very sentence before the one reproduced by the Watchtower Society, states that “The beginning of the doctrine of the trinity appears already in John,” thus demonstrating that Hopkins recognized that Trinitarianism was found in the New Testament, and on the same page affirmed that “The early Church taught that Christ was the Logos and that the Logos was God,” while two pages after the quotation made by the Watchtower Hopkins affirms that “[T]he plain faith of the early church members . . . was just this and nothing more. Jesus is God. So proclaimed the first hymns, sung by the early Church.” Hopkins thus believed that early Christianity agreed with the New Testament in teaching the Deity of Jesus Christ. Of course, since these are exactly the opposite of the conclusion drawn by the Watchtower from its quotation from Hopkins’ book, it is clear why there was no great desire by this Arian organization for someone to look up the quotation and see what was on the very same page, and in the immediate context of the sentence from Hopkins so grossly taken out of context by the Watchtower.
In any case, Hopkins’ book is not filled with Scriptural exegesis refuting the many passages in the gospels and Pauline epistles that teach Trinitarianism—nothing remotely like this is found anywhere in his book. Rather, Hopkins, because of his anti-Bible evolutionary philosophy, believed that the New Testament writings of the apostle John evolved a Trinitarianism that was not known to the Lord Jesus (who was not, Hopkins believed, the Son of God) or Paul (whose writings, Hopkins affirmed, were not inspired). Hopkins believed that “[e]very religion is a product of human evolution and has been conditioned by a social environment. Since man has developed from a state even lower than savagery and was once intellectually a mere animal, it is reasonable to attribute to him in that state no more religious consciousness than is possessed by an animal. What then, the historian must ask, are the factors and what the means whereby humanity has encased itself in this shell of religion, which almost everywhere has been raied as a protective growth about the social body? . . . [T]he principles of religion [are like the principles of human evolution]. . . . [Man] once had a brain like that of a fish, then like that of a reptile, and so on through the types of bird and marsupial, upward to the brain of the higher mammals. . . . Man then was not suddenly created.” From Hopkins’ belief that all religion, including Christianity, is a mere product of evolution, like man himself, he describes what he believes is a progression from “the worship of stones, hills, trees, and plants” to “the worship of animals” to “the worship of elements and heavenly phenomena” to “the worship of the sun,” to the worship of man, of ancestors, and eventually the alleged evolutionary development of Christianity. From this evolutionary, atheistic viewpoint, Hopkins wrote:
Christianity . . . utilized . . . much pagan material . . . [such as] baptism . . . the hope of immortality and resurrection, miraculous cures [and] water turned into wine[.] . . . The religions of the divine Mother and of Mithra had already taught the doctrine of a redeeming god . . . man through the death and resurrection of the god became . . . a partaker also in the divine nature . . . the pagan gods were still rememberd under a new form . . . [whether of] demons . . . [or] angels . . . to whom man still prayed. . . . It makes no difference whether union be felt with Brahma or God, with Vishnu Krishna or with Jesus Christ . . . the realization of union, not the special object of faith, [is] what matters. . . . God is one with Vishnu . . . Christ and Buddha and Krishna represent the same idea . . . [When someone is] bowing down before Buddha . . . let us not cry out, “Ah, the wretched idolator!”
Hopkins’ presupposition that religion evolved and that Jesus Christ was not the Son of God led him to conclude that the “evolved” idea of the Trinity must have not been believed by this “Jesus” who was not God’s Son, that Paul only gradually evolved it, and that the apostle John and early Christianity then saw it evolve. Unless one accepts Hopkins’ evolutionary philosophy, the quotation made by the Watchtower from his book is worthless, as Hopkins assumes without any evidence or argument that the Lord Jesus saw Himself as simply a man, rather than as than God incarnate, equal to the Father and the Holy Spirit. The fact that even a radical religious skeptic and Christ-rejector like Hopkins admitted, in extremely close proximity to the sentence wrenched from its context by the Watchtower, that the New Testament teaches Trinitarianism and the earliest Christianity knew Jesus was God, illuminates the extremely deceitful manipulation of sources by the Arians in the Watchtower society.
Should You Believe in the Trinity? pgs. 19, 20.
Should You Believe In the Trinity? pg. 6.
Should You Believe In the Trinity? pg. 6, in the section, “Is It Clearly a Bible Teaching?”
Should You Believe In the Trinity? in the section, “How Did The Trinity Doctrine Develop?” pg. 11. The Watchtower makes the same quotation on pg. 3, since the organization likes it so much.
Pg. 11-12, Should You Believe In the Trinity?
See The Oneness of God, David K. Bernard. Hazelwood, MO: Word Aflame Press, Chapter 11, sections “Pagan roots and parallels” and “Post-apostolic developments.
““The word ‘Trinity’ is not found in the Bible” (Should You Believe in the Trinity? pg. 6), “The Bible does not mention the word trinity, nor does it mention the word persons in reference to God.” The Oneness of God, Bernard, Chapter 12, sec. “Nonbiblical Terminology.”). Note, though, that the word “person” IS explicitly used of the Father as contrast with the Son, Heb 1:3! So this is a quibble about the “s” on “person(s)”!
Pgs. 19, 20. Should You Believe in the Trinity? The second time, when not in a big, prominently displayed box, the quote reads, “The fact is that Jesus is not God and never claimed to be. This is being recognized by an increasing number of scholars. As the Rylands Bulletin states: ‘The fact has to be faced that New Testament research over, say, the last thirty or forty years has been leading an increasing number of reputable New Testament scholars to the conclusion that Jesus . . . certainly never believed himself to be God.’” Here, while the extremely misleading omission that this same article said Jesus never claimed to be the Messiah or Christ is retained, at least elipses were included. It should be mentioned that someone who did not acquire the actual article would have no way of knowing that the two quotations are of the same sentence, since the first one is even more significantly corrupted and altered than the second quotation, and neither quote gives any information that makes it at all easy to determine the actual source of the quotation.
It is found in the article “‘Jesus As “Theos” In The New Testament,’ by G. H. Boobyer, Bulletin of The John Rylands Library, Vol. 50, (1967-68) pgs. 247-261.
While Hopkins also said on the same page that the Watchtower took their quotation from that Paul did not specifically use the word God for Christ (an affirmation for which he provided no evidence, and which he is wrong about, Romans 9:5; Titus 2:13, etc.) and in his rejection of the inspiration of the Bible Hopkins claimed Paul confused Christ and the Holy Spirit, he nevertheless also stated that “Paul . . . applies to . . . Christ . . . words of the Old Testament used of God: ‘I am God and . . . unto me every kee shall bow’ (Is. 45:22, 23; Phil. 2:10),” an affirmation that modern Arians would generally be extremely uncomfortable with and one that is only consistent with a recognition of the absolute and full Deity of Christ.
Pg. 6, Should You Believe In the Trinity?
Pg. 336, Origin and Evolution of Religion, E. Washburn Hopkins. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1924.
Pg. 338, ibid.
Pgs. 1, 352, 353, ibid. | <urn:uuid:dc4f782f-1526-43b4-b0b0-53a5d25763e5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://kentbrandenburg.blogspot.com/2012/07/did-trinity-come-from-paganism-part-1.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00108-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953109 | 3,455 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Immigration Since September 11, 2001
In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks, changes to visa policies, new security procedures, and measures to combat fraud contributed to a shift in the traditional composition of immigration flows. This report highlights recent data on immigrants to the U.S. and offers key analysis of what these figures mean in terms of U.S. policy.
The report finds that while the number of immigrants who obtained legal permanent resident status remained relatively stable between 2001 and 2002, the number of non-immigrant and refugee admissions dropped significantly. Of 1.1 million offers for permanent residence granted in 2002, the authors find that 679,000, or about two-thirds, were granted through an adjustment of status to individuals already present in the U.S. In contrast, only 384,000 of those granted legal permanent resident status were new arrivals. In addition, nearly two-thirds of those who obtained permanent residence were relatives of U.S. citizens or permanent residents, over half of which came from just ten countries. In terms of non-immigrant admissions to the U.S., the authors noted a 15 percent decline from 2001 to 2002.
More specifically, the report finds that the uncertain environment in the aftermath of September 11 may have contributed to the 37 percent drop in the number of non-immigrants from Asian Islamic countries. Most notably, the authors find that refugee admissions in 2002 plummeted. Despite authorizing the admission of up to 70,000 refugees, the number of refugee admissions reached a 25-year low of 27,508. | <urn:uuid:8447bca9-6a27-4c64-ae00-fedfe15bcd86> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.migrationpolicy.org/research/immigration-september-11-2001 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00192-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96286 | 312 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Several times, In a computer image projection, you need to adjust the projector position according to the geometry and position of the projection image. For example:
- You may need to align the images from two or more projectos, to create a single large image on a screen
- You need to project on a screen that is not rectangular
- You need to project on a screen that is not orthogonal to the projector
In these cases you need to phisically distort the image before it reaches the screen. You can move, tilt or flip the projector, or put a window between the projector and the screen.
But what if you cold do that by software. What if you could just press a button and the whole projection system calibrate itself, detecting the position and shape of the screen, and then adjusting the image BEFORE it is projected, so the projected image you see in the end is perfect?
Well, a guy called Johnny Chung Lee did this. In a 2004 paper he presented a technique based on light sensores, located around the screen. Before starting to project the desired images, its projector system projected a series of light patterns, and used them to detect the position of the screen.
This isn't really complicated. Whenever the projector send a new image pattern, it checks all the sensor and memorizes if they are sensing light at that moment. After running all the different patterns, it can calculate a sensor position by checking when the sensor received and when it didn't received light.
The video below is my version of Johnny Lee's experiment. It's a reverse engineering task. Actually, my project had one advantage: I didn't need to send Gray code patterns, since I was controlling the clock on both end. :)
I've used an Arduindo and cheap LDRs to detect the patterns. If I had used solid-state light detectors, it could be really fast! | <urn:uuid:fdda9563-1a58-41c3-b79f-b55a46c1ea7c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://dalpix.com/blog/calibrating-computer-projector-image | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00185-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9527 | 389 | 3.46875 | 3 |
When you think of a library, what comes to mind? Row after row of books? The Dewey Decimal System? Kids but no adults? Those stereotypes are outdated. Around the world, libraries are on the front lines of innovative development.
More than 230,000 public libraries exist in developing and transitioning countries right now. But why is that important? Because public libraries are a trusted information resource
at the heart of communities. And it’s no longer possible to talk about development without talking about information. As that community hub, libraries are being applied in unique ways to improve lives and communities.
Libraries were the first program of the Gates Foundation, and Beyond Access is one of the ways that work has evolved. Building on the learning of the past 15 years,
Beyond Access, is working to ensure libraries are no longer left out of development efforts.
Consider just a few examples of the ways in which public libraries are already making a difference:
- Libraries empower women. Librarians in the small Ukrainian town of Zaporizhia noticed that many girls in the community were falling prey to drug abuse and unhealthy life choices, so they decided to launch a program to provide girls with
technology training, career advice and an overall support network. As a result of the program, girls in the community now spend more time at the library using computers and the Internet than they do getting in trouble on the streets.
- Libraries are partnering to expand awareness and treatment of health issues:
When HIV/AIDS infections were on the rise in a Nepalese village, local NGOs established a partnership with the Laxmi Narayan Community Library and Resource Center to provide counseling to more than 1,200 community members. HIV-positive individuals
were previously forced to travel hours for treatment, but the new partnership enabled them to obtain their anti-retroviral drugs at the nearby library.
- Libraries help bridge the education gap: With approximately 45,000 visits each year and more than 400 books borrowed monthly, the Béréba Public Library in the Western African nation of Burkina Faso is one busy place! Together with the Friends
of the African Village Library, Béréba has become a hub for educational activities in a country where less than 50 percent of school-aged children actually enrolled. Whether it’s hosting an annual summer reading camp or providing night reading opportunities
via 240 solar lanterns, this library is an innovative and invaluable locally-operated resource.
Libraries just make sense.
Fast Company’s Co.Exist recently covered this transformation and the Beyond Access initiative. Because they are already in place, trusted by the communities they serve
and are locally staffed, these existing institutions are an ideal development partner and Beyond Access is just getting started in helping libraries get a place at the table in development efforts from health to agriculture to open government.
If you’re interested in learning more about the role of libraries in transitioning countries, join the conversation.
Follow Beyond Access on Facebook, on Twitter
@Beyond_Access and join the organization and library innovators from around the world for the
Local Alternatives for Global Development: Rediscovering Libraries
conference in Washington, D.C. on Oct. 3. Registration is now open. | <urn:uuid:571c975d-39d9-4352-9f64-3a8040831a0b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.impatientoptimists.org/Posts/2012/08/How-Libraries-Empower-Women-Strengthen-Healthcare-and-Bridge-the-Education-Gap | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939545 | 665 | 3.125 | 3 |
Peter Hope’s job is to break the blades of wind turbines. Standing in a huge shed on the coast of north-east England, he describes how he uses a set of heavy-duty winches to bend them until they snap with a loud bang. He tests the designs to breaking point to ensure they can withstand the wildest gales. Once he tugged the tip of a 42.5-metre blade 11 metres off its axis - bending it by 15 degrees - before it failed. "We've broken every blade we've tested," he says
Hope is head of one of the world's most advanced turbine blade testing facilities, run by the UK New and Renewable Energy Centre (NaREC) in Blyth, near Newcastle. Next year he is looking forward to starting tests on what will be the longest blade yet made - a 75-metre monster being developed by the California wind power company Clipper, designed to generate 10 megawatts (MW) of electricity.
After that, the blades are likely to get even bigger. The European Union is funding research into 20-MW machines, which could have 130-metre blades. In theory blades could be larger still but economic factors and the practical problems of construction and installation will come into play long before that limit is reached.
The time and money being spent on wind power is perhaps not surprising when you consider that, based on global average annual wind speeds, worldwide there is the potential to generate 106 million gigawatt-hours of electricity per year from wind - five times the total amount of electricity generated globally today. Recent estimates put the cost of generating electricity from wind at €0.04 to 0.08 per kilowatt-hour, comparable with nuclear power, and electricity from gas turbines with natural gas at today's prices.
The dramatic increase in the length of turbine blades - mostly for offshore wind farms - mirrors the rapid expansion of wind farms worldwide. Between 2006 and 2007 global capacity leapt by over 25 per cent to 94 gigawatts (GW) - equivalent to around 90 average-sized coal-fired power stations - that's a ninefold increase on the 10.2 GW generated from wind just 10 years ago. By comparison, total global electricty generation from all sources increased by just 30 per cent.
All indications are that this booming growth in wind energy capacity will continue. The Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC), based in Brussels, Belgium, predicts that the global wind market will grow by over 15 per cent from its current size to reach 240 GW of total installed capacity by the year 2012. By then, wind energy will be producing more than half a million gigawatt-hours of electricity a year, pushing its share of the global total from 1 per cent in 2007 to 3 per cent. How has wind gone from being a quaint afterthought to such a significant contributor to global electricity generation in such a short space of time?
The biggest influence on wind generation has been the huge investment in a few key European countries that are rich in wind resource and driven by ambitious targets to cut CO2 emissions. Germany leads the world, with 19,460 turbines in 2007 capable of generating 22.25 GW, which can supply 7 per cent of the country's electricity. To encourage the shift to renewables, all suppliers of electricity from renewable sources are paid a premium "feed-in" tariff for the first five years they supply power to the grid.
But Germany may soon be toppled from its wind power throne. The GWEC predicts that in 2009 the US will overtake it and become the world's biggest producer of wind-powered electricity. China, which has succeeded in doubling its capacity every year since 2004, is not far behind. The Chinese Renewable Energy Industry Association forecasts it will reach around 50 GW by 2015.
A leading US expert on wind power, Walt Musial from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in Golden, Colorado, compares the state of wind technology today to that of the car industry in 1940. There are many ways to improve the technology, he says, which could make turbines even more efficient, more reliable and more powerful.
But he warns that these improvements come at a cost. For example, using carbon fibre to make lighter turbine blades would mean turbine makers having to compete with aircraft makers for the raw material. Making the blades longer will make torque on the drivetrains among the largest of any piece of rotating equipment ever constructed, putting immense strain on the materials used.
Clipper's answer to the torque problem has been to develop a gearing system it claims reduces the load from the blades to one-quarter that of an equivalent conventional turbine.
To identify and overcome potential pitfalls for the next generation of giant 10-megawatt turbines, in 2006 the European Union launched a five-year €22.3 million research project involving over 40 partners from 14 countries. Known as UpWind, it has already come up with some useful ideas.
A team led by Martin Kühn, from the University of Stuttgart in Germany, has suggested attaching big turbines to the seabed via tripods at depths of between 35 and 50 metres. For water deeper than 50 metres, they suggest floating turbines on platforms anchored to the seabed.
Another group, led by aerospace engineer Harald Bersee from the Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands, has been investigating "smart blades". Inspired by research into helicopter rotors, he envisages sensors controlling a series of wing flaps along the trailing edges of turbine blades that would unfold in light winds to expand the blade's surface area and so improve its performance.
UpWind researchers are also studying the possibility of a 20-MW turbine. They have concluded that although technological barriers could be overcome, it is doubtful whether such large machines are economically viable. This is because of what wind engineers call the "square cube law".
A turbine's power output is proportional to the square of the length of its blades, making it attractive to lengthen them. But its volume and weight are proportional to the cube of its dimensions, meaning the price of a turbine climbs faster than its power output as its size increases. This suggests there will be an optimum size for a wind turbine, though so far no one has calculated what that will be.
There are those who believe size isn't everything. Peter Jamieson from the wind consultants Garrad Hassan in Glasgow, UK, says the advantage of scaling up has "rarely been demonstrated". Instead, he suggests it would be more economic to build lots of small cheap, lower-power turbines. There is also growing interest in high-altitude wind power in which kites attached to winches tap the higher wind speeds available up there.
But Jamieson is in a minority. For now, when it comes to turbines, bigger is broadly accepted as better. Back in Blyth's big shed that is certainly the way Peter Hope expects things to go. He's clearly looking forward to bending 100-metre blades until they break. "They'll make a big bang," he says. | <urn:uuid:ff65f8ed-f853-4706-b992-98f380801a5e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.robedwards.com/2008/10/wind-turbines-grow-bigger-and-better.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00056-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952369 | 1,435 | 2.984375 | 3 |
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UDP widely known as User Datagram Protocol, an alternative to the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and, together with IP, is also referred to as UDP/IP. Like the Transmission Control Protocol, UDP uses the Internet Protocol to get a data unit (datagram) from one computer to another. But before jumping into the nuances of this simple protocol lets take a peek into the history of its development.
Earlier during the development of the protocol suite, TCP protocol was used to handle functions now performed by IP and TCP.TCP was responsible for providing network-layer connectivity, connection establishment, flow control and reliability. But soon it was realized that the reliability functions introduced an overhead, as some applications needed the reliability functions, while some did not. Hence this overhead caused a loss of performance in many applications which did not depend on reliability functions offered by TCP.
The solution came in the mode of UDP User Datagram Protocol. The Original protocol was separated into IP, TCP and UDP internetworking was handled IP, and the reliability features by TCP.
UDP as discussed earlier is a simple protocol that resides in Transport Layer of the OSI model. UDP was defined in RFC 768, User Datagram Protocol, in 1980.
UDP is a Simple and lighter protocol specifically because it doesn't have all the complexities of a TCP. That is UDP does not support reliability or acknowledgements and hence uses a best effort delivery model. In short the only real objective of the protocol is to serve as an interface between networking application processes running at the higher layers, and the internetworking capabilities of IP.This Process identification in UDP is done by port number. All it does is take application layer data passed to it, package it in a simplified message format, and send it to IP for transmission.
As UDP provides no guarantees to the upper layer protocol for message delivery hence it is also referred to as Unreliable Datagram Protocol. Any reliability issues for the information must be implemented and handled in upper layers.
As shown in Fig. The UDP header consists of only 4 fields.
This field identifies the sending port when meaningful and should be assumed to be the port to reply to if needed. This field is optional, when not used it should be zero.
This field identifies the destination port and is mandatory.
A 16-bit field that specifies the length in bytes of the entire datagram: header and data in total. The minimum length is 8 bytes since that is the length of the header.
The 16-bit checksum field is used for error-checking of the header and data. This field is optional.
Checksum is the 16-bit one's complement of the one's complement sum of a pseudo header of information from the IP header, the UDP header, and the data, padded with zero octets at the end (if necessary) to make a multiple of two octets.
This field contains the actual data.
PSEUDO Header mystery:
UDP uses Pseudo header concept to define the checksum. The pseudo header contains.
The IP Source Address field.
The IP Destination Address field.
The IP Protocol field.
The UDP Length field.
The total length of this "pseudo header" is 11 bytes. It is padded to 12 bytes with a byte of zeroes and then prepended to the real UDP message. The checksum is then calculated over the combination of both pseudo header and the real UDP message, and the value is placed into the Checksum field.
Note: The pseudo header is used only for this computation and is discarded; it is not actually transmitted. The UDP software in the destination device creates the same pseudo header when calculating its checksum to compare to the one transmitted in the UDP header.
UDP Basic Operation, Ports, Functions and Implementations
The basic operations involved for transmission using UDP can be defined in 3 simple steps:
1.Higher-Layer Data Transfer: An application sends a message to the UDP software.
2.UDP Message Encapsulation: The higher-layer message is encapsulated into the Data field of a UDP message. The headers of the UDP message are filled in, including the Source Port of the application that sent the data to UDP, and the Destination Port of the intended recipient. The checksum value is also calculated.
3.Transfer Message to IP: The UDP message is passed to IP for transmission.
At the destination device this short procedure is reversed on reception.
UDP functions can be underlined as follows:
UDP does not provide guarantees that its messages will arrive and no acknowledgments to show that data was received.
UDP does not establish connections before sending data. It just packages it.
UDP does not ensure that data is received in the same order that they were sent.
UDP does not detect lost messages and retransmit them as in TCP.
UDP does not provide any mechanism to manage the flow of data between devices, and congestion handling.
UDP provides optional checksum capability, which can allow detection of an error in transmission or the situation where a UDP message is delivered to the wrong destination.
UDP is widely used and recommended for:
Data Where Performance, Speed Is More Important that is when an application values timely delivery over reliable delivery
Places where data exchanges are short and the order of reception of datagram does not matter
Acknowledgement of delivery is not needed
Applications that require multicast or broadcast transmissions, since these are not supported by TCP.
UDP Ports Defined
As you know every computer or device on the Internet must have a unique number assigned to it called the IP address. This IP address is used to recognize your particular computer on the Internet. When information is sent over the Internet to that computer it accepts that information by using TCP or UDP ports.
TCP and UDP protocol port numbers are designed to distinguish multiple applications running on a device from one another.
Since many network applications may be running on the same machine, computers need something to make sure the correct application on the destination computer gets the data packets from the source machine, and vice versa. This is accomplished through the use of the TCP or UDP port numbers. In the TCP and UDP header, there are Source Port and Destination Port fields which are used to indicate the message sending process ID and receiving process ID.
Let's take an example to study it further, When a program on your computer sends or receives data over the Internet it sends that data to an ip address and a specific port on the remote computer, and receives the data on a usually random port on its own computer. If it uses the TCP protocol to send and receive the data then it will connect and bind itself to a TCP port. If it uses the UDP protocol to send and receive data, it will use a UDP port. Note that once an application binds itself to a particular port, that port can not be used by any other application.
Some popular examples where UDP is used are:
Multimedia applications like streaming video , VOIP
In multicast environment
If an application needs to multicast or broadcast data, it must use UDP, because TCP is only supported for unicast communication between two devices.
Domain Name System (DNS)
Simple network management protocol (SNMP)
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
In short though functionally UDP is less complex, simpler and unreliable than TCP its advantage lies in its Speed and Simplicity. Despite its age, UDP continues to be used in mainstream application like video conferencing, streaming video, multicast applications and still remains a prominent protocol in use. | <urn:uuid:5cfffa59-f897-4fde-927f-cfe8715538a1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ipv6.com/articles/general/User-Datagram-Protocol.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00077-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.904781 | 1,577 | 3.96875 | 4 |
Energy, water, and land systems interact in many ways. Energy projects (energy production and delivery) require varying amounts of water and land; water projects (water supply and irrigation) require energy and land; and land-based activities (agriculture and forestry) depend upon energy and water. Increasing population and a growing economy intensify these interactions.1 Each sector is directly impacted by the others and by climate change, and each sector is a target for adaptation and mitigation efforts. Better understanding of the connections between and among energy, water, and land systems can improve our capacity to predict, prepare for, and mitigate climate change.
Challenges from climate change will arise from long-term, gradual changes, such as sea level rise, as well as from projected changes in weather extremes that have more sudden impacts. The independent implications of climate change for the energy, water, and land sectors have been studied extensively (see Ch. 4: Energy, Ch. 3: Water, and Ch. 13: Land Use & Land Cover Change). However, there are few analyses that capture the interactions among and competition for resources within these three sectors.1 Very little information is available to evaluate the implications for decision-making and planning, including legal, social, political, and other decisions.
Climate change is not the only factor driving changes. Other environmental and socioeconomic stressors interact with climate change and affect vulnerability and response strategies with respect to energy, water, and land systems. The availability and use of energy, water, and land resources and the ways in which they interact vary across the nation. Regions in the United States differ in their 1) energy mix (solar, wind, coal, geothermal, hydropower, nuclear, natural gas, petroleum, ethanol); 2) observed and projected precipitation and temperature patterns; 3) sources and quality of available water resources (for example, ground, surface, recycled); 4) technologies for storing, transporting, treating and using water; and 5) land use and land cover (see Ch. 13: Land Use & Land Cover Change). Decision-making processes for each sector also differ, and decisions often transcend scales, from local to state to federal, meaning that mitigation and adaptation options differ widely.
Given the many mitigation and adaptation opportunities available through the energy sector, a focus on energy is a useful way to highlight the interactions among energy, water, and land as well as intersections with climate and other stressors. For example, energy production already competes for water resources with agriculture, direct human uses, and natural systems. Climate-driven changes in land cover and land use are projected to further affect water quality and availability, increasing the competition for water needed for energy production. In turn, diminishing water quality and availability means that there will be a need for more energy to purify water and more infrastructure on land to store and distribute water. Stakeholders need to understand the interconnected nature of climate change impacts, and the value of assessments would be improved if risks and vulnerabilities were evaluated from a cross-sector standpoint.66 | <urn:uuid:0bee5714-8a2c-48da-b1b8-fcd124bce717> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://nca2014.globalchange.gov/report/sectors/energy-water-and-land | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00175-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933666 | 613 | 3.53125 | 4 |
It was supposed to be a significant medical breakthrough: uterine fibroid removals (myomectomies) and uterine removal (hysterectomies) requiring only a small incision (laparoscopy) rather than full-blown surgery (laparotomy).
Instead of weeks of recovery, a patent would be back to normal in mere days. But in order to reduce the size of the organs in order to remove them from the body, a surgeon would have to "morcellate" (cut into smaller pieces) the tissue.
Unfortunately, morcellation has now been linked to a previously unknown side effect in rare cases -- an increased risk of spreading cancer.
Morcellation and Cancer Risk
This may be oversimplifying things a bit, but power morcellation is the use of a power tool (a morcellator) to cut up the fibroids, and in the case of a hysterectomy, the uterus, into smaller pieces to facilitate removal. Unfortunately, in rare cases, a cancer that is not detected in routine pre-operation tests can be hiding in the cells, and the morcellation process can spread these cancer cells into the patient's pelvic and abdominal areas.
Warning: This is a graphic video of an actual operation.
The prognosis for such a patient is grim. According to a petition by Dr. Amy Reed, who is one of those patients, and her husband, Dr. Hooman Noorchashm, only 15 percent of those who have the rare cancer that has spread will be alive after five years. Those whose cancer is spread via morcellation are about four times more likely to die.
The couple's petition seeks to ban the procedure in favor of safer alternatives, such as a "bagged" morcellation (where a bag surrounds the organs, reducing the chances of spreading cancer) or a traditional open hysterectomy.
You can see an interview with Dr. Reed in this clip from Philadelphia's KYW-TV:
The FDA's Response
On April 17, 2014, the FDA issued an alert discouraging the use of power morcellation in myomectomies and hysterectomies. According to the FDA, as many as one in 350 women undergoing these procedures risks the spread of undetected uterine cancer, a rate far higher than previous estimates.
Then late last month, Johnson & Johnson, the largest manufacturer of power morcellators, suspended sales of the devices, while noting that the suspension was in order to do more research and was not a recall.
Here at FindLaw, we do our best to keep the public up to date on current recalls and any potential legal recourse for those affected by defective medical devices. Our Learn About the Law team quickly responded to the news with three articles discussing morcellators:
- Power Morcellation Recall Information, discussing the devices, the FDA, the sales suspension, and a potential recall;
- Power Morcellation FAQs, covering the risks, the suspected connection to cancer, and the legal issues; and
- Power Morcellation Lawsuit Information, addressing the FDA's alert and possible theories for potential legal action.
FindLaw Will Follow the Latest Developments
When it comes to allegedly defective and unsafe products and recalls, news can move fast.
For the power morcellator issue, FindLaw's lawyer-writers will keep consumers updated as news breaks on our Injured and Common Law blogs, while our Learn About the Law section will continue to provide valuable information and resources for those affected by defective medical products.
We also maintain a list of defective medical device lawyers, should a patient need legal assistance. Many offer free consultations (just ask!).
Stay with FindLaw for the latest developments on the power morcellator issue. If you have specific legal questions you'd like us to cover, let us know on our FindLaw for Consumers Facebook page or on Twitter (@FindLawConsumer). | <urn:uuid:bebf0640-1672-4be3-ba5f-6b5aff2d66a9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blogs.findlaw.com/insider/2014/05/new-at-findlaw-power-morcellator-problems-for-fibroid-surgery-patients.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00134-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934259 | 816 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC Experts Receive Research Awards From Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute
Dr. Krishnamurti, clinical director of hematology in the Division of Hematology/Oncology
at Children’s Hospital, is the lead investigator on a research project to create an online tool for people with sickle cell disease (SCD). SCD is an inherited disorder that affects 90,000 individuals in the United States, largely of minority origin, according to the American Journal of Hematology
. SCD is associated with chronic multisystem manifestations as well as substantial morbidity, premature mortality, individual suffering, health care costs and loss of productivity.
“Sickle cell disease is a serious disease with multiple treatment options such as a drug called hydroxyurea which modifies the course of the disease, monthly blood transfusions that decrease the proportion of abnormal red blood cells in the circulation, and bone marrow transplantation that replaces the patient's marrow with that of marrow from a matched healthy donor and essentially eliminates the production of abnormal red blood cells,” Dr. Krishnamurti said.
“These treatments can prevent complications and improve the lives of patients, but they can be associated with significant side effects. It can be difficult for families to make decisions on the treatment that is best for them, their disease severity and their preferences. This tool will help patients and families make informed decisions about the treatments that are best for their individual situation and in keeping with their values and preferences.”
Dr. Berger, member of the Child Protection Team in the Child Advocacy Center
at Children’s Hospital, will lead a research project using Children’s Hospital’s electronic medical record to help improve outcomes for children of abuse and decrease disparities in screening for child physical abuse.
“We are honored to have been awarded this grant from PCORI,” said Dr. Berger. “Child abuse truly is an under-recognized public health epidemic and is one of the leading causes of death and disability of infants and toddlers. The key to decreasing the morbidity and mortality is early detection and intervention."
“The goal of our study is to determine whether we can improve and standardize the way in which physicians and other health care professionals screen for physical abuse in infants and toddlers. By standardizing screening, we hope to decrease or even eliminate the racial disparities that currently exist in which infants and toddlers receive the recommended screening,” she added.
“These projects reflect PCORI’s commitment to support patient-centered comparative effectiveness research, a new approach to health research that emphasizes the inclusion of patients and caregivers at all stages of the study process,” said Joe Selby, M.D., M.P.H., executive director, PCORI. “The research will provide patients and those who care for them, better information about the health care decisions they face.”
All projects were selected through a highly competitive review process in which scientists, patients, caregivers and other stakeholders helped evaluate more than 400 applications for funding. Proposals were evaluated on the basis of scientific merit, how well they engage patients and other stakeholders, their methodological rigor, and how well they fit within PCORI's national research priorities.
The awards are part of PCORI's second cycle of primary research funding. This new round of funding follows PCORI's initial approval of $40.7 million in support for 25 projects under the institute's national research priorities. All awards in this most recent round of funding were approved pending completion of a business and programmatic review by PCORI staff and issuance of a formal award contract. | <urn:uuid:ae0a7cf0-93ef-4905-b5f2-9540ed5330b3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.upmc.com/media/NewsReleases/2013/Pages/chp-upmc-receive-patient-centered-research-awards.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00039-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945001 | 762 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Portal hypertension can result in dilated abdominal veins surrounding the umbilicus (caput medusa).
Normally abdominal veins are invisible or barely visible. Loss of abdominal wall fat or increased pressure in the superior vena cava (SVC), inferior vena cava (IVC), or portal vein can make the vessels visible, particularly in the red or infrared spectrum.
The normal direction of blood flow in abdominal veins is upward above the umbilicus, and downward below the umbilicus. In portal hypertension the direction of flow is normal; in SVC obstruction, the flow is all downward; and in IVC obstruction the flow is all upward. | <urn:uuid:091f125a-5c43-43da-b1c5-edc3a0597149> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.etsu.edu/com/medicalmystery/CAPUTMEDUSA.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.841048 | 134 | 2.546875 | 3 |
1921 must have been a weird (read: terrible) year to live in the United States. They were getting out of World War I but not quite in the Roaring Twenties yet. They were beginning to suffer through Prohibition and judging by this map of electricity users, if you didn't live on the East Coast, you were probably screwed when it came to electricity.
The map by General Electric pretty much re-sizes US states according to the number of household users of electricity in each state in 1921. The northeastern part of the US obviously dominates with a lot of electricity while the south and west getting squished out with none. The Star Tribune writes:
New York ranks first, having an electrical population (served by central stations) of 8,620,700, or 78.7 per cent of its actual population. The second largest state is Pennsylvania, with an electrical population of 6,330,000, or 68.8 per cent of the actual population; third, Illinois, with 5,150,000, or 79.8 per cent; fourth, Massachusetts, with 4,030,000 or 97,8 per cent; fifth, Ohio, with 3,550,000, or 66.1 per cent, and sixth, California, with 2,827,000, or 86.5 per cent.
At the time, only 57.3 percent of the United States had electricity (~62 million out of ~108 million). Washington DC actually had the highest percentage of electrical households at 98.2. Tough times, those were. [Star Tribune via Neatorama] | <urn:uuid:9b5a8227-ac34-4b99-a382-309e113e501f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://gizmodo.com/a-map-of-which-state-had-the-most-electricity-in-1921-510778946 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95993 | 325 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Arteriovenous Malformation (cont.)
In this Article
- What are arteriovenous malformations?
- What are the symptoms of arteriovenous malformations?
- How do arteriovenous malformations damage the brain and spinal cord?
- Where do neurological arteriovenous malformations tend to form?
- What are the health consequences of arteriovenous malformations?
- What other types of vascular lesions affect the central nervous system?
- What causes vascular lesions?
- How are arteriovenous malformations and other vascular lesions detected?
- How can arteriovenous malformations and other vascular lesions be treated?
- What research is being done?
- Find a local Doctor in your town
How Can AVMs and Other Vascular Lesions Be Treated?
Medication can often alleviate general symptoms such as headache, back pain, and seizures caused by AVMs and other vascular lesions. However, the definitive treatment for AVMs is either surgery or focused irradiation therapy. Venous malformations and capillary telangiectases rarely require surgery; moreover, their structures are diffuse and usually not suitable for surgical correction and they usually do not require treatment anyway. Cavernous malformations are usually well defined enough for surgical removal, but surgery on these lesions is less common than for AVMs because they do not pose the same risk of hemorrhage.
The decision to perform surgery on any individual with an AVM requires a careful consideration of possible benefits versus risks. The natural history of an individual AVM is difficult to predict; however, left untreated, they have the potential of causing significant hemorrhage, which may result in serious neurological deficits or death. On the other hand, surgery on any part of the central nervous system carries its own risks as well; AVM surgery is associated with an estimated 8 percent risk of serious complications or death. There is no easy formula that can allow physicians and their patients to reach a decision on the best course of therapy -- all therapeutic decisions must be made on a case-by-case basis.
Today, three surgical options exist for the treatment of AVMs: conventional surgery, endovascular embolization, and radiosurgery. The choice of treatment depends largely on the size and location of an AVM.
Conventional surgery involves entering the brain or spinal cord and removing the central portion of the AVM, including the fistula, while causing as little damage as possible to surrounding neurological structures. This surgery is most appropriate when an AVM is located in a superficial portion of the brain or spinal cord and is relatively small in size. AVMs located deep inside the brain generally cannot be approached through conventional surgical techniques because there is too great a possibility that functionally important brain tissue will be damaged or destroyed.
Endovascular embolization and radiosurgery are less invasive than conventional surgery and offer safer treatment options for some AVMs located deep inside the brain. In endovascular embolization the surgeon guides a catheter though the arterial network until the tip reaches the site of the AVM. The surgeon then introduces a substance that will plug the fistula, correcting the abnormal pattern of blood flow. This process is known as embolization because it causes an embolus (an object or substance) to travel through blood vessels, eventually becoming lodged in a vessel and obstructing blood flow. The embolic materials used to create an artificial blood clot in the center of an AVM include fast-drying biologically inert glues, fibered titanium coils, and tiny balloons. Since embolization usually does not permanently obliterate the AVM, it is usually used as an adjunct to surgery or to radiosurgery to reduce the blood flow through the AVM and make the surgery safer.
Radiosurgery is an even less invasive therapeutic approach. It involves aiming a beam of highly focused radiation directly on the AVM. The high dose of radiation damages the walls of the blood vessels making up the lesion. Over the course of the next several months, the irradiated vessels gradually degenerate and eventually close, leading to the resolution of the AVM.
Embolization frequently proves incomplete or temporary, although in recent years new embolization materials have led to improved results. Radiosurgery often has incomplete results as well, particularly when an AVM is large, and it poses the additional risk of radiation damage to surrounding normal tissues. Moreover, even when successful, complete closure of an AVM takes place over the course of many months following radiosurgery. During that period, the risk of hemorrhage is still present. However, both techniques now offer the possibility of treating deeply situated AVMs that had previously been inaccessible. And in many individuals, staged embolization followed by conventional surgical removal or by radiosurgery is now performed, resulting in further reductions in mortality and complication rates.
Because so many variables are involved in treating AVMs, doctors must assess the danger posed to individuals largely on a case-by-case basis. The consequences of hemorrhage are potentially disastrous, leading many clinicians to recommend surgical intervention whenever the physical characteristics of an AVM appear to indicate a greater-than-usual likelihood of significant bleeding and resultant neurological damage.
Get breaking medical news. | <urn:uuid:946aeafe-2dd3-48da-a08f-19b13dcaed6e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rxlist.com/arteriovenous_malformation/page8.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932281 | 1,083 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Tragedy struck in early January when the first North American victim of the deadly H5N1 avian influenza died in an Edmonton hospital.
The individual travelled to Beijing in December and had recently returned home to Alberta. Investigations are ongoing into how the person contracted the virus and may shed light on how to minimize the risks to future travellers.
The emergence of H5N1 avian flu in Asia is a major public health concern. Since 1997, 648 human cases have been reported and of these, 384 were fatal. The lethality of this virus in people is what sets it apart from typical flu viruses.
Cases have been reported in 15 countries, with the majority occurring in China, Vietnam, Cambodia, Indonesia and Egypt.
Most human cases have been attributed to contact with infected domestic poultry, usually in live markets, and tend to occur in young adults and children.
H5N1 does not readily transfer between people, unlike seasonal flu, which is highly contagious. Perhaps the greatest risk to people will occur if the virus gains the ability to be transmitted between people.
H5N1 is considered to be a highly pathogenic influenza virus, meaning it causes high mortality in domestic birds.
Therefore, in addition to the risk to people, outbreaks of this virus have resulted in affected countries killing hundreds of millions of domestic birds. This response has failed to limit the spread, and the associated economic and social impacts have been astronomical.
Ducks and other wild waterfowl are the natural hosts of avian influenza viruses, where they circulate in low-pathogenic forms. These birds carry and shed the virus without causing disease, but it can mutate and cause high rates of mortality if it gets into domestic poultry.
The transportation of infected people and domestic birds around the world is likely how H5N1 will be introduced, although wild birds are another possible route into North America.
It’s why the Canadian Co-operative Wildlife Health Centre co-ordinates the Canada Interagency Wild Bird Survey, which tests birds for all avian influenza viruses. The survey gathers information on which strains of influenza are circulating in wild bird populations.
More than 1,000 birds were tested last year, and two were positive for the run-of-the-mill North American strain of avian influenza. The survey has tested 8,800 birds over the past five years, and none were infected with the H5N1 strain.
“Vigilance is needed because if a highly pathogenic virus were to arrive in North America by any means, it could cause disease or mortality in poultry, people or wildlife. Early detection requires surveillance in all three groups,” said Dr. Ted Leighton, the centre’s national director.
The survey began following the outbreak of high pathogenic avian influenza (H7N3) in British Columbia’s Fraser Valley in 2004. It was eradicated after 17 million birds were culled and more than $300 million in economic losses were incurred.
Other strains of avian influenza continue to crop up in Asia and represent an ongoing threat to public and animal health.
“These viruses are highly flexible and they change rapidly. There is constant movement between wild bird populations and domestic birds,” said Leighton.
Biosecurity remains essential to prevent future outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza and potential establishment of H5N1 in North America.
The human risk of contracting H5N1 remains low, but the tragic loss of a Canadian to this virus serves as a reminder that diseases elsewhere in the world are only a plane ride away.
Dr. Jamie Rothenburger is a veterinary pathology resident at the Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan. | <urn:uuid:b0e909b7-ea6c-4e8f-8e71-338303b3846c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.producer.com/2014/02/wild-bird-surveillance-key-to-early-h5n1-avian-flu-detection/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959719 | 764 | 3.53125 | 4 |
Hepatitis B and C are liver inflammations caused by viral infection (some people are symptomless carriers). No orthodox treatment is currently available for either. But several alternative treatments are thoroughly effective.
Well established homoeopathic remedies include Convolvulus duartinus (Ipomoea) (The Homoeopathic Recorder, 1940; 50: 25-34) and Chlorpromazinum (Acta Homoeopathica, Nov-Dec 1969: 6). These are used to treat different types of jaundice.
In parts of Africa, a preparation of Phyllanthus discoides (an Euphor biaceae) is rubbed in when ritual scarifications are made. This seems to provide excellent protection against hepatitis infections (Annales Pharmaceutiques Francaises, 1953; 11: 364). Its close relative, Phyllanthus amarus, can reverse the carrier state in hepatitis B (Lancet, 1988; ii: 764-6; Cancer Detect Prev, 1989; 14(2): 195-201; Vaccine, 1990; 8: S86-S92).
The dietary rules for hepatitis B or C are: avoid sugar, alcohol and all food allergens.
Silymarin is the flavono lignan complex of Silybum marianum (mary thistle or milk thistle). This is a powerful antioxidant. People with hepatitis B and/or C were given 120 mg silybin (the active component of silymarin) for two months. Statistically very
significant benefits were recorded (Curr Ther Res, 1993; 53: 98-102; Arzneimittel Forschung, 1992; 42: 964-8). In Europe, Madaus markets 140 mg sylibin capsules under the name Legalon.
Hepatitis B is a frequent cause of virus induced urticaria (J Allergy & Clin Immunol, 1983; 72: 193-8). Quercetin, another flavonoid that is abundant in rooibosch (red bush) tea, is an astonishing anti allergic agent. On top of that, it is a potent antioxidant (Planta Medica, 1985; 51: 16-20).
Catechin is another flavonoid, abundant in Uncaria gambier (pale Cutch) and Acacia catechu (black Cutch).
It has been used extensively in Europe to treat viral hepatitis, although in rare instances it can induce auto immune haemolysis. (Royal Society of Medicine Symposia Series No 47, Academic Press, 1981; Hepatology, 1984; 2: 331-5; Gut, 1985; 26: 975-9).
Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice) can play a subsidiary, but very important, role in treating chronic, active viral hepatitis such as hepatitis due to chronic mononucleosis or Epstein-Barr infection and in inhibiting potentially serious allergic reactions (Asian Med J, 1983; 26: 423-38). But if taken in large doses (about 12 g of the crude herb daily) for a long time it can lead to hypertension, fluid retention and suppressed urine levels.
Taraxacum officinale (dandelion) is a traditional and effective liver remedy in Europe and India (Pharmazie, 1958; 13: 423-35). It is often eaten as a vegetable. Another vegetable with a long folk history in treating all kinds of hepatitis is Cynara scolymus (globe artichoke) (Natural Products as Medicinal Agents, J L Beal & E Reinhardt (eds), Stuttgart: Hippokrates-Verlag, 1981; Arzneimittel-Forschung, 1966; 16: 127-9 and 1968; 18: 884-6).
Finally, there is Curcuma longa (turmeric) or, more precisely, curcumin (its yellow pigment), which also has a long history in the treatment of hepatitis and gall bladder disorders (Planta Medica, 1983; 49: 185-7).
In the early stages of hepatitis B and C, joint pains will appear. Later, disturbances are often found in the thoracic or upper cervical spine, which can affect the autonomic nervous system.
Osteopathic, chiropractic or naprapathic manipulation are all very valuable (J M Hoag, W V Cole &
S G Bradford, Osteopathic Medicine, McGraw-Hill, 1969: 611-2).
Harald Gaier is a registered naturopath, homoeopath and osteopath. | <urn:uuid:ca9903ef-674b-42b4-a2bd-8a63bcbf726c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.healthy.net/Health/Article/hepatitis_alternatives/3544 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00032-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.814455 | 964 | 2.75 | 3 |
UNITAR-Backed Workshop Empowers Bangladeshi Communities on Climate Change
30 June 2014: A two-day workshop titled ‘Climate Change: How it Impacts Us All,' which brought together 40 community members and leaders from the Khulna and Bagerhat districts of southern Bangladesh, aimed to empower participants to use their own knowledge and decision-making processes to take action on climate change.
The workshop, which took place on 26-27 June 2014, in Mongla, Bangladesh, was hosted by CIFAL Scotland – the training center for Northern Europe affiliated to the UN Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), in partnership with the Bangladesh Association for Sustainable Development (BASD) and Gaia Education.
The event provided an opportunity to share knowledge and skills through trainings, presentations, discussions, peer-to-peer learning, demonstrations and planning sessions. The workshop covered the basics of climate change, including its causes and impacts at the local, regional and global levels, and enabled participants to better determine how their communities can adapt to climate change and minimize its impacts. Participants were also provided with: demonstrations of climate change adaptation techniques; emergency response training; and the opportunity to learn about local government policies and initiatives to mitigate climate change. The event was part of a series of workshops under the project Building Capacity and Empowering Communities (BCEC), which is supported by the Scottish government. Over the course of the three-year project (2013-2015), the workshops are expected to reach 120 participants. [Workshop Website] [UNITAR Press Release] | <urn:uuid:3701a735-a36b-48ee-bb63-b9a03b3575b5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://climate-l.iisd.org/news/unitar-backed-workshop-empowers-bangladeshi-communities-on-climate-change/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00185-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945778 | 320 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Chart comparing the smallest known exoplanets with Mars and Earth. via
Sara Seager, a researcher from MIT, is calling for scientists to keep an open mind when it comes picking exoplanets to target in the search for alien life. Astronomers tend to focus on Earth-like exoplanets, but life may exist on exoplanets and even exomoons that aren’t Earth-like at all. It may sound like a bold suggestion, but it’s not so far fetched an idea. We might see a shift in the way we look for alien like.
As far as we know, Earth is the only planet with life. Our planet is teeming with animal, plant, and especially microbial life. And we owe that plethora of life to the Earth’s orbit. We’re in the Solar System’s sweet spot where water exists in a liquid form on the surface and the Sun’s light is able to promote and sustain life. It’s a zone astronomers have come to call the “Goldilocks zone.” The Earth is also the right size for life as we know it. Unlike Mars, our planet has managed to hold on to its life-sustaining atmosphere and we have a wonderful protective magnetic field thanks to our dense iron core.
Since we’re all we know about life in the Universe, it’s natural that we extend the case of Earth outwards and apply it to other bodies. But so far we haven’t found a twin Earth. The closest possible Earth-like exoplanets are nearly twice as big as our world and don’t, as far as we know, have the same composition. Most of the exoplanets we know about are more similar to Jupiter, which we know can’t support Earth life. And there are some other really strange bodies out there. Take hot Jupiters, for example, Jupiter-sized planets that orbit their star closer than Mercury orbits the Sun, and rogue planets that drift through space without a parent star.
1,235 exoplanet candidates and their host stars, all discovered by the Kepler telescope. via
It’s the amazing diversity of exoplanets that has led Seager to suggest we stop focussing on Earth-like planets in the search for life. That we’re finding so many different kinds and sizes of planets is teaching astronomers a lot about how planets form and migrate within their own systems. So why should we apply rules from our system to theirs?
Seager’s paper argues that looking for life on Earth-like planets alone is too narrow a view. By looking exclusively for Earth-like planets, we might be excluding or ignoring some really interesting potentially life-supporting exoplanets. The search for life is one where it doesn’t necessarily pay to be picky; astronomers can only hope to get in depth looks at a handful of exoplanets in the foreseeable future. It’s probably a good idea to explore a variety of planets instead of one type.
We’d do well, says Seager, to extend the parameters of the habitable zone. The conventional definition assumes a planet in this zone will have an Earth-like atmosphere dominated by nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. But what about huge, cold planets that could hold on to gaseous molecular hydrogen, a powerful greenhouse gas that could make a planet warm enough for liquid water to exist on its surface well outside the star’s traditionally defined habitable zone. There could also be dry, rocky planets whose atmospheres have much less water vapor than Earth's, but enough to sustain life.
There’s also the argument that life on exoplanets or exomoons won’t be the kind of life that we have on Earth, that is carbon-based life that needs liquid water to survive. That scientists have found life around the hydrothermal vents deep in the ocean far from the Sun’s reach suggests life could thrive off different ingredients than we have on Earth. There could be lifeforms that use liquid methane like we use water, a gas that stays in a liquid form at much colder temperatures than water. Looking for different building blocks for life is another way to extend and expand the habitable zone.
A false colour view of the liquid ethane or methane lakes on Titan's surface. via
So while an extended habitable zone and broader scope for “life” might seem like a far cry in an already impossible endeavour of finding aliens on exoplanets, it’s not really that far fetched. It’s worth remembering that astronomers only found the first exoplanet in 1995. Since then the number of confirmed exoplanets has risen to around 800 with thousands more candidates. And only a handful of those are Earth-like. Astronomers have started measuring the atmospheres of some of these alien worlds with the Hubble Space Telescope, a task the James Webb Space Telescope will pick up when it launches in 2018 (or so). Shouldn’t we pick a variety of planets for these telescopes’ observations and not just one type?
Seager’s proposal of expanding the habitable zone also has some interesting implications for our own Solar System. If planets or moons in faraway orbits could host the ingredients for life, or if life can use different building blocks, there are some good candidates for alien life in our own cosmic backyard. If I’ve said it once I’ve said it a hundred times: it’s time we go fishing on Europa. | <urn:uuid:043d4dfd-37bd-4f9d-9c9b-17a9c10b6ca9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://motherboard.vice.com/blog/if-we-want-to-find-aliens-we-should-drastically-broaden-our-search-area | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00112-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.924508 | 1,155 | 3.34375 | 3 |
Guatemala's coffee rust 'emergency' devastates crops
- 9 February 2013
- From the section Latin America & Caribbean
Guatemala has declared a state of agricultural emergency after a coffee tree fungus blighted about 70% of the national crop.
Coffee rust causes trees to lose their leaves, resulting in fewer beans, of inferior quality.
Guatemala is releasing $13.7m (£8.7m) in emergency aid to help small farmers buy pesticides to fight the fungus.
Honduras and Costa Rica have already declared national emergencies. El Salvador and Panama are also affected.
Coffee rust first became a significant problem in the 1860s in what was then called Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka). More than 90% of crops were wiped out, and coffee-growing was abandoned on the island.
Coffee is Guatemala's main export, and coffee growers warn that hundreds of thousands of jobs could be lost.
"If we don't take the needed measures, in 2013-2014 our production could drop by 40%," Guatemalan President Otto Perez Molina said, according to the Associated Press.
The BBC's Humphrey Hawkesley, in Guatemala, says the outbreak is blamed on climate change, with effects including a two-degree rise in temperature, higher rainfall and an increase in humidity.
John Vandermeer, an ecologist from the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, told the journal Nature that his research plot in Mexico had been devastated.
The majority of the trees had lost at least four-fifths of their leaves, while a third had no leaves at all, Mr Vandermeer said. | <urn:uuid:a6a72d0f-c0c1-4769-b6c6-388a8e99d4ab> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-21392257 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971367 | 342 | 2.671875 | 3 |
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The discovery in a Guatemala jungle of a previously unknown version of the Mayan calendar offers humankind a ray of hope: the world is not going to end on December 21, 2012 and could most probably last for another billion years – or more.
The ancient inscription is estimated to be the oldest Mayan almanac found so far. It dates back some 1,200 years, at least 600 years older than previous examples. In many ways, however, the new calendar corresponds with others.
The initial results of its study have been published in Science magazine by experts from Boston University. They say the calendar | <urn:uuid:20f7e3b6-f232-411b-b789-9b7813c45f01> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.abovetopsecret.com/forum/thread903970/pg1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00151-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932455 | 183 | 3.09375 | 3 |
You probably know farms
are home to cows, chickens, and crops such as wheat. Today we are visiting
another kind of farm - a fish farm. Fish farming is part of a science
called aquaculture. Aquaculture means raising animals and plants in
water. Fish and seafood
crops for many farmers. Fish are raised for food, bait, and pets.
Farmers sell the fish they raise to processors, grocery stores, and
restaurants. Many farmers also raise fish in ponds and charge people
a fee to fish. Catfish,
striped bass are some of the fish that are raised on a fish farm. | <urn:uuid:56c6f041-6d99-42a5-b910-fe113102d90a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sites.ext.vt.edu/virtualfarm/aquaculture/aquaculture.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00158-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947559 | 134 | 2.75 | 3 |
- The White House says extraterrestrials have not contacted the human race
- The U.S. government says there's no evidence of life outside our planet
- Thousands sign a petition asking for a government response on alien contact
- Many Americans believe in an extraterrestrial presence
The White House position on extraterrestrials is now clear: aliens haven't contacted Earth, but that doesn't mean the U.S. government isn't looking for them.
"The U.S. government has no evidence that any life exists outside our planet, or that an extraterrestrial presence has contacted or engaged any member of the human race," wrote Phil Larson of the White House Office of Science & Technology Policy in a blog post on the White House website.
The response went on to say that even though there is no proof that life exists outside Earth, "that doesn't mean the subject of life outside our planet isn't being discussed or explored," he said
The petitions were submitted through "We the People," a White House initiative that promises a White House response to any petition that can garner 5,000 signatures in 30 days.
This response by the White House satisfies the demands of two petitions, one of which garnered over 12,000 signatures.
That petition called on the White House to "formally acknowledge an extraterrestrial presence engaging the human race."
"Hundreds of military and government agency witnesses have come forward with testimony confirming this extraterrestrial presence," stated the petition. "Opinion polls now indicate more than 50% of the American people believe there is an extraterrestrial presence and more than 80% believe the government is not telling the truth about this phenomenon. The people have a right to know. The people can handle the truth."
According to the White House, however, "there is no credible information to suggest that any evidence is being hidden from the public's eye."
But Larson indicated that a host of government agencies are working "toward the goal of understanding if life can or does exist off Earth," including the Mars Science Laboratory, SETI, the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence and Kepler, the NASA spacecraft.
And even though the White House was clear that there is no credible evidence that aliens have contacted earth, Larson did point out that the odds are in favor of extraterrestrial existence, but not contact.
"Many scientists and mathematicians... have come to the conclusion that the odds are pretty high that somewhere among the trillions and trillions of stars in the universe there is a planet other than ours that is home to life," wrote Larson. "However, that the odds of us making contact with any of them — especially any intelligent ones — are extremely small, given the distances involved." | <urn:uuid:2ffcfb19-e346-451d-ae16-38c429f09175> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cnn.com/2011/11/08/politics/white-house-extraterrestrials/index.html?eref=rss_politics: | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00131-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960101 | 550 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Germany likes to brag about its green credentials. It is a source of pride and it is justified to a certain extent. The country, which is located on the same latitude as Canada, had the largest number of installed solar panels as of 2007.
The key to growth clearly has not been abundant sunshine, but massive subsidies. Germany sponsors its solar industry with generous tax credits that take the form of feed-in tariffs, i.e. payment above the going market rate for energy from renewable sources like solar panels, it can run anywhere from twice to three times the market rate for a conventionally produced kilowatt. These tariffs can run high. They are being lowered slowly but perhaps a bit too slowly. As we have recently seen with the disasters impacting Spain’s renewable energy industry, dependence on subsidies can create a potential catastrophic downturn once the spigot is turned off.
Would a similar model be appropriate for sponsoring renewable energy in the US? Probably not, in large part the technology is already developed. The Germans and now the Chinese have already subsidized their industries. The legwork has been done and anti-greenhouse legislation will sustain the market without massive subsidization.
The first factor is that most of the investment in research and development has created the pre-conditions for grid parity within the next few years for southern countries. Even Germany will achieve it by 2012 according to the German business newspaper Handelsblatt. The economies of scale are sinking unit costs dramatically and production technologies like thin film are allowing solar cell manufacturers to produce ever more efficient panels with less and less silicon. Several silicon production plants are set to come on line in China soon.
The US, whose fiscal situation is parlous compared to China and even Germany, wants to waste years developing already available technologies from scratch. It could try the European approach but would probably be much better off to follow the same path that it followed with the automobile or the motion picture: allow other countries to get the basic technology in place and concentrate its exceptional energy on marketing and scaling up the technologies from abroad.
China’s entry into the market seems destined to create a dramatic collapse in the price of what was until a few years ago essentially a cost plus industry. China has low labor costs and inflation busting economies of scale. China’s entry into the silicon wafer market already has depressed prices for the once dear raw material. They are also working on a massive power plant with First Solar of the United States.
Some are predicting that China’s entry into the renewable energy market will have the same effect as its entry into the consumer electronics market, i.e. it will make the expensive affordable and then cheap. German solar cell production companies have suffered much like its chip producers but to the general benefit of the economy. China will drive production costs further down. Germany is still coming to terms with this.
A recent article in Die Zeit illustrates the growing discrepancy between renewable energy policy and the market potential. The feed-in tariffs have the perverse effect of making solar energy far more expensive than it actually needs to be. The government subsidies are essentially shielding domestic producers from China making the consumers pay the higher rates. Germany needs to focus on its traditional strengths in producing industrial machinery and carve a niche for itself. The US would be better off to maintain trade relations with China and let Adam Smith’s invisible hand work its magic. It would be far cheaper than trying to use protectionist measures to protect domestic manufacturers.
All this is predicated on the assumption that the price of oil will only increase in price in the coming decades as China and India motorize their masses. This in turn will drive up conventional power costs. Even at its current price of around $70 a barrel, oil is still 7 times more expensive than it was just a decade ago. Some are predicting that that last year’s prices of almost a $150 a barrel represent a taste of what will confront the world when the economy begins to grow again
This, however, will be a gradual process, based on undulating prices. The hysterical claims of Peak Oil have been delayed again and again by technological improvements. The latest finds off of Brazil and the Gulf of Mexico represent dramatic examples. Massive new gas reserves in North America represent another countervailing force. In the end, fossil fuels will be more expensive, but they will make renewable energy more competitive only at reasonable price points.
Politics will also play a role. Climate change and the perceived need to combat it has gained enormous currency among world leaders including German Chancellor Angela Merkel. Regardless of what one thinks of the arguments calling for action, we will probably see some sort of carbon tax in the future, whether it be cap and trade or some other means of increasing the costs of carbon emissions. Conventional fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas are only going to get more expensive for political if not economic reasons. The growing consensus, regardless of its veracity, is set to create huge costs for non-renewable sources of energy.
Over time, this will make renewable energy more attractive and unit costs will shrink as economies of scale start to kick in. The European cheerleaders of climate legislation are not doing it out of the goodness of their heart. They want to see a return on the billions spent on developing renewable technology. The US would be ill-advised to simply try to create technologies that are already up and running. Take the technology, commercialize it and thank the Europeans for footing the bill.
The US would be well advised to keep their renewable energy markets open. The Europeans will come and are coming. The solar energy trade fairs in Germany focus on the immense potential available in the US market. Several large German producers are expanding aggressively on the American market bringing with them the technologies that they have created. China will also start to flood the market with cheap silicon wafers and further reduce solar panel costs. The US does not need to subsidize this technology lavishly. It simply needs to allow the companies that have it to sell it on their market. The initial support provided by countries like Germany was more than enough to get the technology to the point where it is ready to survive on the free market.
Kirk Rogers resides in Bubenreuth on the outer edges of Nuremberg and teaches languages and Amercan culture at the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg's Institut für Fremdsprachen und Auslandskunde. He has been living in Germany for about ten years now due to an inexplicable fascination with German culture. | <urn:uuid:9f4784a1-bc1c-4e0f-aafd-428206632629> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.newgeography.com/content/001075-germanys-role-green-energy-economy | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96348 | 1,333 | 2.515625 | 3 |
The story of Leda and the Swan is one of the most popular in all of Greek myth. Leda was the daughter of King Thestius and Eurythemis, and she married Tyndareos, the king of Sparta. She was seduced by Zeus, and as with most of his conquests, Zeus took an alternate form during their encounter. In this case, it was the form of a swan.
The usual version of the story says that that night she layed two eggs, one the result of her encounter with Zeus, the other due to her husband Tyndareos. The first egg had Pollux and Helen (of Troy), and the second egg, of mortal parentage, contained Castor and Clytaemnestra (who would later marry Agamemnon).
Leda and the twins Castor and Pollux are well-known constellations, and the rape of Leda by Zeus is a common subject in art, with Leda's response varying from terror to bliss. | <urn:uuid:6729ca5a-e70b-4ca7-b6c6-4d6faf1f692a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.the-athenaeum.org/myth/detail.php?id=18 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.986012 | 211 | 3.203125 | 3 |
1. The strap is infinitely stiff. It serves to transfer the column loads to the soil with equal and
uniform soil pressure under both the footings.
2. The strap is a pure flexural member and does not take soil reaction. To avoid bearing on the
bottom of the strap a few centimeters of the underlying soil may be loosened prior to the
placement of concrete.
A strap footing is used to connect an eccentrically loaded column footing close to the property line to an interior column as shown in Fig. 14.2.
With the above assumptions, the design of a strap footing is a simple procedure. It starts with
a trial value of e, Fig. 14.2. Then the reactions Rl and R2 are computed by the principle of statics.
The tentative footing areas are equal to the reactions R1 and R2 divided by the safe bearing pressure
qs. With tentative footing sizes, the value of e is computed. These steps are repeated until the trial
value of e is identical with the final one. The shears and moments in the strap are determined, and
the straps designed to withstand the shear and moments. The footings are assumed to be subjected
to uniform soil pressure and designed as simple spread footings. Under the assumptions given
above the resultants of the column loads Ql and Q2 would coincide with the center of gravity of the
two footing areas. Theoretically, the bearing pressure would be uniform under both the footings.
However, it is possible that sometimes the full design live load acts upon one of the columns while
the other may be subjected to little live load. In such a case, the full reduction of column load from
Q2 to R2 may not be realized. It seems justified then that in designing the footing under column Q2,
only the dead load or dead load plus reduced live load should be used on column Q1.
The equations for determining the position of the reactions (Fig. 14.2) are
where R1 and R2 = reactions for the column loads Q1 and Q2 respectively, e = distance of R1 from
Q1, LR = distance between R1 and R2.
Figure 14.2 Principles of cantilever or strap footing design | <urn:uuid:ce098159-6933-4f1e-8afb-2eb0ba20c971> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.abuildersengineer.com/2012/11/proportioning-of-cantilever-footing.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00161-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927094 | 472 | 3.15625 | 3 |
Bahasa Indonesia Definitions:
1sa·ku n kantong (pd baju, celana, rok, dsb): -- kemeja biasanya terdapat pd bagian dada sebelah kiri; pd -- jasnya terselip saputangan putih yg dilipat bentuk piramida;
me·nya·ku·kan v memasukkan ke dl saku: ia segera - uang yg diterima dr ayahnya
2sa·ku ark, sa·ku-sa·ku adv sembunyi-sembunyi; diam-diam: - ia memusuhi orang itu
3sa·ku ark v, me·nya·ku·kan v memisahkan; mengasingkan;
ter·sa·ku v terpisah; terasing
a small pouch inside a garment for carrying small articles
pouch, sac, sack, pocket (noun)
an enclosed space
"the trapped miners found a pocket of air"
a supply of money
"they dipped into the taxpayers' pockets"
(bowling) the space between the headpin and the pins behind it on the right or left
"the ball hit the pocket and gave him a perfect strike"
scoop, pocket (noun)
a hollow concave shape made by removing something
air pocket, pocket, air hole (noun)
a local region of low pressure or descending air that causes a plane to lose height suddenly
a small isolated group of people
"they were concentrated in pockets inside the city"; "the battle was won except for cleaning up pockets of resistance"
pouch, pocket (noun)
(anatomy) saclike structure in any of various animals (as a marsupial or gopher or pelican)
an opening at the corner or on the side of a billiard table into which billiard balls are struck
put in one's pocket
"He pocketed the change"
pocket, bag (verb)
a piece of cloth sewn under an opening | <urn:uuid:7cb1a145-45b5-41d1-b053-8128928ab784> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.kamus.net/indonesia/saku | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00062-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.694397 | 457 | 3.1875 | 3 |
Translated by John Dryden
Revised by Arthur Hugh Clough
The people of Rome seem to have entertained for Pompey from his childhood, the same affection that Prometheus in the tragedy of Æschylus expresses for Hercules, speaking of him as the author of his deliverance, in these words,
“Ah cruel Sire! how dear thy son to me!|
The generous offspring of my enemy!”
For on the one hand, never did the Romans give such demonstrations of a vehement and fierce hatred against any of their generals, as they did against Strabo, the father of Pompey; during whose lifetime, it is true, they stood in awe of his military power, as indeed he was a formidable warrior, but immediately upon his death, which happened by a stroke of thunder, they treated him with the utmost contumely, dragging his corpse from the bier, as it was carried to his funeral. On the other side, never had any Roman the people’s good-will and devotion more zealous throughout all the changes of fortune, more early in its first springing up, or more steadily rising with his prosperity, or more constant in his adversity, than Pompey had. In Strabo, there was one great cause of their hatred, his insatiable covetousness; in Pompey, there were many that helped to make him the object of their love; his temperance, his skill, and exercise in war, his eloquence of speech, integrity of mind and affability in conversation and address; insomuch that no man ever asked a favor with less offense, or conferred one with a better grace. When he gave, it was without assumption, when he received, it was with dignity and honor.
In his youth, his countenance pleaded for him, seeming to anticipate his eloquence, and win upon the affections of the people before he spoke. His beauty even in his bloom of youth had something in it at once of gentleness and dignity; and when his prime of manhood came, the majesty kingliness of his character at once became visible in it. His hair sat somewhat hollow or rising a little; and this, with the languishing motion of his eyes, seemed to form a resemblance in his face, though perhaps more talked of than really apparent, to the statues of king Alexander. And because many applied that name to him in his youth, Pompey himself did not decline it, insomuch that some called him so in derision. And Lucius Philippus, a man of consular dignity, when he was pleading in favor of him, thought it not unfit to say, that people could not be surprised if Philip was a lover of Alexander.
It is related of Flora, the courtesan, that when she was now pretty old, she took great delight in speaking of her early familiarity with Pompey, and was wont to say, that she could never part after being with him without a bite. She would further tell, that Geminius, a companion of Pompey’s, fell in love with her, and made his court with great importunity; and on her refusing, and telling him, however her inclinations were, yet she could not gratify his desires for Pompey’s sake, he therefore made his request to Pompey, and Pompey frankly gave his consent, but never afterwards would have any converse with her, notwithstanding, that he seemed to have a great passion for her; and Flora, on this occasion, showed none of the levity that might have been expected of her, but languished for some time after under a sickness brought on by grief and desire. This Flora, we are told, was such a celebrated beauty, that Cæcilius Metellus, when he adorned the temple of Castor and Pollux with paintings and statues, among the rest dedicated hers for her singular beauty. In his conduct also to the wife of Demetrius, his freed servant, (who had great influence with him in his lifetime, and left an estate of four thousand talents,) Pompey acted contrary to his usual habits, not quite fairly or generously, fearing lest he should fall under the common censure of being enamored and charmed with her beauty, which was irresistible, and became famous everywhere. Nevertheless, though he seemed to be so extremely circumspect and cautious, yet even in matters of this nature, he could not avoid the calumnies of his enemies, but upon the score of married women, they accused him, as if he had connived at many things, and embezzled the public revenue to gratify their luxury.
Of his easiness of temper and plainness, in what related to eating and drinking, the story is told, that once in a sickness, when his stomach nauseated common meats, his physician prescribed him a thrush to eat; but upon search, there was none to be bought, for they were not then in season, and one telling him they were to be had at Lucullus’s, who kept them all the year round, “So then,” said he, “if it were not for Lucullus’s luxury, Pompey should not live;” and thereupon not minding the prescription of the physician, he contented himself with such meat as could easily be procured. But this was at a later time.
Being as yet a very young man, and upon an expedition in which his father was commanding against Cinna, he had in his tent with him one Lucius Terentius, as his companion and comrade, who, being corrupted by Cinna, entered into an engagement to kill Pompey, as others had done, to set the general’s tent on fire. This conspiracy being discovered to Pompey at supper, he showed no discomposure at it, but on the contrary drank more liberally than usual, and expressed great kindness to Terentius; but about bedtime, pretending to go to his repose, he stole away secretly out of the tent, and setting a guard about his father, quietly expected the event. Terentius, when he thought the proper time come, rose with his naked sword, and coming to Pompey’s bedside, stabbed several strokes through the bedclothes, as if he were lying there. Immediately after this there was a great uproar throughout all the camp, arising from the hatred they bore to the general, and a universal movement of the soldiers to revolt, all tearing down their tents, and betaking themselves to their arms. The general himself all this while durst not venture out because of the tumult; but Pompey, going about in the midst of them, besought them with tears; and at last threw himself prostrate upon his face before the gate of the camp, and lay there in the passage at their feet, shedding tears, and bidding those that were marching off, if they would go, trample upon him. Upon which, none could help going back again, and all, except eight hundred, either through shame or compassion, repented, and were reconciled to the general.
Immediately upon the death of Strabo, there was an action commenced against Pompey, as his heir, for that his father had embezzled the public treasure. But Pompey, having traced the principal thefts, charged them upon one Alexander, a freed slave of his father’s, and proved before the judges that he had been the appropriator. But he himself was accused of having in his possession some hunting tackle, and books, that were taken at Asculum. To this he confessed thus far, that he received them from his father when he took Asculum, but pleaded further, that he had lost them since, upon Cinna’s return to Rome when his home was broken open and plundered by Cinna’s guards. In this cause he had a great many preparatory pleadings against his accuser, in which he showed an activity and steadfastness beyond his years, and gained great reputation and favor; insomuch that Antistius, the prætor and judge of the cause, took a great liking to him, and offered him his daughter in marriage, having had some communications with his friends about it. Pompey accepted the proposal, and they were privately contracted; however, the secret was not so closely kept as to escape the multitude, but it was discernible enough from the favor shown him by Antistius in his cause. And at last, when Antistius pronounced the absolutory sentence of the judges, the people, as if it had been upon a signal given, made the acclamation used according to ancient custom, at marriages, Talasio. The origin of which custom is related to be this. At the time when the daughters of the Sabines came to Rome, to see the shows and sports there, and were violently seized upon by the most distinguished and bravest of the Romans for wives, it happened that some goatswains and herdsmen of the meaner rank were carrying off a beautiful and tall maiden; and lest any of their betters should meet them, and take her away, as they ran, they cried out with one voice, Talasio, Talasius being a well-known and popular person among them, insomuch that all that heard the name, clapped their hands for joy, and joined with them in the shout, as applauding and congratulating the chance. Now, say they, because this proved a fortunate match to Talasius, hence it is that this acclamation is sportively used as a nuptial cry at all weddings. This is the most credible of the accounts that are given of the Talasio. And some few days after this judgment, Pompey married Antistia.
After this he went to Cinna’s camp, where finding some false suggestions and calumnies prevailing against him, he began to be afraid and presently withdrew himself secretly; which sudden disappearance occasioned great suspicion. And there went a rumor and speech through all the camp, that Cinna had murdered the young man; upon which all that had been anyways disobliged, and bore any malice to him, resolved to make an assault upon him. He, endeavoring to make his escape, was seized by a centurion, who pursued him with his naked sword. Cinna, in this distress, fell upon his knees, and offered him his seal-ring, of great value, for his ransom; but the centurion repulsed him insolently, saying, “I did not come to seal a covenant, but to be revenged upon a lawless and wicked tyrant;” and so dispatched him immediately.
Thus Cinna being slain, Carbo, a tyrant yet more senseless than he, took the command and exercised it, while Sylla meantime was approaching, much to the joy and satisfaction of most people, who in their present evils were ready to find some comfort if it were but in the exchange of a master. For the city was brought to that pass by oppression and calamities, that being utterly in despair of liberty, men were only anxious for the mildest and most tolerable bondage. At that time Pompey was in Picenum in Italy, where he spent some time amusing himself, as he had estates in the country there, though the chief motive of his stay was the liking he felt for the towns of that district, which all regarded him with hereditary feelings of kindness and attachment. But when he now saw that the noblest and best of the city began to forsake their homes and property, and fly from all quarters to Sylla’s camp, as to their haven, he likewise was desirous to go; not, however, as a fugitive, alone and with nothing to offer, but as a friend rather than a suppliant, in a way that would gain him honor, bringing help along with him, and at the head of a body of troops. Accordingly he solicited the Picentines for their assistance, who as cordially embraced his motion, and rejected the messengers sent from Carbo; insomuch that a certain Vindius taking upon him to say, that Pompey was come from the school-room to put himself at the head of the people, they were so incensed that they fell forthwith upon this Vindius and killed him. From henceforward Pompey, finding a spirit of government upon him, though not above twenty-three years of age, nor deriving, an authority by commission from any man, took the privilege to grant himself full power, and causing a tribunal to be erected in the market-place of Auximum, a populous city, expelled two of their principal men, brothers, of the name of Ventidius, who were acting against him in Carbo’s interest, commanding them by a public edict to depart the city; and then proceeded to levy soldiers, issuing out commissions to centurions, and other officers, according to the form of military discipline. And in this manner he went round all the rest of the cities in the district. So that those of Carbo’s faction flying, and all others cheerfully submitting to his command, in a little time he mustered three entire legions, having supplied himself beside with all manner of provisions, beasts of burden, carriages, and other necessaries of war. And with this equipage he set forward on his march towards Sylla, not as if he were in haste, or desirous of escaping observation, but by small journeys, making several halts upon the road, to distress and annoy the enemy, and exerting himself to detach from Carbo’s interest every part of Italy that he passed through.
Three commanders of the enemy encountered him at once, Carinna, Clœlius, and Brutus, and drew up their forces, not all in the front, nor yet together on any one part, but encamping three several armies in a circle about him, they resolved to encompass and overpower him. Pompey was no way alarmed at this, but collecting all his troops into one body, and placing his horse in the front of the battle, where he himself was in person, he singled out and bent all his forces against Brutus, and when the Celtic horsemen from the enemy’s side rode out to meet him, Pompey himself encountering hand to hand with the foremost and stoutest among them, killed him with his spear. The rest seeing this turned their backs, and fled, and breaking the ranks of their own foot, presently caused a general rout; whereupon the commanders fell out among themselves, and marched off, some one way, some another, as their fortunes led them, and the towns round about came in and surrendered themselves to Pompey, concluding that the enemy was dispersed for fear. Next after these, Scipio, the consul, came to attack him, and with as little success; for before the armies could join, or be within the throw of their javelins, Scipio’s soldiers saluted Pompey’s, and came over to them, while Scipio made his escape by flight. Last of all, Carbo himself sent down several troops of horse against him by the river Arsis, which Pompey assailed with the same courage and success as before; and having routed and put them to flight, he forced them in the pursuit into difficult ground, unpassable for horse, where seeing no hopes of escape, they yielded themselves with their horses and armor, all to his mercy.
Sylla was hitherto unacquainted with all these actions; and on the first intelligence he received of his movements was in great anxiety about him, fearing lest he should be cut off among so many and such experienced commanders of the enemy, and marched therefore with all speed to his aid. Now Pompey, having advice of his approach, sent out orders to his officers, to marshal and draw up all his forces in full array, that they might make the finest and noblest appearance before the commander-in-chief; for he expected indeed great honors from him, but met with even greater. For as soon as Sylla saw him thus advancing, his army so well appointed, his men so young and strong, and their spirits so high and hopeful with their successes, he alighted from his horse, and being first, as was his due, saluted by them with the title of Imperator, he returned the salutation upon Pompey, in the same term and style of Imperator, which might well cause surprise, as none could have ever anticipated that he would have imparted, to one so young in years and not yet a senator, a title which was the object of contention between him and the Scipios and Marii. And indeed all the rest of his deportment was agreeable to this first compliment; whenever Pompey came into his presence, he paid some sort of respect to him, either in rising and being uncovered, or the like, which he was rarely seen to do to anyone else, notwithstanding that there were many about him of great rank and honor. Yet Pompey was not puffed up at all, or exalted with these favors. And when Sylla would have sent him with all expedition into Gaul, a province in which it was thought Metellus who commanded in it had done nothing worthy of the large forces at his disposal, Pompey urged, that it could not be fair or honorable for him, to take a province out of the hands of his senior in command and superior in reputation; however, if Metellus were willing, and should request his service, he should be very ready to accompany and assist him in the war. Which when Metellus came to understand, he approved of the proposal, and invited him over by letter. And on this Pompey fell immediately into Gaul, where he not only achieved wonderful exploits of himself, but also fired up and kindled again that bold and warlike spirit, which old age had in a manner extinguished in Metellus, into a new heat; just as molten copper, they say, when poured upon that which is cold and solid, will dissolve and melt it faster than fire itself. But as when a famous wrestler has gained the first place among men, and borne away the prizes at all the games, it is not usual to take account of his victories as a boy, or to enter them upon record among the rest; so with the exploits of Pompey in his youth, though they were extraordinary in themselves, yet because they were obscured and buried in the multitude and greatness of his later wars and conquests, I dare not be particular in them, lest, by trifling away time in the lesser moments of his youth, we should be driven to omit those greater actions and fortunes which best illustrate his character.
Now, when Sylla had brought all Italy under his dominion, and was proclaimed dictator, he began to reward the rest of his followers, by giving them wealth, appointing them to offices in the State, and granting them freely and without restriction any favors they asked for. But as for Pompey, admiring his valor and conduct, and thinking that he might prove a great stay and support to him hereafter in his affairs, he sought means to attach him to himself by some personal alliance, and his wife Metella joining in his wishes, they two persuaded Pompey to put away Antistia, and marry Æmilia, the step-daughter of Sylla, borne by Metella to Scaurus her former husband, she being at that very time the wife of another man, living with him, and with child by him. These were the very tyrannies of marriage, and much more agreeable to the times under Sylla, than to the nature and habits of Pompey; that Æmilia great with child should be, as it were, ravished from the embraces of another for him, and that Antistia should be divorced with dishonor and misery by him, for whose sake she had been but just before bereft of her father. For Antistius was murdered in the senate, because he was suspected to be a favorer of Sylla for Pompey’s sake; and her mother, likewise, after she had seen all these indignities, made away with herself; a new calamity to be added to the tragic accompaniments of this marriage, and that there might be nothing wanting to complete them, Æmilia herself died, almost immediately after entering Pompey’s house, in childbed.
About this time news came to Sylla, that Perpenna was fortifying himself in Sicily, that the island was now become a refuge and receptacle for the relics of the adverse party; that Carbo was hovering about those seas with a navy, that Domitius had fallen in upon Africa and that many of the exiled men of note who had escaped from the proscriptions were daily flocking into those parts. Against these, therefore, Pompey was sent with a large force; and no sooner was he arrived in Sicily but Perpenna immediately departed, leaving the whole island to him. Pompey received the distressed cities into favor, and treated all with great humanity, except the Mamertines in Messena; for when they protested against his court and jurisdiction, alleging their privilege and exemption founded upon an ancient charter or grant of the Romans, he replied sharply, “What! will you never cease prating of laws to us that have swords by our sides?” It was thought, likewise, that he showed some inhumanity to Carbo, seeming rather to insult over his misfortunes, than to chastise his crimes. For if there had been a necessity, as perhaps there was, that he should be taken off, that might have been done at first, as soon as he was taken prisoner, for then it would have been the act of him that commanded it. But here Pompey commended a man that had been thrice consul of Rome, to be brought in fetters to stand at the bar, he himself sitting upon the bench in judgment, examining the cause with the formalities of law, to the offense and indignation of all that were present, and afterwards ordered him to be taken away and put to death. It is related, by the way, of Carbo, that as soon as he was brought to the place, and saw the sword drawn for execution, he was suddenly seized with a looseness or pain in his bowels, and desired a little respite of the executioner, and a convenient place to relieve himself. And yet further, Caius Oppius, the friend of Cæsar, tells us, that Pompey dealt cruelly with Quintus Valerius, a man of singular learning and science. For when he was brought to him, he walked aside, and drew him into conversation, and after putting a variety of questions to him, and receiving answers from him, he ordered his officers to take him away, and put him to death. But we must not be too credulous in the case of narratives told by Oppius, especially when he undertakes to relate anything touching the friends or foes of Cæsar. This is certain, that there lay a necessity upon Pompey to be severe upon many of Sylla’s enemies, those at least that were eminent persons in themselves, and notoriously known to be taken; but for the rest, he acted with all the clemency possible for him, conniving at the concealment of some, and himself being the instrument in the escape of others. So in the case of the Himeræans; for when Pompey had determined on severely punishing their city, as they had been abettors of the enemy, Sthenis, the leader of the people there, craving liberty of speech, told him, that what he was about to do was not at all consistent with justice, for that he would pass by the guilty, and destroy the innocent; and on Pompey demanding, who that guilty person was that would assume the offenses of them all, Sthenis replied, it was himself, who had engaged his friends by persuasion to what they had done, and his enemies by force; whereupon Pompey being much taken with the frank speech and noble spirit of the man, first forgave his crime, and then pardoned all the rest of the Himeræans. Hearing, likewise, that his soldiers were very disorderly their march, doing violence upon the roads, he ordered their swords to be sealed up in their scabbards, and whosoever kept them not so, were severely punished.
Whilst Pompey was thus busy in the affairs and government of Sicily, he received a decree of the senate, and a commission from Sylla, commanding him forthwith to sail into Africa, and make war upon Domitius with all his forces: for Domitius had rallied up a far greater army than Marius had had not long since, when he sailed out of Africa into Italy, and caused a revolution in Rome, and himself, of a fugitive outlaw, became a tyrant. Pompey, therefore, having prepared everything with the utmost speed, left Memmius, his sister’s husband, governor of Sicily, and set sail with one hundred and twenty galleys, and eight hundred other vessels laden with provisions, money, ammunition, and engines of battery. He arrived with his fleet, part at the port of Utica, part at Carthage; and no sooner was he landed, but seven thousand of the enemy revolted and came over to him, while his own forces that he brought with him consisted of six entire legions. Here they tell us of a pleasant incident that happened to him at his first arrival. For some of his soldiers having by accident stumbled upon a treasure, by which they got a good sum of money, the rest of the army hearing this, began to fancy that the field was full of gold and silver, which had been hid there of old by the Carthaginians in the time of their calamities, and thereupon fell to work, so that the army was useless to Pompey for many days, being totally engaged in digging for the fancied treasure, he himself all the while walking up and down only, and laughing to see so many thousands together, digging and turning up the earth. Until at last, growing weary and hopeless, they came to themselves, and returned to their general, begging him to lead them where he pleased, for that they had already received the punishment of their folly. By this time Domitius had prepared himself; and drawn out his army in array against Pompey; but there was a watercourse betwixt them, craggy, and difficult to pass over; and this, together with a great storm of wind and rain pouring down even from break of day, seemed to leave but little possibility of their coming together, so that Domitius, not expecting any engagement that day, commanded his forces to draw off and retire to the camp. Now Pompey, who was watchful upon every occasion, making use of the opportunity, ordered a march forthwith, and having passed over the torrent, fell in immediately upon their quarters. The enemy was in a great disorder and tumult, and in that confusion attempted a resistance; but they neither were all there, nor supported one another; besides, the wind having veered about, beat the rain full in their faces. Neither indeed was the storm less troublesome to the Romans, for that they could not clearly discern one another, insomuch that even Pompey himself, being unknown, escaped narrowly; for when one of his soldiers demanded of him the word of battle, it happened that he was somewhat slow in his answer, which might have cost him his life.
The enemy being routed with a great slaughter, (for it is said, that of twenty thousand there escaped but three thousand,) the army saluted Pompey by the name of Imperator; but he declined it, telling them, that he could not by any means accept of that title, as long as he saw the camp of the enemy standing; but if they designed to make him worthy of the honor, they must first demolish that. The soldiers on hearing this, went at once and made an assault upon the works and trenches, and there Pompey fought without his helmet, in memory of his former danger, and to avoid the like. The camp was thus taken by storm, and among the rest, Domitius was slain. After that overthrow, the cities of the country thereabouts were all either secured by surrender, or taken by storm. King Iarbas, likewise, a confederate and auxiliary of Domitius, was taken prisoner, and his kingdom was given to Hiempsal.
Pompey could not rest here, but being ambitious to follow the good fortune and use the valor of his army, entered Numidia; and marching forward many days’ journey up into the country, he conquered all wherever he came. And having revived the terror of the Roman power, which was now almost obliterated among the barbarous nations, he said likewise, that the wild beasts of Africa ought not to be left without some experience of the courage and success of the Romans; and therefore he bestowed some few days in hunting lions and elephants. And it is said, that it was not above the space of forty days at the utmost, in which he gave a total overthrow to the enemy, reduced Africa, and established the affairs of the kings and kingdoms of all that country, being then in the twenty-fourth year of his age.
When Pompey returned back to the city of Utica, there were presented to him letters and orders from Sylla, commanding him to disband the rest of his army, and himself with one legion only to wait there the coming of another general, to succeed him in the government. This, inwardly, was extremely grievous to Pompey, though he made no show of it. But the army resented it openly, and when Pompey besought them to depart and go home before him, they began to revile Sylla, and declared broadly, that they were resolved not to forsake him, neither did they think it safe for him to trust the tyrant. Pompey at first endeavored to appease and pacify them by fair speeches; but when he saw that his persuasions were vain, he left the bench, and retired to his tent with tears in his eyes. But the soldiers followed him, and seizing upon him, by force brought him again, and placed him in his tribunal; where great part of that day was spent in dispute, they on their part persuading him to stay and command them, he, on the other side, pressing upon them obedience, and the danger of mutiny. At last, when they grew yet more importunate and clamorous, he swore that he would kill himself if they attempted to force him; and scarcely even thus appeased them. Nevertheless, the first tidings brought to Sylla were, that Pompey was up in rebellion; on which he remarked to some of his friends, “I see, then, it is my destiny to contend with children in my old age;” alluding at the same time to Marius, who, being but a mere youth, had given him great trouble, and brought him into extreme danger. But being undeceived afterwards by better intelligence, and finding the whole city prepared to meet Pompey, and receive him with every display of kindness and honor, he resolved to exceed them all. And, therefore, going out foremost to meet him, and embracing him with great cordiality, he gave him his welcome aloud in the title of Magnus, or the Great, and bade all that were present call him by that name. Others say that he had this title first given him by a general acclamation of all the army in Africa, but that it was fixed upon him by this ratification of Sylla. It is certain that he himself was the last that owned the title; for it was a long time after, when he was sent proconsul into Spain against Sertorius, that he began to write himself in his letters and commissions by the name of Pompeius Magnus; common and familiar use having then worn off the invidiousness of the title. And one cannot but accord respect and admiration to the ancient Romans, who did not reward the successes of action and conduct in war alone with such honorable titles, but adorned likewise the virtues and services of eminent men in civil government with the same distinctions and marks of honor. Two persons received from the people the name of Maximus, or the Greatest, Valerius, for reconciling the senate and people, and Fabius Rullus, because he put out of the senate certain sons of freed slaves who had been admitted into it because of their wealth.
Pompey now desired the honor of a triumph, which Sylla opposed, alleging that the law allowed that honor to none but consuls and prætors, and therefore Scipio the elder, who subdued the Carthaginians in Spain in far greater and nobler conflicts, never petitioned for a triumph, because he had never been consul or prætor; and if Pompey, who had scarcely yet fully grown a beard, and was not of age to be a senator, should enter the city in triumph, what a weight of envy would it bring, he said, at once upon his government and Pompey’s honor. This was his language to Pompey, intimating that he could not by any means yield to his request, but if he would persist in his ambition, that he was resolved to interpose his power to humble him. Pompey, however, was not daunted; but bade Sylla recollect, that more worshiped the rising than the setting sun; as if to tell him that his power was increasing, and Sylla’s in the wane. Sylla did not perfectly hear the words, but observing a sort of amazement and wonder in the looks and gestures of those that did hear them, he asked what it was that he said. When it was told him, he seemed astounded at Pompey’s boldness, and cried out twice together, “Let him triumph,” and when others began to show their disapprobation and offense at it, Pompey, it is said, to gall and vex them the more, designed to have his triumphant chariot drawn with four elephants, (having brought over several which belonged to the African kings,) but the gates of the city being too narrow, he was forced to desist from that project, and be content with horses. And when his soldiers, who had not received as large rewards as they had expected, began to clamor, and interrupt the triumph, Pompey regarded these as little as the rest, and plainly told them that he had rather lose the honor of his triumph, than flatter them. Upon which Servilius, a man of great distinction, and at first one of the chief opposers of Pompey’s triumph, said, he now perceived that Pompey was truly great and worthy of a triumph. It is clear that he might easily have been a senator, also, if he had wished, but he did not sue for that, being ambitious, it seems, only of unusual honors. For what wonder had it been for Pompey, to sit in the senate before his time? But to triumph before he was in the senate, was really an excess of glory.
And moreover, it did not a little ingratiate him with the people; who were much pleased to see him after his triumph take his place again among the Roman knights. On the other side, it was no less distasteful to Sylla to see how fast he came on, and to what a height of glory and power he was advancing; yet being ashamed to hinder him, he kept quiet. But when, against his direct wishes, Pompey got Lepidus made consul, having openly joined in the canvass and, by the good-will the people felt for himself, conciliated their favor for Lepidus, Sylla could forbear no longer; but when he saw him coming away from the election through the forum with a great train after him, cried out to him, “Well, young man, I see you rejoice in your victory. And, indeed, is it not a most generous and worthy act, that the consulship should be given to Lepidus, the vilest of men, in preference to Catulus, the best and most deserving in the city, and all by your influence with the people? It will be well, however, for you to be wakeful and look to your interests; as you have been making your enemy stronger than yourself.” But that which gave the clearest demonstration of Sylla’s ill-will to Pompey, was his last will and testament; for whereas he had bequeathed several legacies to all the rest of his friends, and appointed some of them guardians to his eon, he passed by Pompey without the least remembrance. However, Pompey bore this with great moderation and temper; and when Lepidus and others were disposed to obstruct his interment in the Campus Martius, and to prevent any public funeral taking place, came forward in support of it, and saw his obsequies performed with all honor and security.
Shortly after the death of Sylla, his prophetic words were fulfilled; and Lepidus proposing to be the successor to all his power and authority, without any ambiguities or pretences, immediately appeared in arms, rousing once more and gathering about him all the long dangerous remains of the old factions, which had escaped the hand of Sylla. Catulus, his colleague, who was followed by the sounder part of the senate and people, was a man of the greatest esteem among the Romans for wisdom and justice; but his talent lay in the government of the city rather than the camp, whereas the exigency required the skill of Pompey. Pompey, therefore, was not long in suspense which way to dispose of himself, but joining with the nobility, was presently appointed general of the army against Lepidus, who had already raised up war in great part of Italy, and held Cisalpine Gaul in subjection with an army under Brutus. As for the rest of his garrisons, Pompey subdued them with ease in his march, but Mutina in Gaul resisted in a formal siege, and he lay here a long time encamped against Brutus. In the meantime Lepidus marched in all haste against Rome, and sitting down before it with a crowd of followers, to the terror of those within, demanded a second consulship. But that fear quickly vanished upon letters sent from Pompey, announcing that he had ended the war without a battle; for Brutus, either betraying his army, or being betrayed by their revolt, surrendered himself to Pompey, and receiving a guard of horse, was conducted to a little town upon the river Po; where he was slain the next day by Geminius, in execution of Pompey’s commands. And for this Pompey was much censured; for, having at the beginning of the revolt written to the senate that Brutus had voluntarily surrendered himself, immediately afterward he sent other letters, with matter of accusation against the man, after he was taken off. Brutus, who with Cassius slew Cæsar, was son to this Brutus; neither in war nor in his death like his father, as appears at large in his life. Lepidus upon this being driven out of Italy, fled to Sardinia, where he fell sick and died of sorrow, not for his public misfortunes, as they say, but, upon the discovery of a letter, proving his wife to have been unfaithful to him.
There yet remained Sertorius, a very different general from Lepidus, in possession of Spain, and making himself formidable to Rome; the final disease, as it were, in which the scattered evils of the civil wars had now collected. He had already cut off various inferior commanders, and was at this time coping with Metellus Pius, a man of repute and a good soldier, though perhaps he might now seem too slow, by reason of his age, to second and improve the happier moments of war, and might be sometimes wanting to those advantages which Sertorius by his quickness and dexterity would wrest out of his hands. For Sertorius was always hovering about, and coming upon him unawares, like a captain of thieves rather than soldiers, disturbing him perpetually with ambuscades and light skirmishes; whereas Metellus was accustomed to regular conduct, and fighting in battle array with full-armed soldiers. Pompey, therefore, keeping his army in readiness, made it his object to be sent in aid to Metellus; neither would he be induced to disband his forces, notwithstanding that Catulus called upon him to do so, but by some colorable device or other he still kept them in arms about the city, until the senate at last thought fit, upon the report of Lucius Philippus, to decree him that government. At that time, they say, one of the senators there expressing his wonder and demanding of Philippus whether his meaning was that Pompey should be sent into Spain as proconsul, “No,” replied Philippus, “but as proconsuls,” as if both consuls for that year were in his opinion wholly useless.
When Pompey was arrived in Spain, as is usual upon the fame of a new leader, men began to be inspired with new hopes, and those nations that had not entered into a very strict alliance with Sertorius, began to waver and revolt; whereupon Sertorius uttered various arrogant and scornful speeches against Pompey, saying in derision, that he should want no other weapon but a ferula and rod to chastise this boy with, if he were not afraid of that old woman, meaning Metellus. Yet in deed and reality he stood in awe of Pompey, and kept on his guard against him, as appeared by his whole management of the war, which he was observed to conduct much more warily than before; for Metellus, which one would not have imagined, was grown excessively luxurious in his habits having given himself over to self-indulgence and pleasure, and from a moderate and temperate, became suddenly a sumptuous and ostentatious liver, so that this very thing gained Pompey great reputation and goodwill, as he made himself somewhat specially an example of frugality, although that virtue was habitual in him, and required no great industry to exercise it, as he was naturally inclined to temperance, and no ways inordinate in his desires. The fortune of the war was very various; nothing however annoyed Pompey so much as the taking of the town of Lauron by Sertorius. For when Pompey thought he had him safe inclosed, and had boasted somewhat largely of raising the siege, he found himself all of a sudden encompassed; insomuch that he durst not move out of his camp, but was forced to sit still whilst the city was taken and burnt before his face. However, afterwards in a battle near Valentia, he gave great defeat to Herennius and Perpenna, two commanders among the refugees who had fled to Sertorius, and now lieutenants under him, in which he slew above ten thousand men.
Pompey, being elated and filled with confidence by this victory, made all haste to engage Sertorius himself, and the rather lest Metellus should come in for a share in the honor of the victory. Late in the day, towards sunset, they joined battle near the river Sucro, both being in fear lest Metellus should come; Pompey, that he might engage alone, Sertorius, that he might have one alone to engage with. The issue of the battle proved doubtful, for a wing of each side had the better; but of the generals, Sertorius had the greater honor, for that he maintained his post, having put to flight the entire division that was opposed to him, whereas Pompey was himself almost made a prisoner; for being set upon by a strong man at arms that fought on foot, (he being on horseback,) as they were closely engaged hand to hand, the strokes of their swords chanced to light upon their hands, but with a different success; for Pompey’s was a slight wound only, whereas he cut off the other’s hand. However, it happened so, that many now falling upon Pompey together, and his own forces there being put to the rout, he made his escape beyond expectation, by quitting his horse, and turning him out among the enemy. For the horse being richly adorned with golden trappings, and having a caparison of great value, the soldiers quarreled among themselves for the booty, so that while they were fighting with one another, and dividing the spoil, Pompey made his escape. By break of day the next morning, each drew out his forces into the field to claim the victory; but Metellus coming up, Sertorius vanished, having broken up and dispersed his army. For this was the way in which he used to raise and disband his armies, so that sometimes he would be wandering up and down all alone, and at other times again he would come pouring into the field at the head of no less than one hundred and fifty thousand fighting-men, swelling of a sudden like a winter torrent.
When Pompey was going after the battle to meet and welcome Metellus, and when they were near one another, he commanded his attendants to lower their rods in honor of Metellus, as his senior and superior. But Metellus on the other side forbade it, and behaved himself in general very obligingly to him, not claiming any prerogative either in respect of his consular rank or seniority; excepting only that when they encamped together, the watchword was given to the whole camp by Metellus. But generally they had their camps asunder, being divided and distracted by the enemy, who took all shapes, and being always in motion, would by some skillful artifice appear in a variety of places almost in the same instant, drawing them from one attack to another, and at last keeping them from foraging, wasting the country, and holding the dominion of the sea, Sertorius drove them both out of that part of Spain which was under his control, and forced them for want of necessaries to retreat into provinces that did not belong to them.
Pompey, having made use of and expended the greatest part of his own private revenues upon the war, sent and demanded moneys of the senate, adding, that in case they did not furnish him speedily, he should be forced to return into Italy with his army. Lucullus being consul at that time, though at variance with Pompey, yet in consideration that he himself was a candidate for the command against Mithridates, procured and hastened these supplies, fearing lest there should be any presence or occasion given to Pompey of returning home, who of himself was no less desirous of leaving Sertorius, and of undertaking the war against Mithridates, as an enterprise which by all appearance would prove much more honorable and not so dangerous. In the meantime Sertorius died, being treacherously murdered by some of his own party; and Perpenna, the chief among them, took the command, and attempted to carry on the same enterprises with Sertorius, having indeed the same forces and the same means, only wanting the same skill and conduct in the use of them. Pompey therefore marched directly against, Perpenna, and finding him acting merely at random in his affairs, had a decoy ready for him, and sent out a detachment of ten cohorts into the level country with orders to range up and down and disperse themselves abroad. The bait took accordingly, and no sooner had Perpenna turned upon the prey and had them in chase, but Pompey appeared suddenly with all his army and joining battle, gave him a total overthrow. Most of his officers were slain in the field, and he himself being brought prisoner to Pompey, was by his order put to death. Neither was Pompey guilty in this of ingratitude or unmindfulness of what had occurred in Sicily, which some have laid to his charge, but was guided by a high minded policy and a deliberate counsel for the security of his country. For Perpenna, having in his custody all Sertorius’s papers, offered to produce several letters from the greatest men in Rome, who, desirous of a change and subversion of the government, had invited Sertorius into Italy. And Pompey, fearing that these might be the occasion of worse wars than those which were now ended, thought it advisable to put Perpenna to death, and burnt the letters without reading them.
Pompey continued in Spain after this so long a time as was necessary for the suppression of all the greatest disorders in the province; and after moderating and allaying the more violent heats of affairs there, returned with his army into Italy, where he arrived, as chance would have it, in the height of the servile war. Accordingly, upon his arrival, Crassus, the commander in that war, at some hazard precipitated a battle, in which he had great success, and slew upon the place twelve thousand three hundred of the insurgents. Nor yet was he so quick, but that fortune reserved to Pompey some share of honor in the success of this war, for five thousand of those that had escaped out of the battle fell into his hands; and when he had totally cut them off, he wrote to the senate, that Crassus had overthrown the slaves in battle, but that he had plucked up the whole war by the roots. And it was agreeable to the people in Rome both thus to say, and thus to hear said, because of the general favor of Pompey. But of the Spanish war and the conquest of Sertorius, no one, even in jest, could have ascribed the honor to anyone else. Nevertheless, all this high respect for him, and this desire to see him come home, were not unmixed with apprehensions and suspicions that he might perhaps not disband his army, but take his way by the force of arms and a supreme command to the seat of Sylla. And so in the number of all those that ran out to meet him and congratulate his return, as many went out of fear as affection. But after Pompey had removed this alarm, by declaring beforehand that he would discharge the army after his triumph, those that envied him could now only complain that he affected popularity, courting the common people more than the nobility, and that whereas Sylla had abolished the tribuneship of the people, he designed to gratify the people by restoring that office, which was indeed the fact. For there was not any one thing that the people of Rome were more wildly eager for, or more passionately desired, than the restoration of that office, insomuch that Pompey thought himself extremely fortunate in this opportunity, despairing (if he were anticipated by someone else in this) of ever meeting with any other sufficient means of expressing his gratitude for the favors which he had received from the people.
Though a second triumph was decreed him, and he was declared consul, yet all these honors did not seem so great an evidence of his power and glory, as the ascendant which he had over Crassus; for he, the wealthiest among all the statesmen of his time, and the most eloquent and greatest too, who had looked down on Pompey himself, and on all others as beneath him, durst not appear a candidate for the consulship before he had applied to Pompey. The request was made accordingly, and was eagerly embraced by Pompey, who had long sought an occasion to oblige him in some friendly office; so that he solicited for Crassus, and entreated the people heartily, declaring, that their favor would be no less to him in choosing Crassus his colleague, than in making himself consul. Yet for all this, when they were created consuls, they were always at variance, and opposing one another. Crassus prevailed most in the senate, and Pompey’s power was no less with the people, he having restored to them the office of tribune, and having allowed the courts of judicature to be transferred back to the knights by a new law. He himself in person, too, afforded them a most grateful spectacle, when he appeared and craved his discharge from the military service. For it is an ancient custom among the Romans, that the knights, when they had served out their legal time in the wars, should lead their horses into the market-place before the two officers, called censors, and having given an account of the commanders and generals under whom they served, as also of the places and actions of their service, should be discharged, every man with honor or disgrace, according to his deserts. There were then sitting in state upon the bench two censors, Gellius and Lentulus, inspecting the knights, who were passing by in muster before them, when Pompey was seen coming down into the forum, with all the ensigns of a consul, but leading his horse in his hand. When he came up, he bade his lictors make way for him, and so he led his horse to the bench; the people being all this while in a sort of amaze, and all in silence, and the censors themselves regarding the sight with a mixture of respect and gratification. Then the senior censor examined him: “Pompeius Magnus, I demand of you whether you have served the full time in the wars that is prescribed by the law?” “Yes,” replied Pompey with a loud voice, “I have served all, and all under myself as general.” The people hearing this gave a great shout, and made such an outcry for delight, that there was no appeasing it; and the censors rising from their judgment-seat, accompanied him home to gratify the multitude, who followed after, clapping their hands and shouting.
Pompey’s consulship was now expiring, and yet his difference with Crassus increasing, when one Caius Aurelius, a knight, a man who had declined public business all his lifetime, mounted the hustings, and addressed himself in an oration to the assembly, declaring that Jupiter had appeared to him in a dream, commanding him to tell the consuls, that they should not give up office until they were friends. After this was said, Pompey stood silent, but Crassus took him by the hand, and spoke in this manner: “I do not think, fellow-citizens, that I shall do anything mean or dishonorable, in yielding first to Pompey, whom you were pleased to ennoble with the title of Great, when as yet he scarce had a hair on his face; and granted the honor of two triumphs, before he had a place in the senate.” Hereupon they were reconciled and laid down their office. Crassus resumed the manner of life which he had always pursued before; but Pompey in the great generality of causes for judgment declined appearing on either side, and by degrees withdrew himself totally from the forum, showing himself but seldom in public; and whenever he did, it was with a great train after him. Neither was it easy to meet or visit him without a crowd of people about him; he was most pleased to make his appearance before large numbers at once, as though he wished to maintain in this way his state and majesty, and as if he held himself bound to preserve his dignity from contact with the addresses and conversation of common people. And life in the robe of peace is only too apt to lower the reputation of men that have grown great by arms, who naturally find difficulty in adapting themselves to the habits of civil equality. They expect to be treated as the first in the city, even as they were in the camp; and on the other hand, men who in war were nobody, think it intolerable if in the city at any rate they are not to take the lead. And so, when a warrior renowned for victories and triumphs shall turn advocate and appear among them in the forum, they endeavor their utmost to obscure and depress him; whereas, if he gives up any pretensions here and retires, they will maintain his military honor and authority beyond the reach of envy. Events themselves not long after showed the truth of this.
The power of the pirates first commenced in Cilicia, having in truth but a precarious and obscure beginning, but gained life and boldness afterwards in the wars of Mithridates, where they hired themselves out, and took employment in the king’s service. Afterwards, whilst the Romans were embroiled in their civil wars, being engaged against one another even before the very gates of Rome, the seas lay waste and unguarded, and by degrees enticed and drew them on not only to seize upon and spoil the merchants and ships upon the seas, but also to lay waste the islands and seaport towns. So that now there embarked with these pirates men of wealth and noble birth and superior abilities, as if it had been a natural occupation to gain distinction in. They had divers arsenals, or piratic harbors, as likewise watch towers and beacons, all along the sea-coast; and fleets were here received that were well manned with the finest mariners, and well served with the expertest pilots, and composed of swift sailing and light-built vessels adapted for their special purpose. Nor was it merely their being thus formidable that excited indignation; they were even more odious for their ostentation than they were feared for their force. Their ships had gilded masts at their stems; the sails woven of purple, and the oars plated with silver, as if their delight were to glory in their iniquity. There was nothing but music and dancing, banqueting and revels, all along the shore. Officers in command were taken prisoners, and cities put under contribution, to the reproach and dishonor of the Roman supremacy. There were of these corsairs above one thousand sail, and they had taken no less than four hundred cities, committing sacrilege upon the temples of the gods, and enriching themselves with the spoils of many never violated before, such as were those of Claros, Didyma, and Samothrace; and the temple of the Earth in Hermione, and that of Æsculapius in Epidaurus, those of Neptune at the Isthmus, at Tænarus, and at Calauria; those of Apollo at Actium and Leucas, and those of Juno, in Samos, at Argos, and at Lacinium. They themselves offered strange sacrifices upon Mount Olympus, and performed certain secret rites or religious mysteries, among which those of Mithras have been preserved to our own time, having received their previous institution from them. But besides these insolencies by sea, they were also injurious to the Romans by land; for they would often go inland up the roads, plundering and destroying their villages and country-houses. And once they seized upon two Roman prætors, Sextilius and Bellinus, in their purple-edged robes, and carried them off together with their officers and lictors. The daughter also of Antonius, a man that had had the honor of a triumph, taking a journey into the country, was seized, and redeemed upon payment of a large ransom. But it was most abusive of all, that when any of the captives declared himself to be a Roman and told his name, they affected to be surprised, and feigning fear, smote their thighs and fell down at his feet, humbly beseeching him to be gracious and forgive them. The captive seeing them so humble and suppliant, believed them to be in earnest; and some of them now would proceed to put Roman shoes on his feet, and to dress him in a Roman gown, to prevent, they said, his being mistaken another time. After all this pageantry, when they had thus deluded and mocked him long enough, at last putting out a ship’s ladder, when they were in the midst of the sea, they told him he was free to go, and wished him a pleasant journey; and if he resisted, they themselves threw him overboard, and drowned him.
This piratic power having got the dominion and control of all the Mediterranean, there was left no place for navigation or commerce. And this it was which most of all made the Romans, finding themselves to be extremely straitened in their markets, and considering that if it should continue, there would be a dearth and famine in the land, determine at last to send out Pompey to recover the seas from the pirates. Gabinius, one of Pompey’s friends, preferred a law, whereby there was granted to him, not only the government of the seas as admiral, but in direct words, sole and irresponsible sovereignty over all men. For the decree gave him absolute power and authority in all the seas within the pillars of Hercules, and in the adjacent mainland for the space of four hundred furlongs from the sea. Now there were but few regions in the Roman empire out of that compass; and the greatest of the nations and most powerful of the kings were included in the limit. Moreover by this decree he had a power of selecting fifteen lieutenants out of the senate, and of assigning to each his province in charge; then he might take likewise out of the treasury and out of the hands of the revenue-farmers what moneys he pleased; as also two hundred sail of ships, with a power to press and levy what soldiers and seamen he thought fit. When this law was read, the common people approved of it exceedingly, but the chief men and most important among the senators looked upon it as an exorbitant power, even beyond the reach of envy, but well deserving their fears. Therefore concluding with themselves that such unlimited authority was dangerous, they agreed unanimously to oppose the bill, and all went against it, except Cæsar, who gave his vote for the law, not to gratify Pompey, but the people, whose favor he had courted underhand from the beginning, and hoped to compass for himself. The rest inveighed bitterly against Pompey, insomuch that one of the consuls told him, that if he was ambitious of the place of Romulus, he would scarce avoid his end, but he was in danger of being torn in pieces by the multitude for his speech. Yet when Catulus stood up to speak against the law, the people in reverence to him were silent and attentive. And when, after saying much in the most honorable terms in favor of Pompey, he proceeded to advise the people in kindness to spare him, and not to expose a man of his value to such a succession of dangers and wars, “For,” said he, “where could you find another Pompey, or whom would you have in case you should chance to lose him?” they all cried out with one voice, “Yourself.” And so Catulus, finding all his rhetoric ineffectual, desisted. Then Roscius attempted to speak, but could obtain no hearing, and made signs with his fingers, intimating, “Not him alone,” but that there might be a second Pompey or colleague in authority with him. Upon this, it is said, the multitude being extremely incensed, made such a loud outcry, that a crow flying over the market-place at that instant was struck, and drops down among the crowd; whence it would appear that the cause of birds falling down to the ground, is not any rupture or division of the air causing a vacuum, but purely the actual stroke of the voice, which when carried up in a great mass and with violence, raises a sort of tempest and billow, as it were, in the air.
The assembly broke up for that day; and when the day was come, on which the bill was to pass by suffrage into a decree, Pompey went privately into the country; but hearing that it was passed and confirmed, he resumed again into the city by night, to avoid the envy that might be occasioned by the concourse of people that would meet and congratulate him. The next morning he came abroad and sacrificed to the gods, and having audience at an open assembly, so handled the matter that they enlarged his power, giving him many things besides what was already granted, and almost doubling the preparation appointed in the former decree. Five hundred ships were manned for him, and an army raised of one hundred and twenty thousand foot, and five thousand horse. Twenty-four senators that had been generals of armies were appointed to serve as lieutenants under him, and to these were added two quæstors. Now it happened within this time that the prices of provisions were much reduced, which gave an occasion to the joyful people of saying, that the very name of Pompey had ended the war. However, Pompey in pursuance of his charge divided all the seas, and the whole Mediterranean into thirteen parts, allotting a squadron to each, under the command of his officers; and having thus dispersed his power into all quarters, and encompassed the pirates everywhere, they began to fall into his hands by whole shoals, which he seized and brought into his harbors. As for those that withdrew themselves betimes, or otherwise escaped his general chase, they all made to Cilicia, where they hid themselves as in their hive; against whom Pompey now proceeded in person with sixty of his best ships, not however until he had first scoured and cleared all the seas near Rome, the Tyrrhenian, and the African, and all the waters of Sardinia, Corsica, and Sicily; all which he performed in the space of forty days, by his own indefatigable industry and the zeal of his lieutenants.
Pompey met with some interruption in Rome, through the malice and envy of Piso, the consul, who had given some check to his proceedings, by withholding his stores and discharging his seamen; whereupon he sent his fleet round to Brundusium, himself going the nearest way by land through Tuscany to Rome; which was no sooner known by the people, than they all flocked out to meet him upon the way, as if they had not sent him out but few days before. What chiefly excited their joy, was the unexpectedly rapid change in the markets, which abounded now with the greatest plenty, so that Piso was in great danger to have been deprived of his consulship, Gabinius having a law ready prepared for that purpose; but Pompey forbade it, behaving himself as in that, so in all things else, with great moderation, and when he had made sure of all that he wanted or desired, he departed for Brundusium, whence he set sail in pursuit of the pirates. And though he was straitened in time, and his hasty voyage forced him to sail by several cities without touching, yet he would not pass by the city of Athens unsaluted; but landing there, after he had sacrificed to the gods, and made an address to the people, as he was returning out of the city, he read at the gates two epigrams, each in a single line, written in his own praise; one within the gate:—
|“Thy humbler thoughts make thee a god the more;”|
the other without:—
|“Adieu we bid, who welcome bade before.”|
Now because Pompey had shown himself merciful to some of these pirates that were yet roving in bodies about the seas, having upon their supplication ordered a seizure of their ships and persons only, without any further process or severity, therefore the rest of their comrades in hopes of mercy too, made their escape from his other commanders, and surrendered themselves with their wives and children into his protection. He continued to pardon all that came in, and the rather because by them he might make discovery of those who fled from his justice, as conscious that their crimes were beyond an act of indemnity. The most numerous and important part of these conveyed their families and treasures, with all their people that were unfit for war, into castles and strong forts about Mount Taurus; but they themselves having well manned their galleys, embarked for Coracesium in Cilicia, where they received Pompey and gave him battle. Here they had a final overthrow, and retired to the land, where they were besieged. At last, having dispatched their heralds to him with a submission, they delivered up to his mercy themselves, their towns, islands, and strong-holds, all which they had so fortified that they were almost impregnable, and scarcely even accessible.
Thus was this war ended, and the whole power of the pirates at sea dissolved everywhere in the space of three months, wherein, besides a great number of other vessels, he took ninety men-of-war with brazen beaks; and likewise prisoners of war to the number of no less than twenty thousand.
As regarded the disposal of these prisoners, he never so much as entertained the thought of putting them to death; and yet it might be no less dangerous on the other hand to disperse them, as they might reunite and make head again, being numerous, poor, and warlike. Therefore wisely weighing with himself, that man by nature is not a wild or unsocial creature, neither was he born so, but makes himself what he naturally is not, by vicious habit; and that again on the other side, he is civilized and grows gentle by a change of place, occupation, and manner of life, as beasts themselves that are wild by nature, become tame and tractable by housing and gentler usage, upon this consideration he determined to translate these pirates from sea to land, and give them a taste of an honest and innocent course of life, by living in towns, and tilling the ground. Some therefore were admitted into the small and half-peopled towns of the Cilicians, who for an enlargement of their territories, were willing to receive them. Others he planted in the city of the Solians, which had been lately laid waste by Tigranes, king of Armenia, and which he now restored. But the largest number were settled in Dyme, the town of Achæa, at that time extremely depopulated, and possessing an abundance of good land.
However, these proceedings could not escape the envy and censure of his enemies; and the course he took against Metellus in Crete was disapproved of even by the chiefest of his friends. For Metellus, a relation of Pompey’s former colleague in Spain, had been sent prætor into Crete, before this province of the seas was assigned to Pompey. Now Crete was the second source of pirates next to Cilicia, and Metellus having shut up a number of them in their strong-holds there, was engaged in reducing and extirpating them. Those that were yet remaining and besieged sent their supplications to Pompey, and invited him into the island as a part of his province, alleging it to fall, every part of it, within the distance from the sea specified in his commission, and so within the precincts of his charge. Pompey receiving the submission, sent letters to Metellus, commanding him to leave off the war; and others in like manner to the cities, in which he charged them not to yield any obedience to the commands of Metellus. And after these, he sent Lucius Octavius, one of his lieutenants, to act as general, who entering the besieged fortifications, and fighting in defense of the pirates, rendered Pompey not odious only, but even ridiculous too; that he should lend his name as a guard to a nest of thieves, that knew neither god nor law, and make his reputation serve as a sanctuary to them, only out of pure envy and emulation to Metellus. For neither was Achilles thought to act the part of a man, but rather of a mere boy, mad after glory, when by signs he forbade the rest of the Greeks to strike at Hector—
Some other hand should give the blow, and he
Lose the first honor of the victory.”
Whereas Pompey even sought to preserve the common enemies of the world, only that he might deprive a Roman prætor, after all his labors, of the honor of a triumph. Metellus however was not daunted, but prosecuted the war against the pirates, expelled them from their strongholds and punished them; and dismissed Octavius with the insults and reproaches of the whole camp.
When the news came to Rome that the war with the pirates was at an end, and that Pompey was unoccupied, diverting himself in visits to the cities for want of employment, one Manlius, a tribune of the people, preferred a law that Pompey should have all the forces of Lucullus, and the provinces under his government, together with Bithynia, which was under the command of Glabrio; and that he should forthwith conduct the war against the two kings, Mithridates and Tigranes, retaining still the same naval forces and the sovereignty of the seas as before. But this was nothing less than to constitute one absolute monarch of all the Roman empire. For the provinces which seemed to be exempt from his commission by the former decree, such as were Phrygia, Lycaonia, Galatia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, the upper Colchis, and Armenia, were all added in by this latter law, together with all the troops and forces with which Lucullus had defeated Mithridates and Tigranes. And though Lucullus was thus simply robbed of the glory of his achievements in having a successor assigned him, rather to the honor of his triumph, than the danger of the war; yet this was of less moment in the eyes of the aristocratical party, though they could not but admit the injustice and ingratitude to Lucullus. But their great grievance was, that the power of Pompey should be converted into a manifest tyranny; and they therefore exhorted and encouraged one another privately to bend all their forces in opposition to this law, and not tamely to cast away their liberty; yet when the day came on which it was to pass into a decree, their hearts failed them for fear of the people, and all were silent except Catulus, who boldly inveighed against the law and its proposer, and when he found that he could do nothing with the people, turned to the senate, crying out and bidding them seek out some mountain as their forefathers had done, and fly to the rocks where they might preserve their liberty. The law passed into a decree, as it is said, by the suffrages of all the tribes. And Pompey in his absence was made lord of almost all that power, which Sylla only obtained by force of arms, after a conquest of the very city itself. When Pompey had advice by letters of the decree, it is said that in the presence of his friends, who came to give him joy of his honor, he seemed displeased, frowning and smiting his thigh, and exclaimed as one overburdened, and weary of government, “Alas, what a series of labors upon labors! If I am never to end my service as a soldier, nor to escape from this invidious greatness, and live at home in the country with my wife, I had better have been an unknown man.” But all this was looked upon as mere trifling, neither indeed could the best of his friends call it anything else, well knowing that his enmity with Lucullus, setting a flame just now to his natural passion for glory and empire, made him feel more than usually gratified.
As indeed appeared not long afterwards by his actions, which clearly unmasked him; for in the first place, he sent out his proclamations into all quarters, commanding the soldiers to join him, and summoned all the tributary kings and princes within his charge; and in short, as soon as he had entered upon his province, he left nothing unaltered that had been done and established by Lucullus. To some he remitted their penalties, and deprived others of their rewards, and acted in all respects as if with the express design that the admirers of Lucullus might know that all his authority was at an end. Lucullus expostulated by friends, and it was thought fitting that there should be a meeting betwixt them; and accordingly they met in the country of Galatia. As they were both great and successful generals, their officers bore their rods before them all wreathed with branches of laurel; Lucullus came through a country full of green trees and shady woods, but Pompey’s march was through a cold and barren district. Therefore the lictors of Lucullus, perceiving that Pompey’s laurels were withered and dry, helped him to some of their own, and adorned and crowned his rods with fresh laurels. This was thought ominous, and looked as if Pompey came to take away the reward and honor of Lucullus’s victories. Lucullus had the priority in the order of consulships, and also in age; but Pompey’s two triumphs made him the greater man. Their first addresses in this interview were dignified and friendly, each magnifying the other’s actions, and offering congratulations upon his success. But when they came to the matter of their conference or treaty, they could agree on no fair or equitable terms of any kind, but even came to harsh words against each other, Pompey upbraiding Lucullus with avarice, and Lucullus retorting ambition upon Pompey, so that their friends could hardly part them. Lucullus, remaining in Galatia, made a distribution of the lands within his conquests, and gave presents to whom he pleased; and Pompey encamping not far distant from him, sent out his prohibitions, forbidding the execution of any of the orders of Lucullus, and commanded away all his soldiers, except sixteen hundred, whom he thought likely to be unserviceable to himself, being disorderly and mutinous, and whom he knew to be hostile to Lucullus; and to these acts he added satirical speeches, detracting openly from the glory of his actions, and giving out, that the battles of Lucullus had been but with the mere stage-shows and idle pictures of royal pomp, whereas the real war against a genuine army, disciplined by defeat, was reserved to him, Mithridates having now begun to be in earnest, and having betaken himself to his shields, swords, and horses. Lucullus, on the other side, to be even with him, replied, that Pompey came to fight with the mere image and shadow of war, it being his usual practice, like a lazy bird of prey, to come upon the carcass, when others had slain the dead, and to tear in pieces the relics of a war. Thus he had appropriated to himself the victories over Sertorius, over Lepidus, and over the insurgents under Spartacus; whereas this last had been achieved by Crassus, that obtained by Catulus, and the first won by Metellus. And therefore it was no great wonder, that the glory of the Pontic and Armenian war should be usurped by a man who had condescended to any artifices to work himself into the honor of a triumph over a few runaway slaves.
After this Lucullus went away, and Pompey having placed his whole navy in guard upon the seas betwixt Phœnicia and Bosporus, himself marched against Mithridates, who had a phalanx of thirty thousand foot, with two thousand horse, yet durst not bid him battle. He had encamped upon a strong mountain where it would have been hard to attack him, but abandoned it in no long time, as destitute of water. No sooner was he gone but Pompey occupied it, and observing the plants that were thriving there, together with the hollows which he found in several places, conjectured that such a plot could not be without springs, and therefore ordered his men to sink wells in every corner. After which there was, in a little time, great plenty of water throughout all the camp, insomuch that he wondered how it was possible for Mithridates to be ignorant of this, during all that time of his encampment there. After this Pompey followed him to his next camp, and there drawing lines round about him, shut him in. But he, after having endured a siege of forty-five days, made his escape secretly, and fled away with all the best part of his army, having first put to death all the sick and unserviceable. Not long after Pompey overtook him again near the banks of the river Euphrates, and encamped close by him; but fearing lest he should pass over the river and give him the slip there too, he drew up his army to attack him at midnight. And at that very time Mithridates, it is said, saw a vision in his dream foreshowing what should come to pass. For he seemed to be under sail in the Euxine Sea with a prosperous gale, and just in view of Bosporus, discoursing pleasantly with the ship’s company, as one overjoyed for his past danger and present security, when on a sudden he found himself deserted of all, and floating upon a broken plank of the ship at the mercy of the sea. Whilst he was thus laboring under these passions and phantasms, his friends came and awaked him with the news of Pompey’s approach; who was now indeed so near at hand, that the fight must be for the camp itself, and the commanders accordingly drew up the forces in battle array. Pompey perceiving how ready they were and well prepared for defense, began to doubt with himself whether he should put it to the hazard of a fight in the dark, judging it more prudent to encompass them only at present, lest they should fly, and to give them battle with the advantage of numbers the next day. But his oldest officers were of another opinion, and by entreaties and encouragements obtained permission that they might charge them immediately. Neither was the night so very dark, but that, though the moon was going down, it yet gave light enough to discern a body. And indeed this was one especial disadvantage to the king’s army. For the Romans coming upon them with the moon on their backs, the moon, being very low, and just upon setting, cast the shadows a long way before their bodies, reaching almost to the enemy, whose eyes were thus so much deceived that not exactly discerning the distance, but imagining them to be near at hand, they threw their darts at the shadows, without the least execution. The Romans therefore perceiving this, ran in upon them with a great shout; but the barbarians, all in a panic, unable to endure the charge, turned and fled, and were put to great slaughter, above ten thousand being slain; the camp also was taken. As for Mithridates himself, he at the beginning of the onset, with a body of eight hundred horse charged through the Roman army, and made his escape. But before long all the rest dispersed, some one way, some another, and he was left only with three persons, among whom was his concubine, Hypsicratia, a girl always of a manly and daring spirit, and the king called her on that account Hypsicrates. She being attired and mounted like a Persian horseman, accompanied the king in all his flight, never weary even in the longest journey, nor ever failing to attend the king in person, and look after his horse too, until they came to Inora, a castle of the king’s, well stored with gold and treasure. From thence Mithridates took his richest apparel, and gave it among those that had resorted to him in their flight; and to every one of his friends he gave a deadly poison, that they might not fall into the power of the enemy against their wills. From thence he designed to have gone to Tigranes in Armenia, but being prohibited by Tigranes, who put out a proclamation with a reward of one hundred talents to any one that should apprehend him, he passed by the head-waters of the river Euphrates, and fled through the country of Colchis.
Pompey in the meantime made an invasion into Armenia, upon the invitation of young Tigranes, who was now in rebellion against his father, and gave Pompey a meeting about the river Araxes, which rises near the head of Euphrates, but turning its course and bending towards the east, falls into the Caspian Sea. They two, therefore, marched together through the country, taking in all the cities by the way, and receiving their submission. But king Tigranes, having lately suffered much in the war with Lucullus, and understanding that Pompey was of a kind and gentle disposition, admitted Roman troops into his royal palaces, and taking along with him his friends and relations, went in person to surrender himself into the hands of Pompey. He came as far as the trenches on horseback, but there he was met by two of Pompey’s lictors, who commanded him to alight and walk on foot, for no man ever was seen on horseback within a Roman camp. Tigranes submitted to this immediately, and not only so, but loosing his sword, delivered up that too; and last of all, as soon as he appeared before Pompey, he pulled off his royal turban, and attempted to have laid it at his feet. Nay, worst of all, even he himself had fallen prostrate as an humble suppliant at his knees, had not Pompey prevented it, taking him by the hand and placing him near him, Tigranes himself on one side of him and his son upon the other. Pompey now told him that the rest of his losses were chargeable upon Lucullus, by whom he had been dispossessed of Syria, Phœnicia, Cilicia, Galatia, and Sophene; but all that he had preserved to himself entire till that time he should peaceably enjoy, paying the sum of six thousand talents as a fine or penalty for injuries done to the Romans, and that his son should have the kingdom of Sophene. Tigranes himself was well pleased with these conditions of peace, and when the Romans saluted him king, seemed to be overjoyed, and promised to every common soldier half a mina of silver, to every centurion ten minas, and to every tribune a talent; but the son was displeased, insomuch that when he was invited to supper, he replied, that he did not stand in need of Pompey for that sort of honor, for he would find out some other Roman to sup with. Upon this he was put into close arrest, and reserved for the triumph.
Not long after this Phraates, king of Parthia, sent to Pompey, and demanded to have young Tigranes, as his son-in-law, given up to him, and that the river Euphrates should be the boundary of the empires. Pompey replied, that for Tigranes, he belonged more to his own natural father than his father-in-law, and for the boundaries, he would take care that they should be according to right and justice.
So Pompey, leaving Armenia in the custody of Afranius, went himself in chase of Mithridates; to do which he was forced of necessity to march through several nations inhabiting about Mount Caucasus. Of these the Albanians and Iberians were the two chiefest. The Iberians stretch out as far as the Moschian mountains and the Pontus; the Albanians lie more eastwardly, and towards the Caspian Sea. These Albanians at first permitted Pompey, upon his request, to pass through the country; but when winter had stolen upon the Romans whilst they were still in the country, and they were busy celebrating the festival of Saturn, they mustered a body of no less than forty thousand fighting men, and set upon them, having passed over the river Cyrnus, which rising from the mountains of Iberia, and receiving the river Araxes in its course from Armenia, discharges itself by twelve mouths into the Caspian. Or, according to others, the Araxes does not fall into it, but they flow near one another, and so discharge themselves as neighbors into the same sea. It was in the power of Pompey to have obstructed the enemy’s passage over the river, but he suffered them to pass over quietly; and then leading on his forces and giving battle, he routed them, and slew great numbers of them in the field. The king sent ambassadors with his submission, and Pompey upon his supplication pardoned the offense, and making a treaty with him, he marched directly against the Iberians, a nation no less in number than the other, but much more warlike, and extremely desirous of gratifying Mithridates, and driving out Pompey. These Iberians were never subject to the Medes or Persians, and they happened likewise to escape the dominion of the Macedonians, because Alexander was so quick in his march through Hyrcania. But these also Pompey subdued in a great battle, where there were slain nine thousand upon the spot, and more than ten thousand taken prisoners. From thence he entered into the country of Colchis, where Servilius met him by the river Phasis, bringing the fleet with which he was guarding the Pontus.
The pursuit of Mithridates, who had thrown himself among the tribes inhabiting Bosporus and the shores of the Mæotian Sea, presented great difficulties. News was also brought to Pompey that the Albanians had again revolted. This made him turn back, out of anger and determination not to be beaten by them, and with difficulty and great danger he passed back over the Cyrnus, which the barbarous people had fortified a great way down the banks with palisadoes. And after this, having a tedious march to make through a waterless and difficult country, he ordered ten thousand skins to be filled with water, and so advanced towards the enemy; whom he found drawn up in order of battle near the river Abas, to the number of sixty thousand horse, and twelve thousand foot, ill armed generally, and most of them covered only with the skins of wild beasts. Their general was Cosis, the king’s brother, who as soon as the battle was begun, singled out Pompey, and rushing in upon him, darted his javelin into the joints of his breastplate; while Pompey, in return, struck him through the body with his lance, and slew him. It is related that in this battle there were Amazons fighting as auxiliaries with the barbarians, and that they came down from the mountains by the river Thermodon. For that after the battle, when the Romans were taking the spoil and plunder of the field, they met with several targets and buskins of the Amazons; but no woman’s body was found among the dead. They inhabit the parts of Mount Caucasus that reach down to the Hyrcanian Sea, not immediately bordering upon the Albanians, for the Gelæ and the Leges lie betwixt; and they keep company with these people yearly, for two months only, near the river Thermodon; after which they retire to their own habitations, and live alone all the rest of the year.
After this engagement, Pompey was eager to advance with his forces upon the Hyrcanian and Caspian Sea, but was forced to retreat at a distance of three days’ march from it, by the number of venomous serpents, and so he retreated into Armenia the Less. Whilst he was there, kings of the Elymæans and Medes sent ambassadors to him, to whom he gave friendly answer by letter; and sent against the king of Parthia, who had made incursions upon Gordyene, and despoiled the subjects of Tigranes, an army under the command of Afranius, who put him to the rout, and followed him in chase as far as the district of Arbela.
Of the concubines of king Mithridates that were brought before Pompey, he took none to himself, but sent them all away to their parents and relations; most of them being either the daughters or wives of princes and great commanders. Stratonice, however, who had the greatest power and influence with him, and to whom he had committed the custody of his best and richest fortress, had been, it seems, the daughter of a musician, an old man, and of no great fortune, and happening to sing one night before Mithridates at a banquet, she struck his fancy so, that immediately he took her with him, and sent away the old man much dissatisfied, the king having not so much as said one kind word to himself. But when he rose in the morning, and saw tables in his house richly covered with gold and silver plate, a great retinue of servants, eunuchs, and pages, bringing him rich garments, and a horse standing before the door richly caparisoned, in all respects as was usual with the king’s favorites, he looked upon it all as a piece of mockery, and thinking himself trifled with, attempted to make off and run away. But the servants laying hold upon him, and informing him really that the king had bestowed on him the house and furniture of a rich man lately deceased, and that these were but the first-fruits or earnests of greater riches and possessions that were to come, he was persuaded at last with much difficulty to believe them. And so putting on his purple robes, and mounting his horse, he rode through the city, crying out, “All this is mine;” and to those that laughed at him, he said, there was no such wonder in this, but it was a wonder rather that he did not throw stones at all he met, he was so transported with joy. Such was the parentage and blood of Stratonice. She now delivered up this castle into the hands of Pompey, and offered him many presents of great value, of which he accepted only such as he thought might serve to adorn the temples of the gods, and add to the splendor of his triumph; the rest he left to Stratonice’s disposal, bidding her please herself in the enjoyment of them.
And in the same manner he dealt with the presents offered him by the king of Iberia, who sent him a bedstead, table, and a chair of state, all of gold, desiring him to accept of them; but he delivered them all into the custody of the public treasurers, for the use of the Commonwealth.
In another castle called Cænum, Pompey found and read with pleasure several secret writings of Mithridates, containing much that threw light on his character. For there were memoirs by which it appeared that besides others, he had made away with his son Ariarathes by poison, as also with Alcæus the Sardian, for having robbed him of the first honors in a horse-race. There were several judgments upon the interpretation of dreams, which either he himself or some of his mistresses had had; and besides these, there was a series of wanton letters to and from his concubine Monime. Theophanes tells us that there was found also an address by Rutilius, in which he attempted to exasperate him to the laughter of all the Romans in Asia; though most men justly conjecture this to be a malicious invention of Theophanes, who probably hated Rutilius because he was a man in nothing like himself; or perhaps it might be to gratify Pompey, whose father is described by Rutilius in his history, as the vilest man alive.
From thence Pompey came to the city of Amisus, where his passion for glory put him into a position which might be called a punishment on himself. For whereas he had often sharply reproached Lucullus, in that while the enemy was still living, he had taken upon him to issue decrees, and distribute rewards and honors, as conquerors usually do only when the war is brought to an end, yet now was he himself, while Mithridates was paramount in the kingdom of Bosporus, and at the head of a powerful army, as if all were ended, just doing the same thing, regulating the provinces, and distributing rewards, many great commanders and princes having flocked to him, together with no less than twelve barbarian kings; insomuch that to gratify these other kings, when he wrote to the king of Parthia, he would not condescend, as others used to do, in the superscription of his letter, to give him his title of king of kings.
Moreover, he had a great desire and emulation to occupy Syria, and to march through Arabia to the Red Sea, that he might thus extend his conquests every way to the great ocean that encompasses the habitable earth; as in Africa he was the first Roman that advanced his victories to the ocean; and again in Spain he made the Atlantic Sea the limit of the empire; and then thirdly, in his late pursuit of the Albanians, he had wanted but little of reaching the Hyrcanian Sea. Accordingly he raised his camp, designing to bring the Red Sea within the circuit of his expedition, especially as he saw how difficult it was to hunt after Mithridates with an army, and that he would prove a worse enemy flying than fighting. But yet he declared, that he would leave a sharper enemy behind him than himself, namely, famine; and therefore he appointed a guard of ships to lie in wait for the merchants that sailed to Bosporus, death being the penalty for any who should attempt to carry provisions thither.
Then he set forward with the greatest part of his army, and in his march casually fell in with several dead bodies still uninterred, of those soldiers who were slain with Triarius in his unfortunate engagement with Mithridates; these he buried splendidly and honorably. The neglect of whom, it is thought, caused, as much as anything, the hatred that was felt against Lucullus, and alienated the affections of the soldiers from him. Pompey having now by his forces under the command of Afranius, subdued the Arabians about the mountain Amanus, himself entered Syria, and finding it destitute of any natural and lawful prince, reduced it into the form of a province, as a possession of the people of Rome. He conquered also Judæa, and took its king, Aristobulus, captive. Some cities he built anew, and to others he gave their liberty, chastising their tyrants. Most part of the time that he spent there was employed in the administration of justice, In deciding controversies of kings and States; and where he himself could not be present in person, he gave commissions to his friends, and sent them. Thus when there arose a difference betwixt the Armenians and Parthians about some territory, and the judgment was referred to him, he gave a power by commission to three judges and arbiters to hear and determine the controversy. For the reputation of his power was great; nor was the fame of his justice and clemency inferior to that of his power, and served indeed as a veil for a multitude of faults committed by his friends and familiars. For although it was not in his nature to check or chastise wrongdoers, yet he himself always treated those that had to do with him in such a manner, that they submitted to endure with patience the acts of covetousness and oppression done by others.
Among these friends of his, there was one Demetrius who had the greatest influence with him of all; he was a freed slave, a youth of good understanding, but somewhat too insolent in his good fortune, of whom there goes this story. Cato, the philosopher, being as yet a very young man, but of great repute and a noble mind, took a journey of pleasure to Antioch, at a time when Pompey was not there, having a great desire to see the city. He, as his custom was, walked on foot, and his friends accompanied him on horseback; and seeing before the gates of the city a multitude dressed in white, the young men on one side of the road, and the boys on the other, he was somewhat offended at it, imagining that it was officiously done in honor of him, which was more than he had any wish for. However, he desired his companions to alight and walk with him; but when they drew near, the master of the ceremonies in this procession came out with a garland and a rod in his hand, and met them, inquiring, where they had left Demetrius, and when he would come? Upon which Cato’s companions burst out into laughter, but Cato said only, “Alas, poor city!” and passed by without any other answer. However, Pompey rendered Demetrius less odious to others by enduring his presumption and impertinence to himself. For it is reported how that Pompey, when he had invited his friends to an entertainment, would be very ceremonious in waiting, till they all came and were placed, while Demetrius would be already stretched upon the couch as if he cared for no one, with his dress over his ears, hanging down from his head. Before his return into Italy, he had purchased the pleasantest country-seat about Rome, with the finest walks and places for exercise, and there were sumptuous gardens, called by the name of Demetrius, while Pompey his master, up to his third triumph, was contented with an ordinary and simple habitation. Afterwards, it is true, when he had erected his famous and stately theater for the people of Rome, he built as a sort of appendix to it, a house for himself, much more splendid than his former, and yet no object even this to excite men’s envy, since he who came to be master of it after Pompey could not but express wonder and inquire where Pompey the Great used to sup. Such is the story told us.
The king of the Arabs near Petra, who had hitherto despised the power of the Romans, now began to be in great alarm at it, and sent letters to him promising to be at his commands, and to do whatever he should see fit to order. However, Pompey having a desire to confirm and keep him in the same mind, marched forwards for Petra, an expedition not altogether irreprehensible in the opinion of many; who thought it a mere running away from their proper duty, the pursuit of Mithridates, Rome’s ancient and inveterate enemy, who was now rekindling the war once more, and making preparations, it was reported, to lead his army through Scythia and Pæonia, into Italy. Pompey, on the other side, judging it easier to destroy his forces in battle, than to seize his person in flight, resolved not to tire himself out in a vain pursuit, but rather to spend his leisure upon another enemy, as a sort of digression in the meanwhile. But fortune resolved the doubt; for when he was now not far from Petra, and had pitched his tents and encamped for that day, as he was talking exercise with his horse outside the camp, couriers came riding up from Pontus, bringing good news, as was known at once by the heads of their javelins, which it is the custom to carry crowned with branches of laurel. The soldiers, as soon as they saw them, flocked immediately to Pompey, who notwithstanding was minded to finish his exercise; but when they began to be clamorous and importunate, he alighted from his horse, and taking the letters went before them into the camp. Now there being no tribunal erected there, not even that military substitute for one which they make by cutting up thick turfs of earth and piling them one upon another, they, through eagerness and impatience, heaped up a pile of pack-saddles, and Pompey standing upon that, told them the news of Mithridates’s death, how that he had himself put an end to his life upon the revolt of his son Pharnaces, and that Pharnaces had taken all things there into his hands and possession, which he did, his letters said, in right of himself and the Romans. Upon this news, the whole army expressing their joy, as was to be expected, fell to sacrificing to the gods, and feasting, as if in the person of Mithridates alone there had died many thousands of their enemies.
Pompey by this event having brought this war to its completion, with much more ease than was expected, departed forthwith out of Arabia, and passing rapidly through the intermediate provinces, he came at length to the city Amisus. There he received many presents brought from Pharnaces, with several dead bodies of the royal blood, and the corpse of Mithridates himself, which was not easy to be known by the face, for the physicians that embalmed him had not dried up his brain, but those who were curious to see him knew him by the scars there. Pompey himself would not endure to see him, but to deprecate the divine jealousy, sent it away to the city of Sinope. He admired the richness of his robes, no less than the size and splendor of his armor. His swordbelt, however, which had cost four hundred talents, was stolen by Publius, and sold to Ariarathes; his tiara also, a piece of admirable workmanship, Gaius, the foster-brother of Mithridates, gave secretly to Faustus, the son of Sylla, at his request. All which Pompey was ignorant of, but afterwards, when Pharnaces came to understand it, he severely punished those that embezzled them.
Pompey now having ordered all things, and established that province, took his journey homewards in greater pomp and with more festivity. For when he came to Mitylene, he gave the city their freedom upon the intercession of Theophanes, and was present at the contest, there periodically held, of the poets, who took at that time no other theme or subject than the actions of Pompey. He was extremely pleased with the theater itself, and had a model of it taken, intending to erect one in Rome on the same design, but larger and more magnificent. When he came to Rhodes, he attended the lectures of all the philosophers there, and gave to every one of them a talent. Posidonius has published the disputation which he held before him against Hermagoras the rhetorician, upon the subject of Invention in general. At Athens, also, he showed similar, munificence to the philosophers, and gave fifty talents towards the repairing and beautifying the city. So that now by all these acts he well hoped to return into Italy in the greatest splendor and glory possible to man, and find his family as desirous to see him, as he felt himself to come home to them. But that supernatural agency, whose province and charge it is always to mix some ingredient of evil with the greatest and most glorious goods of fortune, had for some time back been busy in his household, preparing him a sad welcome. For Mucia during his absence had dishonored his bed. Whilst he was abroad at a distance, he had refused all credence to the report; but when he drew nearer to Italy, where his thoughts were more at leisure to give consideration to the charge, he sent her a bill of divorce; but neither then in writing, nor afterwards by word of mouth, did he ever give a reason why he discharged her; the cause of it is mentioned in Cicero’s epistles.
Rumors of every kind were scattered abroad about Pompey, and were carried to Rome before him, so that there was a great tumult and stir, as if he designed forthwith to march with his army into the city, and establish himself securely as sole ruler. Crassus withdrew himself, together with his children and property, out of the city, either that he was really afraid, or that he counterfeited rather, as is most probable, to give credit to the calumny and exasperate the jealousy of the people. Pompey, therefore, as soon as he entered Italy, called a general muster of the army; and having made a suitable address and exchanged a kind farewell with his soldiers, he commanded them to depart every man to his country and place of habitation, only taking care that they should not fail to meet again at his triumph. Thus the army being disbanded, and the news commonly reported, a wonderful result ensued. For when the cities saw Pompey the Great passing through the country unarmed, and with a small train of familiar friends only, as if he was returning from a journey of pleasure, not from his conquests, they came pouring out to display their affection for him, attending and conducting him to Rome with far greater forces than he disbanded; insomuch that if he had designed any movement or innovation in the State, he might have done it without his army.
Now, because the law permitted no commander to enter into the city before his triumph, he sent to the senate, entreating them as a favor to him to prorogue the election of consuls, that thus he might be able to attend and give countenance to Piso, one of the candidates. The request was resisted by Cato, and met with a refusal. However, Pompey could not but admire the liberty and boldness of speech which Cato alone had dared to use in the maintenance of law and justice. He therefore had a great desire to win him over, and purchase his friendship at any rate; and to that end, Cato having two nieces, Pompey asked for one in marriage for himself, the other for his son. But Cato looked unfavorably on the proposal, regarding it as a design for undermining his honesty, and in a manner bribing him by a family alliance; much to the displeasure of his wife and sister, who were indignant that he should reject a connection with Pompey the Great. About that time Pompey having a design of setting up Afranius for the consulship, gave a sum of money among the tribes for their votes, and people came and received it in his own gardens a proceeding which, when it came to be generally known, excited great disapprobation, that he should thus for the sake of men who could not obtain the honor by their own merits, make merchandise of an office which had been given to himself as the highest reward of his services. “Now,” said Cato to his wife and sister, “had we contracted an alliance with Pompey, we had been allied to this dishonor too;” and this they could not but acknowledge, and allow his judgment of what was right and fitting to have been wiser and better than theirs.
The splendor and magnificence of Pompey’s triumph was such that though it took up the space of two days, yet they were extremely straitened in time, so that of what was prepared for that pageantry, there was as much withdrawn as would have set out and adorned another triumph. In the first place, there were tables carried, inscribed with the names and titles of the nations over whom he triumphed, Pontus, Armenia, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, Media, Colchis, the Iberians, the Albanians, Syria, Cilicia, and Mesopotamia, together with Phœnicia and Palestine, Judæa, Arabia, and all the power of the pirates subdued by sea and land. And in these different countries there appeared the capture of no less than one thousand fortified places, nor much less than nine hundred cities, together with eight hundred ships of the pirates, and the foundation of thirty-nine towns. Besides, there was set forth in these tables an account of all the tributes throughout the empire, and how that before these conquests the revenue amounted but to fifty millions, whereas from his acquisitions they had a revenue of eighty-five millions; and that in present payment he was bringing into the common treasury ready money, and gold and silver plate, and ornaments, to the value of twenty thousand talents, over and above what had been distributed among the soldiers, of whom he that had least had fifteen hundred drachmas for his share. The prisoners of war that were led in triumph, besides the chief pirates, were the son of Tigranes, king of Armenia, with his wife and daughter; as also Zosime, wife of king Tigranes himself, and Aristobulus, king of Judæa, the sister of king Mithridates and her five sons, and some Scythian women. There were likewise the hostages of the Albanians and Iberians, and of the king of Commagene, besides a vast number of trophies, one for every battle in which he was conqueror, either himself in person, or by his lieutenants. But that which seemed to be his greatest glory, being one which no other Roman ever attained to, was this, that he made his third triumph over the third division of the world. For others among the Romans had the honor of triumphing thrice, but his first triumph was over Africa, his second, over Europe, and this last, over Asia; so that he seemed in these three triumphs to have led the whole world captive.
As for his age, those who affect to make the parallel exact in all things betwixt him and Alexander the Great, do not allow him to have been quite thirty-four, whereas in truth at that time he was near forty. And well had it been for him had he terminated his life at this date, while he still enjoyed Alexander’s fortune, since all his aftertime served only either to bring him prosperity that made him odious, or calamities too great to be retrieved. For that great authority which he had gained in the city by his merits, he made use of only in patronizing the iniquities of others, so that by advancing their fortunes, he detracted from his own glory, till at last he was overthrown even by the force and greatness of his own power. And as the strongest citadel or fort in a town, when it is taken by an enemy, does then afford the same strength to the foe, as it had done to friends before; so Cæsar, after Pompey’s aid had made him strong enough to defy his country, ruined and overthrew at last the power which had availed him against the rest. The course of things was as follows. Lucullus, when he returned out of Asia, where he had been treated with insult by Pompey, was received by the senate with great honor, which was yet increased when Pompey came home; to check whose ambition they encouraged him to assume the administration of the government, whereas he was now grown cold and disinclined to business, having given himself over to the pleasures of ease and the enjoyment of a splendid fortune. However, he began for the time to exert himself against Pompey, attacked him sharply, and succeeded in having his own acts and decrees, which were repealed by Pompey, reestablished, and with the assistance of Cato, gained the superiority in the senate. Pompey having fallen from his hopes in such an unworthy repulse, was forced to fly to the tribunes of the people for refuge, and to attach himself to the young men, among whom was Clodius, the vilest and most impudent wretch alive, who took him about, and exposed him as a tool to the people, carrying him up and down among the throngs in the market-place, to countenance those laws and speeches which he made to cajole the people and ingratiate himself. And at last for his reward, he demanded of Pompey, as if he had not disgraced, but done him great kindness, that he should forsake (as in the end he did forsake) Cicero, his friend, who on many public occasions had done him the greatest service. And so when Cicero was in danger, and implored his aid, he would not admit him into his presence, but shutting up his gates against those that came to mediate for him, slips out at a back door, whereupon Cicero fearing the result of his trial, departed privately from Rome.
About that time Cæsar, returning from military service, started a course of policy which brought him great present favor, and much increased his power for the future, and proved extremely destructive both to Pompey and the commonwealth. For now he stood candidate for his first consulship, and well observing the enmity betwixt Pompey and Crassus, and finding that by joining with one he should make the other his enemy, he endeavored by all means to reconcile them, an object in itself honorable and tending to the public good, but as he undertook it, a mischievous and subtle intrigue. For he well knew that opposite parties or factions in a commonwealth, like passengers in a boat, serve to trim and balance the unready motions of power there; whereas if they combine and come all over to one side, they cause a shock which will be sure to overset the vessel and carry down everything. And therefore Cato wisely told those who charged all the calamities of Rome upon the disagreement betwixt Pompey and Cæsar, that they were in error in charging all the crime upon the last cause; for it was not their discord and enmity, but their unanimity and friendship, that gave the first and greatest blow to the commonwealth.
Cæsar being thus elected consul, began at once to make an interest with the poor and meaner sort, by preferring and establishing laws for planting colonies and dividing lands, lowering the dignity of his office, and turning his consulship into a sort of tribuneship rather. And when Bibulus, his colleague, opposed him, and Cato was prepared to second Bibulus, and assist him vigorously, Cæsar brought Pompey upon the hustings, and addressing him in the sight of the people, demanded his opinion upon the laws that were proposed. Pompey gave his approbation. “Then,” said Cæsar, “in case any man should offer violence to these laws, will you be ready to give assistance to the people?” “Yes,” replied Pompey, “I shall be ready, and against those that threaten the sword, I will appear with sword and buckler.” Nothing ever was said or done by Pompey up to that day, that seemed more insolent or overbearing; so that his friends endeavored to apologize for it as a word spoken inadvertently; but by his actions afterwards it appeared plainly that he was totally devoted to Cæsar’s service. For on a sudden, contrary to all expectation, he married Julia, the daughter of Cæsar, who had been affianced before and was to be married within a few days to Cæpio. And to appease Cæpio’s wrath, he gave him his own daughter in marriage, who had been espoused before to Faustus, the son of Sylla. Cæsar himself married Calpurnia, the daughter of Piso.
Upon this Pompey, filling the city with soldiers, carried all things by force as he pleased. As Bibulus, the consul, was going to the forum, accompanied by Lucullus and Cato, they fell upon him on a sudden and broke his rods; and somebody threw a vessel of ordure upon the head of Bibulus himself; and two tribunes of the people, who escorted him, were desperately wounded in the fray. And thus having cleared the forum of all their adversaries, they got their bill for the division of lands established and passed into an act; and not only so, but the whole populace being taken with this bait, became totally at their devotion, inquiring into nothing and without a word giving their suffrages to whatever they propounded. Thus they confirmed all those acts and decrees of Pompey, which were questioned and contested by Lucullus; and to Cæsar they granted the provinces of Gaul, both within and without the Alps, together with Illyricum, for five years, and likewise an army of four entire legions; then they created consuls for the year ensuing, Piso, the father-in-law of Cæsar, and Gabinius, the most extravagant of Pompey’s flatterers.
During all these transactions, Bibulus kept close within doors, nor did he appear publicly in person for the space of eight months together, notwithstanding he was consul, but sent out proclamations full of bitter invectives and accusations against them both. Cato turned prophet, and, as if he had been possessed with a spirit of divination, did nothing else in the senate but foretell what evils should befall the Commonwealth and Pompey. Lucullus pleaded old age, and retired to take his ease, as superannuated for affairs of State; which gave occasion to the saying of Pompey, that the fatigues of luxury were not more seasonable for an old man than those of government. Which in truth proved a reflection upon himself; for he not long after let his fondness for his young wife seduce him also into effeminate habits. He gave all his time to her, and passed his days in her company in country-houses and gardens, paying no heed to what was going on in the forum. Insomuch that Clodius, who was then tribune of the people, began to despise him, and engage in the most audacious attempts. For when he had banished Cicero, and sent away Cato into Cyprus under pretence of military duty, and when Cæsar was gone upon his expedition to Gaul, finding the populace now looking to him as the leader who did everything according to their pleasure, he attempted forthwith to repeal some of Pompey’s decrees; he took Tigranes, the captive, out of prison, and kept him about him as his companion; and commenced actions against several of Pompey’s friends, thus designing to try the extent of his power. At last, upon a time when Pompey was present at the hearing of a certain cause, Clodius, accompanied with a crowd of profligate and impudent ruffians, standing up in a place above the rest, put questions to the populace as follows: “Who is the dissolute general? who is the man that seeks another man? who scratches his head with one finger?” and the rabble, upon the signal of his shaking his gown, with a great shout to every question, like singers making, responses in a chorus, made answer, “Pompey.”
This indeed was no small annoyance to Pompey, who was quite unaccustomed to hear anything ill of himself, and unexperienced altogether in such encounters; and he was yet more vexed, when he saw that the senate rejoiced at this foul usage, and regarded it as a just punishment upon him for his treachery to Cicero. But when it came even to blows and wounds in the forum, and that one of Clodius’s bondslaves was apprehended, creeping through the crowd towards Pompey with a sword in his hand, Pompey laid hold of this pretence, though perhaps otherwise apprehensive of Clodius’s insolence and bad language, and never appeared again in the forum during all the time he was tribune, but kept close at home, and passed his time in consulting with his friends, by what means he might best allay the displeasure of the senate and nobles against him. Among other expedients, Culleo advised the divorce of Julia, and to abandon Cæsar’s friendship to gain that of the senate; this he would not hearken to. Others again advised him to call home Cicero from banishment, a man who was always the great adversary of Clodius, and as great a favorite of the senate; to this he was easily persuaded. And therefore he brought Cicero’s brother into the forum, attended with a strong party, to petition for his return; where, after a warm dispute, in which several were wounded and some slain, he got the victory over Clodius. No sooner was Cicero returned home upon this decree, but immediately he used his efforts to reconcile the senate to Pompey; and by speaking in favor of the law upon the importation of corn, did again, in effect, make Pompey sovereign lord of all the Roman possessions by sea and land. For by that law, there were placed under his control all ports, markets, and storehouses, and in short, all the concerns both of the merchants and the husbandmen; which gave occasion to the charge brought against it by Clodius, that the law was not made because of the scarcity of corn, but the scarcity of corn was made, that they might pass a law, whereby that power of his, which was now grown feeble and consumptive, might be revived again, and Pompey reinstated in a new empire. Others look upon it as a politic device of Spinther, the consul, whose design it was to secure Pompey in a greater authority, that he himself might be sent in assistance to king Ptolemy. However, it is certain that Canidius, the tribune, preferred a law to dispatch Pompey in the character of an ambassador, without an army, attended only with two lictors, as a mediator betwixt the king and his subjects of Alexandria. Neither did this proposal seem unacceptable to Pompey, though the senate cast it out upon the specious pretence, that they were unwilling to hazard his person. However, there were found several writings scattered about the forum and near the senate-house, intimating how grateful it would be to Ptolemy to have Pompey appointed for his general instead of Spinther. And Timagenes even asserts that Ptolemy went away and left Egypt, not out of necessity, but purely upon the persuasion of Theophanes, who was anxious to give Pompey the opportunity for holding a new command, and gaining further wealth. But Theophanes’s want of honesty does not go so far to make this story credible as does Pompey’s own nature, which was averse, with all its ambition, to such base and disingenuous acts, to render it improbable.
Thus Pompey being appointed chief purveyor, and having within his administration and management all the corn trade, sent abroad his factors and agents into all quarters, and he himself sailing into Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa, collected vast stores of corn. He was just ready to set sail upon his voyage home, when a great storm arose upon the sea, and the ships’ commanders doubted whether it were safe. Upon which Pompey himself went first aboard, and bid the mariners weigh anchor, declaring with a loud voice, that there was a necessity to sail, but no necessity to live. So that with this spirit and courage, and having met with favorable fortune, he made a prosperous return, and filled the markets with corn, and the sea with ships. So much so that this great plenty and abundance of provisions yielded a sufficient supply, not only to the city of Rome, but even to other places too, dispersing itself; like waters from a spring, into all quarters.
Meantime Cæsar grew great and famous with his wars in Gaul, and while in appearance he seemed far distant from Rome, entangled in the affairs of the Belgians, Suevians, and Britons, in truth he was working craftily by secret practices in the midst of the people, and countermining Pompey in all political matters of most importance. He himself with his army close about him, as if it had been his own body, not with mere views of conquest over the barbarians, but as though his contests with them were but mere sports and exercises of the chase, did his utmost with this training and discipline to make it invincible and alarming. And in the meantime his gold and silver and other spoils and treasure which he took from the enemy in his conquests, he sent to Rome in presents, tempting people with his gifts, and aiding ædiles, prætors, and consuls, as also their wives, in their expenses, and thus purchasing himself numerous friends. Insomuch, that when he passed back again over the Alps, and took up his winter quarters in the city of Luca, there flocked to him an infinite number of men and women, striving who should get first to him, two hundred senators included, among whom were Pompey and Crassus; so that there were to be seen at once before Cæsar’s door no less than six score rods of proconsuls and prætors. The rest of his addressers he sent all away full fraught with hopes and money; but with Crassus and Pompey, he entered into special articles of agreement, that they should stand candidates for the consulship next year; that Cæsar on his part should send a number of his soldiers to give their votes at the election; that as soon as they were elected, they should use their interest to have the command of some provinces and legions assigned to themselves, and that Cæsar should have his present charge confirmed to him for five years more. When these arrangements came to be generally known, great indignation was excited among the chief men in Rome; and Marcellinus, in an open assembly of the people, demanded of them both, whether they designed to sue for the consulship or no. And being urged by the people for their answer, Pompey spoke first, and told them, perhaps he would sue for it, perhaps he would not. Crassus was more temperate, and said, that he would do what should be judged most agreeable with the interest of the Commonwealth; and when Marcellinus persisted in his attack on Pompey, and spoke, as it was thought, with some vehemence, Pompey remarked that Marcellinus was certainly the unfairest of men, to show him no gratitude for having thus made him an orator out of a mute, and converted him from a hungry starveling into a man so full-fed that he could not contain himself.
Most of the candidates nevertheless abandoned their canvass for the consulship; Cato alone persuaded and encouraged Lucius Domitius not to desist, “since,” said he, “the contest now is not for office, but for liberty against tyrants and usurpers.” Therefore those of Pompey’s party, fearing this inflexible constancy in Cato, by which he kept with him the whole senate, lest by this he should likewise pervert and draw after him all the well-affected part of the commonalty, resolved to withstand Domitius at once, and to prevent his entrance into the forum. To this end, therefore, they sent in a band of armed men, who slew the torchbearer of Domitius, as he was leading the way before him, and put all the rest to flight; last of all, Cato himself retired, having received a wound in his right arm while defending Domitius. Thus by these means and practices they obtained the consulship; neither did they behave themselves with more decency in their further proceedings; but in the first place, when the people were choosing Cato prætor, and just ready with their votes for the poll, Pompey broke up the assembly, upon a pretext of some inauspicious appearance, and having gained the tribes by money, they publicly proclaimed Vatinius prætor. Then, in pursuance of their covenants with Cæsar, they introduced several laws by Trebonius, the tribune, continuing Cæsar’s commission to another five years’ charge of his province; to Crassus there were appointed Syria, and the Parthian war; and to Pompey himself, all Africa, together with both Spains, and four legions of soldiers, two of which he lent to Cæsar upon his request, for the wars in Gaul.
Crassus, upon the expiration of his consulship, departed forthwith into his province; but Pompey spent some time in Rome, upon the opening or dedication of his theater, where he treated the people with all sorts of games, shows, and exercises, in gymnastics alike and in music. There was likewise the hunting or baiting of wild beasts, and combats with them, in which five hundred lions were slain; but above all, the battle of elephants was a spectacle full of horror and amazement.
These entertainments brought him great honor and popularity; but on the other side he created no less envy to himself, in that he committed the government of his provinces and legions into the hands of friends as his lieutenants, whilst he himself was going about and spending his time with his wife in all the places of amusement in Italy; whether it were he was so fond of her himself, or she so fond of him, and he unable to distress her by going away, for this also is stated. And the love displayed by this young wife for her elderly husband was a matter of general note, to be attributed, it would seem, to his constancy in married life, and to his dignity of manner, which in familiar intercourse was tempered with grace and gentleness, and was particularly attractive to women, as even Flora, the courtesan, may be thought good enough evidence to prove. It once happened in a public assembly, as they were at an election of the ædiles, that the people came to blows, and several about Pompey were slain, so that he, finding himself all bloody, ordered a change of apparel; but the servants who brought home his clothes, making a great bustle and hurry about the house, it chanced that the young lady, who was then with child, saw his gown all stained with blood; upon which she dropped immediately into a swoon, and was hardly brought to life again; however, what with her fright and suffering, she fell into labor and miscarried; even those who chiefly censured Pompey for his friendship to Cæsar, could not reprove him for his affection to so attached a wife. Afterwards she was great again, and brought to bed of a daughter, but died in childbed; neither did the infant outlive her mother many days. Pompey had prepared all things for the interment of her corpse at his house near Alba, but the people seized upon it by force, and performed the solemnities in the field of Mars, rather in compassion for the young lady, than in favor either for Pompey or Cæsar; and yet of these two, the people seemed at that time to pay Cæsar a greater share of honor in his absence, than to Pompey, though he was present.
For the city now at once began to roll and swell, so to say, with the stir of the coming storm. Things everywhere were in a state of agitation, and everybody’s discourse tended to division, now that death had put an end to that relation which hitherto had been a disguise rather than restraint to the ambition of these men. Besides, not long after came messengers from Parthia with intelligence of the death of Crassus there, by which another safeguard against civil war was removed, since both Cæsar and Pompey kept their eyes on Crassus, and awe of him held them together more or less within the bounds of fair-dealing all his lifetime. But when fortune had taken away this second, whose province it might have been to revenge the quarrel of the conquered, you might then say with the comic poet—
“The combatants are waiting to begin,|
Smearing their hands with dust and oiling each his skin.”
So inconsiderable a thing is fortune in respect of human nature, and so insufficient to give content to a covetous mind, that an empire of that mighty extent and sway could not satisfy the ambition of two men; and though they knew and had read, that—
“The gods, when they divided out ’twixt three,|
This massive universe, heaven, hell, and sea,
Each one sat down contented on his throne,
And undisturbed each god enjoys his own,”
yet they thought the whole Roman empire not sufficient to contain them, though they were but two.
Pompey once in an oration to the people, told them, that he had always come into office before he expected he should, and that he had always left it sooner than they expected he would; and, indeed, the disbanding of all his armies witnessed as much. Yet when he perceived that Cæsar would not so willingly discharge his forces, he endeavored to strengthen himself against him by offices and commands in the city; but beyond this he showed no desire for any change, and would not seem to distrust, but rather to disregard and contemn him. And when he saw how they bestowed the places of government quite contrary to his wishes, because the citizens were bribed in their elections, he let things take their course, and allowed the city to be left without any government at all. Hereupon there was mention straightaway made of appointing a dictator. Lucilius, a tribune of the people, was the man who first adventured to propose it, urging the people to make Pompey dictator. But the tribune was in danger of being turned out of his office, by the opposition that Cato made against it. And for Pompey, many of his friends appeared and excused him, alleging that he never was desirous of that government, neither would he accept of it. And when Cato therefore made a speech in commendation of Pompey, and exhorted him to support the cause of good order in the Commonwealth, he could not for shame but yield to it, and so for the present Domitius and Messala were elected consuls. But shortly afterwards, when there was another anarchy, or vacancy in the government, and the talk of a dictator was much louder and more general than before, those of Cato’s party, fearing lest they should be forced to appoint Pompey, thought it policy to keep him from that arbitrary and tyrannical power, by giving him an office of more legal authority. Bibulus himself, who was Pompey’s enemy, first gave his vote in the senate, that Pompey should be created consul alone; alleging, that by these means either the Commonwealth would be freed from its present confusion, or that its bondage should be lessened by serving the worthiest. This was looked upon as a very strange opinion, considering the man that spoke it; and therefore on Cato’s standing up, everybody expected that he would have opposed it; but after silence made, he said that he would never have been the author of that advice himself, but since it was propounded by another, his advice was to follow it, adding, that any form of government was better than none at all; and that in a time so full of distraction, he thought no man fitter to govern than Pompey. This counsel was unanimously approved of, and a decree passed that Pompey should be made sole consul, with this clause, that if he thought it necessary to have a colleague, he might choose whom he pleased, provided it were not till after two months expired.
Thus was Pompey created and declared sole consul by Sulpicius, regent in this vacancy; upon which he made very cordial acknowledgments to Cato, professing himself much his debtor, and requesting his good advice in conducting the government; to this Cato replied, that Pompey had no reason to thank him, for all that he had said was for the service of the commonwealth, not of Pompey; but that he would be always ready to give his advice privately, if he were asked for it; and if not, he should not fail to say what he thought in public. Such was Cato’s conduct on all occasions.
On his return into the city Pompey married Cornelia, the daughter of Metellus Scipio, not a maiden, but lately left a widow by Publius, the son of Crassus, her first husband, who had been killed in Parthia. The young lady had other attractions besides those of youth and beauty; for she was highly educated, played well upon the lute, understood geometry, and had been accustomed to listen with profit to lectures on philosophy; all this, too, without in any degree becoming unamiable or pretentious, as sometimes young women do when they pursue such studies. Nor could any fault be found either with her father’s family or reputation. The disparity of their ages was however not liked by everybody; Cornelia being in this respect a fitter match for Pompey’s son. And wiser judges thought it rather a slight upon the commonwealth when he, to whom alone they had committed their broken fortunes, and from whom alone, as from their physician, they expected a cure to these distractions, went about crowned with garlands and celebrating his nuptial feasts; never considering, that his very consulship was a public calamity, which would never have been given him, contrary to the rules of law, had his country been in a flourishing state. Afterwards, however, he took cognizance of the cases of those that had obtained offices by gifts and bribery, and enacted laws and ordinances, setting forth the rules of judgment by which they should be arraigned; and regulating all things with gravity and justice, he restored security, order, and silence to their courts of judicature, himself giving his presence there with a band of soldiers. But when his father-in-law Scipio was accused, he sent for the three hundred and sixty judges to his house, and entreated them to be favorable to him; whereupon his accuser, seeing Scipio come into the court, accompanied by the judges themselves, withdrew the prosecution. Upon this Pompey was very ill spoken of, and much worse in the case of Plancus; for whereas he himself had made a law, putting a stop to the practice of making speeches in praise of persons under trial, yet notwithstanding this prohibition, he came into court, and spoke openly in commendation of Plancus, insomuch that Cato, who happened to be one of the judges at that time, stopping his ears with his hands, told him, he could not in conscience listen to commendations contrary to law. Cato upon this was refused, and set aside from being a judge, before sentence was given, but Plancus was condemned by the rest of the judges, to Pompey’s dishonor. Shortly after, Hypsæus, a man of consular dignity, who was under accusation, waited for Pompey’s return from his bath to his supper, and falling down at his feet, implored his favor; but he disdainfully passed him by, saying, that he did nothing else but spoil his supper. Such partiality was looked upon as a great fault in Pompey, and highly condemned; however, he managed all things else discreetly, and having put the government in very good order, he chose his father-in-law to be his colleague in the consulship for the last five months. His provinces were continued to him for the term of four years longer, with a commission to take one thousand talents yearly out of the treasury for the payment of his army.
This gave occasion to some of Cæsar’s friends to think it reasonable, that some consideration should be had of him too, who had done such signal services in war, and fought so many battles for the empire, alleging, that he deserved at least a second consulship, or to have the government of his province continued, that so he might command and enjoy in peace what he had obtained in war, and no successor come in to reap the fruits of his labor, and carry off the glory of his actions. There arising some debate about this matter, Pompey took upon him, as it were out of kindness to Cæsar, to plead his cause, and allay any jealousy that was conceived against him, telling them, that he had letters from Cæsar, expressing his desire for a successor, and his own discharge from the command; but it would be only right that they should give him leave to stand for the consulship though in his absence. But those of Cato’s party withstood this, saying, that if he expected any favor from the citizens, he ought to leave his army, and come in a private capacity to canvas for it. And Pompey’s making no rejoinder, but letting it pass as a matter in which he was overruled, increased the suspicion of his real feelings towards Cæsar. Presently, also, under presence of a war with Parthia, he sent for his two legions which he had lent him. However, Cæsar, though he well knew why they were asked for, sent them home very liberally rewarded.
About that time Pompey recovered of a dangerous fit of sickness which seized him at Naples, where the whole city, upon the suggestion of Praxagoras, made sacrifices of thanksgiving to the gods for his recovery. The neighboring towns likewise happening to follow their example, the thing then went its course throughout all Italy, so that there was not a city either great or small, that did not feast and rejoice for many days together. And the company of those that came from all parts to meet him was so numerous, that no place was able to contain them, but the villages, seaport towns, and the very highways, were all full of people, feasting and sacrificing to the gods. Nay, many went to meet him with garlands on their heads, and flambeaux in their hands, casting flowers and nosegays upon him as he went along; so that this progress of his, and reception, was one of the noblest and most glorious sights imaginable. And yet it is thought that this very thing was not one of the least causes and occasions of the civil war. For Pompey, yielding to a feeling of exultation, which in the greatness of the present display of joy lost sight of more solid grounds of consideration, and abandoning that prudent temper which had guided him hitherto to a safe use of all his good fortune and his successes, gave himself up to an extravagant confidence in his own, and contempt of Cæsar’s power; insomuch that he thought neither force of arms nor care necessary against him, but that he could pull him down much easier than he had set him up. Besides this, Appius, under whose command those legions which Pompey lent to Cæsar were returned, coming lately out of Gaul, spoke slightingly of Cæsar’s actions there, and spread scandalous reports about him, at the same time telling Pompey, that he was unacquainted with his own strength and reputation, if he made use of any other forces against Cæsar than Cæsar’s own; for such was the soldiers’ hatred to Cæsar, and their love to Pompey so great, that they would all come over to him upon his first appearance. By these flatteries Pompey was so puffed up, and led on into such a careless security, that he could not choose but laugh at those who seemed to fear a war; and when some were saying, that if Cæsar should march against the city, they could not see what forces there were to resist him, he replied with a smile, bidding them be in no concern, “for,” said he, “whenever I stamp with my foot in any part of Italy, there will rise up forces enough in an instant, both horse and foot.”
Cæsar, on the other side, was more and more vigorous in his proceedings, himself always at hand about the frontiers of Italy, and sending his soldiers continually into the city to attend all elections with their votes. Besides, he corrupted several of the magistrates, and kept them in his pay; among others, Paulus, the consul, who was brought over by a bribe of one thousand and five hundred talents; and Curio, tribune of the people, by a discharge of the debts with which he was overwhelmed; together with Mark Antony, who, out of friendship to Curio, had become bound with him in the same obligations for them all. And it was stated as a fact, that a centurion of Cæsar’s waiting at the senate-house, and hearing that the senate refused to give him a longer term of his government, clapped his hand upon his sword, and said, “But this shall give it.” And indeed all his practices and preparations seemed to bear this appearance. Curio’s demands, however, and requests in favor of Cæsar, were more popular in appearance; for he desired one of these two things, either that Pompey also should be called upon to resign his army, or that Cæsar’s should not be taken away from him; for if both of them became private persons, both would be satisfied with simple justice; or if both retained their present power, each being a match for the other, they would be contented with what they already had; but he that weakens one, does at the same time strengthen the other, and so doubles that very strength and power which he stood in fear of before. Marcellus, the consul, replied nothing to all this, but that Cæsar was a robber, and should be proclaimed an enemy to the state, if he did not disband his army. However, Curio, with the assistance of Antony and Piso, prevailed, that the matter in debate should be put to the question, and decided by vote in the senate. So that it being ordered upon the question for those to withdraw, who were of opinion that Cæsar only should lay down his army and Pompey command, the majority withdrew. But when it was ordered again for those to withdraw, whose vote was that both should lay down their arms and neither command, there were but twenty-two for Pompey, all the rest remained on Curio’s side. Whereupon he, as one proud of his conquest, leaped out in triumph among the people, who received him with as great tokens of joy, clapping their hands, and crowning him with garlands and flowers. Pompey was not then present in the senate, because it is not lawful for generals in command of an army to come into the city. But Marcellus rising up, said, that he would not sit there hearing speeches, when he saw ten legions already passing the Alps on their march toward the city, but on his own authority would send someone to oppose them in defense of the country.
Upon this the city went into mourning, as in a public calamity, and Marcellus, accompanied by the senate, went solemnly through the forum to meet Pompey, and made him this address. “I hereby give you orders, O Pompey, to defend your country, to employ the troops you now command, and to levy more.” Lentulus, consul elect for the year following, spoke to the same purpose. Antony, however, contrary to the will of the senate, having in a public assembly read a letter of Cæsar’s, containing various plausible overtures such as were likely to gain the common people, proposing, namely, that both Pompey and he quitting their governments, and dismissing their armies, should submit to the judgment of the people, and give an account of their actions before them, the consequence was that when Pompey began to make his levies, he found himself disappointed in his expectations. Some few, indeed, came in, but those very unwillingly; others would not answer to their names, and the generality cried out for peace. Lentulus, notwithstanding he was now entered upon his consulship, would not assemble the senate; but Cicero, who was lately returned from Cilicia, labored for a reconciliation, proposing that Cæsar should leave his province of Gaul and army, reserving two legions only, together with the government of Illyricum, and should thus be put in nomination for a second consulship. Pompey disliking this motion, Cæsar’s friends were contented that he should surrender one of the two; but Lentulus still opposing, and Cato crying out that Pompey did ill to be deceived again, the reconciliation did not take effect.
In the meantime, news was brought that Cæsar had occupied Ariminum, a great city in Italy, and was marching directly towards Rome with all his forces. But this latter was altogether false, for he had no more with him at that time than three hundred horse and five thousand foot; and he did not mean to tarry for the body of his army, which lay beyond the Alps, choosing rather to fall in on a sudden upon his enemies, while they were in confusion, and did not expect him, than to give them time, and fight them after they had made preparations. For when he came to the banks of the Rubicon, a river that made the bounds of his province, there he made a halt, pausing a little, and considering, we may suppose, with himself the greatness of the enterprise which he had undertaken; then, at last, like men that are throwing themselves headlong from some precipice into a vast abyss, having shut, as it were, his mind’s eyes and put away from his sight the idea of danger, he merely uttered to those near him in Greek the words, “Anerriphtho kubos,” (let the die be cast,) and led his army through it. No sooner was the news arrived, but there was an uproar throughout all the city, and a consternation in the people even to astonishment, such as never was known in Rome before; all the senate ran immediately to Pompey, and the magistrates followed. And when Tullus made inquiry about his legions and forces, Pompey seemed to pause a little, and answered with some hesitation, that he had those two legions ready that Cæsar sent back, and that out of the men who had been previously enrolled he believed he could shortly make up a body of thirty thousand men. On which Tullus crying out aloud, “O Pompey, you have deceived us,” gave his advice to send off a deputation to Cæsar. Favonius, a man of fair character, except that he used to suppose his own petulance and abusive talking a copy of Cato’s straight-forwardness, bade Pompey stamp upon the ground, and call forth the forces he had promised. But Pompey bore patiently with this unseasonable raillery; and on Cato putting him in mind of what he had foretold from the very beginning about Cæsar, made this answer only, that Cato indeed had spoken more like a prophet, but he had acted more like a friend. Cato then advised them to choose Pompey general with absolute power and authority, saying that the same men who do great evils, know best how to cure them. He himself went his way forthwith into Sicily, the province that was allotted him, and all the rest of the senators likewise departed every one to his respective government.
Thus all Italy in a manner being up in arms, no one could say what was best to be done. For those that were without, came from all parts flocking into the city; and they who were within, seeing the confusion and disorder so great there, all good things impotent, and disobedience and insubordination grown too strong to be controlled by the magistrates, were quitting it as fast as the others came in. Nay, it was so far from being possible to allay their fears, that they would not suffer Pompey to follow out his own judgment, but every man pressed and urged him according to his particular fancy, whether it proceeded from doubt, fear, grief, or any meaner passion; so that even in the same day quite contrary counsels were acted upon. Then, again, it was as impossible to have any good intelligence of the enemy; for what each man heard by chance upon a flying rumor, he would report for truth, and exclaim against Pompey if he did not believe it. Pompey, at length, seeing such a confusion in Rome, determined with himself to put an end to their clamors by his departure, and therefore commanding all the senate to follow him, and declaring, that whosoever tarried behind, should be judged a confederate of Cæsar’s, about the dusk of the evening he went out and left the city. The consuls also followed after in a hurry, without offering the sacrifices to the gods, usual before a war. But in all this, Pompey himself had the glory, that in the midst of such calamities, he had so much of men’s love and good-will. For though many found fault with the conduct of the war, yet no man hated the general; and there were more to be found of those that went out of Rome, because that they could not forsake Pompey, than of those that fled for love of liberty.
Some few days after Pompey was gone out, Cæsar came into the city, and made himself master of it, treating everyone with a great deal of courtesy, and appeasing their fears, except only Metellus, one of the tribunes; on whose refusing to let him take any money out of the treasury, Cæsar threatened him with death, adding words yet harsher than the threat, that it was far easier for him to do it than say it. By this means removing Metellus, and taking what moneys were of use for his occasions, he set forwards in pursuit of Pompey, endeavoring with all speed to drive him out of Italy before his army, that was in Spain, could join him.
But Pompey arriving at Brundusium, and having plenty of ships there, bade the two consuls embark immediately, and with them shipped thirty cohorts of foot, bound before him for Dyrrhachium. He sent likewise his father-in-law Scipio, and Cnæus his son, into Syria, to provide and fit out a fleet there; himself in the meantime having blocked up the gates, placed his lightest soldiers as guards upon the walls; and giving express orders that the citizens should keep within doors, he dug up all the ground inside the city, cutting trenches, and fixing stakes and palisades throughout all the streets of the city, except only two that led down to the sea-side. Thus in three days space having with ease put all the rest of his army on shipboard, he suddenly gave the signal to those that guarded the walls, who nimbly repairing to the ships, were received on board and carried off. Cæsar meantime perceiving their departure by seeing the walls unguarded, hastened after, and in the heat of pursuit was all but entangled himself among the stakes and trenches. But the Brundusians discovering the danger to him, and showing him the way, he wheeled about, and taking a circuit round the city, made towards the haven, where he found all the ships on their way, excepting only two vessels that had but a few soldiers aboard.
Most are of opinion, that this departure of Pompey’s is to be counted among the best of his military performances, but Cæsar himself could not but wonder that he, who was thus ingarrisoned in a city well fortified, who was in expectation of his forces from Spain, and was master of the sea besides, should leave and abandon Italy. Cicero accuses him of imitating the conduct of Themistocles, rather than of Pericles, when the circumstances were more like those of Pericles than they were like those of Themistocles. However, it appeared plainly, and Cæsar showed it by his actions, that he was in great fear of delay, for when he had taken Numerius, a friend of Pompey’s, prisoner, he sent him as an ambassador to Brundusium, with offers of peace and reconciliation upon equal terms; but Numerius sailed away with Pompey. And now Cæsar having become master of all Italy in sixty days, without a drop of blood shed, had a great desire forthwith to follow Pompey; but being destitute of shipping, he was forced to divert his course, and march into Spain, designing to bring over Pompey’s forces there to his own.
In the meantime Pompey raised a mighty army both by sea and land. As for his navy, it was irresistible. For there were five hundred men of war, besides an infinite company of light vessels, Liburnians, and others; and for his land forces, the cavalry made up a body of seven thousand horse, the very flower of Rome and Italy, men of family, wealth, and high spirit; but the infantry was a mixture of unexperienced soldiers drawn from different quarters, and these he exercised and trained near Berœa, where he quartered his army; himself noways slothful, but performing all his exercises as if he had been in the flower of his youth, conduct which raised the spirits of his soldiers extremely. For it was no small encouragement for them to see Pompey the Great, sixty years of age wanting two, at one time handling his arms among the foot, then again mounted among the horse, drawing out his sword with ease in full career, and sheathing it up as easily; and in darting the javelin, showing not only skill and dexterity in hitting the mark, but also strength and activity in throwing it so far that few of the young men went beyond him.
Several kings and princes of nations came thither to him, and there was a concourse of Roman citizens who had held the magistracies, so numerous that they made up a complete senate. Labienus forsook his old friend Cæsar, whom he had served throughout all his wars in Gaul, and came over to Pompey; and Brutus, son to that Brutus that was put to death in Gaul, a man of a high spirit, and one that to that day had never so much as saluted or spoke to Pompey, looking upon him as the murderer of his father, came then and submitted himself to him as the defender of their liberty. Cicero likewise, though he had written and advised otherwise, yet was ashamed not to be accounted in the number of those that would hazard their lives and fortunes for the safeguard of their country. There came to him also into Macedonia, Tidius Sextius, a man extremely old, and lame of one leg; so that others indeed mocked and laughed at the spectacle, but Pompey, as soon as he saw him, rose and ran to meet him, esteeming it no small testimony in his favor, when men of such age and infirmities should rather choose to be with him in danger, than in safety at home. Afterwards in a meeting of their senate they passed a decree, on the motion of Cato, that no Roman citizen should be put to death but in battle, and that they should not sack or plunder any city that was subject to the Roman empire, a resolution which gained Pompey’s party still greater reputation, insomuch that those who were noways at all concerned in the war, either because they dwelt afar off, or were thought incapable of giving help, were yet, in their good wishes, upon his side, and in all their words, so far as that went, supported the good or just cause, as they called it; esteeming those as enemies to the gods and men, that wished not victory to Pompey.
Neither was Pompey’s clemency such, but that Cæsar likewise showed himself as merciful a conqueror; for when he had taken and overthrown all Pompey’s forces in Spain, he gave them easy terms, leaving the commanders at their liberty, and taking the common soldiers into his own pay. Then repassing the Alps, and making a running march through Italy, he came to Brundusium about the winter solstice, and crossing the sea there, landed at the port of Oricum. And having Jubius, an intimate friend of Pompey’s, with him as his prisoner, he dispatched him to Pompey with an invitation, that they, meeting together in a conference, should disband both their armies within three days, and renewing their former friendship with solemn oaths, should return together into Italy. Pompey looked upon this again as some new stratagem, and therefore marching down in all haste to the sea-coast, possessed himself of all forts and places of strength suitable to encamp in, and to secure his laud forces, as likewise of all ports and harbors commodious to receive any that came by sea, so that what wind soever blew, it must needs in some way or other be favorable to him, bringing in either provision, men, or money; while Cæsar, on the contrary, was so hemmed in both by sea and land, that he was forced to desire battle, daily provoking the enemy, and assailing them in their very forts; and in these light skirmishes for the most part had the better. Once only he was dangerously overthrown, and was within a little of losing his whole army, Pompey having fought nobly, routing the whole force, and killing two thousand on the spot. But either he was not able, or was afraid, to go on and force his way into their camp with them, so that Cæsar made the remark, that “Today the victory had been the enemy’s, had there been anyone among them to gain it.” Pompey’s soldiers were so encouraged by this victory that they were eager now to have all put to the decision of a battle; but Pompey himself, though he wrote to distant kings, generals, and states in confederacy with him, as a conqueror, yet was afraid to hazard the success of a battle, choosing rather by delays, and distress of provisions, to tire out a body of men, who had never yet been conquered by force of arms, and had long been used to fight and conquer together; while their time of life, now an advanced one, which made them quickly weary of those other hardships of war, such as were long marches, and frequent decampings, making trenches, and building fortifications, made them eager to come to close combat and venture a battle with all speed.
Pompey had all along hitherto by his persuasions pretty well quieted his soldiers; but after this last engagement, when Cæsar for want of provisions was forced to raise his camp, and passed through Athamania into Thessaly, it was impossible to curb or allay the heat of their spirits any longer. For all crying out with a general voice, that Cæsar was fled, some were for pursuing and pressing upon him, others for returning into Italy; some there were that sent their friends and servants beforehand to Rome, to hire houses near the forum, that they might be in readiness to sue for offices; several of their own motion sailed off at once to Lesbos to carry to Cornelia, (whom Pompey had conveyed thither to be in safety,) the joyful news, that the war was ended. And a senate being called, and the matter being under debate, Afranius was of opinion, that Italy should first be regained, for that it was the grand prize and crown of all the war; and they who were masters of that, would quickly have at their devotion all the provinces of Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Spain, and Gaul; but what was of greatest weight and moment to Pompey, it was his own native country that lay near, reaching out her hand for his help; and certainly it could not be consistent with his honor to leave her thus exposed to all indignities, and in bondage under slaves and the flatterers of a tyrant. But Pompey himself, on the contrary, thought it neither honorable to fly a second time before Cæsar, and be pursued, when fortune had given him the advantage of a pursuit; nor indeed lawful before the gods to forsake Scipio and divers other men of consular dignity dispersed throughout Greece and Thessaly, who must necessarily fall into Cæsar’s hands, together with large sums of money and numerous forces; and as to his care for the city of Rome, that would most eminently appear, by removing the scene of war to a greater distance, and leaving her, without feeling the distress or even hearing the sound of these evils, to await in peace the return of whichever should be the victor.
With this determination, Pompey marched forwards in pursuit of Cæsar, firmly resolved with himself not to give him battle, but rather to besiege and distress him, by keeping close at his heels, and cutting him short. There were other reasons that made him continue this resolution, but especially because a saying that was current among the Romans serving in the cavalry came to his ear, to the effect, that they ought to beat Cæsar as soon as possible, and then humble Pompey too. And some report, it was for this reason that Pompey never employed Cato in any matter of consequence during the whole war, but now when he pursued Cæsar, left him to guard his baggage by sea, fearing lest, if Cæsar should be taken off, he himself also by Cato’s means not long after should be forced to give up his power.
Whilst he was thus slowly attending the motions of the enemy, he was exposed on all sides to outcries, and imputations of using his generalship to defeat, not Cæsar, but his country and the senate, that he might always continue in authority, and never cease to keep those for his guards and servants, who themselves claimed to govern the world. Domitius Ænobarbus, continually calling him Agamemnon, and king of kings, excited jealousy against him; and Favonius, by his unseasonable raillery, did him no less injury than those who openly attacked him, as when he cried out, “Good friends, you must not expect to gather any figs in Tusculum this year.” But Lucius Afranius, who had lain under an imputation of treachery for the loss of the army in Spain, when he saw Pompey purposely declining an engagement, declared openly, that he could not but admire, why those who were so ready to accuse him, did not go themselves and fight this buyer and seller of their provinces.
With these and many such speeches they wrought upon Pompey, who never could bear reproach, or resist the expectations of his friends; and thus they forced him to break his measures, so that he forsook his own prudent resolution to follow their vain hopes and desires: weakness that would have been blamable in the pilot of a ship, how much more in the sovereign commander of such an army, and so many nations. But he, though he had often commended those physicians who did not comply with the capricious appetites of their patients, yet himself could not but yield to the malady and disease of his companions and advisers in the war, rather than use some severity in their cure. Truly who could have said that health was not disordered and a cure not required in the case of men who went up and down the camp, suing already for the consulship and office of prætor, while Spinther, Domitius, and Scipio made friends, raised factions, and quarrelled among themselves, who should succeed Cæsar in the dignity of his high-priesthood, esteeming all as lightly, as if they were to engage only with Tigranes, king of Armenia, or some petty Nabathæan king, not with that Cæsar and his army that had stormed a thousand towns, and subdued more than three hundred several nations; that had fought innumerable battles with the Germans and Gauls, and always carried the victory; that had taken a million of men prisoners, and slain as many upon the spot in pitched battles?
But they went on soliciting and clamoring, and on reaching the plain of Pharsalia, they forced Pompey by their pressure and importunities to call a council of war, where Labienus, general of the horse, stood up first and swore that he would not return out of the battle if he did not rout the enemies; and all the rest took the same oath. That night Pompey dreamed that as he went into the theater, the people received him with great applause, and that he himself adorned the temple of Venus the Victorious, with many spoils. This vision partly encouraged, but partly also disheartened him, fearing lest that splendor and ornament to Venus should be made with spoils furnished by himself to Cæsar, who derived his family from that goddess. Besides there were some panic fears and alarms that ran through the camp, with such a noise that it awaked him out of his sleep. And about the time of renewing the watch towards morning, there appeared a great light over Cæsar’s camp, whilst they were all at rest, and from thence a ball of flaming fire was carried into Pompey’s camp, which Cæsar himself says he saw, as he was walking his rounds.
Now Cæsar having designed to raise his camp with the morning and move to Scotussa, whilst the soldiers were busy in pulling down their tents, and sending on their cattle and servants before them with their baggage, there came in scouts who brought word that they saw arms carried to and fro in the enemy’s camp, and heard a noise and running up and down, as of men preparing for battle; not long after there came in other scouts with further intelligence, that the first ranks were already set in battle array. Thereupon Cæsar, when he had told them that the wished for day was come at last, when they should fight with men, not with hunger and famine, instantly gave orders for the red colors to be set up before his tent, that being the ordinary signal of battle among the Romans. As soon as the soldiers saw that, they left their tents, and with great shouts of joy ran to their arms; the officers, likewise, on their parts drawing up their companies in order of battle, every man fell into his proper rank without any trouble or noise, as quietly and orderly as if they had been in a dance.
Pompey himself led the right wing of his army against Antony, and placed his father-in-law Scipio in the middle against Lucius Calvinus. The left wing was commanded by Lucius Domitius; and supported by the great mass of the horse. For almost the whole cavalry was posted there, in the hope of crushing Cæsar, and cutting off the tenth legion, which was spoken of as the stoutest in all the army, and in which Cæsar himself usually fought in person. Cæsar observing the left wing of the enemy to be lined and fortified with such a mighty guard of horse, and alarmed at the gallantry of their appearance, sent for a detachment of six cohorts out of the reserves, and placed them in the rear of the tenth legion, commanding them not to stir, lest they should be discovered by the enemy; but when the enemy’s horse should begin to charge, and press upon them, that they should make up with all speed to the front through the foremost ranks, and not throw their javelins at a distance, as is usual with brave soldiers, that they may come to a close fight with their swords the sooner, but that they should strike them upwards into the eyes and faces of the enemy; telling them that those fine young dancers would never endure the steel shining in their eyes, but would fly to save their handsome faces. This was Cæsar’s employment at that time. But while he was thus instructing his soldiers, Pompey on horseback was viewing the order of both armies, and when he saw how well the enemy kept their ranks, expecting quietly the signal of battle; and, on the contrary, how impatient and unsteady his own men were, waving up and down in disorder for want of experience, he was very much afraid that their ranks would be broken upon the first onset; and therefore he gave out orders that the van should make a stand, and keeping close in their ranks, should receive the enemy’s charge. Cæsar much condemns this command; which he says not only took off from the strength of the blows, which would otherwise have been made with a spring; but also lost the men the impetus, which, more than anything, in the moment of their coming upon the enemy, fills soldiers with impulse and inspiration, the very shouts and rapid pace adding to their fury; of which Pompey deprived his men, arresting them in their course and cooling down their heat.
Cæsar’s army consisted of twenty-two thousand, and Pompey’s of somewhat above twice as many. When the signal of battle was given on both sides, and the trumpets began to sound a charge, most men of course were fully occupied with their own matters; only some few of the noblest Romans, together with certain Greeks there present, standing as spectators without the battle, seeing the armies now ready to join, could not but consider in themselves to what a pass private ambition and emulation had brought the empire. Common arms, and kindred ranks drawn up under the self-same standards, the whole flower and strength of the same single city here meeting in collision with itself, offered plain proof how blind and how mad a thing human nature is, when once possessed with any passion; for if they had been desirous only to rule, and enjoy in peace what they had conquered in war, the greatest and best part of the world was subject to them both by sea and land. But if there was yet a thirst in their ambition, that must still be fed with new trophies and triumphs, the Parthian and German wars would yield matter enough to satisfy the most covetous of honor. Scythia, moreover, was yet unconquered, and the Indians too, where their ambition might be colored over with the specious pretext of civilizing barbarous nations. And what Scythian horse, Parthian arrows, or Indian riches, could be able to resist seventy thousand Roman soldiers, well appointed in arms, under the command of two such generals as Pompey and Cæsar, whose names they had heard of before that of the Romans, and whose prowess, by their conquests of such wild, remote, savage, and brutish nations, was spread further than the fame of the Romans themselves? Today they met in conflict, and could no longer be induced to spare their country, even out of regard for their own glory or the fear of losing the name which till this day both had held, of having never yet been defeated. As for their former private ties, and the charms of Julia, and the marriage that had made them near connections, these could now only be looked upon as tricks of state, the mere securities of a treaty made to serve the needs of an occasion, not the pledges of any real friendship.
Now, therefore, as soon as the plains of Pharsalia were covered with men, horse, and armor, and that the signal of battle was raised on either side, Caius Crassianus, a centurion, who commanded a company of one hundred and twenty men, was the first that advanced out of Cæsar’s army, to give the charge, and acquit himself of a solemn engagement that he had made to Cæsar. He had been the first man that Cæsar had seen going out of the camp in the morning, and Cæsar, after saluting him, had asked him what he thought of the coming battle. To which he, stretching out his right hand, replied aloud, “Thine is the victory, O Cæsar, thou shalt conquer gloriously, and I myself this day will be the subject of thy praise either alive or dead.” In pursuance of this promise he hastened forward, and being followed by many more, charged into the midst of the enemy. There they came at once to a close fight with their swords, and made a great slaughter; but as he was still pressing forward, and breaking the ranks of the vanguard, one of Pompey’s soldiers ran him in at the mouth, so that the point of the sword came out behind at his neck; and Crassianus being thus slain, the fight became doubtful, and continued equal on that part of the battle.
Pompey had not yet brought on the right wing, but stayed and looked about, waiting to see what execution his cavalry would do on the left. They had already drawn out their squadrons in form, designing to turn Cæsar’s flank, and force those few horse, which he had placed in the front, to give back upon the battalion of foot. But Cæsar, on the other side, having given the signal, his horse retreated back a little, and gave way to those six subsidiary cohorts, which had been posted in the rear, as a reserve to cover the flank; and which now came out, three thousand men in number, and met the enemy; and when they came up, standing by the horses, struck their javelins upwards, according to their instructions, and hit the horsemen full in their faces. They, unskillful in any manner of fight, and least of all expecting or understanding such a kind as this, had not courage enough to endure the blows upon their faces, but turning their backs, and covering their eyes with their hands, shamefully took to flight. Cæsar’s men, however, did not follow them, but marched upon the foot, and attacked the wing, which the flight of the cavalry had left unprotected, and liable to be turned and taken in the rear, so that this wing now being attacked in the flank by these, and charged in the front by the tenth legion, was not able to abide the charge, or make any longer resistance, especially when they saw themselves surrounded and circumvented in the very way in which they had designed to invest the enemy. Thus these being likewise routed and put to flight, when Pompey, by the dust flying in the air, conjectured the fate of his horse, it were very hard to say what his thoughts or intentions were, but looking like one distracted and beside himself, and without any recollection or reflection that he was Pompey the Great, he retired slowly towards his camp, without speaking a word to any man, exactly according to the description in the verses—
“But Jove from heaven struck Ajax with a fear;|
Ajax the bold then stood astonished there,
Flung o’er his back the mighty sevenfold shield,
And trembling gazed and spied about the field.”
In this state and condition he went into his own tent, and sat down, speechless still, until some of the enemy fell in together with his men that were flying into the camp, and then he let fall only this one word, “What! into the very camp?” and said no more; but rose up, and putting on a dress suitable to his present fortune, made his way secretly out.
By this time the rest of the army was put to flight, and there was a great slaughter in the camp among the servants and those that guarded the tents, but of the soldiers themselves there were not above six thousand slain, as is stated by Asinius Pollio, who himself fought in this battle on Cæsar’s side. When Cæsar’s soldiers had taken the camp, they saw clearly the folly and vanity of the enemy; for all their tents and pavilions were richly set out with garlands of myrtle, embroidered carpets and hangings, and tables laid and covered with goblets. There were large bowls of wine ready, and everything prepared and put in array, in the manner rather of people who had offered sacrifice and were going to celebrate a holiday, than of soldiers who had armed themselves to go out to battle, so possessed with the expectation of success and so full of empty confidence had they gone out that morning.
When Pompey had got a little way from the camp, he dismounted and forsook his horse, having but a small retinue with him; and finding that no man pursued him, walked on softly afoot, taken up altogether with thoughts, such as probably might possess a man that for the space of thirty-four years together had been accustomed to conquest and victory, and was then at last, in his old age, learning for the first time what defeat and flight were. And it was no small affliction to consider, that he had lost in one hour all that glory and power, which he had been getting in so many wars, and bloody battles; and that he who but a little before was guarded with such an army of foot, so many squadrons of horse, and such a mighty fleet, was now flying in so mean a condition, and with such a slender retinue, that his very enemies who fought him could not know him. Thus, when he had passed by the city of Larissa, and came into the pass of Tempe, being very thirsty, he kneeled down and drank out of the river; then rising up again, he passed through Tempe, until he came to the seaside, and there he betook himself to a poor fisherman’s cottage, where he rested the remainder of the night. The next morning about break of day he went into one of the river boats, and taking none of those that followed him except such as were free, dismissed his servants, advising them to go boldly to Cæsar, and not be afraid. As he was rowing up and down near the shore, he chanced to spy a large merchant-ship, lying off, just ready to set sail; the master of which was a Roman citizen, named Peticius, who, though he was not familiarly acquainted with Pompey, yet knew him well by sight. Now it happened that this Peticius dreamed, the night before, that he saw Pompey, not like the man he had often seen him, but in a humble and dejected condition, and in that posture discoursing with him. He was then telling his dream to the people on board, as men do when at leisure, and especially dreams of that consequence, when of a sudden one of the mariners told him, he saw a river boat with oars putting off from shore, and that some of the men there shook their garments, and held out their hands, with signs to take them in; thereupon Peticius looking attentively, at once recognized Pompey, just as he appeared in his dream, and smiting his hand on his head, ordered the mariners to let down the ship’s boat, he himself waving his hand, and calling to him by his name, already assured of his change and the change of his fortune by that of his garb. So that without waiting for any further entreaty or discourse, he took him into his ship, together with as many of his company as he thought fit, and hoisted sail. There were with him the two Lentuli, and Favonius; and a little after they spied king Deiotarus, making up towards them from the shore; so they stayed and took him in along with them. At supper time, the master of the ship having made ready such provisions as he had aboard, Pompey, for want of his servants, began to undo his shoes himself; which Favonius noticing ran to him and undid them, and helped him to anoint himself, and always after continued to wait upon, and attend him in all things, as servants do their masters, even to the washing of his feet, and preparing his supper. Insomuch that anyone there present, observing the free and unaffected courtesy of these services, might have well exclaimed—
“O heavens, in those that noble are,|
Whate’er they do is fit and fair.”
Pompey, sailing by the city of Amphipolis, crossed over from thence to Mitylene, with a design to take in Cornelia and his son; and as soon as he arrived at the port in that island, he dispatched a messenger into the city, with news very different from Cornelia’s expectation. For she, by all the former messages and letters sent to please her, had been put in hopes that the war was ended at Dyrrhachium, and that there was nothing more remaining for Pompey, but the pursuit of Cæsar. The messenger finding her in the same hopes still, was not able to salute or speak to her, but declaring the greatness of her misfortune by his tears rather than by his words, desired her to make haste if she would see Pompey, with one ship only, and that not of his own. The young lady hearing this, fell down in a swoon, and continued a long time senseless and speechless. And when with some trouble she was brought to her senses again, being conscious to herself that this was no time for lamentation and tears, she started up and ran through the city towards the seaside, where Pompey meeting and embracing her, as she sank down, supported by his arms, “This, sir,” she exclaimed, “is the effect of my fortune, not of yours, that I see you thus reduced to one poor vessel, who before your marriage with Cornelia, were wont to sail in these seas with a fleet of five hundred ships. Why therefore should you come to see me, or why not rather have left to her evil genius one who has brought upon you her own ill-fortune? How happy a woman had I been, if I had breathed out my last, before the news came from Parthia of the death of Publius, the husband of my youth, and how prudent if I had followed his destiny, as I designed! But I was reserved for a greater mischief, even the ruin of Pompey the Great.”
Thus, they say, Cornelia spoke to him, and this was Pompey’s reply: “You have had, Cornelia, but one season of a better fortune, which it may be, gave you unfounded hopes, by attending me a longer time than is usual. It behoves us, who are mortals born, to endure these events, and to try fortune yet again; neither is it any less possible to recover our former state, than it was to fall from that into this.” Thereupon Cornelia sent for her servants and baggage out of the city. The citizens also of Mitylene came out to salute and invite Pompey into the city, but he refused, advising them to be obedient to the conqueror, and fear not, for that Cæsar was a man of great goodness and clemency. Then turning to Cratippus, the philosopher, who came among the rest out of the city to visit him, he began to find some fault, and briefly argued with him upon Providence, but Cratippus modestly declined the dispute, putting him in better hopes only, lest by opposing, he might seem too austere or unseasonable. For he might have put Pompey a question in his turn, in defense of Providence; and might have demonstrated the necessity there was that the commonwealth should be turned into a monarchy, because of their ill government in the state; and could have asked, “How, O Pompey, and by what token or assurance can we ascertain, that if the victory had been yours, you would have used your fortune better than Cæsar? We must leave the divine power to act as we find it do.”
Pompey having taken his wife and friends aboard, set sail, making no port, nor touching anywhere, but when he was necessitated to take in provisions, or fresh water. The first city he entered was Attalia, in Pamphylia, and whilst he was there, there came some galleys thither to him out of Cilicia, together with a small body of soldiers, and he had almost sixty senators with him again; then hearing that his navy was safe too, and that Cato had rallied a considerable body of soldiers after their overthrow, and was crossing with them over into Africa, he began to complain and blame himself to his friends that he had allowed himself to be driven into engaging by land, without making use of his other forces, in which he was irresistibly the stronger, and had not kept near enough to his fleet, that failing by land, he might have reinforced himself from the sea, and would have been again at the head of a power quite sufficient to encounter the enemy on equal terms. And in truth, neither did Pompey during all the war commit a greater oversight, nor Cæsar use a more subtle stratagem, than in drawing the fight so far off from the naval forces.
As it now was, however, since he must come to some decision, and try some plan within his present ability, he dispatched his agents to the neighboring cities, and himself sailed about in person to others, requiring their aid in money and men for his ships. But, fearing lest the rapid approach of the enemy might cut off all his preparations, he began to consider what place would yield him the safest refuge and retreat at present. A consultation was held, and it was generally agreed that no province of the Romans was secure enough. As for foreign kingdoms, he himself was of opinion, that Parthia would be the fittest to receive and defend them in their present weakness, and best able to furnish them with new means and send them out again with large forces. Others of the council were for going into Africa, and to king Juba. But Theophanes the Lesbian, thought it madness to leave Egypt, that was but at a distance of three days’ sailing, and make no use of Ptolemy, who was still a boy, and was highly indebted to Pompey for the friendship and favor he had shown to his father, only to put himself under the Parthian, and trust the most treacherous nation in the world; and rather than make any trial of the clemency of a Roman, and his own near connection, to whom if he would but yield to be second, he might be the first and chief over all the rest, to go and place himself at the mercy of Arsaces, which even Crassus had not submitted to, while alive; and, moreover, to expose his young wife, of the family of the Scipios, among a barbarous people, who govern by their lusts, and measure their greatness by their power to commit affronts and insolencies; from whom, though she suffered no dishonor, yet it might be thought she did, being in the hands of those who had the power to do it. This argument alone, they say, was persuasive enough to divert his course, that was designed towards Euphrates, if it were so indeed that any counsel of Pompey’s, and not some superior power, made him take this other way.
As soon, therefore, as it was resolved upon, that he should fly into Egypt, setting sail from Cyprus in a galley of Seleucia, together with Cornelia, while the rest of his company sailed along near him, some in ships of war, and others in merchant vessels, he passed over sea without danger. But on hearing that king Ptolemy was posted with his army at the city of Pelusium, making war against his sister, he steered his course that way, and sent a messenger before to acquaint the king with his arrival, and to crave his protection. Ptolemy himself was quite young, and therefore Pothinus, who had the principal administration of all affairs, called a council of the chief men, those being the greatest whom he pleased to make so, and commanded them every man to deliver his opinion touching the reception of Pompey. It was, indeed, a miserable thing, that the fate of the great Pompey should be left to the determinations of Pothinus the eunuch, Theodotus of Chios, the paid rhetoric master, and Achillas the Egyptian. For these, among the chamberlains and menial domestics, that made up the rest of the council, were the chief and leading men. Pompey, who thought it dishonorable for him to owe his safety to Cæsar, riding at anchor at a distance from shore, was forced to wait the sentence of this tribunal. It seems they were so far different in their opinions that some were for sending the man away, and others again for inviting and receiving him; but Theodotus, to show his cleverness and the cogency of his rhetoric, undertook to demonstrate, that neither the one nor the other was safe in that juncture of affairs. For if they entertained him, they would be sure to make Cæsar their enemy, and Pompey their master; or if they dismissed him, they might render themselves hereafter obnoxious to Pompey, for that inhospitable expulsion, and to Cæsar, for the escape; so that the most expedient course would be to send for him and take away his life, for by that means they would ingratiate themselves with the one, and have no reason to fear the other; adding, it is related, with a smile, that “a dead man cannot bite.”
This advice being approved of, they committed the execution of it to Achillas. He, therefore, taking with him as his accomplices one Septimius, a man that had formerly held a command under Pompey, and Salvius, another centurion, with three or four attendants, made up towards Pompey’s galley. In the meantime, all the chiefest of those who accompanied Pompey in this voyage, were come into his ship to learn the event of their embassy. But when they saw the manner of their reception, that in appearance it was neither princely nor honorable, nor indeed in any way answerable to the hopes of Theophanes, or their expectation, (for there came but a few men in a fisherman’s boat to meet them,) they began to suspect the meanness of their entertainment, and gave warning to Pompey that he should row back his galley, whilst he was out of their reach, and make for the sea. By this time, the Egyptian boat drew near, and Septimius standing up first, saluted Pompey in the Latin tongue, by the title of imperator. Then Achillas, saluting him in the Greek language, desired him to come aboard his vessel, telling him, that the sea was very shallow towards the shore, and that a galley of that burden could not avoid striking upon the sands. At the same time they saw several of the king’s galleys getting their men on board, and all the shore covered with soldiers; so that even if they changed their minds, it seemed impossible for them to escape, and besides, their distrust would have given the assassins a pretence for their cruelty. Pompey, therefore, taking his leave of Cornelia, who was already lamenting his death before it came, bade two centurions, with Philip, one of his freedmen, and a slave called Scythes, go on board the boat before him. And as some of the crew with Achillas were reaching out their hands to help him, he turned about towards his wife and son, and repeated those iambics of Sophocles—
“He that once enters at a tyrant’s door,|
Becomes a slave, though he were free before.”
These were the last words he spoke to his friends, and so he went aboard. Observing presently that notwithstanding there was a considerable distance betwixt his galley and the shore, yet none of the company addressed any words of friendliness or welcome to him all the way, he looked earnestly upon Septimius, and said, “I am not mistaken, surely, in believing you to have been formerly my fellow-soldier.” But he only nodded with his head, making no reply at all, nor showing any other courtesy. Since, therefore, they continued silent, Pompey took a little book in his hand, in which was written out an address in Greek, which he intended to make to king Ptolemy, and began to read it. When they drew near to the shore, Cornelia, together with the rest of his friends in the galley, was very impatient to see the event, and began to take courage at last, when she saw several of the royal escort coming to meet him, apparently to give him a more honorable reception; but in the meantime, as Pompey took Philip by the hand to rise up more easily, Septimius first stabbed him from behind with his sword; and after him likewise Salvius and Achillas drew out their swords. He, therefore, taking up his gown with both hands, drew it over his face, and neither saying nor doing anything unworthy of himself, only groaning a little, endured the wounds they gave him, and so ended his life, in the fifty-ninth year of his age, the very next day after the day of his birth.
Cornelia, with her company from the galley, seeing him murdered, gave such a cry that it was heard to the shore, and weighing anchor with all speed, they hoisted sail, and fled. A strong breeze from the shore assisted their flight into the open sea, so that the Egyptians, though desirous to overtake them, desisted from the pursuit. But they cut off Pompey’s head, and threw the rest of his body overboard, leaving it naked upon the shore, to be viewed by any that had the curiosity to see so sad a spectacle. Philip stayed by and watched till they had glutted their eyes in viewing it; and then washing it with sea-water, having nothing else, he wrapped it up in a shirt of his own for a winding-sheet. Then seeking up and down about the sands, at last he found some rotten planks of a little fisher-boat, not much, but yet enough to make up a funeral pile for a naked body, and that not quite entire. As Philip was busy in gathering and putting these old planks together, an old Roman citizen, who in his youth had served in the wars under Pompey, came up to him and demanded, who he was that was preparing the funeral of Pompey the Great. And Philip making answer, that he was his freedman, “Nay, then,” said he, “you shall not have this honor alone; let even me, too, I pray you, have my share in such a pious office. that I may not altogether repent me of this pilgrimage in a strange land, but in compensation of many misfortunes, may obtain this happiness at last, even with mine own hands to touch the body of Pompey, and do the last duties to the greatest general among the Romans.” And in this manner were the obsequies of Pompey performed. The next day Lucius Lentulus, not knowing what had passed, came sailing from Cyprus along the shore of that coast, and seeing a funeral pile, and Philip standing by, exclaimed, before he was yet seen by any one, “Who is this that has found his end here?” adding, after a short pause, with a sigh, “Possibly even thou, Pompeius Magnus!” and so going ashore, he was presently apprehended and slain. This was the end of Pompey.
Not long after, Cæsar arrived in the country that was polluted with this foul act, and when one of the Egyptians was sent to present him with Pompey’s head, he turned away from him with abhorrence as from a murderer; and on receiving his seal, on which was engraved a lion holding a sword in his paw, he burst into tears. Achillas and Pothinus he put to death; and king Ptolemy himself, being overthrown in battle upon the banks of the Nile, fled away and was never heard of afterwards. Theodotus, the rhetorician, flying out of Egypt, escaped the hands of Cæsar’s justice, but lived a vagabond in banishment; wandering up and down, despised and hated of all men, till at last Marcus Brutus, after he had killed Cæsar, finding him in his province of Asia, put him to death, with every kind of ignominy. The ashes of Pompey were carried to his wife Cornelia, who deposited them at his country house near Alba. | <urn:uuid:2111dc51-a91e-42a7-99dd-b261a7eaddd2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://constitution.org/rom/plutarch/pompey.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00117-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.991294 | 43,237 | 2.984375 | 3 |
ARIHUMAN INDIANS. The Arihuman Indians are known only from a Spanish document of 1683 that does not clearly identify their area, but it seems to have been east of the Pecos River in west central Texas. Their affiliations remain unknown.
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Uploaded on June 9, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association. | <urn:uuid:3f6c77d8-cfa7-495c-a9e0-8fad02a10e15> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/bma46 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00066-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92547 | 291 | 2.84375 | 3 |
The Internet has already fundamentally changed the way that people communicate, shop, and even date, but now it is poised to revolutionize psychological studies by enabling researchers to quickly and easily recruit thousands of study volunteers from around the world, and by changing the way the public interacts with researchers.
By conducting experiments online, researchers have been able to enlist as many as 65,000 volunteers to take part in studies of cognition, a number far larger than they could bring into the lab. Such studies, however, have been dogged by questions about whether anonymous, unpaid volunteers tested online can produce data that is as high quality as that gathered through in-person lab testing.
New research conducted by Harvard scientists may put those questions to rest.
A team led by Laura Germine, a postdoctoral research associate in Harvard’s Psychology Department, and made up of Ken Nakayama, Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology and chair of the Department of Psychology, Jeremy Wilmer of Wellesley College, and Christopher F. Chabris ’88, Ph.D. ’99, assistant professor of psychology at Union College, has shown that data gathered through online volunteers can be just as good as that from in-person experiments. Their research is described in a forthcoming issue of Psychonomic Bulletin & Review.
“What this says is that people shouldn’t be afraid of the Web as a way of conducting their research,” said Germine, the paper’s first author. “Despite the cost advantages, despite the time advantages, researchers continue to worry that data from Web volunteers will not be as good as data from paid lab participants. We’ve shown that data from self-selected Web volunteers can be very good. The thing I like to say about using the Web is that it’s fast, it’s cheap, but it’s not dirty. In experiments like ours, what you’re getting is good, reliable data.”
To test whether Web studies are as valid as those done in the lab, researchers recruited thousands of volunteers through Germine’s site, TestMyBrain.org. The volunteers, who navigated from search engines and social networking sites, took part in a handful of tests to learn more about themselves and contribute to scientific research. These tests were designed to assess everything from facial recognition ability to a person’s capacity for remembering a long string of numbers. Researchers then compared the results of the online tests with those done in the lab.
“We looked at three basic metrics,” Germine explained. “We looked at mean performance, we looked at variation in performance, and we looked at internal consistency. In some ways, I think, the third measure — the consistency, or internal reliability — is the most important, because it allows you to look at how someone’s performance on one part of the test predicts how they will perform on another part of the test. If they stopped paying attention or started watching YouTube videos halfway through a test, that would be reflected in lower reliability.”
On each measure, Germine said, the results from studies conducted with Web volunteers were the same as those done in the lab. The only variation researchers found came when they compared the average, or mean, performance of the general public with that of elite college students from Harvard and Wellesley on IQ-based tests.
“For tests based on visual recognition and perception that are less related to IQ, average scores were the same for Web and lab,” Germine said.
While it has simplified the process of gathering data, the Web has also changed the relationship between researchers and those they study. By forming communities online, Germine said, people who suffer from a particular disorder have been able to raise awareness — and drive research in areas that might otherwise not be studied.
“The other benefit that comes from using the Web is that people can offer insights about themselves we might not think to ask,” Germine said. “The best example of this is with the selective developmental disorders.”
Arguably the most prominent example of such a disorder is prosopagnosia, also known as “face blindness,” in which individuals have difficulty recognizing people, sometimes even in their own families. Although the condition was occasionally reported following a stroke, when people claimed to have had the disorder from birth, they were often dismissed by doctors and researchers. As tests for facial recognition were made available online, researchers began to realize that the disorder was far more common than previously thought.
“As a result, we learned a great deal,” Germine said. “Because we had these tests available online, and because people were able to participate in this exploration online, the knowledge they gained validated their own experience, which encouraged them to get in contact with a researcher. So there was this circle of knowledge that became very beneficial to everyone involved.
“I think psychology, as a field, is unique in that the research questions can be made fairly accessible to the public,” she added. “The Web offers us another avenue to take advantage of that, and to engage people in our science in a new way. I think there’s a great opportunity for collaboration between scientists and ‘citizen scientists’ to advance scientific knowledge.” | <urn:uuid:e1155c3d-99cb-4ac2-90ab-a28d33270b31> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2012/08/bringing-the-psych-lab-online/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974309 | 1,096 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Bragg, William Henry (1862–1942)
A crystal is a substance consisting of a regular arrangement of atoms or molecules. In 1911 a German scientist, Max von Laue, discovered that when a narrow beam of X-rays falls on a crystal it is scattered as a regular pattern of diffracted beams. As the X-rays sweep through the crystal, the atoms scatter them, and these diffracted beams appear in directions where the scattered waves from all the atoms add their effects together (see X-ray diffraction). By studying this effect it is possible to find out how the atoms are arranged in the crystal.
W. L. Bragg, then a student at Cambridge University, first used von Laue's complex method to work out the structure of common salt, sodium chloride (NaCl). W. H. Bragg then devised a far more powerful and simple instrument, the X-ray spectrometer, which made it possible to investigate more complex structures, such as that of diamond.
Related category• PHYSICISTS
Home • About • Copyright © The Worlds of David Darling • Encyclopedia of Alternative Energy • Contact | <urn:uuid:125d091e-479e-4c99-9e0f-df0838a152df> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/B/Bragg_William_Henry.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00029-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.882852 | 233 | 3.828125 | 4 |
Day of the Dead (Dia de los Muertos) is observed in Mexico on All Saints Day, November 1 and All Souls Day, November 2nd. Altars are lovingly decorated with photos of the deceased, their favorite foods and drinks, flowers and candy. Customs vary throughout different parts of Mexico, but the country as a whole faithfully celebrates the holiday.
The illustrator José Guadalupe Posada (1852-1913) created the famous skeleton dressed as a high-society lady now known as La Catrina and universally recognized as the reigning queen of Dia de los Muertos.
The origins of this unique holiday can be traced back thousands of years to Aztec culture. There are also similar holidays in Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America. | <urn:uuid:086621e5-3ead-4926-b8b1-49c1b7f2f0f2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.huffingtonpost.com/holly-cara-price/mexicos-day-of-the-dead_b_776582.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00019-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933668 | 159 | 2.90625 | 3 |
NVIDIA Helps NASA Reconstruct Mars Rover Data in Virtual Reality
NVIDIA Quadro Graphics Power 3D Photorealistic Exploration of Planet’s Surface, Rover Route and Experiment Rehearsal, Streamlined Analysis
For further information, contact:
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE:
SANTA CLARA, CA—JANUARY 19, 2004—NVIDIA Corporation (Nasdaq: NVDA), the worldwide leader in visual processing solutions, today announced that NASA is using its technology to reconstruct Martian terrain from transmitted rover data in photorealistic virtual reality, allowing scientists to explore Mars in 3D as if they were actually moving freely on the planet’s surface. This NVIDIA-powered environment serves as a precise vision and planning system for NASA scientists, allowing them to rehearse a variety of Mars rover scenarios, mapping out moves and experiments, prior to directing the vehicle to undertake actual tasks by “flying” through highly realistic, 3D reconstructions of the Martian surface.
“NVIDIA technology allows NASA to visualize the Martian terrain in photorealistic virtual reality, greatly enhancing scientists’ understanding of the environment and streamlining analysis,” said Laurence Edwards, Mars team lead for 3D visualization and surface reconstruction from NASA Ames Research Center. “With this capability, scientists step into a visually engaging model of the planet’s surface and interactively study multiple perspectives—front, back, side views—of every object the rovers investigate to fully explore all options for rover routes and experiments.”
NASA scientists use NVIDIA graphics to visualize high resolution photographic imagery more than three times as detailed as images sent from Sojourner in 1997. Because the new rovers travel six to ten times farther than Sojourner, taking approximately 6,000 to 10,000 more measurements per foot, the data visualized with NVIDIA graphics is transformed into a particularly detailed, visually-enhanced representation of the planet’s terrain. Each day rover missions are underway, one group of NASA scientists focus on that day’s rover operation while another plans the following day’s activities by studying and interacting with this graphically rendered photographic and measurement data—taken from targeted, but as yet unexplored Martian terrain.
“NVIDIA graphics allow NASA scientists to interactively plan rover movements using 3D photorealistic views of the surface so commands transmitted to rovers result in successful experiments and data gathering,” said Edwards. “Data transmissions from Mars involve massive amounts of image data that must be quickly viewed, studied, and shared. Three-dimensional visualization in photorealistic virtual reality is the most effective way to maximize distance traveled and knowledge gained.”
Two NASA rovers, Spirit, which landed on Mars on January 3, 2004, and Opportunity, which is scheduled to land on January 24, 2004, will explore locations that suggest the one-time presence of water. By converting the data collected from cameras and scientific instruments on the rovers into knowledge through visualization, NVIDIA graphics technology help NASA scientists learn more about the history of water on Mars in the hopes of determining whether life currently exists on or beneath the surface.
“Today, with this new technology, NASA can simulate the lighting and surface conditions expected on Mars when an experiment is to be conducted,” said Edwards. “If a rock will cast a shadow, obscuring a feature of interest, scientists on the ground will know about this effect in advance and plan around it. In the future, we envision scientists sitting within a large wrap-around display and programming rover movements and experiments using simple touch-screen or voice commands.”
NVIDIA technology also allows NASA to share the knowledge gained from rover missions with the world community. Scientists worldwide can access and study the largest and most topographically accurate 3D models ever constructed during remote space exploration and, with the routine posting of 3D images on the Web, the public can virtually participate in the search for life on Mars.
Certain statements in this press release, including any statements relating to the Company's performance expectations for NVIDIA's family of products and expectations of continued revenue growth, are forward-looking statements that are subject to risks and uncertainties that could cause results to be materially different than expectations. Such risks and uncertainties include, but are not limited to, manufacturing and other delays relating to new products, difficulties in the fabrication process and dependence of the Company on third-party manufacturers, general industry trends including cyclical trends in the PC and semiconductor industries, the impact of competitive products and pricing alternatives, market acceptance of the Company's new products, and the Company's dependence on third-party developers and publishers. Investors are advised to read the Company's Annual Report on Form 10-K and quarterly reports on Form 10-Q filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission, particularly those sections entitled "Certain Business Risks," for a fuller discussion of these and other risks and uncertainties.
# # #
Copyright © 2004 NVIDIA Corporation. All rights reserved. All company and/or product names may be trade names, trademarks and/or registered trademarks of the respective owners with which they are associated. Features, pricing, availability, and specifications are subject to change without notice.
Note to editors: If you are interested in viewing additional information on NVIDIA, please visit the NVIDIA Press Room at http://www.nvidia.com/page/press_room.html | <urn:uuid:3056c6a1-156c-4fa9-b417-a05738307881> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nvidia.com/object/IO_10688.html?_templateId=320 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00123-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.905965 | 1,094 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Life Science: Session 7
Melissa Minnick, Walkersville, MD
“I think that when we teach life science with a hands-on constructivist method, we will bring these children’s world to them. Then they start to make the connections that we want them to make. Then they start to do that investigative thinking and that scientific thinking, and make the connections from what they see in their world to what they’re doing in the classroom, and realize that science is all around them.”
School at a Glance:
Glade Elementary School
- Location: Walkersville, MD
- Enrollment: 588
- Students per teacher: 16.7
3% African American
- Percentage of students receiving free or reduced-price lunch: 6% versus a state average of 37%
Melissa Minnick teaches fifth grade at Glade Elementary School in Walkersville, Maryland. Located 50 miles west of Baltimore, Walkersville is a small, middle-class community. The students at Glade Elementary regularly exceed the state average on state tests.
Melissa remembers how influenced she was by an early teaching experience: “When I was seven years old, I was at a babysitter’s, and I helped a child understand subtraction as backwards addition, and when the younger child understood it, I realized that that’s what I wanted to do with the rest of my life. So, all through high school, all through college, that’s what I worked on, becoming a teacher.” It’s not surprising then, that Melissa finds the moments when she gets to watch students “grasp a concept” the most rewarding.
|prev: children's ideas bibliography||next: lesson and curriculum| | <urn:uuid:123b0b1f-9d6d-49fc-a8dc-ffa81d0d75a2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://learner.org/courses/essential/life/session7/classroom.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00004-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959601 | 371 | 2.796875 | 3 |
In a state that has the largest deer population in the nation, it should come as no surprise there has long been a close relationship between farming, ranching, rural property ownership and deer and wildlife management.
Good deer and wildlife management helps protect the environment, preserves time honored traditions, and also helps agricultural producers manage natural resources that affect farming and ranching operations.
The Texas Deer Study Group, originally known as the West Texas Deer Study Group, was formed in 1997 to serve as a forum for information exchange between deer and property managers across the state. Dr. Dale Rollins, AgriLife Extension wildlife specialist at San Angelo and steering committee member of the Group, says this year’s two-day group meeting will be held in Glen Rose and will kick off April 18 at the Somervell County Expo and Texas Amphitheatre.
“The slate of speakers assembled for this year’s meeting is a who’s who among deer biologists. Topics will range from biology to ethics. Several veterinarians will lead the group in a hands-on deer dissection that will help set the stage for the other presentations. The hands-on teaching method will continue during the second day’s tour of the Quail Ridge Ranch where participants will be trained on proper habitat management.”
Rollins says while deer management is a concern to almost all rural property owners, there are varying opinions about how to best achieve it.
If you are enjoying reading this article, please check out Southwest Farm Press Daily and receive the latest news right to your inbox.
“A growing trend towards more intensive deer management, including deer breeding, illustrates some managers’ goals, while others believe such intensive management diminishes the overall value of deer in the eyes of the hunter and the public,” he said.
Regardless which method of good management you follow, Rollins says the annual study group meeting is the perfect place to stay up on the latest developments of deer management in Texas.
“Since its inception, the program has been a collaboration among AgriLife Extension, the U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service, the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, and the Texas Wildlife Association and Wildlife Systems,” Rollins said. “The teamwork developed among these partners not only brings a multifaceted approach to an educational meeting, but other spin-offs, the Buckskin Brigade Wildlife Leadership Camp for youth, for example, have helped raise awareness on deer management to audiences of all ages.”
The full agenda includes a host of qualified specialists who will provide information on a number of deer management topics. The full agenda includes:
* Reflections on Stewardship - Dr. Dan McBride
* Fundamentals of Deer Management - Ty Bartoskowitz
* Plant/Soil Responses to Fire and Drought - Steve Nelle
* Range Management Considerations - Ricky Linex
* Making a Feeding Program Work - Kent Mills
* Economic, Ecologic, and Biologic Costs of Feeding - Dr. Dave Hewitt
* Emerging Research Issues - Dr. Randy DeYoung
* Wildlife Management Association/Co-op Perspectives - Warren Blesh
* Trail Cameras for Surveys and Scouting - Ruben Cantu
* Status Report on Antler Regs - David Forrester
* Genetic Management Strategies Using Breeder Permits, DMP Facilities, and Traditional Culling - Warren Bluntzer, Dr. Charges DeYoung, and Don Draeger
* Public Perceptions of Deer Breeding - Brian Murphy
* Market Sustainability of Deer Hunting - Greg Simons
* Perspective on CWD - Dr. James Kroll, Dr. Bill Eikenhorst, Mitch Lockwood
* Field Tour of Quail Ridge Ranch with plant identification, range interpretations, and deer necropsy on the agenda.
Rollins says this year’s Study Group theme is “Navigating the Deer Management Continuum,” which reflects the spectrum of deer management intensity and technologies.
Somervell County Expo and Texas Amphitheatre is located in Glen Rose at 202 Bo Gibbs Blvd. Day one activities start with registration at 7:30 a.m. and will continue until 8:45 a.m. Breaks for lunch and dinner are scheduled.
Tour of the Quail Ridge Ranch gets underway at 8:00 a.m. on Day 2 of the event.
Individual registration is $75 before April 10 and $100 thereafter. Registration is available online at www.texas-wildlife.org. | <urn:uuid:dd7419c3-1a95-4fe6-b210-9071c2bc03d4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://southwestfarmpress.com/print/management/definitive-deer-study-targets-rural-property-owners?intlink=rceoc | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.908574 | 934 | 2.703125 | 3 |
The Universtiy of Georgia Museum of Natural History is an important repository of objects, artifacts, and specimens relating to the natural history of Georgia and the Southeast.
Many separate collections constitute the Georgia Museum of Natural History:
- Archaeology Laboratory
- Department of Plant Biology Herbarium
- Collection of Arthropods
- Geology Collections - including the Allard Collection
- Herpetology Collection
- Ichthyology Collection
- Invertebrate Collections
- Mammalogy Collections
- Mycological Herbarium
- Ornithology Collections
- Zooarchaeology Laboratory
Each of these collections represents an irreplaceable storehouse of information and knowledge
relating largely, though not exclusively, to Georgia and the Southeast. Each collection is
professionally managed and curated by specialists in their respective areas. All the collections
have regional significance and most have national if not international recognition within the
On purely subjective basis comparing the range of types of collections, their size, the extent o f their research programs and the quality of management practices, collections affiliated with the Georgia Museum of Natural History rank among the important museums of natural history in the nation and certainly within the top museums of natural history in the southeastern United States. A recent survey among the nation's universities maintaining museums of natural history indicated that the Georgia Museum of Natural History collections rank 9th in terms of size.
The Museum's collections are broadly recognized in the scientific community as an important regional resource. Each year the Museum processes requests for information and loans of thousands of specimens to researchers throughout the world. It is visited by approximately 100 scientists who utilize the collections in their research.
But more than just a repository, the Museum is an archive of information and knowledge that goes beyond the actual specimens. The cumulative knowledge and expertise of the collections personnel, most of whom have national and international recognition, is an irreplaceable resource almost as valuable as the collections themselves. | <urn:uuid:d74f8528-1e9d-40ae-b95e-7a69d3d441e0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://museum.nhm.uga.edu/index.php?page=content/researchcollections/cmanagement | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00022-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.900542 | 392 | 3.21875 | 3 |
[ReadWrite 1792] Academic Vocabulary
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Sun May 29 12:14:38 EDT 2011
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Do any of you try to teach your students academic vocabulary? I think that this is a neglected topic in our field-and yet an important one for all of our students-GED learners, ABE learners, and ESL learners. The International Reading Association just sent out a post stating:
"Academic vocabulary can be difficult ... to master, in part because the words do not come up naturally in conversations. They also tend to be words that have very specific meanings in different contexts. For example, understanding the structure of a cell is very different from understanding the structure of a short story."
Do any of you know of academic vocabulary word lists? In the post, the International Reading Association suggested that people look at Coxhead's Academic Word List found at: http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/resources/academicwordlist/
It would be great to hear from subscribers on this list about this topic. Do you notice whether your students struggle with academic vocabulary? Is this something that receives attention in conferences you attend, professional development opportunities that you attend, or in meetings you attend? Do you have experiences tackling academic vocabulary issues with your students? | <urn:uuid:010cb7c8-b3e7-4676-8b5d-547365bf462b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://lincs.ed.gov/pipermail/readwrite/2011/001828.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925695 | 357 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Life in the Wild takes away the usual distance that separates people from wildlife. The raven and the gray wolf and the polar bear look so close you can see the snowflakes on their faces. You can count over fifty sharp teeth in the open mouth of the reef lizardfish and see the shadow illuminating bits of skin that hang from a leaf-tailed gecko’s lower jaw.
Divided into five chapters (mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians, fish, and invertebrates), the color photographs that appear in this book remind us that there is something to admire in all types of wildlife. There is the multipurpose bill of the shoebill bird, which can be used to take on a young crocodile or transport water to overheating shoebill chicks. The tokay gecko from Asia can walk across ceilings because of the hairs that cover its feet, and the flying gurnard can use its fins to swim or its pelvic rays to “walk.” No matter which chapter you are in, you will find some of the most beautiful and colorful wildlife in the world. The lilac-breasted roller has purple, orange, yellow and blue feathers. The black panther’s fur looks as smooth and soft as velvet, and the freshwater crayfish from Australia has cherry-red markings on its bright blue body.
A small paragraph of information appears next to every photograph. Appearing in white font against black backgrounds, they combine details about diet, habitat, camouflage, and size with one or two interesting facts. For example, beside the photograph of the black panther is this paragraph:
Until recently, the black panther was, erroneously, regarded as a species on its own right. “Melanism” occurs in a number of cat species; jaguars (Panthera onca) and leopards (Pantherna pardus) both sometimes produce animals with much more melanin (a dark pigment) than normal. These black individuals are known as black panthers. Closer examination of their silky skin reveals their normal markings “underneath” the black. Most black leopard sightings are in Asia, rather than Africa. Black jaguars are found in the New World.
A beautiful book with universal appeal, Life in the Wild can be enjoyed by people of all ages. | <urn:uuid:9f9a9631-c2ff-4df2-880a-b415890a2b39> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.curledup.com/lifewild.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00061-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943268 | 486 | 3.1875 | 3 |
For the more information about the geologic resources of the National Park Service, please visit http://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/.
GIP Projects and Participants
The Geoscientists-in-the-Parks Program is multi-disciplinary but has a strong focus on the geosciences. The level of expertise and education required for participation varies with each project. The program focuses on college students and recent graduates.
Projects may require the following expertise:
- air resources
- biological resources
- climate change science
- geology (e.g., geomorphology, hydrogeology, paleontology, stratigraphy, geologic mapping, cave and karst science, soils, geohazards)
- natural sounds and night skies
- scenic resources
- water resources
Park projects may include:
- natural resource research
- mapping (geology, plants, animals)
- assessing geologic hazards
- summarizing scientific research for park staff
- monitoring the condition of natural resources
- conducting natural resource inventories and field surveys
measuring water quality, natural soundscapes, or light emissions
- preparing field guides and park resource overviews
- leading interpretive talks or programs for park visitors
- conducting viewshed analyses
Profiles of Former GIPs
Lilian Peterson, Paleontology Intern, Point Reyes National Seashore, California
Lillian's GIP project was to develop strategies for long-term monitoring of rapidly eroding fossil rich exposures along the park's coastline. While doing her project, Lillian Pearson and paleontologist Robert Boessenecker discovered and collected a short-beaked dolphin that likely represents a new species of marine mammal. The specimen was discovered when Lillian was evaluating coastal exposures of fossiliferous rocks at the national seashore. Very few cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises) have been described from the Purisima Formation and the recovery, preparation, and study of this specimen will provide important information on the biodiversity of marine mammals in the Pliocene age formation.
Paleontologist/Quarry Mapping interns, Dinosaur National Monument, Utah
Smith, Trinity Sterling and Mosaics in Science intern, Marie Jimenez designed and built the Digital Quarry Project website and began populating it with information about the fossils found in the park's Carnegie Dinosaur Quarry, the site for which the park was created in 1915. The Digital Quarry Project is a multi-institutional, multi-disciplinary project that will put a vast amount of information on-line in a searchable format and allow people all over the world to explore the quarry and learn about its remarkable story. This was the second year of GIP involvement in this project. In 2014, GIPs took thousands of photographs of the fossils exposed on the quarry face and converted historic quarry maps to a digitized GIS compatible format. The photographs and quarry maps were used by the 2015 GIP interns to develop the website. The website will be formally launched in October 2015 as part of the park's centennial celebrations.
Sara Fulton, Geology Interpreter, Bryce Canyon National Park, Utah
During her GIP internship, Sara Fulton constructed a stratigraphic column of the rock layers exposed at Capitol Reef National Park to help illustrate the sedimentary formations and geologic history of the park to local school children and park visitors. The stratigraphic column is currently displayed at the Ripple Rock Nature Center in the park. This lightweight , portable display can be used in a variety of park interpretive programs such as geology talks, porch talks, and evening programs as well as the annual GeoFest at Bryce Canyon National Park.
Amy Atwater and Montana Hodges, Paleontologist/GIS Technicians, Denali National Park and Preserve, Alaska
Amy Atwater and Montana Hodges worked on projects to enhance the study and public enjoyment of ichnofossils (trace fossils) at Denali National Park & Preserve, Alaska. Montana Hodges' focus was on managing and protecting the constantly growing fossil information at Denali National Park & Preserve. Montana completed a management and monitoring plan for the paleontological resources at the park, allowing professional researchers and public interest groups to access the fossils safely. Amy Atwater spent her time at the park developing a technique to identify areas that are likely to contain fossils without having to send researchers into the field.
Justin Peinado, Cave Surveyor and Data Manager, El Malpais National Monument, New Mexico
Justin Peinado completed an extensive survey of the geologically significant features on the lava flows at El Malpais National Monument, New Mexico, such as the large lava tube caves. The survey required hiking on the lava flow, sometimes for five miles a day. When Justin finished his work at the end of the summer, 400 unique geological features were recorded in the park's database.
Kelly Gray, GIS Technician, Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area, New Jersey, Pennsylvania
Kelly Gray took on a variety of projects using Geographical Information Systems (GIS) at Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Kelly's main project was a survey and assessment of the impact of unofficial social trails at the Hialeah Picnic Area and Kittatinny Point Visitor Center. Kelly created a basemap of the official trails in the park to be used as a template for a new trail map for visitors.
Last Updated: October 22, 2015 | <urn:uuid:17a45434-2c4f-4c8a-8310-f9ef544c0e29> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://nature.nps.gov/geology/gip/more_info.cfm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00200-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.914345 | 1,133 | 3.453125 | 3 |
Exotic whelk found in Bay may pose threat to shellfish, oyster fisheries
- Comments are closed for this article.
A whelk that apparently hitched a ride to the Bay from Europe may be the latest problem for oysters and other shellfish.
Since it was first discovered during a Virginia Institute of Marine Science trawl survey in Hampton Roads last August, more than 400 veined rapa whelk have been turned over to VIMS researchers by commercial fishermen. Most were found in the lower James and Norfolk area, but one was picked up from as far away as the Rappahannock.
Scientists believe whelk larvae were transported to Norfolk from the Black Sea, or the Mediterranean — a major trading partner for the port — in ship ballast water. Roger Mann, a VIMS scientists studying the whelk, estimates the introduction took place several years ago, based on the large size of the whelks being found — 120-160 millimeters.
The species Rapana venosa, a native to the Sea of Japan, was introduced into the Black Sea in the 1940s, and later spread to the Aegean and Adriatic seas.
Their arrival in the Bay sparks worries because the rapa whelk is a major shellfish predator in other areas. In the Adriatic Sea, whelk larvae seemingly honed in on artificial reefs, and proceeded to feed and grow on the ample supply of oysters and mussels found on the them.
In the Black Sea, rapa whelks have proved to be tolerant to low oxygen conditions, water pollution and low salinities, and are thought to have caused the near extinction of several previously abundant shellfish species.
Right now, no one knows for sure if they are reproducing on their own in the Bay, though they have reproduced in the laboratory at VIMS. Egg cases have been recovered in the Chesapeake — a sign of potential reproduction — but no small whelks have been found.
But, Mann noted, most of the whelks examined so far have been turned in by fishermen who use gear designed to catch larger animals, so they would likely miss small whelks. It’s also possible that small whelks use different habitats than larger ones, he said.
“If it turns out that they don’t reproduce,” Mann said, “then this is just a transient problem that will just go away.”
If they persist, rapa whelks have the potential to wreak havoc over a large area, said Mann, who discussed its potential distribution with other scientists along the coast at a recent conference. “The consensus was that an eventual distribution from Cape Hatteras to Cape Cod was not out of the question,” he said.
Mann said the rapa whelk could spread through much of the Bay as well, although oyster beds in upper portions of Virginia rivers would likely be safe from the whelks.
If they become established, the whelks could be difficult to get rid of. “A full-grown one in excess of 6 inches long is a very substantial animal, and quite frankly, I cannot think of anything that would eat a big, full-grown rapa,” Mann said.
The rapa whelk releases lemon-colored egg cases that attach to hard substrates on the bottom. One problem with controlling them is that when the larvae emerge, they are able to swim freely.
“If this was a species that just crawled around, then you could draw a fairly tight reign around where you thought these things existed,” Mann said. “If you have a planktonic larval stage that floats around, then the potential rate of dispersal is much quicker.”
The potential range for the rapa whelk, and its ability to affect many native commercial species, points to the need for the federal government to play a larger role in combating nonnative species, Mann said.
“If the rapa breeds and gets out of the Chesapeake Bay and into the Middle Atlantic, it’s going to be a lot of states’ problem,” he said. “So there needs to be some coordination at the federal level.”
- Category: Fisheries
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Comments are now closed for this article. Comments are accepted for 60 days after publication. | <urn:uuid:2d5c8da4-6d27-41d8-82b7-182f8869e02a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bayjournal.com/article/exotic_whelk_found_in_bay_may_pose_threat_to_shellfish_oyster_fisheries | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00164-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969447 | 955 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Galactic History 10: The Tion Cluster
This datacron holds unheard of power and knowledge collected by an ancient race. You access its power and discover writings which are clearly only one small piece of a massive galactic history:
As the Core Worlds began to expand, another power in the Core was rising. The Tion Cluster, inhabited by the descendants of ancient sleeper ship crews, had developed a new hyperspace beacon technology based on fragments left by the Infinite Empire–far superior than the hyperspace cannons previously in use.
The Tion Cluster was gradually conquered by an arrogant and powerful pirate prince, known to history as the despot Xim. Using the new hyperspace technology, he despoiled world after world, taking slaves and ruthlessly expanding his territory. His rule of the Tion Cluster lasted for thirty years and saw the conquest of hundreds of thousands of planets.
Xim might have continued his rule unchallenged even longer, but he chose to expand his empire into a new area of space, one already inhabited by the powerful Hutt Empire.
Top Wiki Contributors
Need assistance with editing this wiki? Check out these resources: | <urn:uuid:b2a43824-c955-4dbd-8c32-38f53ea2cf7c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ign.com/wikis/star-wars-the-old-republic/Galactic_History_10%3A_The_Tion_Cluster?objectid=166473 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00103-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954504 | 234 | 2.828125 | 3 |
A gene is a discrete sequence of DNA nucleotides.
- The Sanger Centre
- Named for Fred Sanger, the Sanger Centre is one of the centers of the Human Genome Sequencing Project. Their homepage has news and facts about the progress of various sequencing projects.
- National Center for Biotechnology Information
- An extensive site that has a lot of web resources used by research scientists to analyze sequence data. A good place to start is their Human Genome Resources, which lists news events, techniques and projects relating to the Human Genome Project.
- Genome Sequencing Center
- Located in St. Louis, the Genome Sequencing Center is one of the major sequencing centers in the United States. They have a nice overview of the overall process involved in sequencing a genome.
- Hargittai, I., 1999, Interview with Frederick Sanger, The Chemical Intelligencer, Springer-Verlag, New York.
- Sanger, F., and Coulson, A.R., 1975, A Rapid Method for Determining Sequences in DNA by Primed Synthesis with DNA Polymerase, Journal of Molecular Biology, 94: 441-448.
- Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., and Coulson, A.R., 1977, DNA Sequencing with Chain-terminating Inhibitors, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 74: 5463-5467. | <urn:uuid:463fd802-ac47-483b-9a1a-48eb4ea7f9f2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dnaftb.org/23/links.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00058-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.833263 | 302 | 3.359375 | 3 |
Should There Be Petrol Credits?
UK residents of State Pension age receive a Winter Fuel Payment each year to help with heating bills. The government introduced this payment to reduce the high number of deaths occurring amongst pensioners in the December to March period due to fuel poverty. But what about fuel poverty of a different sort?
In the UK, 70-80% of what we pay on petrol and diesel is tax, meaning the poorest families are spending nearly 4% of their disposable income on fuel each year. The richest families only spend 2% or less of their disposable income on fuel (see Chart 1 below). This means fuel tax hurts the poorest people nearly twice as much as it hurts the richest, leading us to ask should their be petrol credits for poor people?
Households are ranked by their equivalised disposable incomes, using the modified OECD scale. Source: Office for National Statistics.
How It Might Work
It could be paid for by increasing the standard price of fuel. A discount off this standard price would then be means tested, and paid when the income of the applicant and partner is below a certain level. Because a similar system is already in place for pension credits it would make it easier to implement.
- It would make fuel taxation as fair as income taxation.
- It would help poorer people look further afield for work.
- It would help more people out of the poverty line.
- There are already too many cars on the road, and in an era where we should be encouraging more environmentally friendly transport such as bikes and buses, this would do the opposite.
- It would make a complex tax system even more complex, increasing overheads at a time when reducing them is of huge importance to help reduce the budget deficit.
- It reduces the incentive for people to work harder in order to earn more, as they would lose benefits if they did so.
What Do You Think?
Would you be for or against this being introduced? | <urn:uuid:57c197de-4138-4bcf-b8a0-f0e394ea3826> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.longtermloanschecker.me.uk/surveys/should-there-be-petrol-credits/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00160-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972019 | 400 | 2.65625 | 3 |
“Guess what I just saw in my yard?” asked Susan Smyth of Whitby when I answered the phone the other day. I started guessing songbirds, figuring the cold front that had just moved through should have started some heading for Mexico. After three wrong guesses, I gave up and asked what she’d seen, and with great excitement she said, “A giant swallowtail.”
I instantly pictured the one I’d had nectaring in our zinnia patch three days before, a huge dark butterfly with double broad bands of gold, plus a dab of gold on each “swallow tail.” The largest butterflies of North America, they flutter their wings as they visit flowers, perhaps too heavy, or too unwieldy, to alight without bending them over. Susan told me her giant swallowtail kept coming back to her bee balm, and I determined to plant lots in my garden next year.
Butterfly websites have been reporting an incursion of giant swallowtails from the USA this summer, some perhaps coming from established breeding colonies in southwest Ontario, at Point Pelee and Pelee Island. Maybe with global warming, their host plant, prickly ash, a Carolinean tree species, will spread northward, and we’ll have these beautiful butterflies in Durham Region every summer. Who knows?
Lothar Malcher of Pickering sent me photos of two other stunning swallowtail butterflies he found nectaring in his garden recently: a black swallowtail on a coneflower and an eastern tiger swallowtail on a poppy.
Another migrant from the States that often makes it to Canada come summer is the red admiral, a midsize black butterfly with a bold red-orange band on both wings, and a few white dots on the tips. Jill Silveira sent me a picture of one on a coneflower, asking what it was. Red admirals fly so quickly it’s hard to see anything but black until they settle down on a flower to feed.
What we’re not seeing many of is monarch butterflies, where in Augusts past we’d see dozens. Liz Mitchell of Brooklin, wife of Whitby Deputy Mayor Don Mitchell, has been carefully tending a small patch of milkweed in her garden and was thrilled to discover three beautiful yellow-black-and-white-striped caterpillars crawling around, chewing the leaves.
And then the next day they were gone, obviously predated by something that doesn’t find milkweed chemicals bad-tasting or toxic -- the monarchs’ main protection. The monarch caterpillars hadn’t just gone off to pupate, Liz told me, for they were different sizes, not all ready to metamorphose. Something ate them. One more threat to this beleaguered species.
A butterfly doing well, judging by numbers spotted across Durham, is the summer azure. Seemingly invisible when perched on a leaf or blossom, those tiny bits of sky-blue are always a delight when they flutter about, one more thing that makes our planet such a beautiful place.
Nature queries: firstname.lastname@example.org or 905-725-2116.
-- Durham outdoors writer Margaret Carney has more than 3,000 species on her life list of birds, seen in far-flung corners of the planet. | <urn:uuid:537955ac-b074-4787-ace0-754baee47e8c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.durhamregion.com/opinion-story/4764607-butterflies-and-caterpillars-tell-a-tale-in-durham-region/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00050-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956434 | 705 | 2.515625 | 3 |
We 'hack' our way through the 'jungle'.On our recent botany outing to the Puy Besnard near Chinon we took the opportunity to see a moulin cavier (literally, 'cellar mill') hidden away in the woods on the top of the Puy. These are a style of flour mill characteristic of the Anjou region of France, and especially around Saumur. This one is a ruin, overgrown as much as if it were in the Cambodian jungle, but there are a few restored and working moulins cavier in the district (the best known is the Moulin des Aigremonts, near Bléré). The top of the Puy must have been exposed and unwooded 200 years ago, and as the highest point around, the obvious position for a wind powered mill.
The remains of masonry walls in the old mill precinct.The mill would once have had a pivoting weatherboard top and sails, but all that is left is the masonry base in the form of a semi underground dome, a crumbling, ivy covered masonry tower on top of the dome and the central post that would have transferred the movement of the sails to the grindstones in the cave by means of a series of cogs and gears.
The vaulted cave.In English they are apparently called hollow post mills. | <urn:uuid:f1a76bad-f55d-4695-8a3f-8983462b4a4e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://daysontheclaise.blogspot.com/2012/04/un-moulin-cavier.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00010-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96836 | 282 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Some Facts You Need to Know About Chip-Enabled Cards
- Most banks are in the process of re-issuing all cards
- Chip cards increase security and minimize fraud for both you and your customers
- Most of your customers will have these cards by October 2015
- You can continue to accept cards via swipe
What is EMV?
EMV chip technology is becoming the global standard for credit card and debit card payments. Named after its original developers (Europay, MasterCard® and Visa®), this technology features payment instruments (cards, mobile phones, etc.) with embedded microprocessor chips that store and protect cardholder data. This standard has many names worldwide and may also be referred to as: "chip and PIN" or "chip and signature."
What is chip technology?
Chip technology is an evolution in our payment system that will help increase security, reduce card-present fraud and enable the use of future value-added applications. Chip-enabled cards are standard bank cards that are embedded with a micro computer chip. Some may require a PIN instead of a signature to complete the transaction process.
What makes EMV different than the traditional magnetic stripe card payment?
Simply put, EMV (also referred to as chip-and-PIN, chip-and-signature, chip-and-choice, or generally as chip technology) is the most recent advancement in a global initiative to combat fraud and protect sensitive payment data in the card-present environment. Payment data is more secure on a chip-enabled payment card than on a magnetic stripe (magstripe) card, as the former supports dynamic authentication, while the latter does not (the data is static). Consequently, data from a traditional magstripe card can be easily copied (skimmed) with a simple and inexpensive card reading device – enabling criminals to reproduce counterfeit cards for use in both the retail and the CNP environment. Chip (EMV) technology is effective in combating counterfeit fraud with its dynamic authentication capabilities (dynamic values existing within the chip itself that, when verified by the point-of-sale device, ensure the authenticity of the card).
What other incentives are there to accept chip cards?
In addition to the reduction of fraud and related chargebacks, there are other cost savings associated with EMV acceptance. The payment brands are doing their part to ensure that chip-bearing customers can pay at chip-enabled businesses. For example, Visa, MasterCard, Discover and American Express have all issued upcoming rules and guidelines for processors and merchants to support EMV chip technology. The Payment Brands have introduced programs that waive a merchant’s annual PCI-DSS audit if 75 percent of the respective payment brand specific transactions are processed through a dual contact and contactless EMV certified device.
Another Payment Brand ruling is the impending chip liability shift. Once this goes into effect, merchants who have not made the investment in chip-enabled technology may be held financially liable for card-present counterfeit and potentially lost and stolen fraud that could have been prevented with the use of a chip-enabled POS system.
Is this technology unique to the United States?
No. The chip technology standard for payment was first used in France in 1992. Today, there are more than 1 billion chip cards used around the world. The U.S. is one of the few industrialized nations that have not fully transitioned to this technology standard.
If you already have a merchant services account with Chase and you want to upgrade your terminal, call us at 1-800- 533-4912.
Why should I invest in chip card acceptance now?
Preventing the growth of card-present fraudulent activity is one of the main reasons the industry is moving toward EMV technology. Chip cards make it difficult for fraud organizations to target cardholders and businesses alike. As a result, more and more chip cards are being introduced by U.S. financial institutions in order to support and switch over to this technology.
In addition, Visa, MasterCard, Discover and American Express have announced upcoming liability shifts for credit card transactions based on this standard. Any merchants or issuers who do not support chip technology may be liable for the cost of counterfeit fraud. The term “Liability Shift" refers to the change in who bears the chargeback related cost of fraudulent transactions. The timeframes for compliance are:
- Most merchants (petroleum pay–at-pump transactions are excluded at this time) need to support EMV by October 2015
- Petroleum pay-at-pump merchants need to support EMV by October 20171i>
How am I impacted by the liability shift?
With the liability shift, if a chip card is presented to a merchant that has not adopted a terminal that is certified for chip card acceptance, liability for counterfeit fraud may shift to the merchant's acquirer – who may then pass this fee back to the merchant. The liability shift encourages chip adoption since any chip-on-chip transaction (chip card read by a chip certified terminal) provides the dynamic authentication data that helps to better protect all parties. In addition, if a counterfeit magnetic stripe card is presented at a chip certified terminal, the liability for the counterfeit fraud will be the responsibility of the card issuer.
Are there any best practices for EMV migration?
Training and product awareness at both the business and the employee level is crucial to a successful implementation. As EMV acceptance is very different than the traditional magstripe (the card is inserted into the terminal as opposed to swiped, for example), it is imperative that everyone is familiar with the new requirements to make the customer experience as smooth as possible.
Don't wait to migrate You may begin to feel the pressure once the EMV card migration starts to reach its critical mass – with issuing banks beginning to issue chip cards to new and existing customers. Businesses that have not already migrated to EMV may consequently have to answer to their customers as to why they have to continue to swipe their new chip cards – especially when the market presents chip technology as the safer way to pay. Don't wait until the last minute to migrate your business.
Get a business plan together even before implementation begins. As equipment upgrades have the potential to be both costly and time consuming, it's best to get started early. Figure out how much it's going to cost, how long it's going to take and plan accordingly. Also, when planning on how to update your systems to support this change, you will want to take a hard look at the cost vs. benefits of EMV. In some cases, fraud prevention alone may not deliver an acceptable ROI for effort required to implement this technology. With that, you will want to achieve other benefits when displacing your existing hardware or software solutions (e.g. update network connectivity, build out support for a loyalty or gift card program, include ability to accept contactless / mobile payment transactions, etc…).
What does EMV migration mean for card-not-present (CNP) merchants?
As EMV technology is adopted in the card present space, it is expected that fraud will also shift to the least secure channels, including CNP. From an online fraud perspective, it's important that CNP businesses be prepared for this anticipated shift, as experienced in other regions that have already migrated toward chip card technology.
As fraud migrates online and fraudsters continue to get more sophisticated, the tools you have in place now may no longer be advanced enough to protect you and your customers. Strategy is key and it's imperative to take the extra measures to know good customers and good customer behavior (beyond just AVS and CVV). It is recommended that you avoid the use of Address Verification and card validation values (security code) checks as your sole fraud detector since the false positive exposure can be high with these tools alone. You should consider strengthening the value of these tools by supporting additional technology to confirm and mitigate fraudulent activity.
A good fraud prevention tool will enable in-house management in real time, with no negative impact on your good customers' experiences (those transactions that are not fraudulent in nature). Having the ability to control your fraud prevention at the business level, without the required assistance of IT support or third-party vendors, helps to ensure that your good transactions get through and your customer is not burdened with holds or declines based on suspected fraud. Simply put, you can prevent the fraudulent transactions without compromising the legitimate ones. This will protect you, your good customers, your bottom line and your brand.
Why should I partner with Chase to implement this technology?
We have been supporting chip technology in Canada for several years, and we are playing an active role in ensuring our merchants are ready when the U.S. payments industry mandates it.
How is a chip-enabled card different from a traditional payment card?
A chip payment card looks just like a traditional card with an embedded chip in addition to the standard magnetic stripe on the back of the card. What you see on the card is not the actual microchip but a protective overlay. The microchip provides an additional level of authenticity for the transaction.
What do I do when a customer presents a chip card?
Chip cards will still have a magnetic stripe during the U.S. migration to EMV to ensure that customers can continue to pay until all merchants have been given the time to upgrade their equipment.
How does chip technology work?
Your EMV-enabled device will communicate with the chip inside the customer's smart card to determine whether or not the card is authentic. Generally, the terminal will prompt the customer to sign or enter a PIN to validate their identity. This process enhances the authentication of both the card and cardholder, effectively reducing the possibility that your business will accept a counterfeit card or be held liable for a fraud-related chargeback. | <urn:uuid:402311cf-37f8-43c1-81cf-cd673f41f639> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.chasepaymentech.com/faq_emv_chip_card_technology.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00102-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945325 | 2,000 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Commonplace sugar compound silences seizures
MADISON - Though in clinical use for decades, a small, sweet-tasting compound is revealing a startling new face as a potential cure for epilepsy.
2-deoxy-glucose, or 2DG, has long been used in radio labeling, medical scanning and cancer imaging studies in humans. But now, researchers at the University of Wisconsin-Madison have found the substance also blocks the onset of epileptic seizures in laboratory rats.
Reported in the journal Nature Neuroscience, the findings have potentially huge implications for up to half of all epileptic patients who currently have no access to treatment, says senior author Avtar Roopra, a UW-Madison assistant professor of neurology.
"We pumped the rats full [of 2DG] and still saw no side effects," says Roopra, who estimates that the compound may be available for human use within five years. "I see 2DG as an epilepsy management treatment much like insulin is used to treat diabetes."
"All the available epilepsy treatments have focused on suppressing seizures," says co-author and renowned epilepsy expert Tom Sutula, a UW-Madison professor of neurology. "There has been hope that [new drugs] will not only suppress seizures, but modify their consequences. [2DG] appears to be a novel treatment that offers great promise to achieve that vision."
About 1 percent of the world's population suffers from epilepsy, a neurological condition that makes people susceptible to seizures. Scientists believe that seizures, of which there are many kinds, occur due to sudden changes in how brain cells send electrical signals to each other. In about 30 to 50 percent of epilepsy patients, available treatments - including the removal of parts of the brain's temporal lobe - are largely ineffective.
2DG is essentially a more palatable version of the "ketogenic," or sugar-free, diets that some researchers have long recommended to epilepsy patients. Indeed, the notion of a sugar-free diet actually stretches back thousands of years to Biblical times, when healers sometimes prescribed starvation as a potent way to fend off seizures.
UW-Madison researchers first began to investigate the role of sugar in controlling seizures after early experiments showed that children on sugar-free diets can rapidly experience seizures when they consume even a small dose of carbohydrates, such as a cookie or a little piece of bread.
But ketogenic regimens can be a miserable experience. "The kids can't eat any sugar at all. Imagine no bread or Christmas cake," says Roopra. But 2DG would work as an effective substitute because it enters cells and clogs up certain cellular enzymes. As a result, the body can't use its own glucose.
Though ketogenic diets seem to work in many epilepsy patients in whom existing treatments have been unsuccessful, scientists have struggled to understand the exact cellular connection between no sugar and no seizures. The UW-Madison work for the first time clears up some of that mystery.
Roopra has long explored how certain proteins known as "transcription factors" turn neuronal genes on or off. He has been particularly intrigued by one transcription factor known as NRSF, which is thought to control up to 1,800 genes in the brain, including many that are implicated in epilepsy. Like an electrical motherboard, NRSF ensures that neuronal genes switch "on" in the body's neurons, while remaining switched "off" in other regions where they normally play no role.
Roopra found that NRSF binds to another protein called CTBP. The finding "immediately raised alarm bells," Roopra says, because CTBP also binds to a free-floating molecule - NADH - that emerges when sugars break down in cells. To his surprise, Roopra found that CTBP binds to either NRSF or NADH. In other words, a cell with a lot of glucose generates a lot of NADH, so CTBP is more likely to bind with the sugar byproduct than NRSF. But without CTBP, NRSF most likely derails the normal function of certain neuronal genes - including those connected to epilepsy.
Scientists believe that NSRF also controls genes that potentially play a role in cancer. Roopra is planning future studies to test whether 2DG holds promise for combating breast cancer, or fast-spreading glioblastomas.
The UW-Madison team has patented 2DG for its use against epilepsy in collaboration with the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation, UW-Madison's technology transfer arm.
Last reviewed: By John M. Grohol, Psy.D. on 30 Apr 2016
Published on PsychCentral.com. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:a6aa0de5-9806-4595-9de6-f2791b27d5d7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://psychcentral.com/news/archives/2006-10/uow-csc101306.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00041-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947417 | 954 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Black Abolitionist Archive
Subtitle: The First Step to be Taken.
Speaker or author: editor
Newspaper or publication: Colored American (1837 - 1842)
The writer expresses his view that the first step African Americans can take toward improving their lives and elevating their social situation is to gain self-respect, and teach their children that they are worthy of a place in the community. As African Americans are taught that they are of a lower caste and not as good as the white members of society, they come to believe this and this belief works against them as they try to create better lives.
Description of file(s): one scanned, two columned, newspaper page | <urn:uuid:c88e316f-bb83-499d-8cad-3af04f92d303> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://research.udmercy.edu/find/special_collections/digital/baa/item.php?record_id=590&collectionCode=baa | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977811 | 145 | 3.859375 | 4 |
You may only construct structures/wonder stages if you can produce the required resources in their cost, or your adjacent opponents have the missing resources you require (and you have the coins necessary to purchase those goods).
The rules are probably not as specific as they should be, but you can glean the correct answer by looking at the examples given. Unless a structure is free, you must have the resouces to build it and/or the coins necessary to buy the resources from your neighbors.
Some cards have a resource cost. To construct them, the player must produce the corresponding resources AND/OR buy them from one of his or her two neighboring cities.
The rules then give an example of the Giza board, its current production, and the fact that it cannot build the Aquaduct.
The resources of a city are produced by its Wonder board, its brown cards, its gray cards, and some yellow cards. To build a structure, a player’s city must produce the resources indicated on its card. Example : Giza produces 2 Stones, 1 Clay, 1 Ore, 1 Papyrus and 1 Textile :
- its player cannot build the Aqueduct (cost : 3 Stones) as his city only produces two of the three stones required by that structure.
It is clear that since Giza requires 3 Stone to build the Aquaduct and cannot build it, but it would be quite odd if its neighbor's could buy 3 stone from Giza and build it themselves. This is further driven home buy the split '/' resource icon explanation on the last page of the Quick Rules or the regular rules tells you that only one of the pictured resources is available to you and your neighboring cities, not both. As well as the double resource icon providing two of the pictured resource.
the card produces one of the two pictured raw resources each turn.
Clarification : the player can use one OR the other resource to build a structure (or a wonder phase) but NOT both in a given turn. Neighboring players may purchase either, regardless of what the owner chooses to produce.
And finally, the last 2 Stone example from the rules, showing that both neighboring cities can buy her 2 stones and she can also use the same 2 stones in the same turn. This indicates that the resources a city has a available is the maximum that they can produce, and that both neighbors can buy 0, 1, or 2 stone the same turn the that the city owner uses 0, 1, or 2 stone.
Example B: during a game turn, both neighboring cities buy from her 2 Stones for a total of 8 coins (2 per resource). In the same turn, she can build a Library (cost : 2 Stones + 1 Textile) thanks to her resources, even though she has sold them to her neighboring cities. | <urn:uuid:6656ee8c-51bd-493e-a780-c4ae0cc1c641> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://boardgames.stackexchange.com/questions/12000/commerce-in-seven-wonders-possible-to-buy-the-same-resource-more-than-once-in-t | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962079 | 575 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Who doesn’t have negative thoughts now and then? But what if you had a negative thought which was pervasive and constant? Would you know how to get rid of it? Fortunately, there are many methods available to get rid of incessant negative chatter in our heads.
Here is an effective step-by-step process that will work if you use it regularly. As our ongoing example in this process, we’ll use the negative thought, “I’m too dumb to do anything right.”
- Turn the thought into a mental image. Imagine looking and acting completely silly. Create the most exaggerated image of yourself you can. Start by envisioning yourself in ridiculous clothes that don’t match.
- Maybe you’re also banging your head against the wall or doing other foolish things. You could also be shouting silly phrases that don’t make any sense. The image should be clearly visible on your mental screen. Include sounds, smells, and physical sensations as well. Keep at this until the original thought brings up this new image.
- Perhaps in the first scene, you could imagine the image of the “dumb” version of yourself being struck by lightning and catching on fire. Then the new, Albert Einstein version of you rises from the ashes and goes into his “I’m brilliant. I can do anything”routine.
- Keep practicing until you run the entire scene in your mind quickly, with no hitches. This should take fewer than 2 seconds from start to finish.
- Test out your new mental connections. When you think the original negative thought, the entire scene should flash through your mind. Your mental process should end with the moment where you’re thinking, “I’m so brilliant. I can do anything.” If you’re not there yet, repeat Step 4 until you are.
Although this may seem silly to you, this is a common mnemonic technique. The imagery must be outrageous. This makes your memory’s work much easier.
Also, play around with the perspective. Most people find it helpful to view everything in the third person, as if they were spectators watching themselves in a movie. But you may prefer imagining things from a first-person perspective, in which everything happens to you, as it would in everyday life. Try both perspectives to determine which works better for you.
If you systematically deal with all your negative thoughts, you’ll eventually find that you have very few left. Imagine how your life could change! What might you do that you’ve always been too afraid to try? Now you’ll have the courage to do just that. | <urn:uuid:fb2a7a73-ec29-4f12-9c97-7c32c01be97a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://beyondburnoutblog.com/tag/images/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960129 | 558 | 2.640625 | 3 |
An international group of researchers have found that food craving activates different brain networks between obese and normal weight patients. This indicates that the tendency to want food may be 'hard-wired' into the brain of overweight patients, becoming a functional brain biomarker.
Obesity is one of the most difficult problems facing modern society. Treating obesity is a health priority, but most efforts (aside from bariatric surgery) have met with little success. In part, this is because the mechanisms associated with the desire to eat are poorly understood. Recently, studies are beginning to suggest that the brain mechanisms underlying obesity may be similar to those in substance addiction, and that treatment methodologies may be approached in the same way as other substance addictions, such as alcohol or drug addiction.
To test this, a group of researchers in the University of Granada, Spain, and Monash University in Australia, have looked for the functional connectivity differences in brain reward systems of normal-weight and obese individuals.
The researchers gave buffet-style food to 39 obese and 42 normal-weight individuals. Later, they were put into functional MRI brain scanners and shown photographs of the food to stimulate food craving. The functional MRI scans showed that food craving was associated with different brain connectivity, depending on whether the subject was normal-weight or overweight.
They found that in obese individuals, the stimulus from food craving was associated with a greater connectivity between the dorsal caudate and the somatosensory cortex, implicated in reward-based habits and the coding of the energetic value of foods, respectively. However, with normal weight individuals, food craving was associated with a greater connectivity between different parts of the brain - e.g. between the ventral putamen and the orbitofrontal cortex.
The researchers then measured Body Mass Index (BMI) three months afterwards and found that 11% of the weight gain in the obese individuals could be predicted by the presence of the increased connectivity between the dorsal caudate and the somatosensory cortex areas of the brain.
According to lead researcher, Oren Contreras-Rodríguez:
"There is an ongoing controversy over whether obesity can be called a "food addiction", but in fact there is very little research which shows whether or not this might be true. The findings in our study support the idea that the reward processing following food stimuli in obesity is associated with neural changes similar to those found in substance addiction.
This still needs to be viewed as an association between food craving behaviour and brain changes, rather than one necessarily causing the other. However, these findings provide potential brain biomarkers which we can use to help manage obesity, for example through pharmacotherapies and brain stimulation techniques that might help control food intake in clinical situations". | <urn:uuid:828a2836-9278-4a8c-862a-cba3d22bcae3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2015-08/econ-sst082715.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00175-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95212 | 559 | 3.046875 | 3 |
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