transcripts/-Pg11JHzUTo.json

[{"text": "[SQUEAKING]", "start": 0.0, "duration": 1.96}, {"text": "[RUSTLING]", "start": 1.96, "duration": 1.47}, {"text": "[CLICKING]", "start": 3.43, "duration": 2.94}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: OK.", "start": 11.76, "duration": 1.0}, {"text": "So last time, we ended on\none of these cliffhangers.", "start": 12.76, "duration": 5.16}, {"text": "And so I rushed you through\na bunch of Japanese data.", "start": 17.92, "duration": 3.6}, {"text": "And then we got to this new\nbit of linguistic technology--", "start": 21.52, "duration": 4.665}, {"text": "[BUZZING] that's\ngoing to be annoying--", "start": 26.185, "duration": 2.535}, {"text": "this new bit of\nlinguistic technology", "start": 28.72, "duration": 1.68}, {"text": "and went through it pretty fast.", "start": 30.4, "duration": 2.91}, {"text": "So what I want to do is do the\nrun up to that again a little", "start": 33.31, "duration": 4.2}, {"text": "more carefully and show you what\nit is that we're talking about.", "start": 37.51, "duration": 3.378}, {"text": "What we were talking\nabout at the end", "start": 40.888, "duration": 1.542}, {"text": "was the position of accent\nin Japanese compounds.", "start": 42.43, "duration": 4.0}, {"text": "So here are a bunch of\ncompound nouns in Japanese.", "start": 46.43, "duration": 4.26}, {"text": "And the observation\nwas that when", "start": 50.69, "duration": 2.24}, {"text": "you have a compound\nconsisting of two parts,", "start": 52.93, "duration": 5.85}, {"text": "the result always\nhas one accent.", "start": 58.78, "duration": 1.92}, {"text": "It has accent on one\nparticular syllable.", "start": 60.7, "duration": 3.09}, {"text": "The accented\nsyllable doesn't have", "start": 63.79, "duration": 2.25}, {"text": "to be the accented syllable in\neither of the original parts", "start": 66.04, "duration": 4.44}, {"text": "of the compound.", "start": 70.48, "duration": 0.88}, {"text": "So \"raw egg,\" which is the\nfirst example in this slide--", "start": 71.36, "duration": 3.77}, {"text": "\"raw\" and \"egg\"--\nthey have accents", "start": 75.13, "duration": 3.89}, {"text": "where they have accents.", "start": 79.02, "duration": 1.0}, {"text": "\"Raw\" has an accent\non the first syllable.", "start": 80.02, "duration": 2.16}, {"text": "\"Egg\" has an accent on\nthe second syllable.", "start": 82.18, "duration": 1.92}, {"text": "But \"raw egg\" has an accent\non the syllable which is not", "start": 84.1, "duration": 3.0}, {"text": "normally accented in \"egg.\"", "start": 87.1, "duration": 2.73}, {"text": "What we said was there is\na set of rules for where", "start": 89.83, "duration": 4.11}, {"text": "accent goes in these compounds.", "start": 93.94, "duration": 2.49}, {"text": "And the rules go\nsomething like this.", "start": 96.43, "duration": 2.88}, {"text": "There's only going\nto be one accent.", "start": 99.31, "duration": 2.07}, {"text": "It needs to be next to the\nboundary between the words.", "start": 101.38, "duration": 3.99}, {"text": "And if possible, it should\nbe on the second word.", "start": 105.37, "duration": 2.49}, {"text": "That is, it should be after\nthe boundary between the words.", "start": 107.86, "duration": 3.18}, {"text": "But you don't do that if that\nwould result in the accent", "start": 111.04, "duration": 3.06}, {"text": "being on the last syllable.", "start": 114.1, "duration": 1.35}, {"text": "So the general pattern is the\none you're getting in \"French", "start": 115.45, "duration": 3.66}, {"text": "fry\" up there--\n\"furaido POteto\"--", "start": 119.11, "duration": 2.43}, {"text": "where you get accent at the\nbeginning of the second half", "start": 121.54, "duration": 3.42}, {"text": "of the compound, \"potato.\"", "start": 124.96, "duration": 1.35}, {"text": "Yeah.", "start": 126.31, "duration": 1.62}, {"text": "That's what you get in most of\nthe examples on the preceding", "start": 127.93, "duration": 2.609}, {"text": "slide.", "start": 130.539, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "If we go back to\nthe preceding slide,", "start": 131.039, "duration": 1.851}, {"text": "you can see that in\n\"raw egg,\" right?", "start": 132.89, "duration": 1.608}, {"text": "It's at the beginning of \"egg.\"", "start": 134.498, "duration": 1.292}, {"text": "And you can see it\nin \"field mouse.\"", "start": 135.79, "duration": 1.23}, {"text": "It's at the\nbeginning of \"mouse.\"", "start": 137.02, "duration": 1.375}, {"text": "And you're also getting\nit in \"French fry.\"", "start": 138.395, "duration": 2.945}, {"text": "But there's this coherent\nclass of exceptions.", "start": 141.34, "duration": 3.84}, {"text": "If the second half\nof the compound", "start": 145.18, "duration": 2.43}, {"text": "is only one syllable\nlong, then you", "start": 147.61, "duration": 2.22}, {"text": "don't put accent\non the second half.", "start": 149.83, "duration": 1.56}, {"text": "You put it at the end\nof the first half.", "start": 151.39, "duration": 2.53}, {"text": "So Kagawa prefecture-- \"kagawa\"\nis the name of a place.", "start": 153.92, "duration": 4.79}, {"text": "And it's got accent\non its first syllable.", "start": 158.71, "duration": 2.7}, {"text": "But the expression for\n\"Kagawa prefecture\"", "start": 161.41, "duration": 3.15}, {"text": "has accent at almost\nat the boundary.", "start": 164.56, "duration": 2.907}, {"text": "It's right before the\nboundary between them,", "start": 167.467, "duration": 1.833}, {"text": "not on the second half of\nthe compound, unusually,", "start": 169.3, "duration": 2.725}, {"text": "because the second\nhalf of the compound", "start": 172.025, "duration": 1.625}, {"text": "is only one syllable long.", "start": 173.65, "duration": 1.11}, {"text": "So we get \"kagaWAken.\"", "start": 174.76, "duration": 2.093}, {"text": "Yeah.", "start": 176.853, "duration": 2.367}, {"text": "I'm telling you all this\nnot just to educate you", "start": 179.22, "duration": 2.79}, {"text": "in what a cool and complicated\nlanguage Japanese is,", "start": 182.01, "duration": 3.42}, {"text": "but to show you\nthat there are cases", "start": 185.43, "duration": 2.13}, {"text": "of cool and\ncomplicated phenomena", "start": 187.56, "duration": 2.37}, {"text": "that can be fruitfully\nthought of as a series", "start": 189.93, "duration": 3.51}, {"text": "of things that you're trying\nto do which are in conflict", "start": 193.44, "duration": 2.94}, {"text": "with each other sometimes.", "start": 196.38, "duration": 1.5}, {"text": "So Japanese wants the accent\nto be on the second word", "start": 197.88, "duration": 4.86}, {"text": "and next to the boundary\nbetween the words.", "start": 202.74, "duration": 2.07}, {"text": "But it also wants\nit not to be final.", "start": 204.81, "duration": 2.88}, {"text": "And if it can't have all\nof those things at once,", "start": 207.69, "duration": 3.96}, {"text": "like in \"Kagawa\nprefecture,\" it has", "start": 211.65, "duration": 2.16}, {"text": "to decide, do I care more\nabout it not being final,", "start": 213.81, "duration": 2.97}, {"text": "or do I care more about it\nbeing on the second word?", "start": 216.78, "duration": 2.19}, {"text": "And Japanese cares more about\nit not being final, right?", "start": 218.97, "duration": 3.96}, {"text": "So it retracts it\nfrom the second word", "start": 222.93, "duration": 1.71}, {"text": "to the end of the first word.", "start": 224.64, "duration": 2.828}, {"text": "Does anybody still read--", "start": 227.468, "duration": 1.042}, {"text": "Isaac Asimov had these\nstories, the robot stories.", "start": 228.51, "duration": 3.02}, {"text": "He had a book, I, Robot.", "start": 231.53, "duration": 1.75}, {"text": "It was a series of stories.", "start": 233.28, "duration": 1.442}, {"text": "Some of you have heard\nof them, at least?", "start": 234.722, "duration": 1.708}, {"text": "Yeah.", "start": 236.43, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "So they feature robots that\nhave these laws governing", "start": 236.93, "duration": 4.9}, {"text": "how they work.", "start": 241.83, "duration": 0.93}, {"text": "And the laws act like\nthese kinds of laws.", "start": 242.76, "duration": 2.22}, {"text": "So there's the first law.", "start": 244.98, "duration": 1.89}, {"text": "And then there's the second law.", "start": 246.87, "duration": 1.47}, {"text": "And the rule for\nthe second law is", "start": 248.34, "duration": 1.417}, {"text": "you must obey the second\nlaw unless it comes", "start": 249.757, "duration": 1.881}, {"text": "in conflict with the first law.", "start": 251.638, "duration": 1.292}, {"text": "Then you disobey the second law\nand do the first law, right?", "start": 252.93, "duration": 2.16}, {"text": "And there's a third\nlaw, which you", "start": 255.09, "duration": 1.617}, {"text": "should do unless it\nconflicts with the first", "start": 256.707, "duration": 1.833}, {"text": "or the second law.", "start": 258.54, "duration": 1.08}, {"text": "So this is like that, right?", "start": 259.62, "duration": 1.77}, {"text": "So Japanese wants the accent\nto be on the second word, oh,", "start": 261.39, "duration": 5.37}, {"text": "unless that's going to\nmake the accent final.", "start": 266.76, "duration": 2.01}, {"text": "Then you don't do that.", "start": 268.77, "duration": 2.07}, {"text": "Does that make sense?", "start": 270.84, "duration": 2.64}, {"text": "That's a way-- or to put\nthat another way, don't", "start": 273.48, "duration": 4.05}, {"text": "put the accent on\nthe last syllable", "start": 277.53, "duration": 1.62}, {"text": "is more important than put\nthe accent on the second word.", "start": 279.15, "duration": 3.205}, {"text": "That's the picture\nthat we end up with.", "start": 282.355, "duration": 1.625}, {"text": "So you get \"kagaWAken\" with the\naccent at the end of \"kagawa\"", "start": 283.98, "duration": 6.84}, {"text": "and not \"kagawaKEN.\"", "start": 290.82, "duration": 2.46}, {"text": "You don't put accent at the end.", "start": 293.28, "duration": 4.53}, {"text": "There's a standard\nway of representing", "start": 297.81, "duration": 1.92}, {"text": "these kinds of facts, these\nbodies of facts, which", "start": 299.73, "duration": 2.67}, {"text": "involves this table\nthat I've got here", "start": 302.4, "duration": 2.25}, {"text": "at the bottom of the slide.", "start": 304.65, "duration": 2.43}, {"text": "This was an approach\nto phonology that was", "start": 307.08, "duration": 2.85}, {"text": "invented by people who--", "start": 309.93, "duration": 3.93}, {"text": "one of them in\nparticular, Alan Prince,", "start": 313.86, "duration": 2.1}, {"text": "is a brilliant, brilliant man.", "start": 315.96, "duration": 2.4}, {"text": "But he enjoys\nintimidating people.", "start": 318.36, "duration": 2.02}, {"text": "And so instead of\ncalling this a table,", "start": 320.38, "duration": 2.72}, {"text": "he decided to call it a tableau.", "start": 323.1, "duration": 2.28}, {"text": "So he gives it a\nFrench name in order", "start": 325.38, "duration": 3.03}, {"text": "to be as intimidating\nas possible.", "start": 328.41, "duration": 2.64}, {"text": "So I'll adopt that because\nthat's what phonologists,", "start": 331.05, "duration": 4.89}, {"text": "linguists standardly\ncall these objects.", "start": 335.94, "duration": 2.68}, {"text": "This is a tableau.", "start": 338.62, "duration": 1.85}, {"text": "And what the tableau\nrepresents is this interplay", "start": 340.47, "duration": 3.21}, {"text": "between the different\nlaws that are governing", "start": 343.68, "duration": 2.67}, {"text": "where the accent goes.", "start": 346.35, "duration": 2.16}, {"text": "The idea is the most important\nlaws are toward the left.", "start": 348.51, "duration": 4.05}, {"text": "And the least important\nlaws are toward the right.", "start": 352.56, "duration": 3.57}, {"text": "And what you do is\nimagine all of the places", "start": 356.13, "duration": 2.82}, {"text": "where you could put the accent.", "start": 358.95, "duration": 1.47}, {"text": "And you ask yourself, how does\nthat placement of the accent", "start": 360.42, "duration": 4.74}, {"text": "square with the\nvarious different laws?", "start": 365.16, "duration": 2.88}, {"text": "The little asterisks mark places\nwhere one of the candidates,", "start": 368.04, "duration": 4.71}, {"text": "one of the options\nyou're considering,", "start": 372.75, "duration": 3.12}, {"text": "violates one of the laws.", "start": 375.87, "duration": 2.17}, {"text": "So for example, the first one,\nwhich kept both of the accents", "start": 378.04, "duration": 5.09}, {"text": "in the parts of the compound,\njust kept them both,", "start": 383.13, "duration": 4.29}, {"text": "violates the most\nimportant law, which is", "start": 387.42, "duration": 1.74}, {"text": "you may only have one accent.", "start": 389.16, "duration": 1.38}, {"text": "So it gets a star right there.", "start": 390.54, "duration": 2.38}, {"text": "And that eliminates that\none from competition", "start": 392.92, "duration": 2.12}, {"text": "because it's violated the most\nimportant law, the one that's", "start": 395.04, "duration": 3.66}, {"text": "furthest on the left.", "start": 398.7, "duration": 2.14}, {"text": "And then what I've done\nis consider examples", "start": 400.84, "duration": 3.56}, {"text": "where the accent is-- it's a\nfour-syllable word, so we're", "start": 404.4, "duration": 2.43}, {"text": "considering putting the single\naccent on any of the four", "start": 406.83, "duration": 3.21}, {"text": "syllables.", "start": 410.04, "duration": 0.96}, {"text": "The first two, which\nhave the accent", "start": 411.0, "duration": 3.6}, {"text": "on the first or the\nsecond syllable,", "start": 414.6, "duration": 1.5}, {"text": "violate the second\nlaw, which says", "start": 416.1, "duration": 1.43}, {"text": "put the accent near the\nboundary between the two", "start": 417.53, "duration": 2.0}, {"text": "halves of the compound.", "start": 419.53, "duration": 1.2}, {"text": "So those are ones in\nwhich the accent is not", "start": 420.73, "duration": 3.62}, {"text": "on a syllable that's\nnext to the boundary.", "start": 424.35, "duration": 3.28}, {"text": "And then the next to last one,\nwhich is the one that wins--", "start": 427.63, "duration": 5.51}, {"text": "that's the one that obeys\nall of the conditions", "start": 433.14, "duration": 2.492}, {"text": "except for the least\nimportant one, which", "start": 435.632, "duration": 1.708}, {"text": "is it's best to put your\naccent on the last word, right?", "start": 437.34, "duration": 3.96}, {"text": "You notice, there is\nno perfect candidate.", "start": 443.91, "duration": 2.31}, {"text": "There isn't anything that\ndoesn't have any stars.", "start": 446.22, "duration": 2.82}, {"text": "What the tableau\ndoes is allow us", "start": 449.04, "duration": 1.59}, {"text": "to think in a\nformal way about how", "start": 450.63, "duration": 5.1}, {"text": "you satisfy conditions that are\nnot compatible with each other.", "start": 455.73, "duration": 3.488}, {"text": "And I just realized I\nget to take this off.", "start": 459.218, "duration": 1.792}, {"text": "I keep forgetting that.", "start": 461.01, "duration": 2.67}, {"text": "Yeah.", "start": 463.68, "duration": 1.42}, {"text": "So that's what the tableau\nis meant to represent.", "start": 465.1, "duration": 2.67}, {"text": "Are there are questions\nabout the tableau?", "start": 467.77, "duration": 2.31}, {"text": "There's a standard way\nto represent the fact", "start": 470.08, "duration": 2.67}, {"text": "that the winner is\nthat next to last one", "start": 472.75, "duration": 2.587}, {"text": "there, where the stress is\non the next to last syllable,", "start": 475.337, "duration": 2.333}, {"text": "the accent is on the\nnext to last syllable,", "start": 477.67, "duration": 1.792}, {"text": "which is to put a pointing\nfinger next to it like that.", "start": 479.462, "duration": 2.778}, {"text": "This is the one that wins.", "start": 482.24, "duration": 2.54}, {"text": "Optimality theory-- this\napproach to phonology", "start": 484.78, "duration": 4.2}, {"text": "is called optimality theory.", "start": 488.98, "duration": 1.54}, {"text": "And I don't know.", "start": 490.52, "duration": 1.91}, {"text": "I guess they just\nliked the font that", "start": 492.43, "duration": 1.65}, {"text": "had the pointing finger in it.", "start": 494.08, "duration": 1.25}, {"text": "So they decided to use it.", "start": 495.33, "duration": 2.264}, {"text": "OK?", "start": 497.594, "duration": 0.543}, {"text": "This is an approach.", "start": 498.137, "duration": 0.833}, {"text": "Yeah?", "start": 498.97, "duration": 0.936}, {"text": "STUDENT: Question about--\nthere is an accent on--", "start": 499.906, "duration": 4.804}, {"text": "how do we know there's\nan accent on \"ken\"", "start": 504.71, "duration": 2.86}, {"text": "if it just never shows up\nbecause every time [INAUDIBLE]??", "start": 507.57, "duration": 3.023}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Oh, you\nmean why am I putting", "start": 510.593, "duration": 1.917}, {"text": "an accent on \"ken\" over there?", "start": 512.51, "duration": 1.919}, {"text": "STUDENT: Because every\ntime \"ken\" shows up,", "start": 514.429, "duration": 2.341}, {"text": "one syllable is at the end.", "start": 516.77, "duration": 2.23}, {"text": "So there's no-- so it's\nalways the final accent.", "start": 519.0, "duration": 3.13}, {"text": "So how do we know\nthere's an accent?", "start": 522.13, "duration": 1.5}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah,\nthat's a very good point.", "start": 523.63, "duration": 2.56}, {"text": "It is possible to\npronounce \"ken\" by itself,", "start": 526.19, "duration": 2.6}, {"text": "not as part of a compound.", "start": 528.79, "duration": 1.93}, {"text": "So if you want to talk about\n\"the prefecture,\" it's a word.", "start": 530.72, "duration": 2.87}, {"text": "It means \"prefecture,\"\nwhich is like a state.", "start": 533.59, "duration": 3.18}, {"text": "It's an administrative\nsubdivision of Japan.", "start": 536.77, "duration": 3.54}, {"text": "And it's possible to\nsay that word by itself.", "start": 540.31, "duration": 1.993}, {"text": "STUDENT: So unbounded.", "start": 542.303, "duration": 0.917}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Sorry?", "start": 543.22, "duration": 0.958}, {"text": "STUDENT: So it's unfounded?", "start": 544.178, "duration": 1.672}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: It's?", "start": 545.85, "duration": 2.17}, {"text": "STUDENT: It's unbounded?", "start": 548.02, "duration": 1.0}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS:\n\"ken\" is unbounded?", "start": 549.02, "duration": 2.28}, {"text": "I don't think I\nknow what you mean.", "start": 551.3, "duration": 2.23}, {"text": "Oh, it's not a bound morpheme.", "start": 553.53, "duration": 1.25}, {"text": "That's right.", "start": 554.78, "duration": 0.3}, {"text": "It can be a free morpheme.", "start": 555.08, "duration": 1.14}, {"text": "Yes, yes.", "start": 556.22, "duration": 0.718}, {"text": "That's right.", "start": 556.938, "duration": 0.542}, {"text": "So you can say in Japanese,\n\"The prefecture is large\"", "start": 557.48, "duration": 4.02}, {"text": "or whatever.", "start": 561.5, "duration": 1.24}, {"text": "And then you can show\nthat it's accented, yeah.", "start": 562.74, "duration": 4.42}, {"text": "Good question.", "start": 567.16, "duration": 0.94}, {"text": "There are other questions\npeople have about this?", "start": 568.1, "duration": 3.6}, {"text": "OK.", "start": 571.7, "duration": 0.99}, {"text": "So this is just meant to\nillustrate the workings", "start": 572.69, "duration": 3.48}, {"text": "of optimality theory.", "start": 576.17, "duration": 2.67}, {"text": "Why am I showing you this one?", "start": 578.84, "duration": 2.03}, {"text": "I'm not sure.", "start": 580.87, "duration": 0.91}, {"text": "OK.", "start": 581.78, "duration": 1.27}, {"text": "Oh, I see.", "start": 583.05, "duration": 0.96}, {"text": "This is a similar\ntableau for \"French fry.\"", "start": 584.01, "duration": 3.48}, {"text": "So this has the\nsame constraints,", "start": 587.49, "duration": 3.99}, {"text": "these things that I put\nin all caps up at the top.", "start": 591.48, "duration": 4.05}, {"text": "In this case, you do\nend up with accent", "start": 595.53, "duration": 3.54}, {"text": "at the beginning of\npotato on the second word.", "start": 599.07, "duration": 2.58}, {"text": "That actually is a\nperfect candidate.", "start": 601.65, "duration": 1.96}, {"text": "So this is an example in\nwhich none of the laws", "start": 603.61, "duration": 3.38}, {"text": "are violated by\nthe best candidate.", "start": 606.99, "duration": 2.767}, {"text": "The laws aren't in\nconflict with each other.", "start": 609.757, "duration": 1.833}, {"text": "So you can put accent\nat the beginning", "start": 611.59, "duration": 1.583}, {"text": "of the last word, \"potato.\"", "start": 613.173, "duration": 2.277}, {"text": "And it won't be final.", "start": 615.45, "duration": 1.71}, {"text": "Yeah, yeah?", "start": 617.16, "duration": 1.77}, {"text": "STUDENT: So for example, if this\nperfect candidate didn't exist,", "start": 618.93, "duration": 3.294}, {"text": "and you were having to\nchoose between the first", "start": 622.224, "duration": 1.958}, {"text": "and the third--", "start": 624.182, "duration": 0.748}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah.", "start": 624.93, "duration": 0.36}, {"text": "STUDENT: --you\nwould want to choose", "start": 625.29, "duration": 1.458}, {"text": "the third because it violates\na rule that's less important.", "start": 626.748, "duration": 2.644}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah,\nthat's absolutely right.", "start": 629.392, "duration": 1.958}, {"text": "So if, for some reason,\nthat fourth candidate", "start": 631.35, "duration": 2.52}, {"text": "were impossible-- say,\nthere was another very high", "start": 633.87, "duration": 2.52}, {"text": "ranking constraint-- don't put\naccent on \"potato,\" then yes.", "start": 636.39, "duration": 7.59}, {"text": "The third would win.", "start": 643.98, "duration": 1.26}, {"text": "That's right.", "start": 645.24, "duration": 0.75}, {"text": "And actually, we can\nsee that by looking", "start": 645.99, "duration": 2.518}, {"text": "at the behavior of \"kagaWAken.\"", "start": 648.508, "duration": 1.292}, {"text": "So if we eliminate the\noption of putting accent", "start": 649.8, "duration": 4.08}, {"text": "on the last word, that's\nwhere the accent goes.", "start": 653.88, "duration": 2.52}, {"text": "It goes at the end\nof the first word.", "start": 656.4, "duration": 2.23}, {"text": "So it's the best\nyou can do, right?", "start": 658.63, "duration": 3.32}, {"text": "Still near the boundary,\nstill only one accent, just", "start": 661.95, "duration": 4.007}, {"text": "didn't manage to\naccent the last word,", "start": 665.957, "duration": 1.583}, {"text": "which is what you'd like to do.", "start": 667.54, "duration": 1.292}, {"text": "But it's not high on\nyour list of constraints.", "start": 668.832, "duration": 3.048}, {"text": "Yep.", "start": 671.88, "duration": 0.855}, {"text": "Does that make sense?", "start": 672.735, "duration": 1.675}, {"text": "So this is an approach to\nthinking about phonology.", "start": 674.41, "duration": 4.1}, {"text": "Optimality theory\nis the name for it.", "start": 678.51, "duration": 2.68}, {"text": "It says-- in a way, it's\na comforting theory--", "start": 681.19, "duration": 2.9}, {"text": "It says, \"Do the best you can.\"", "start": 684.09, "duration": 1.6}, {"text": "You have all of these things.", "start": 685.69, "duration": 1.418}, {"text": "Probably, all of\nyou have encountered", "start": 687.108, "duration": 1.542}, {"text": "things like this\nin other domains", "start": 688.65, "duration": 1.68}, {"text": "at MIT if you've ever dealt\nwith engineering problems.", "start": 690.33, "duration": 2.25}, {"text": "There are probably cases\nwhere you have various things", "start": 692.58, "duration": 3.008}, {"text": "that you want to achieve.", "start": 695.588, "duration": 1.042}, {"text": "And you can't\noptimize all of them.", "start": 696.63, "duration": 2.46}, {"text": "You have to decide which\nones are the most important.", "start": 699.09, "duration": 3.04}, {"text": "And the idea here is that\nlanguage is like that.", "start": 702.13, "duration": 2.33}, {"text": "There are cases where\nyou have to decide", "start": 704.46, "duration": 2.55}, {"text": "among your various\ndesiderata which", "start": 707.01, "duration": 3.84}, {"text": "ones you care about the most.", "start": 710.85, "duration": 2.1}, {"text": "The hope in optimality\ntheory is that we'll", "start": 712.95, "duration": 2.22}, {"text": "end up with a list of these\nconstraints, these laws,", "start": 715.17, "duration": 4.98}, {"text": "these rules that\nwill be universal.", "start": 720.15, "duration": 2.77}, {"text": "And the differences\nbetween languages", "start": 722.92, "duration": 2.87}, {"text": "are just a matter\nof deciding what", "start": 725.79, "duration": 2.07}, {"text": "order the different\nconstraints are in.", "start": 727.86, "duration": 2.55}, {"text": "So there could be languages\nin which the one accent", "start": 730.41, "duration": 6.36}, {"text": "rule is very low ranked and\nthe first candidate maybe wins,", "start": 736.77, "duration": 5.07}, {"text": "right?", "start": 741.84, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "You could imagine a\nlanguage like that.", "start": 742.34, "duration": 2.29}, {"text": "Tokyo Japanese\ndoesn't work that way.", "start": 744.63, "duration": 2.17}, {"text": "So differences between\nlanguages are all a matter", "start": 746.8, "duration": 2.24}, {"text": "of reranking the constraints.", "start": 749.04, "duration": 1.86}, {"text": "That's the mission statement\nof optimality theory,", "start": 750.9, "duration": 3.27}, {"text": "is to try to figure out how\nthe world could work that way.", "start": 754.17, "duration": 2.8}, {"text": "Yeah?", "start": 756.97, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "OK.", "start": 759.905, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "Optimality theory\nwas partly inspired", "start": 763.13, "duration": 1.95}, {"text": "by the discovery of these\nkinds of conspiracies", "start": 765.08, "duration": 2.933}, {"text": "that we started talking\nabout when I was showing you", "start": 768.013, "duration": 2.167}, {"text": "some stuff about Yawelmani.", "start": 770.18, "duration": 1.32}, {"text": "And now we've seen another\nexample from Japanese.", "start": 771.5, "duration": 3.06}, {"text": "For Yawelmani, the\nconspiracy was,", "start": 774.56, "duration": 2.76}, {"text": "I don't want three\nconsonants in a row.", "start": 777.32, "duration": 2.22}, {"text": "And I'll do various\nthings to achieve that.", "start": 779.54, "duration": 2.67}, {"text": "We said you could state rules\ngoverning the various things.", "start": 782.21, "duration": 2.97}, {"text": "And maybe in a\nsense, you should.", "start": 785.18, "duration": 2.23}, {"text": "But you-- the idea is, let's\ntry to keep sight of the fact", "start": 787.41, "duration": 3.073}, {"text": "that all of these\nrules are trying", "start": 790.483, "duration": 1.417}, {"text": "to achieve the same thing.", "start": 791.9, "duration": 1.62}, {"text": "We want to also capture\nthat kind of a fact.", "start": 793.52, "duration": 2.67}, {"text": "And there's something similar\ngoing on here in Japanese.", "start": 796.19, "duration": 3.03}, {"text": "One of the rules, the\nhighest ranking rule,", "start": 799.22, "duration": 3.09}, {"text": "was \"Don't have more than\none accent in a word.\"", "start": 802.31, "duration": 4.44}, {"text": "And what we saw last time was\nthat there are various things", "start": 806.75, "duration": 4.44}, {"text": "that Japanese does\nto achieve this", "start": 811.19, "duration": 2.67}, {"text": "depending on the situation.", "start": 813.86, "duration": 2.29}, {"text": "So there are words\nlike \"gurai,\" which", "start": 816.15, "duration": 5.39}, {"text": "I think I translated last time\nas even, which are accented.", "start": 821.54, "duration": 3.99}, {"text": "And if you attach them\nto another word that's", "start": 825.53, "duration": 2.01}, {"text": "also accented, you delete\nthe accent on the first word,", "start": 827.54, "duration": 2.833}, {"text": "in the word you're\nattaching \"gurai\" to.", "start": 830.373, "duration": 1.667}, {"text": "And there are other words,\nlike \"made,\" which means \"to,\"", "start": 832.04, "duration": 2.715}, {"text": "or \"up to,\" \"as far as,\"\nwhich are accented but only", "start": 834.755, "duration": 4.095}, {"text": "if they are attached\nto unaccented words.", "start": 838.85, "duration": 3.87}, {"text": "And then we've done all this\ntalking about compounds.", "start": 842.72, "duration": 3.09}, {"text": "These are all different\nkinds of examples in which", "start": 845.81, "duration": 2.55}, {"text": "different things happen.", "start": 848.36, "duration": 1.02}, {"text": "There are different\nstrategies, right?", "start": 849.38, "duration": 1.583}, {"text": "So for \"gurai,\" it's \"Delete\nthe accent on the word", "start": 850.963, "duration": 2.917}, {"text": "you've attached 'gurai' to.\"", "start": 853.88, "duration": 1.8}, {"text": "For \"made,\" it's\n\"Delete the accent on", "start": 855.68, "duration": 1.89}, {"text": "'made' for the compounds.\"", "start": 857.57, "duration": 1.5}, {"text": "We've now talked\nabout this computation", "start": 859.07, "duration": 2.163}, {"text": "that you go through to\ntry to figure out where", "start": 861.233, "duration": 1.917}, {"text": "the single accent should go.", "start": 863.15, "duration": 1.56}, {"text": "But what all of these\nthings are doing", "start": 864.71, "duration": 1.59}, {"text": "is trying to arrange for there\nto just be a single accent.", "start": 866.3, "duration": 3.06}, {"text": "And one of the virtues\nof optimality theory", "start": 869.36, "duration": 1.86}, {"text": "is that it allows us to make\nthat part of our analysis.", "start": 871.22, "duration": 5.07}, {"text": "If we just stated\nthese rules, we'd", "start": 876.29, "duration": 2.64}, {"text": "be losing sight of the\nfact that these rules all", "start": 878.93, "duration": 2.28}, {"text": "seem to be trying to\nachieve the same thing.", "start": 881.21, "duration": 2.258}, {"text": "That's one of the things people\nwho work on optimality theory", "start": 883.468, "duration": 2.542}, {"text": "are trying to get.", "start": 886.01, "duration": 0.93}, {"text": "And then of course,\nthe goal is to try", "start": 886.94, "duration": 1.32}, {"text": "to understand why we\nhave the constraints", "start": 888.26, "duration": 1.59}, {"text": "that we have and not others.", "start": 889.85, "duration": 1.26}, {"text": "That's another thing people\nwho work on this try to do.", "start": 891.11, "duration": 2.58}, {"text": "Yes.", "start": 899.29, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "I just said that and that.", "start": 899.79, "duration": 2.5}, {"text": "So remember, Yawelmani, which\nwas \"Avoid strings of three", "start": 902.29, "duration": 3.5}, {"text": "consonants either by inserting\nvowels or by deleting", "start": 905.79, "duration": 3.42}, {"text": "'h' if you have an 'h'.\"", "start": 909.21, "duration": 3.12}, {"text": "So I've been saying we could\njust state these rules.", "start": 912.33, "duration": 6.03}, {"text": "But we'd be missing\na generalization.", "start": 918.36, "duration": 1.98}, {"text": "Yawelmani is trying to avoid\nthree consonants in a row.", "start": 920.34, "duration": 2.43}, {"text": "Japanese is trying to avoid\ntwo accents in a single word.", "start": 922.77, "duration": 4.59}, {"text": "Maybe it's obvious.", "start": 927.36, "duration": 0.87}, {"text": "We don't want to miss\ngeneralizations like that.", "start": 928.23, "duration": 2.29}, {"text": "We want to find them\nand understand them.", "start": 930.52, "duration": 4.34}, {"text": "So similar kind of thing that\nwe could think about here--", "start": 934.86, "duration": 4.02}, {"text": "we've talked now a couple\nof times about Polish.", "start": 938.88, "duration": 2.73}, {"text": "Polish is one of the\nnumber of languages", "start": 941.61, "duration": 1.92}, {"text": "in which if you have\ncertain kinds of consonants", "start": 943.53, "duration": 3.51}, {"text": "at the ends of words,\nconsonants like \"b,\"", "start": 947.04, "duration": 2.31}, {"text": "and \"d,\" and \"g,\" and\n\"z,\" we convince ourselves", "start": 949.35, "duration": 2.4}, {"text": "that they devoice.", "start": 951.75, "duration": 0.81}, {"text": "They become voiceless\nat the ends of words.", "start": 952.56, "duration": 2.61}, {"text": "That allows us to capture\nvarious kinds of facts", "start": 955.17, "duration": 2.61}, {"text": "about what happens to Polish\nwords when they become plural--", "start": 957.78, "duration": 2.94}, {"text": "namely, that consonants that\nsound voiceless when they're", "start": 960.72, "duration": 5.28}, {"text": "at the ends of words\nbecome voiced sometimes", "start": 966.0, "duration": 3.24}, {"text": "when they're no longer at\nthe end of words, we decided.", "start": 969.24, "duration": 2.4}, {"text": "That's because they're\nunderlyingly voiced.", "start": 971.64, "duration": 2.64}, {"text": "And they devoice when\nthey're at the ends of words.", "start": 974.28, "duration": 4.45}, {"text": "So this is all familiar.", "start": 978.73, "duration": 1.55}, {"text": "You all remember Polish?", "start": 980.28, "duration": 1.465}, {"text": "It's not just Polish.", "start": 981.745, "duration": 0.875}, {"text": "There are lots of\nlanguages that do this.", "start": 982.62, "duration": 3.73}, {"text": "And so what I'm inviting you\nto do at the end of this slide", "start": 986.35, "duration": 3.68}, {"text": "is to imagine two kinds of\nstories about Polish-- one", "start": 990.03, "duration": 3.15}, {"text": "that would say, yeah, final\nconsonants devoice in Polish,", "start": 993.18, "duration": 3.18}, {"text": "and another that\nwould say, well, there", "start": 996.36, "duration": 2.01}, {"text": "are four rules, actually.", "start": 998.37, "duration": 1.11}, {"text": "There's a rule that says\n\"b\" voices when it's final,", "start": 999.48, "duration": 2.73}, {"text": "and a rule that says \"d\"\ndevoices when it's final,", "start": 1002.21, "duration": 2.31}, {"text": "and a rule that says \"g\"\ndevoices when it's-- yeah?", "start": 1004.52, "duration": 3.27}, {"text": "Both of those would capture\nall of the Polish facts.", "start": 1007.79, "duration": 2.85}, {"text": "One of them is clearly better.", "start": 1010.64, "duration": 2.59}, {"text": "So we want to understand why\nwe get the particular phenomena", "start": 1013.23, "duration": 4.43}, {"text": "that we do in Polish.", "start": 1017.66, "duration": 1.23}, {"text": "Is it clear to everybody\nthat it would be better", "start": 1018.89, "duration": 2.58}, {"text": "to do things that way?", "start": 1021.47, "duration": 1.84}, {"text": "And what we're doing\nhere is similar.", "start": 1023.31, "duration": 4.32}, {"text": "Why would it be better?", "start": 1027.63, "duration": 3.29}, {"text": "What would be wrong--", "start": 1030.92, "duration": 1.31}, {"text": "why is it better to be able to\nsay final consonants devoice", "start": 1032.23, "duration": 3.369}, {"text": "than to say, well, we\nhave these four rules.", "start": 1035.599, "duration": 4.301}, {"text": "Yeah, Faith?", "start": 1039.9, "duration": 0.59}, {"text": "STUDENT: I think\nyou're addressing", "start": 1040.49, "duration": 1.17}, {"text": "the more general phenomenon.", "start": 1041.66, "duration": 1.288}, {"text": "It's very difficult to\ncatalog every single letter", "start": 1042.948, "duration": 2.904}, {"text": "and to have vowel sound\nas something like that", "start": 1045.852, "duration": 3.872}, {"text": "because you eventually have\na list that's very long.", "start": 1049.724, "duration": 2.329}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah.", "start": 1052.053, "duration": 0.917}, {"text": "So it might make\nit easier to make", "start": 1052.97, "duration": 1.44}, {"text": "cross-linguistic comparisons.", "start": 1054.41, "duration": 1.56}, {"text": "Yeah, that's a very good point.", "start": 1055.97, "duration": 1.38}, {"text": "Yeah, yeah.", "start": 1057.35, "duration": 2.58}, {"text": "Yeah?", "start": 1059.93, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "We also maybe--", "start": 1063.26, "duration": 2.025}, {"text": "I don't know if this is\na good way to say it.", "start": 1065.285, "duration": 1.875}, {"text": "Maybe it is.", "start": 1067.16, "duration": 1.87}, {"text": "We want to understand why\nthe sounds that become", "start": 1069.03, "duration": 4.62}, {"text": "voiceless at the ends of\nwords in Polish are \"b,\"", "start": 1073.65, "duration": 3.195}, {"text": "\"d,\" \"g,\" and \"z,\" and not\n\"b,\" \"d,\" \"a,\" and \"o,\" right?", "start": 1076.845, "duration": 7.845}, {"text": "If we're just making four\nrules for those four letters,", "start": 1084.69, "duration": 3.78}, {"text": "then it's not clear.", "start": 1088.47, "duration": 3.12}, {"text": "There's no reason why\none of those rules", "start": 1091.59, "duration": 2.73}, {"text": "is more natural than the other.", "start": 1094.32, "duration": 1.42}, {"text": "But as I keep saying--", "start": 1095.74, "duration": 1.88}, {"text": "what's happening here in\nPolish is extremely common.", "start": 1097.62, "duration": 2.65}, {"text": "So you get it in Turkish.", "start": 1100.27, "duration": 2.013}, {"text": "You get it in Russian.", "start": 1102.283, "duration": 0.917}, {"text": "You get it in a bunch\nof different languages--", "start": 1103.2, "duration": 2.61}, {"text": "German.", "start": 1105.81, "duration": 1.89}, {"text": "And so we want to\nunderstand why it's common.", "start": 1107.7, "duration": 3.812}, {"text": "And part of understanding\nwhy it's common", "start": 1111.512, "duration": 1.708}, {"text": "is being able to say that that's\na common rule, a standard rule", "start": 1113.22, "duration": 3.66}, {"text": "that we see all over the place.", "start": 1116.88, "duration": 1.66}, {"text": "And then we can get to\nwork on understanding it.", "start": 1118.54, "duration": 2.54}, {"text": "If we just have\nthese four rules,", "start": 1121.08, "duration": 1.44}, {"text": "then it's unclear why those\nfour rules are so common,", "start": 1122.52, "duration": 2.34}, {"text": "whereas \"b,\" \"d,\" \"a,\" and \"o\"\ndevoice at the ends of words", "start": 1124.86, "duration": 4.86}, {"text": "is not at all common.", "start": 1129.72, "duration": 1.117}, {"text": "I don't know of any\nlanguages that do.", "start": 1130.837, "duration": 1.583}, {"text": "Does that make sense?", "start": 1132.42, "duration": 1.71}, {"text": "That's another sense in which\nmaking generalizations is good.", "start": 1134.13, "duration": 3.6}, {"text": "This is becoming a philosophy\nof science question, yeah.", "start": 1137.73, "duration": 2.7}, {"text": "It's like, why is science good?", "start": 1140.43, "duration": 2.13}, {"text": "Why is it good to\nmake generalizations?", "start": 1142.56, "duration": 2.225}, {"text": "Because it helps\nus to understand", "start": 1144.785, "duration": 1.375}, {"text": "the world better, for Faith's\nreason, as well as the reason", "start": 1146.16, "duration": 2.915}, {"text": "I just offered.", "start": 1149.075, "duration": 0.625}, {"text": "Yeah?", "start": 1149.7, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "STUDENT: Is the vowel still\na vowel when you devoice it?", "start": 1150.2, "duration": 4.168}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS:\nYeah, yes, arguably.", "start": 1154.368, "duration": 1.542}, {"text": "So there are languages\nthat devoice vowels.", "start": 1155.91, "duration": 1.92}, {"text": "Mokilese is one.", "start": 1160.8, "duration": 1.86}, {"text": "Oh, Japanese is another.", "start": 1162.66, "duration": 1.86}, {"text": "So Japanese has a general\nrule devoicing its high vowels", "start": 1164.52, "duration": 7.17}, {"text": "when they are between\nvoiceless consonants, I guess.", "start": 1171.69, "duration": 4.86}, {"text": "So here's the Japanese\nword for \"like.\"", "start": 1176.55, "duration": 4.71}, {"text": "And it's pronounced\n\"suki,\" \"suki.\"", "start": 1181.26, "duration": 2.73}, {"text": "So the oo isn't pronounced.", "start": 1183.99, "duration": 1.65}, {"text": "You don't say \"soo-kee\"\nunless you're being very slow", "start": 1185.64, "duration": 3.18}, {"text": "and careful.", "start": 1188.82, "duration": 1.74}, {"text": "And it's still a\nvowel in the sense", "start": 1190.56, "duration": 3.178}, {"text": "that your tongue and the\nrest of your vocal tract", "start": 1193.738, "duration": 2.042}, {"text": "is still in the\nconfiguration that it", "start": 1195.78, "duration": 1.23}, {"text": "would be if your vocal\nchords were vibrating.", "start": 1197.01, "duration": 1.92}, {"text": "But they aren't.", "start": 1198.93, "duration": 2.25}, {"text": "So yeah, there arguably\nare voiceless vowels.", "start": 1201.18, "duration": 2.88}, {"text": "Yes, Joseph?", "start": 1204.06, "duration": 0.6}, {"text": "STUDENT: What if you were\nputting an affix after that,", "start": 1204.66, "duration": 2.25}, {"text": "which is \"i\" is high, too?", "start": 1206.91, "duration": 1.47}, {"text": "So what would happen?", "start": 1208.38, "duration": 1.56}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Oh.", "start": 1209.94, "duration": 1.14}, {"text": "So in this particular\nexample, there", "start": 1211.08, "duration": 1.62}, {"text": "aren't any affixes you can add\nto \"suki\" to devoice the vowel.", "start": 1212.7, "duration": 5.1}, {"text": "But let me think of an example.", "start": 1217.8, "duration": 5.82}, {"text": "Yeah.", "start": 1226.62, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "So \"tatsu\"-- so\nthis is not high.", "start": 1227.12, "duration": 8.013}, {"text": "So it doesn't devoice.", "start": 1235.133, "duration": 0.917}, {"text": "This is the verb \"to stand.\"", "start": 1236.05, "duration": 3.09}, {"text": "The more polite\nversion of this--", "start": 1239.14, "duration": 4.36}, {"text": "no, no, no, no.", "start": 1243.5, "duration": 0.7}, {"text": "That's not what I want to do.", "start": 1244.2, "duration": 2.833}, {"text": "Let me try to think\nof an example.", "start": 1247.033, "duration": 1.417}, {"text": "Let me try to think\nof an example that", "start": 1248.45, "duration": 1.583}, {"text": "does what you want.", "start": 1250.033, "duration": 1.147}, {"text": "But there aren't any examples\nthat will work with \"suki.\"", "start": 1251.18, "duration": 3.33}, {"text": "Yeah.", "start": 1254.51, "duration": 2.88}, {"text": "OK, so when I think\nof an example,", "start": 1257.39, "duration": 2.115}, {"text": "at 3:00 in the morning,\nI'll give you a call.", "start": 1259.505, "duration": 1.875}, {"text": "Leave your phone number\nand think of that.", "start": 1261.38, "duration": 4.05}, {"text": "There's got to be a\nstraightforward way to do this.", "start": 1265.43, "duration": 2.14}, {"text": "Hmm, this is going\nto bother me now.", "start": 1267.57, "duration": 2.51}, {"text": "Yeah.", "start": 1270.08, "duration": 0.795}, {"text": "Other questions about this?", "start": 1270.875, "duration": 1.125}, {"text": "Try to think of\nquestions while I", "start": 1276.175, "duration": 1.375}, {"text": "try to think of examples\nthat do what Joseph wants.", "start": 1277.55, "duration": 2.91}, {"text": "Because the past tense suffix\nin Japanese-- oh, oh, oh.", "start": 1280.46, "duration": 3.57}, {"text": "[JAPANESE] oh, yeah, OK.", "start": 1284.03, "duration": 1.23}, {"text": "Here's one.", "start": 1285.26, "duration": 0.51}, {"text": "Adjectives in Japanese.", "start": 1288.65, "duration": 3.33}, {"text": "So this is the word\nfor new, \"atarashii.\"", "start": 1291.98, "duration": 5.46}, {"text": "And the negative of it,\n\"atarashiku nai\" ends--", "start": 1297.44, "duration": 8.14}, {"text": "so there's a \"ku\" that you\nadd to make the negative form.", "start": 1305.58, "duration": 3.65}, {"text": "And it ends up putting this\nvowel between voiceless sounds.", "start": 1309.23, "duration": 4.41}, {"text": "And then yes, it devoices.", "start": 1313.64, "duration": 1.44}, {"text": "So it goes from \"atarashii\"\nto \"atarashiku nai,\"", "start": 1315.08, "duration": 3.99}, {"text": "\"atarashiku nai,\" or the\npast tense, actually.", "start": 1319.07, "duration": 3.96}, {"text": "If you want to say\nsomething was new,", "start": 1323.03, "duration": 1.68}, {"text": "it's \"atarashii\" [JAPANESE].", "start": 1324.71, "duration": 1.95}, {"text": "So again, the \"i\"\nthat's after the \"sh\"", "start": 1326.66, "duration": 3.07}, {"text": "devoices because there's\na voiceless sound after.", "start": 1329.73, "duration": 2.66}, {"text": "Good.", "start": 1332.39, "duration": 0.91}, {"text": "Phew!", "start": 1333.3, "duration": 0.68}, {"text": "Now I won't call you\nat 2:00 in the morning.", "start": 1333.98, "duration": 2.57}, {"text": "You have any\nquestions about this?", "start": 1336.55, "duration": 2.409}, {"text": "OK.", "start": 1338.959, "duration": 1.421}, {"text": "OK.", "start": 1340.38, "duration": 2.35}, {"text": "So let's go back now to\nthe English plural suffix", "start": 1342.73, "duration": 6.3}, {"text": "and review something that\nwe have talked about.", "start": 1349.03, "duration": 4.35}, {"text": "But in the light of all\nof the things that we've", "start": 1353.38, "duration": 2.16}, {"text": "talked about since then, I hope\nit'll become a little clearer.", "start": 1355.54, "duration": 3.76}, {"text": "So again, we're talking about\nthe regular English plural", "start": 1359.3, "duration": 3.35}, {"text": "suffix.", "start": 1362.65, "duration": 0.66}, {"text": "Stop thinking about \"oxen\"\nand \"fish\" and \"sheep.\"", "start": 1363.31, "duration": 3.36}, {"text": "\"Cats\" and \"dogs\" and \"bushes\"--", "start": 1366.67, "duration": 2.31}, {"text": "we decided the underlying\nform of the plural suffix", "start": 1368.98, "duration": 2.25}, {"text": "is a \"z,\" right?", "start": 1371.23, "duration": 0.87}, {"text": "And it undergoes various\nkinds of sound changes", "start": 1372.1, "duration": 3.96}, {"text": "depending on what's before it.", "start": 1376.06, "duration": 2.16}, {"text": "So you add \"z\" to all three\nof these underlyingly.", "start": 1378.22, "duration": 4.29}, {"text": "And then there are\ngeneralizations like English", "start": 1382.51, "duration": 2.73}, {"text": "doesn't like words that\nend in a \"z\" that's", "start": 1385.24, "duration": 2.28}, {"text": "preceded by a voiceless sound.", "start": 1387.52, "duration": 2.43}, {"text": "And words don't get to end in\ntwo strident consonants, where", "start": 1389.95, "duration": 5.34}, {"text": "stridents are things\nlike the \"sh\" and the \"z\"", "start": 1395.29, "duration": 2.97}, {"text": "that's at the end\nof \"bushes,\" yeah?", "start": 1398.26, "duration": 4.08}, {"text": "So those are generalizations.", "start": 1402.34, "duration": 1.65}, {"text": "But we said one of\nthe attractive things", "start": 1403.99, "duration": 2.075}, {"text": "about this way of thinking\nabout the English plural", "start": 1406.065, "duration": 2.125}, {"text": "is that these are\ngeneralizations", "start": 1408.19, "duration": 1.375}, {"text": "that just seem to hold\nabout English generally.", "start": 1409.565, "duration": 2.195}, {"text": "English doesn't\nhave any words that", "start": 1411.76, "duration": 1.53}, {"text": "end in a \"z\" preceded\nby a voiceless sound.", "start": 1413.29, "duration": 2.46}, {"text": "And we can rely on\nEnglish phonology", "start": 1415.75, "duration": 2.37}, {"text": "to demand that you do something\nif you add \"z\" to cat.", "start": 1418.12, "duration": 3.415}, {"text": "And again, we've\nsaid this before.", "start": 1424.48, "duration": 3.54}, {"text": "I just want to say it again\na little more clearly.", "start": 1428.02, "duration": 2.52}, {"text": "There are these conditions.", "start": 1430.54, "duration": 1.68}, {"text": "And then there are\nalso these procedures", "start": 1432.22, "duration": 2.34}, {"text": "for repairing these violations.", "start": 1434.56, "duration": 2.07}, {"text": "So what do you do about the\nfact that you add a \"z\" to cat?", "start": 1436.63, "duration": 4.29}, {"text": "Well, you devoice\nthe \"z,\" right?", "start": 1440.92, "duration": 3.0}, {"text": "If the condition just says\nyou can't have a \"z\" preceded", "start": 1443.92, "duration": 2.55}, {"text": "by something voiceless,\nthere are various things", "start": 1446.47, "duration": 2.34}, {"text": "you could have done\nto fix that problem.", "start": 1448.81, "duration": 1.98}, {"text": "You could have voiced\nthe \"d,\" right?", "start": 1450.79, "duration": 2.46}, {"text": "So the plural of \"cat\"\ncould be \"cads,\" right?", "start": 1453.25, "duration": 2.25}, {"text": "That would be a\ngood English word.", "start": 1455.5, "duration": 2.58}, {"text": "Or you could add a vowel like\nyou do in \"bushes,\" right?", "start": 1458.08, "duration": 3.39}, {"text": "The plural of \"cat\"\ncould be \"cat-es.\"", "start": 1461.47, "duration": 1.95}, {"text": "There are various things\nthat would fix that problem", "start": 1463.42, "duration": 3.72}, {"text": "if that's the problem.", "start": 1467.14, "duration": 0.99}, {"text": "But this is the\nthing that you do.", "start": 1468.13, "duration": 1.83}, {"text": "Yeah, it's like when we\nwere talking about Yawelmani", "start": 1469.96, "duration": 2.4}, {"text": "We said you can't have\nthree consonants in a row.", "start": 1472.36, "duration": 2.11}, {"text": "What do you do about it?", "start": 1474.47, "duration": 1.08}, {"text": "Well, it depends on\nthe situation, right?", "start": 1475.55, "duration": 1.873}, {"text": "So if one of them is an\n\"h,\" you get rid of the \"h.\"", "start": 1477.423, "duration": 2.167}, {"text": "If not, then you insert\na vowel in this position", "start": 1479.59, "duration": 2.79}, {"text": "and not that position.", "start": 1482.38, "duration": 1.34}, {"text": "It's similar thing.", "start": 1483.72, "duration": 3.98}, {"text": "So this is all the way of\nsaying it's worthwhile, maybe,", "start": 1487.7, "duration": 6.47}, {"text": "to distinguish between the\nphonotactic considerations", "start": 1494.17, "duration": 4.5}, {"text": "or the well-formedness\nconsiderations that tell you", "start": 1498.67, "duration": 2.55}, {"text": "this language doesn't like\nthree consonants in a row,", "start": 1501.22, "duration": 3.12}, {"text": "or two accented\nsyllables in a word,", "start": 1504.34, "duration": 1.98}, {"text": "or words ending in a \"z\"\npreceded by a voiceless sound.", "start": 1506.32, "duration": 4.29}, {"text": "There's that condition.", "start": 1510.61, "duration": 1.59}, {"text": "And then there's how\ndo you repair it?", "start": 1512.2, "duration": 2.7}, {"text": "What kind of a\nrepair do you use?", "start": 1514.9, "duration": 2.37}, {"text": "So there's the\nwell-formedness condition.", "start": 1517.27, "duration": 2.19}, {"text": "And then there's the repair.", "start": 1519.46, "duration": 1.36}, {"text": "So in this particular\ncase, the procedures", "start": 1520.82, "duration": 2.0}, {"text": "are devoice and insert schwa.", "start": 1522.82, "duration": 4.17}, {"text": "There's a particularly striking\nbit of evidence for this way", "start": 1526.99, "duration": 5.76}, {"text": "of dividing things\nup, this distinction", "start": 1532.75, "duration": 3.33}, {"text": "that I'm drawing between\nwell-formedness conditions", "start": 1536.08, "duration": 2.79}, {"text": "on words, on the one hand,\nand types of possible repair", "start": 1538.87, "duration": 4.53}, {"text": "on the other.", "start": 1543.4, "duration": 1.26}, {"text": "We need to think about\nboth of those things", "start": 1544.66, "duration": 1.89}, {"text": "if we're going to describe\nwhat the language is doing.", "start": 1546.55, "duration": 3.57}, {"text": "This is a classic\ntest from 1957.", "start": 1550.12, "duration": 3.06}, {"text": "I mentioned it in\nclass before, but I", "start": 1553.18, "duration": 1.553}, {"text": "wanted to talk about it a\nlittle more now that we've", "start": 1554.733, "duration": 2.167}, {"text": "drawn this distinction.", "start": 1556.9, "duration": 1.89}, {"text": "So Jean Berko, later\nJean Berko Gleason,", "start": 1558.79, "duration": 5.28}, {"text": "did this work in\n1957 with children.", "start": 1564.07, "duration": 3.63}, {"text": "She was demonstrating that\nthey know these generalizations", "start": 1567.7, "duration": 3.66}, {"text": "about plurals even with words\nthey've never heard before.", "start": 1571.36, "duration": 4.06}, {"text": "So she would show them\npictures like this one.", "start": 1575.42, "duration": 2.033}, {"text": "This is one of her pictures.", "start": 1577.453, "duration": 1.167}, {"text": "She said \"This is a wug.\"", "start": 1578.62, "duration": 2.28}, {"text": "And then she would show them\ntwo pictures of the same thing.", "start": 1580.9, "duration": 4.53}, {"text": "And she would say, \"Now\nthere are two of them.", "start": 1585.43, "duration": 2.61}, {"text": "There are two\"-- and children\nwere supposed to say \"wugs\"", "start": 1588.04, "duration": 7.8}, {"text": "even though they'd never heard\nanybody say \"wug\" before,", "start": 1595.84, "duration": 2.57}, {"text": "right?", "start": 1598.41, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "So Jean Berko Gleason, Jean\nBerko made up a bunch of words.", "start": 1598.91, "duration": 3.77}, {"text": "She worked hard to make sure\nthey were not real words.", "start": 1602.68, "duration": 2.43}, {"text": "And then she drew\nmany cute pictures", "start": 1605.11, "duration": 2.55}, {"text": "and showed children singulars\nand plurals and said,", "start": 1607.66, "duration": 2.99}, {"text": "OK, here's the singular.", "start": 1610.65, "duration": 1.0}, {"text": "What's the plural?", "start": 1611.65, "duration": 1.14}, {"text": "And the kids responded.", "start": 1612.79, "duration": 2.562}, {"text": "And she wrote down\ntheir responses.", "start": 1615.352, "duration": 1.458}, {"text": "And their responses,\ninterestingly,", "start": 1616.81, "duration": 1.98}, {"text": "were accurate in one way,\nand sometimes inaccurate", "start": 1618.79, "duration": 4.14}, {"text": "in another, which is\ninteresting to think about.", "start": 1622.93, "duration": 2.257}, {"text": "So she was working with\nchildren who were five years old", "start": 1625.187, "duration": 2.333}, {"text": "and children who\nwere seven years old.", "start": 1627.52, "duration": 1.963}, {"text": "What she discovered\nwas that by the time", "start": 1629.483, "duration": 1.667}, {"text": "they were five years old,\nthey are, in a sense,", "start": 1631.15, "duration": 1.958}, {"text": "perfect, in the sense that all\nof the words that they came up", "start": 1633.108, "duration": 4.552}, {"text": "with were phonotactically\nwell formed English words.", "start": 1637.66, "duration": 3.94}, {"text": "So here are three of\nBerko's words-- \"hif,\"", "start": 1641.6, "duration": 3.26}, {"text": "\"fas,\" and \"muz,\" yeah?", "start": 1644.86, "duration": 2.51}, {"text": "And I think everybody\ndid \"wug\" perfectly.", "start": 1647.37, "duration": 3.73}, {"text": "Everybody said the plural\nof \"wug\" is \"wugs.\"", "start": 1651.1, "duration": 2.73}, {"text": "But there were other cases\nwhere children would say,", "start": 1653.83, "duration": 3.48}, {"text": "sometimes, things like the\nplural of \"hif\" is \"hifes,\"", "start": 1657.31, "duration": 3.51}, {"text": "or the plural of \"fas\" is\n\"fas,\" or the plural of \"muz\"", "start": 1660.82, "duration": 3.72}, {"text": "is \"muz.\"", "start": 1664.54, "duration": 3.2}, {"text": "These are all words where--", "start": 1667.74, "duration": 2.438}, {"text": "and then there were\nother kinds of mistakes", "start": 1670.178, "duration": 1.792}, {"text": "that children didn't make.", "start": 1671.97, "duration": 1.14}, {"text": "So nobody said that the\nplural \"wug\" was \"wuks,\"", "start": 1673.11, "duration": 4.89}, {"text": "or that the plural of\n\"wook\" is \"wookz,\" right?", "start": 1678.0, "duration": 4.83}, {"text": "Or that the plural of\nfas is \"fas-z,\" yeah?", "start": 1682.83, "duration": 4.8}, {"text": "What were children doing?", "start": 1687.63, "duration": 1.2}, {"text": "Well, children know\nif you show them", "start": 1688.83, "duration": 2.34}, {"text": "something that's underlyingly--\nyou give them \"hif,\" which", "start": 1691.17, "duration": 3.84}, {"text": "for some reason I'm spelling\nbackwards-- you give them \"hif\"", "start": 1695.01, "duration": 2.585}, {"text": "and you ask them\nthe plural, they", "start": 1697.595, "duration": 1.375}, {"text": "know that you're\nsupposed to add a \"z.\"", "start": 1698.97, "duration": 2.64}, {"text": "And they know that English\ndoesn't allow words", "start": 1701.61, "duration": 2.61}, {"text": "that end in a \"z\" preceded\nby a voiceless sound.", "start": 1704.22, "duration": 3.78}, {"text": "But some of these five\nand seven-year-olds", "start": 1708.0, "duration": 1.92}, {"text": "were a little fuzzy on\nthe possible repairs.", "start": 1709.92, "duration": 2.37}, {"text": "None of them said, \"Oh,\nyeah, It's hifz,\" right?", "start": 1715.29, "duration": 3.45}, {"text": "But I just said this.", "start": 1718.74, "duration": 2.19}, {"text": "If the only problem\nis, well, this word", "start": 1720.93, "duration": 2.49}, {"text": "ends in a voiceless\nsound followed", "start": 1723.42, "duration": 1.5}, {"text": "by a \"z,\" in fact,\nwhat you're supposed", "start": 1724.92, "duration": 2.67}, {"text": "to do is devoice the \"z.\"", "start": 1727.59, "duration": 1.77}, {"text": "That's what an adult would do.", "start": 1729.36, "duration": 1.53}, {"text": "So the plural of\n\"hif\" is \"hifs,\" yeah?", "start": 1730.89, "duration": 2.4}, {"text": "But if you were instead\nto insert a schwa,", "start": 1733.29, "duration": 4.44}, {"text": "well, that would\nfix it, too, right?", "start": 1737.73, "duration": 2.13}, {"text": "So now the \"z\" is preceded\nby a voiced sound.", "start": 1739.86, "duration": 3.81}, {"text": "The plural of \"hif\"\nis \"hif-ez,\" yeah?", "start": 1743.67, "duration": 1.652}, {"text": "And there were some kids who\nwere going through a stage who", "start": 1745.322, "duration": 2.458}, {"text": "were entertaining that\npossibility, that that was", "start": 1747.78, "duration": 2.4}, {"text": "the correct repair for that.", "start": 1750.18, "duration": 1.98}, {"text": "So what Berko found was\nthat children universally", "start": 1752.16, "duration": 6.0}, {"text": "knew the phonotactics, right?", "start": 1758.16, "duration": 2.04}, {"text": "They knew that English\ndoesn't allow words", "start": 1760.2, "duration": 3.3}, {"text": "that end in a \"z\" preceded\nby a voiceless sound.", "start": 1763.5, "duration": 2.43}, {"text": "But they made intriguing\nmistakes of various kinds--", "start": 1765.93, "duration": 5.22}, {"text": "not very often.", "start": 1771.15, "duration": 1.042}, {"text": "Most of the kids just\ndid everything perfectly.", "start": 1772.192, "duration": 1.958}, {"text": "But every so often,\nshe would get", "start": 1774.15, "duration": 0.99}, {"text": "kids who made some mistakes.", "start": 1775.14, "duration": 1.2}, {"text": "And the mistakes\nwere of this class.", "start": 1776.34, "duration": 2.22}, {"text": "That is, mistakes\nwhere they knew", "start": 1778.56, "duration": 3.03}, {"text": "that there needed to be a\nrepair but got the repair wrong.", "start": 1781.59, "duration": 3.52}, {"text": "Similarly for \"muz,\"\nthis was a kid who--", "start": 1785.11, "duration": 3.86}, {"text": "the singular is \"muz,\"\nand the kid knows", "start": 1788.97, "duration": 3.6}, {"text": "that you need to add a \"z.\"", "start": 1792.57, "duration": 1.26}, {"text": "And the kid knows that you\ncan't have two stridents", "start": 1793.83, "duration": 2.125}, {"text": "at the end of a word.", "start": 1795.955, "duration": 1.025}, {"text": "The correct answer,\nthe adult's answer,", "start": 1796.98, "duration": 2.16}, {"text": "is to insert a schwa\nso the plural of \"muz\"", "start": 1799.14, "duration": 2.67}, {"text": "will be \"muzes.\"", "start": 1801.81, "duration": 0.96}, {"text": "But deleting the \"z,\" one of the\n\"z\"s-- hard to know which one--", "start": 1802.77, "duration": 5.28}, {"text": "also fixes that problem.", "start": 1808.05, "duration": 1.54}, {"text": "And so that was a\nkid who thought,", "start": 1809.59, "duration": 2.21}, {"text": "yeah, I'll delete a \"z,\" yeah?", "start": 1811.8, "duration": 1.92}, {"text": "Yeah, Joseph?", "start": 1813.72, "duration": 1.218}, {"text": "STUDENT: Is the deletion\nof a consonant viewed", "start": 1814.938, "duration": 2.962}, {"text": "as [INAUDIBLE]?", "start": 1817.9, "duration": 1.36}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: As\nsomething that English does?", "start": 1819.26, "duration": 2.0}, {"text": "Yeah, no.", "start": 1821.26, "duration": 0.75}, {"text": "So English-- there\naren't, I don't think,", "start": 1822.01, "duration": 2.01}, {"text": "any English nouns that form\ntheir plural by adding a \"z\"", "start": 1824.02, "duration": 6.03}, {"text": "and deleting something\nbefore the \"z.\"", "start": 1830.05, "duration": 1.745}, {"text": "I don't believe\nthat ever happens.", "start": 1831.795, "duration": 3.085}, {"text": "This is me slowing\ndown while I try", "start": 1834.88, "duration": 1.98}, {"text": "to think of English nouns,\nof which I know several,", "start": 1836.86, "duration": 2.55}, {"text": "but I can't think\nof any that do that.", "start": 1839.41, "duration": 3.3}, {"text": "Yeah.", "start": 1842.71, "duration": 1.02}, {"text": "Yeah.", "start": 1843.73, "duration": 1.23}, {"text": "OK.", "start": 1844.96, "duration": 1.53}, {"text": "Yeah, so is this clear?", "start": 1846.49, "duration": 1.74}, {"text": "Another reason to\ndraw this distinction", "start": 1848.23, "duration": 1.74}, {"text": "between, on the one hand, what\nI was calling phonotactics,", "start": 1849.97, "duration": 3.0}, {"text": "these rules for which kinds\nof sounds can be where,", "start": 1852.97, "duration": 3.04}, {"text": "and on the other\nhand, the repairs--", "start": 1856.01, "duration": 1.89}, {"text": "so the kids that\nBerko was working with", "start": 1857.9, "duration": 3.23}, {"text": "knew the phonotactics, but\nwere sometimes fuzzy on what", "start": 1861.13, "duration": 2.97}, {"text": "the correct repairs were.", "start": 1864.1, "duration": 2.583}, {"text": "Yeah.", "start": 1866.683, "duration": 1.887}, {"text": "OK.", "start": 1868.57, "duration": 1.65}, {"text": "So, moral-- yet again, need\nto distinguish between,", "start": 1870.22, "duration": 2.633}, {"text": "on the one hand,\nthe phonotactics,", "start": 1872.853, "duration": 1.417}, {"text": "and on the other hand, the\nparticular sound changes,", "start": 1874.27, "duration": 2.4}, {"text": "the repairs that enforce\nthe phonotactics.", "start": 1876.67, "duration": 1.96}, {"text": "It's apparently possible to know\none of those but not the other.", "start": 1878.63, "duration": 5.53}, {"text": "OK.", "start": 1884.16, "duration": 1.04}, {"text": "That ends the chapter.", "start": 1885.2, "duration": 3.17}, {"text": "Now we're going to talk\nabout something else.", "start": 1888.37, "duration": 2.967}, {"text": "So are there any\nquestions about that?", "start": 1891.337, "duration": 1.583}, {"text": "Is that clear?", "start": 1892.92, "duration": 1.212}, {"text": "OK.", "start": 1894.132, "duration": 1.848}, {"text": "We've already done some of\nthis, but I want to do more.", "start": 1895.98, "duration": 3.0}, {"text": "We've been talking\nabout how there", "start": 1898.98, "duration": 3.75}, {"text": "are some kinds of sound changes\nthat are natural because they", "start": 1902.73, "duration": 4.11}, {"text": "apply to natural\nclasses of things", "start": 1906.84, "duration": 2.1}, {"text": "that can be almost circular.", "start": 1908.94, "duration": 4.56}, {"text": "So I quickly introduced\nyou to the word stridents", "start": 1913.5, "duration": 4.41}, {"text": "because the generalization\nabout English plurals", "start": 1917.91, "duration": 2.79}, {"text": "is that two stridents can't\nend a word in English.", "start": 1920.7, "duration": 3.51}, {"text": "And that's why you introduce\na schwa just in case", "start": 1924.21, "duration": 2.85}, {"text": "you're in danger of\nhaving two stridents", "start": 1927.06, "duration": 1.77}, {"text": "at the end of your word, yeah.", "start": 1928.83, "duration": 3.54}, {"text": "The word strident has\nan acoustic definition.", "start": 1932.37, "duration": 3.48}, {"text": "They are fricatives that have\nlots of high frequency noise.", "start": 1935.85, "duration": 3.57}, {"text": "But it's of interest\nthat there are phenomena", "start": 1939.42, "duration": 3.57}, {"text": "like the allomorphy\nin English plurals", "start": 1942.99, "duration": 2.49}, {"text": "that make reference\nto that acoustic fact.", "start": 1945.48, "duration": 2.55}, {"text": "That's apparently something\nthat a language can care about--", "start": 1948.03, "duration": 3.69}, {"text": "how much high frequency\nnoise you have at once.", "start": 1951.72, "duration": 2.263}, {"text": "It's also something that varies\nfrom language to language.", "start": 1953.983, "duration": 2.417}, {"text": "There are languages that\nare perfectly happy to have", "start": 1956.4, "duration": 2.43}, {"text": "long strings of stridents.", "start": 1958.83, "duration": 1.86}, {"text": "English just isn't one of them.", "start": 1960.69, "duration": 2.25}, {"text": "Yeah.", "start": 1962.94, "duration": 2.49}, {"text": "So we've already done, as I\nsaid, some talking about this.", "start": 1965.43, "duration": 3.62}, {"text": "So when I was first\nintroducing you to consonants", "start": 1969.05, "duration": 2.11}, {"text": "or introducing you\nto vowels, you'd", "start": 1971.16, "duration": 2.31}, {"text": "already met consonants at\nsome point in your life.", "start": 1973.47, "duration": 2.1}, {"text": "But we were talking about them\nin a particular systematic way.", "start": 1975.57, "duration": 3.6}, {"text": "We talked about various ways\nof classifying them, saying", "start": 1979.17, "duration": 4.89}, {"text": "there are some consonants\nthat are fricatives", "start": 1984.06, "duration": 2.28}, {"text": "and some consonants\nthat are stops,", "start": 1986.34, "duration": 1.68}, {"text": "or saying there are some\nconsonants that are voiced", "start": 1988.02, "duration": 2.19}, {"text": "and some consonants\nthat are voiceless.", "start": 1990.21, "duration": 2.2}, {"text": "So what I want to do\ntoday is to introduce you", "start": 1992.41, "duration": 2.51}, {"text": "to some other kinds\nof classification.", "start": 1994.92, "duration": 2.01}, {"text": "And I'll, as much\nas possible, try", "start": 1996.93, "duration": 1.733}, {"text": "to show you places\nwhere languages", "start": 1998.663, "duration": 1.417}, {"text": "care about a particular\nclass of sounds.", "start": 2000.08, "duration": 3.42}, {"text": "Again, this is all in the\nservice of making it easier", "start": 2003.5, "duration": 3.84}, {"text": "for us to understand why\ncertain kinds of sound changes", "start": 2007.34, "duration": 2.85}, {"text": "are natural and others are not.", "start": 2010.19, "duration": 5.13}, {"text": "OK.", "start": 2015.32, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "So here's one that\nwe've already seen.", "start": 2015.82, "duration": 4.02}, {"text": "There are sounds that are nasal.", "start": 2019.84, "duration": 1.335}, {"text": "This is a contrast\nthat I believe", "start": 2023.88, "duration": 2.205}, {"text": "I have introduced you to before,\nbut let me introduce you to it", "start": 2026.085, "duration": 2.625}, {"text": "again.", "start": 2028.71, "duration": 0.57}, {"text": "There's a distinction--", "start": 2029.28, "duration": 2.37}, {"text": "I think I brought this\nup last time, actually.", "start": 2031.65, "duration": 2.1}, {"text": "There's a distinction, when\nwe talk about consonants,", "start": 2033.75, "duration": 3.03}, {"text": "between what are\ncalled sonorants", "start": 2036.78, "duration": 2.88}, {"text": "and what are called obstruents.", "start": 2039.66, "duration": 1.99}, {"text": "So these are opposites\nof each other.", "start": 2041.65, "duration": 1.88}, {"text": "I hope I have the word\n\"obstruent\" on a later slide.", "start": 2043.53, "duration": 3.01}, {"text": "But just in case I don't, there\nare these two kinds of sounds--", "start": 2046.54, "duration": 4.04}, {"text": "obstruents and sonorants.", "start": 2050.58, "duration": 4.26}, {"text": "And the distinction\nbetween them has", "start": 2054.84, "duration": 1.98}, {"text": "to do with whether\nyou are building up", "start": 2056.82, "duration": 2.879}, {"text": "pressure in the oral cavity.", "start": 2059.699, "duration": 2.411}, {"text": "So the sonorants are the\nnasals and the liquids", "start": 2062.11, "duration": 4.879}, {"text": "and the glides, the\nconsonants in which there's", "start": 2066.989, "duration": 2.94}, {"text": "no pressure building\nup in the oral cavity,", "start": 2069.929, "duration": 3.21}, {"text": "whereas the\nobstruents-- those are", "start": 2073.139, "duration": 2.011}, {"text": "the stops and the fricatives,\nthe oral stops and fricatives.", "start": 2075.15, "duration": 3.54}, {"text": "Those are the sounds in which\nthere is pressure building up", "start": 2078.69, "duration": 2.58}, {"text": "in the oral cavity.", "start": 2081.27, "duration": 0.99}, {"text": "For a stop, it's because, well,\nyou've stopped the flow of air", "start": 2082.26, "duration": 3.0}, {"text": "at the mouth.", "start": 2085.26, "duration": 0.899}, {"text": "And so pressure is building up.", "start": 2086.159, "duration": 1.56}, {"text": "And for a fricative,\nwell, you haven't", "start": 2087.719, "duration": 1.583}, {"text": "stopped the flow of air,\nbut you're constricting it.", "start": 2089.302, "duration": 2.167}, {"text": "That's how you make a fricative.", "start": 2091.469, "duration": 1.531}, {"text": "And so pressure is building\nup in the oral cavity.", "start": 2093.0, "duration": 2.469}, {"text": "And when I say pressure is\nbuilding up in the oral cavity,", "start": 2095.469, "duration": 2.721}, {"text": "what I mean is that phoneticists\nhave put instruments", "start": 2098.19, "duration": 3.99}, {"text": "inside people's mouths to\nmeasure air pressure to find", "start": 2102.18, "duration": 3.42}, {"text": "out what happens.", "start": 2105.6, "duration": 0.84}, {"text": "And they have discovered\nthat this is true, yeah.", "start": 2106.44, "duration": 3.29}, {"text": "So I try not to lie\nto you in this class", "start": 2109.73, "duration": 2.233}, {"text": "any more than I can help it.", "start": 2111.963, "duration": 1.167}, {"text": "But in this particular\ncase, what I'm saying", "start": 2113.13, "duration": 1.86}, {"text": "is absolutely true.", "start": 2114.99, "duration": 0.9}, {"text": "OK, so there are sonorants\nand there are obstruents.", "start": 2119.285, "duration": 2.815}, {"text": "We have already talked about\nthe classification of sounds", "start": 2122.1, "duration": 2.4}, {"text": "into voiced and\nvoiceless sounds.", "start": 2124.5, "duration": 1.41}, {"text": "So the red sounds on\nthis slide are voiced.", "start": 2125.91, "duration": 2.85}, {"text": "And as you can see, in\nthis cross-cut-- some", "start": 2128.76, "duration": 1.86}, {"text": "of the other classifications.", "start": 2130.62, "duration": 1.208}, {"text": "So you can be an obstruent,\nlike a stop or a fricative,", "start": 2131.828, "duration": 5.602}, {"text": "and you can be either\nvoiced or voiceless.", "start": 2137.43, "duration": 2.71}, {"text": "So English stops can\nbe voiced or voiceless.", "start": 2140.14, "duration": 3.32}, {"text": "English fricatives can\nbe voiced or voiceless.", "start": 2143.46, "duration": 2.76}, {"text": "English sonorants,\ninterestingly,", "start": 2146.22, "duration": 1.89}, {"text": "can only be voiced.", "start": 2148.11, "duration": 1.32}, {"text": "They cannot be voiceless.", "start": 2149.43, "duration": 1.98}, {"text": "We have sonorants\nlike \"l,\" like \"l,\"", "start": 2151.41, "duration": 3.42}, {"text": "but we don't have a\nvoiceless version of \"l.\"", "start": 2154.83, "duration": 2.035}, {"text": "We talked about this\nwhen we were first", "start": 2156.865, "duration": 1.625}, {"text": "going through sounds.", "start": 2158.49, "duration": 1.763}, {"text": "There are languages\nout there that", "start": 2160.253, "duration": 1.417}, {"text": "have a voiceless version of\n\"l,\" that have a \"lh\" sound.", "start": 2161.67, "duration": 3.9}, {"text": "Tibetan has one, for example.", "start": 2165.57, "duration": 1.75}, {"text": "So if you go to Lhasa,\nthe capital of Tibet,", "start": 2167.32, "duration": 2.96}, {"text": "you must learn to\nmake voiceless \"l\"s.", "start": 2170.28, "duration": 3.21}, {"text": "Welsh has a voiceless \"l.\".", "start": 2173.49, "duration": 3.27}, {"text": "They spell it with two \"l\"s.", "start": 2176.76, "duration": 1.8}, {"text": "So if you look at Welsh words,\nyou'll see pairs of \"l\"s.", "start": 2178.56, "duration": 3.21}, {"text": "That's their way of\nspelling a voiceless \"l.\"", "start": 2181.77, "duration": 3.48}, {"text": "So there's a traditional\nWelsh name spelled like this", "start": 2185.25, "duration": 4.56}, {"text": "and pronounced\n\"Lhoyd,\" which has", "start": 2189.81, "duration": 2.85}, {"text": "been borrowed into English twice\nas the name Lloyd and the name", "start": 2192.66, "duration": 4.41}, {"text": "Floyd.", "start": 2197.07, "duration": 2.04}, {"text": "These are both\nattempts to pronounce", "start": 2199.11, "duration": 1.527}, {"text": "\"Lhoyd,\" which we can't\npronounce because we", "start": 2200.637, "duration": 1.833}, {"text": "don't have that sound.", "start": 2202.47, "duration": 2.8}, {"text": "Yeah.", "start": 2205.27, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "So English has voiced and\nvoiceless obstruents, stops", "start": 2205.77, "duration": 4.295}, {"text": "and fricatives.", "start": 2210.065, "duration": 0.625}, {"text": "But it only has voice sonorants.", "start": 2210.69, "duration": 1.8}, {"text": "That's a very common\nstate of affairs.", "start": 2212.49, "duration": 2.67}, {"text": "If you're going\nto have a voicing", "start": 2215.16, "duration": 1.77}, {"text": "distinction in only one of these\nplaces, it's in the obstruents.", "start": 2216.93, "duration": 3.84}, {"text": "Languages only having\nvoiced sonorants--", "start": 2220.77, "duration": 1.89}, {"text": "that's very common, though\nnot universal, as we've said.", "start": 2222.66, "duration": 4.2}, {"text": "Quick interlude to use\none of these features.", "start": 2229.54, "duration": 4.13}, {"text": "Here are a bunch of verbs that\nyou can make out of adjectives.", "start": 2233.67, "duration": 4.84}, {"text": "So you can take an\nadjective like \"black.\"", "start": 2238.51, "duration": 2.9}, {"text": "And you can make\na verb, \"blacken,\"", "start": 2241.41, "duration": 2.457}, {"text": "which can be either a transitive\nverb or in intransitive verb,", "start": 2243.867, "duration": 2.583}, {"text": "I guess.", "start": 2246.45, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "So you can blacken the paper\nor blacken the fish, I guess.", "start": 2246.95, "duration": 6.7}, {"text": "It means to make it black.", "start": 2253.65, "duration": 3.54}, {"text": "Similarly, something can whiten\nor lessen or freshen or darken.", "start": 2257.19, "duration": 6.0}, {"text": "You can offer to\nfreshen a drink, say.", "start": 2263.19, "duration": 2.04}, {"text": "It means to make\nit fresh, right?", "start": 2265.23, "duration": 2.79}, {"text": "So there's this \"-en\" that you\ncan add to adjectives to make", "start": 2268.02, "duration": 3.27}, {"text": "verbs.", "start": 2271.29, "duration": 0.63}, {"text": "Does that sound right?", "start": 2271.92, "duration": 2.95}, {"text": "On the other hand, there are\nthese other adjectives which", "start": 2274.87, "duration": 4.7}, {"text": "can't have \"-en,\" yeah?", "start": 2279.57, "duration": 1.68}, {"text": "So the screen of a\ncomputer can darken,", "start": 2281.25, "duration": 6.54}, {"text": "but it cannot \"yellowen,\" yeah?", "start": 2287.79, "duration": 3.52}, {"text": "A piece of paper that gets old--", "start": 2291.31, "duration": 3.08}, {"text": "what you say is\nthat the yellows.", "start": 2294.39, "duration": 1.77}, {"text": "It yellowed with age.", "start": 2296.16, "duration": 1.38}, {"text": "You don't say that it\n\"yellowened,\" yeah?", "start": 2297.54, "duration": 2.46}, {"text": "Similarly, you can't\n\"dimmen\" or \"grayen\"", "start": 2300.0, "duration": 2.67}, {"text": "or \"clearen\" or \"brownen.\"", "start": 2302.67, "duration": 1.923}, {"text": "All of those things--\nif you want to make them", "start": 2304.593, "duration": 1.917}, {"text": "into verbs, you just [SNAPS].", "start": 2306.51, "duration": 1.35}, {"text": "They're verbs, yeah?", "start": 2307.86, "duration": 2.15}, {"text": "Yeah?", "start": 2310.01, "duration": 0.66}, {"text": "Does that sound right?", "start": 2310.67, "duration": 2.1}, {"text": "What's the difference\nbetween \"black,\"", "start": 2312.77, "duration": 2.07}, {"text": "\"white,\" \"less,\" \"fresh,\"\nand \"dark\" on the one hand,", "start": 2314.84, "duration": 4.14}, {"text": "and \"yellow,\" \"dim,\"\n\"gray,\" \"clear,\"", "start": 2318.98, "duration": 4.11}, {"text": "and \"brown\" on the other?", "start": 2323.09, "duration": 3.753}, {"text": "STUDENT: They end with voiceless\nstops in the first line?", "start": 2326.843, "duration": 5.559}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS:\nIn the first line,", "start": 2332.402, "duration": 1.458}, {"text": "\"black,\" \"white,\" and \"dark\"\nend with voiceless stops.", "start": 2333.86, "duration": 3.63}, {"text": "And \"less\" and \"fresh\" end with\nvoiceless fricatives, yeah?", "start": 2337.49, "duration": 4.7}, {"text": "Yeah, yeah.", "start": 2342.19, "duration": 0.81}, {"text": "Yeah, nice.", "start": 2343.0, "duration": 3.34}, {"text": "And \"yellow,\" \"dim,\" \"gray,\"\n\"clear,\" and \"brown\" end in", "start": 2346.34, "duration": 5.035}, {"text": "voiced sounds.", "start": 2351.375, "duration": 0.71}, {"text": "What's the cover term\nfor stops and fricatives?", "start": 2354.6, "duration": 4.377}, {"text": "STUDENT: Obstruents.", "start": 2358.977, "duration": 0.833}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Obstruents.", "start": 2359.81, "duration": 1.68}, {"text": "So \"-en\" can be added to\nwords ending in obstruents.", "start": 2361.49, "duration": 4.77}, {"text": "And it can't be\nadded to adjectives", "start": 2366.26, "duration": 2.73}, {"text": "ending in sonorants, yeah?", "start": 2368.99, "duration": 1.74}, {"text": "Another place where it's\nuseful to distinguish sonorants", "start": 2374.29, "duration": 3.99}, {"text": "from obstruents--", "start": 2378.28, "duration": 2.67}, {"text": "Polish plurals-- I think this\nis the last time I will say", "start": 2380.95, "duration": 2.79}, {"text": "anything about Polish plurals.", "start": 2383.74, "duration": 1.62}, {"text": "I can't promise because\nit's a very useful example.", "start": 2385.36, "duration": 3.55}, {"text": "But if you're getting tired of\nPolish plurals, I apologize.", "start": 2388.91, "duration": 2.75}, {"text": "I think we're just\nabout to the end.", "start": 2391.66, "duration": 1.5}, {"text": "On the other hand, if you've\nbecome fond of Polish plurals,", "start": 2393.16, "duration": 2.79}, {"text": "please gaze at this\nslide for a while.", "start": 2395.95, "duration": 3.24}, {"text": "This is your last big chance.", "start": 2399.19, "duration": 2.86}, {"text": "What we said about\nPolish plurals was", "start": 2402.05, "duration": 2.42}, {"text": "that it's useful\nto say that there", "start": 2404.47, "duration": 2.01}, {"text": "are words that end underlyingly\nin sounds like \"g\" and \"b\"", "start": 2406.48, "duration": 3.39}, {"text": "and \"z.\"", "start": 2409.87, "duration": 0.75}, {"text": "And those final\nsounds, \"g\" and \"b\"", "start": 2410.62, "duration": 2.34}, {"text": "and \"z,\" devoice when\nthey're at the ends of words.", "start": 2412.96, "duration": 2.34}, {"text": "So underlying \"wuk,\"\nthe word for \"lye,\"", "start": 2415.3, "duration": 2.91}, {"text": "becomes \"wuk\" if you don't\nadd anything after it.", "start": 2418.21, "duration": 3.46}, {"text": "And same with the\nword for \"club\"", "start": 2421.67, "duration": 1.4}, {"text": "and the word for \"rubble.\"", "start": 2423.07, "duration": 1.56}, {"text": "And I have been\nincautiously saying things", "start": 2424.63, "duration": 1.95}, {"text": "like, \"Polish devoices its final\nconsonants,\" which was a lie.", "start": 2426.58, "duration": 6.55}, {"text": "I think I told you just\nnow that I try not to lie", "start": 2433.13, "duration": 2.87}, {"text": "to you any more than I have to.", "start": 2436.0, "duration": 2.97}, {"text": "It doesn't devoice its\nfinal consonants, right?", "start": 2438.97, "duration": 2.76}, {"text": "Because Polish has\nwords like \"dom,\"", "start": 2441.73, "duration": 3.18}, {"text": "which is the word for house.", "start": 2444.91, "duration": 1.53}, {"text": "And that ends in a\nvoiced sound, right?", "start": 2446.44, "duration": 2.136}, {"text": "\"Dom\" doesn't become \"dom\"\n[pronounced with voicelesss", "start": 2448.576, "duration": 2.25}, {"text": "\"m\"], yeah?", "start": 2450.826, "duration": 2.034}, {"text": "Right?", "start": 2452.86, "duration": 2.02}, {"text": "So it's not the case\nthat final consonants", "start": 2454.88, "duration": 2.13}, {"text": "become voiceless in Polish.", "start": 2457.01, "duration": 2.558}, {"text": "What are the things that\nbecome voiceless in Polish?", "start": 2459.568, "duration": 2.167}, {"text": "Obstruents, yeah?", "start": 2464.69, "duration": 0.93}, {"text": "Stops and fricatives.", "start": 2465.62, "duration": 1.53}, {"text": "Those are the things that\nbecome voiceless in Polish.", "start": 2467.15, "duration": 2.64}, {"text": "Relatedly, Polish is like\nEnglish in having voiced", "start": 2469.79, "duration": 3.75}, {"text": "and voiceless obstruents,\nbut not having", "start": 2473.54, "duration": 3.63}, {"text": "voiced and voiceless sonorants.", "start": 2477.17, "duration": 1.68}, {"text": "So Polish-- the \"m,\" in a sense,\ndoesn't have anywhere to go.", "start": 2478.85, "duration": 4.32}, {"text": "Polish doesn't have that sound.", "start": 2483.17, "duration": 1.41}, {"text": "Common situation.", "start": 2487.97, "duration": 1.3}, {"text": "So it's really final obstruents\nthat are becoming voiceless.", "start": 2489.27, "duration": 3.32}, {"text": "OK, all right.", "start": 2496.11, "duration": 1.35}, {"text": "So that's a reason\nto want to care", "start": 2497.46, "duration": 3.57}, {"text": "about the distinction between\nsonorants and obstruents,", "start": 2501.03, "duration": 3.205}, {"text": "not just because you\nwant to understand", "start": 2504.235, "duration": 1.625}, {"text": "why it's \"whiten\" and\n\"darken\" and \"lessen,\"", "start": 2505.86, "duration": 2.97}, {"text": "but not \"yellowen.\"", "start": 2508.83, "duration": 2.695}, {"text": "It seems to be a\ndistinction that cares", "start": 2511.525, "duration": 1.625}, {"text": "about sonorants and obstruents.", "start": 2513.15, "duration": 1.48}, {"text": "Here's another one.", "start": 2514.63, "duration": 1.46}, {"text": "Polish, which as I've\nsaid now several times,", "start": 2516.09, "duration": 2.67}, {"text": "and I think this might\nbe the last time--", "start": 2518.76, "duration": 2.04}, {"text": "Polish is doing something that\nis very common in languages", "start": 2520.8, "duration": 2.758}, {"text": "of the world.", "start": 2523.558, "duration": 0.542}, {"text": "It's devoicing final obstruents.", "start": 2524.1, "duration": 3.75}, {"text": "That's a thing\nthat happens a lot.", "start": 2527.85, "duration": 1.8}, {"text": "All right.", "start": 2532.98, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "So phonology so far--\nwe've been doing phonology", "start": 2533.48, "duration": 4.26}, {"text": "for a couple of days now.", "start": 2537.74, "duration": 2.31}, {"text": "It's useful to think of sounds\nas undergoing changes sometimes", "start": 2540.05, "duration": 5.28}, {"text": "driven by sounds coming in\ncontact with each other.", "start": 2545.33, "duration": 3.7}, {"text": "And we can describe these\nchanges in terms of rules.", "start": 2549.03, "duration": 3.29}, {"text": "There's the formalism for rules\nthat I've been showing you.", "start": 2552.32, "duration": 3.42}, {"text": "So we'll say sound A\nchanges into sound B.", "start": 2555.74, "duration": 4.14}, {"text": "The slash introduces\nyou to the environment.", "start": 2559.88, "duration": 3.16}, {"text": "This is a description of\nwhat's happening in Polish,", "start": 2563.04, "duration": 2.558}, {"text": "and Turkish, and\nGerman, and Russian,", "start": 2565.598, "duration": 1.542}, {"text": "and lots of other languages.", "start": 2567.14, "duration": 1.5}, {"text": "Final obstruents-- so if\nyou are an obstruent that", "start": 2568.64, "duration": 3.12}, {"text": "is something which\nis not a sonorant,", "start": 2571.76, "duration": 1.8}, {"text": "you become something\nwhich is not voiced.", "start": 2573.56, "duration": 2.85}, {"text": "If you are at the\nend of a word--", "start": 2576.41, "duration": 2.43}, {"text": "that environment\ndescription is the way", "start": 2578.84, "duration": 2.46}, {"text": "to write at the end of a word.", "start": 2581.3, "duration": 1.35}, {"text": "That hash symbol is the symbol\nfor a boundary between words.", "start": 2582.65, "duration": 3.3}, {"text": "And the underscore is where\nthe change takes place.", "start": 2585.95, "duration": 3.25}, {"text": "So this rule says\nthis change happens", "start": 2589.2, "duration": 4.07}, {"text": "when the sound is\nbefore a word boundary,", "start": 2593.27, "duration": 3.39}, {"text": "or to put it another way, when\nit is at the end of a word.", "start": 2596.66, "duration": 3.09}, {"text": "Does that make sense?", "start": 2599.75, "duration": 1.52}, {"text": "This is a way of writing rules.", "start": 2601.27, "duration": 1.465}, {"text": "These rules are part of our\nknowledge of a language.", "start": 2606.53, "duration": 2.52}, {"text": "So we've talked about this.", "start": 2609.05, "duration": 1.43}, {"text": "As adults, anybody who is\na native speaker of English", "start": 2614.26, "duration": 4.92}, {"text": "knows how to make\nthe plural of \"wug,\"", "start": 2619.18, "duration": 3.06}, {"text": "or how to make the\nplural of \"Bach,\" even.", "start": 2622.24, "duration": 2.82}, {"text": "So how to make plurals\nof words you've", "start": 2625.06, "duration": 3.48}, {"text": "never heard before and even\nwords that end in sounds", "start": 2628.54, "duration": 3.0}, {"text": "that your language\ndoesn't have, right?", "start": 2631.54, "duration": 2.89}, {"text": "So if I insist on calling\nthe composer \"Bach\"--", "start": 2634.43, "duration": 3.92}, {"text": "if I insist on the original\nInupiaq pronunciation", "start": 2638.35, "duration": 3.3}, {"text": "of the word \"qaiaq,\" which\nis kayak, a single person", "start": 2641.65, "duration": 3.72}, {"text": "boat, which in Inupiaq begins\nand ends with a uvular stop--", "start": 2645.37, "duration": 5.44}, {"text": "so if I'm trying to\nimpress you with my ability", "start": 2650.81, "duration": 2.0}, {"text": "to make uvular\nstops and I insist", "start": 2652.81, "duration": 1.74}, {"text": "on calling a kayak a \"qaiaq,\"\nthen my plural for it", "start": 2654.55, "duration": 3.27}, {"text": "is going to be \"qaiaqs,\" right?", "start": 2657.82, "duration": 2.55}, {"text": "So I'm going to\nadd an \"s\" sound.", "start": 2660.37, "duration": 1.38}, {"text": "I'm going to devoice it\nbecause that uvular stop,", "start": 2661.75, "duration": 2.28}, {"text": "although it's a\nsound we don't have", "start": 2664.03, "duration": 1.458}, {"text": "an English-- it's voiceless.", "start": 2665.488, "duration": 1.792}, {"text": "So we're going to\ndevoice after it.", "start": 2667.28, "duration": 3.86}, {"text": "So these rules are part of\nour knowledge of a language.", "start": 2671.14, "duration": 2.55}, {"text": "And we can apply them\nto unfamiliar problems,", "start": 2673.69, "duration": 2.85}, {"text": "unfamiliar words, and\neven unfamiliar sounds.", "start": 2676.54, "duration": 3.69}, {"text": "And I've now tried to\nconvince you the best", "start": 2680.23, "duration": 3.225}, {"text": "way to state these rules,\nsometimes at least,", "start": 2683.455, "duration": 1.875}, {"text": "is in terms of features.", "start": 2685.33, "duration": 1.32}, {"text": "That is, we don't just want\nto list the sounds that", "start": 2686.65, "duration": 3.33}, {"text": "undergo a change.", "start": 2689.98, "duration": 1.32}, {"text": "We want to have these\nfeatures which are ways", "start": 2691.3, "duration": 3.66}, {"text": "of capturing sets of sounds.", "start": 2694.96, "duration": 2.19}, {"text": "We think that there are\nnatural classes of sounds that", "start": 2697.15, "duration": 3.69}, {"text": "undergo particular changes.", "start": 2700.84, "duration": 1.63}, {"text": "So there are sound\nchanges that apply, say,", "start": 2702.47, "duration": 2.09}, {"text": "to obstruents, to sonorants,\nor to vowels, to voiced sounds,", "start": 2704.56, "duration": 4.35}, {"text": "or to voiceless sounds.", "start": 2708.91, "duration": 1.047}, {"text": "We're not just going\nto list the sounds that", "start": 2709.957, "duration": 1.833}, {"text": "undergo sound changes.", "start": 2711.79, "duration": 0.917}, {"text": "We're going to state these\nin terms of features, OK?", "start": 2712.707, "duration": 3.512}, {"text": "And then the other thing\nthat I've introduced you to", "start": 2720.71, "duration": 2.58}, {"text": "is the idea that at\nleast sometimes, it's", "start": 2723.29, "duration": 2.55}, {"text": "fruitful to model these\nkinds of sound changes", "start": 2725.84, "duration": 3.9}, {"text": "as involving ranked constraints.", "start": 2729.74, "duration": 2.76}, {"text": "This was the optimality\ntheory tableaux--", "start": 2732.5, "duration": 3.27}, {"text": "that is, to imagine that\nlanguages have a list of things", "start": 2735.77, "duration": 3.6}, {"text": "that they are trying to achieve.", "start": 2739.37, "duration": 1.63}, {"text": "And it's a list that's\nranked in order of priority.", "start": 2741.0, "duration": 3.77}, {"text": "And you get to\nobserve the interplay", "start": 2744.77, "duration": 2.88}, {"text": "between these\ndifferent priorities", "start": 2747.65, "duration": 1.77}, {"text": "in certain kinds of\ncomplicated cases.", "start": 2749.42, "duration": 2.19}, {"text": "The Japanese accent case was one\nof the ones that we looked at.", "start": 2751.61, "duration": 3.94}, {"text": "OK?", "start": 2755.55, "duration": 2.73}, {"text": "And I think that's it\nfor this review slide.", "start": 2758.28, "duration": 2.198}, {"text": "Was there something else?", "start": 2760.478, "duration": 1.042}, {"text": "Oh, OK.", "start": 2761.52, "duration": 1.29}, {"text": "Is everyone happy\nwith all of this?", "start": 2762.81, "duration": 2.16}, {"text": "Is there any of this that\npeople are looking at and going,", "start": 2764.97, "duration": 1.68}, {"text": "no, wait.", "start": 2766.65, "duration": 0.42}, {"text": "How did-- how did we see that?", "start": 2767.07, "duration": 1.25}, {"text": "Or what does that mean,\nor anything like that?", "start": 2768.32, "duration": 2.38}, {"text": "Just an attempt to make\nsure that we're all", "start": 2770.7, "duration": 2.01}, {"text": "n the same ballpark here.", "start": 2772.71, "duration": 1.53}, {"text": "Yeah?", "start": 2774.24, "duration": 0.802}, {"text": "STUDENT: Could you clarify\nwhat \"feature\" means?", "start": 2775.042, "duration": 1.238}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Oh.", "start": 2776.28, "duration": 0.833}, {"text": "All I mean by \"feature\"\nare things like voiced,", "start": 2777.113, "duration": 3.547}, {"text": "or sonorant, or those\nkinds of things.", "start": 2780.66, "duration": 3.29}, {"text": "Yeah, good question.", "start": 2783.95, "duration": 1.42}, {"text": "And a standard\nway to write rules", "start": 2785.37, "duration": 1.8}, {"text": "involves putting features\nin brackets like that.", "start": 2787.17, "duration": 2.55}, {"text": "So the fancy way\nto say something", "start": 2789.72, "duration": 1.71}, {"text": "is voiceless is to say that\nits value for the feature voice", "start": 2791.43, "duration": 4.02}, {"text": "is minus.", "start": 2795.45, "duration": 1.08}, {"text": "So it is not voiced, yeah.", "start": 2796.53, "duration": 1.95}, {"text": "That's all that means.", "start": 2798.48, "duration": 2.61}, {"text": "Yeah?", "start": 2801.09, "duration": 1.48}, {"text": "OK.", "start": 2802.57, "duration": 0.78}, {"text": "When we ask you to\ndo phonology, we", "start": 2803.35, "duration": 2.85}, {"text": "will tell you\nwhether we want you--", "start": 2806.2, "duration": 2.64}, {"text": "to what extent we want\nyou to be formal about how", "start": 2808.84, "duration": 2.31}, {"text": "you write your rules.", "start": 2811.15, "duration": 1.57}, {"text": "So I think the problem\nset that I just sent out", "start": 2812.72, "duration": 3.5}, {"text": "asks you to look around\nfor possible rules in--", "start": 2816.22, "duration": 4.05}, {"text": "what is it?", "start": 2820.27, "duration": 1.75}, {"text": "It's Greenlandic data, I think.", "start": 2822.02, "duration": 3.8}, {"text": "You don't have to sweat\nthis level of formality", "start": 2825.82, "duration": 3.15}, {"text": "in your rules.", "start": 2828.97, "duration": 0.76}, {"text": "So if your rule for\nthat problem set--", "start": 2829.73, "duration": 1.62}, {"text": "so if you think you've\nfigured out what's going on,", "start": 2831.35, "duration": 3.93}, {"text": "you can just tell\nus, more or less.", "start": 2835.28, "duration": 2.44}, {"text": "Don't feel like we're\ngoing to count off", "start": 2837.72, "duration": 2.08}, {"text": "for not using features or not\nwriting your rules this way.", "start": 2839.8, "duration": 4.37}, {"text": "OK.", "start": 2844.17, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "All right, then.", "start": 2848.81, "duration": 1.8}, {"text": "Now I told you just now--", "start": 2850.61, "duration": 2.855}, {"text": "I tried to convince\nyou earlier--", "start": 2853.465, "duration": 1.375}, {"text": "that there are cases where--", "start": 2854.84, "duration": 3.33}, {"text": "the Japanese accent\ncase was the one", "start": 2858.17, "duration": 1.59}, {"text": "that we spent the\nmost time on, where", "start": 2859.76, "duration": 2.34}, {"text": "it's fruitful to think\nof the phenomenon", "start": 2862.1, "duration": 3.45}, {"text": "as involving a bunch\nof ranked priorities,", "start": 2865.55, "duration": 2.31}, {"text": "a bunch of constraints\nthat are all pulling", "start": 2867.86, "duration": 2.75}, {"text": "in different directions.", "start": 2870.61, "duration": 1.0}, {"text": "And you solve that\nproblem by deciding", "start": 2871.61, "duration": 2.04}, {"text": "which is the most\nimportant one, which", "start": 2873.65, "duration": 2.61}, {"text": "ones are more important than\nwhich other ones, ranking", "start": 2876.26, "duration": 2.25}, {"text": "your various constraints\nwith respect to each other.", "start": 2878.51, "duration": 3.46}, {"text": "There are other\ncases, though, that", "start": 2881.97, "duration": 2.3}, {"text": "are problematic for that way\nof thinking about things.", "start": 2884.27, "duration": 3.99}, {"text": "And there's big literature\non trying to reconcile", "start": 2888.26, "duration": 3.3}, {"text": "these kinds of observations.", "start": 2891.56, "duration": 1.26}, {"text": "On the one hand, the\nobservation that there do", "start": 2892.82, "duration": 2.58}, {"text": "seem to be these conspiracies\nwhere a language is doing", "start": 2895.4, "duration": 3.09}, {"text": "the same thing in a\nvariety of ways, which", "start": 2898.49, "duration": 1.75}, {"text": "is the kind of thing that makes\npeople want to think in terms", "start": 2900.24, "duration": 2.542}, {"text": "of ranked constraints,\nand on the other hand,", "start": 2902.782, "duration": 2.198}, {"text": "the kinds of cases, which\nwe've talked about before,", "start": 2904.98, "duration": 2.27}, {"text": "where it looks more\nlike what's happening", "start": 2907.25, "duration": 1.77}, {"text": "is that you have\na bunch of rules.", "start": 2909.02, "duration": 1.56}, {"text": "And they're applying\nin an order.", "start": 2910.58, "duration": 2.46}, {"text": "And they don't necessarily\nall get obeyed.", "start": 2913.04, "duration": 5.67}, {"text": "We did this on the board--", "start": 2918.71, "duration": 2.8}, {"text": "when was it?", "start": 2921.51, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "Last time, I think.", "start": 2922.01, "duration": 0.792}, {"text": "But let's do it on the slide\na little more carefully.", "start": 2922.802, "duration": 2.698}, {"text": "So cast your minds back to when\nwe were talking about Lardil.", "start": 2925.5, "duration": 3.98}, {"text": "I tried to convince you--\nwe worked out an analysis", "start": 2929.48, "duration": 2.31}, {"text": "of Lardil in which, again,\nbare nominative singular--", "start": 2931.79, "duration": 5.97}, {"text": "Lardil doesn't mark number.", "start": 2937.76, "duration": 1.23}, {"text": "But bare nominative\nforms of nouns", "start": 2938.99, "duration": 3.93}, {"text": "undergo various kinds\nof sound changes.", "start": 2942.92, "duration": 2.05}, {"text": "So Lardil has words\nthat underlyingly", "start": 2944.97, "duration": 3.23}, {"text": "end in a \"k,\" for example.", "start": 2948.2, "duration": 1.89}, {"text": "And there was a\ngeneral rule in Lardil", "start": 2950.09, "duration": 2.82}, {"text": "that said if you\nhave a word that ends", "start": 2952.91, "duration": 2.64}, {"text": "in a \"k,\" get rid of the \"k.\"", "start": 2955.55, "duration": 2.82}, {"text": "So I'll start\nwriting these down.", "start": 2958.37, "duration": 3.03}, {"text": "Some Lardil rules-- one\nof them was eliminate--", "start": 2961.4, "duration": 3.47}, {"text": "and I won't try to\nwrite them formally.", "start": 2964.87, "duration": 1.66}, {"text": "Eliminate final \"k.\"", "start": 2966.53, "duration": 3.36}, {"text": "So the word that we\nthink is underlyingly", "start": 2969.89, "duration": 3.07}, {"text": "\"wangalk,\" the\nword for boomerang,", "start": 2972.96, "duration": 2.93}, {"text": "in its nominative\nform is \"wangal.\"", "start": 2975.89, "duration": 1.81}, {"text": "And the reason we think\nthat it's underlyingly", "start": 2977.7, "duration": 1.917}, {"text": "\"wangal\" is that if you\nadd any suffixes to it,", "start": 2979.617, "duration": 2.243}, {"text": "you get to see that \"k.\"", "start": 2981.86, "duration": 1.41}, {"text": "So the accusative, I think\nI told you, was [LARDIL]..", "start": 2983.27, "duration": 4.11}, {"text": "So the \"k\" shows up, and\nin other forms as well.", "start": 2987.38, "duration": 4.53}, {"text": "We thought there was\nanother rule that said", "start": 2991.91, "duration": 2.88}, {"text": "a final \"u\" becomes \"a,\" yeah?", "start": 2994.79, "duration": 5.67}, {"text": "And that was why\n\"kandu,\" which is", "start": 3000.46, "duration": 2.97}, {"text": "the word for \"blood\"\nunderlyingly,", "start": 3003.43, "duration": 2.52}, {"text": "becomes \"kanda\"\nin the nominative.", "start": 3005.95, "duration": 2.58}, {"text": "And in the accusative,\nit's [LARDIL]..", "start": 3008.53, "duration": 2.19}, {"text": "That's why we think it\nstarts out as \"kandu.\"", "start": 3010.72, "duration": 3.06}, {"text": "So we have these two rules.", "start": 3013.78, "duration": 1.822}, {"text": "And what we said\nwhen we were doing", "start": 3015.602, "duration": 1.458}, {"text": "Lardil before was\nsomething like we", "start": 3017.06, "duration": 3.38}, {"text": "might want these rules to\napply in a particular order.", "start": 3020.44, "duration": 4.08}, {"text": "In fact, I see that\nI have written them", "start": 3024.52, "duration": 2.13}, {"text": "in the wrong order.", "start": 3026.65, "duration": 2.1}, {"text": "If you were to take the\nword \"ngaluk,\" which", "start": 3028.75, "duration": 4.02}, {"text": "is the underlying\nform for \"story,\"", "start": 3032.77, "duration": 2.28}, {"text": "and apply this rule\nand then this rule,", "start": 3035.05, "duration": 3.46}, {"text": "well then, you would\neliminate the final \"k.\"", "start": 3038.51, "duration": 2.15}, {"text": "That would get you ngalu.", "start": 3040.66, "duration": 1.41}, {"text": "And then you would change\nthe final \"u\" to \"a.\"", "start": 3042.07, "duration": 2.01}, {"text": "And then you would\nget an \"ngala.\"", "start": 3044.08, "duration": 2.01}, {"text": "But that's not, in fact, the\nnominative form for \"story.\"", "start": 3046.09, "duration": 2.91}, {"text": "The nominative form for\nstory is ngalu, yeah?", "start": 3049.0, "duration": 3.06}, {"text": "And so what I said at the\ntime was one way of thinking", "start": 3052.06, "duration": 3.58}, {"text": "about this, a popular way\nof thinking about this", "start": 3055.64, "duration": 2.0}, {"text": "is, to think there\nare these rules.", "start": 3057.64, "duration": 1.92}, {"text": "And it's like an assembly line.", "start": 3059.56, "duration": 2.91}, {"text": "The first station is the\none where you do this,", "start": 3062.47, "duration": 2.91}, {"text": "where you get rid of final \"u.\"", "start": 3065.38, "duration": 1.77}, {"text": "And then after you're done\nwith that, you get handed off", "start": 3067.15, "duration": 3.0}, {"text": "to another place in\nthe assembly line", "start": 3070.15, "duration": 2.61}, {"text": "where they eliminate final \"k.\"", "start": 3072.76, "duration": 2.58}, {"text": "And what's happened with that\n\"ngaluk,\" underlying \"ngaluk,\"", "start": 3075.34, "duration": 3.03}, {"text": "is that it got handed to\nthe first station first.", "start": 3078.37, "duration": 2.19}, {"text": "First station said, well,\nthis word, \"ngaluk\"--", "start": 3080.56, "duration": 2.13}, {"text": "it doesn't end in \"u.\"", "start": 3082.69, "duration": 1.23}, {"text": "I'm not going to do anything.", "start": 3083.92, "duration": 1.47}, {"text": "And then it gets handed\nto the second station.", "start": 3085.39, "duration": 2.352}, {"text": "The second station\nsays, oh, I need", "start": 3087.742, "duration": 1.458}, {"text": "to get rid of the final \"k.\"", "start": 3089.2, "duration": 1.167}, {"text": "It'll be a \"ngalu,\"\nby which point", "start": 3090.367, "duration": 1.831}, {"text": "the people in the first\nstation might have been saying,", "start": 3092.198, "duration": 2.292}, {"text": "wait, wait.", "start": 3094.49, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "Let us have that back.", "start": 3094.99, "duration": 0.94}, {"text": "But it's too late, was the idea.", "start": 3095.93, "duration": 1.97}, {"text": "Yeah, so these are rules that\napply in a particular order.", "start": 3097.9, "duration": 2.49}, {"text": "That's the way we were\ntalking about Lardil.", "start": 3100.39, "duration": 2.43}, {"text": "Does that all sound\nvaguely familiar?", "start": 3102.82, "duration": 2.34}, {"text": "There are these procedures, and\nthe procedures happen in order.", "start": 3105.16, "duration": 2.625}, {"text": "But if we imagine,\nthinking about things", "start": 3110.53, "duration": 2.21}, {"text": "in an optimality\ntheoretic kind of way,", "start": 3112.74, "duration": 2.34}, {"text": "well, it's not hard to come up\nwith constraints that say this.", "start": 3115.08, "duration": 4.59}, {"text": "Star, final-- I have to\nwrite it in capital letters", "start": 3119.67, "duration": 5.31}, {"text": "because that's what you\ndo in optimality theory.", "start": 3124.98, "duration": 2.01}, {"text": "No final \"k.\"", "start": 3126.99, "duration": 1.56}, {"text": "No final \"u,\" yeah?", "start": 3128.55, "duration": 4.62}, {"text": "And those constraints\nwould look at \"ngaluk\"--", "start": 3133.17, "duration": 2.38}, {"text": "or sorry, \"wangalk,\"\nand they would say,", "start": 3135.55, "duration": 2.07}, {"text": "no, we can't have the final \"k.\"", "start": 3137.62, "duration": 0.92}, {"text": "It'll be one \"wangal.\"", "start": 3138.54, "duration": 0.75}, {"text": "And they would look at \"kandu.\"", "start": 3139.29, "duration": 1.292}, {"text": "And they would say, no,\ncan't have the final \"u.\"", "start": 3140.582, "duration": 2.638}, {"text": "It's got to be \"kanda.\"", "start": 3143.22, "duration": 1.56}, {"text": "It might have other\nconstraints that", "start": 3144.78, "duration": 1.5}, {"text": "are responsible for helping\nyou decide the best thing to do", "start": 3146.28, "duration": 3.24}, {"text": "with \"kandu\" is to change it\nto \"kanda\" instead of \"kandi,\"", "start": 3149.52, "duration": 3.18}, {"text": "or \"kand,\" or any of a\nvariety of other things", "start": 3152.7, "duration": 2.197}, {"text": "you could have done.", "start": 3154.897, "duration": 0.833}, {"text": "So it's not all\nthat hard to have", "start": 3155.73, "duration": 1.65}, {"text": "constraints that say there's\nsomething wrong with \"wangalk.\"", "start": 3157.38, "duration": 2.58}, {"text": "There's something\nwrong with \"kandu.\"", "start": 3159.96, "duration": 3.68}, {"text": "But it's not easy to\nfigure out what to do next.", "start": 3163.64, "duration": 3.76}, {"text": "So if you have those conditions\nthat say Lardil cannot stand", "start": 3167.4, "duration": 3.5}, {"text": "words that end in \"k.\"\nor words that end in \"u,\"", "start": 3170.9, "duration": 4.5}, {"text": "that's the kind of thing we were\nsaying about Japanese accent.", "start": 3175.4, "duration": 2.91}, {"text": "Japanese doesn't like\naccent on the last syllable.", "start": 3178.31, "duration": 4.05}, {"text": "So avoid it if you're\nmaking a compound.", "start": 3182.36, "duration": 2.84}, {"text": "Those generalizations hold for\n\"boomerang\" and for \"blood.\"", "start": 3185.2, "duration": 2.7}, {"text": "But they don't hold for \"story.\"", "start": 3187.9, "duration": 1.65}, {"text": "The one about not having a word\nending in \"u\" doesn't hold.", "start": 3189.55, "duration": 3.3}, {"text": "Yes?", "start": 3192.85, "duration": 1.133}, {"text": "STUDENT: You talked about\nno final \"k,\" no final \"u\"", "start": 3193.983, "duration": 2.167}, {"text": "as being part of\noptimality theory.", "start": 3196.15, "duration": 1.663}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah.", "start": 3197.813, "duration": 0.917}, {"text": "STUDENT: Is it possible\nto satisfy both", "start": 3201.34, "duration": 4.69}, {"text": "if you were to do \"ngala\"?", "start": 3206.03, "duration": 2.948}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Mm-hmm.", "start": 3208.978, "duration": 2.092}, {"text": "STUDENT: Does optimality theory\nsupport each of the rules?", "start": 3211.07, "duration": 5.622}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS:\nSo that's just it.", "start": 3216.692, "duration": 1.458}, {"text": "It doesn't, right?", "start": 3218.15, "duration": 0.75}, {"text": "So the conditions--\nthe sense in which", "start": 3218.9, "duration": 2.105}, {"text": "it has something\nlike an order is", "start": 3221.005, "duration": 1.375}, {"text": "that the conditions are ranked\nwith respect to each other.", "start": 3222.38, "duration": 2.25}, {"text": "There's the one that's most\nimportant and the one that's", "start": 3224.63, "duration": 2.333}, {"text": "next most important, and so on.", "start": 3226.963, "duration": 2.357}, {"text": "But if we were to\nbuild a tableau,", "start": 3229.32, "duration": 3.59}, {"text": "we would have these\ntwo conditions.", "start": 3232.91, "duration": 3.45}, {"text": "Don't have final \"k.\"", "start": 3236.36, "duration": 2.55}, {"text": "Don't have final \"u.\"", "start": 3238.91, "duration": 5.46}, {"text": "And we would start\noff with \"ngaluk.\"", "start": 3244.37, "duration": 3.48}, {"text": "And we'd consider\nkeeping \"ngaluk.\"", "start": 3247.85, "duration": 2.73}, {"text": "And we'd consider getting\nrid of the \"k\" at the end.", "start": 3250.58, "duration": 4.83}, {"text": "And maybe we'd consider\n\"ngala,\" right?", "start": 3255.41, "duration": 3.06}, {"text": "And this one would get knocked\nout by star final \"k,\" right?", "start": 3258.47, "duration": 4.56}, {"text": "Because it would end in \"k.\"", "start": 3263.03, "duration": 1.44}, {"text": "And this one would get knocked\nout by star final \"u,\" yeah?", "start": 3264.47, "duration": 4.05}, {"text": "And this one would pass\nboth of those conditions.", "start": 3268.52, "duration": 3.28}, {"text": "So if we just did a tableau\nlike this, if we said,", "start": 3271.8, "duration": 2.75}, {"text": "Lardil seems to not like\nthis and not like that,", "start": 3274.55, "duration": 2.16}, {"text": "and we have evidence for\nthat in these other cases,", "start": 3276.71, "duration": 3.43}, {"text": "it seems as though \"ngalu\"\nought to become \"ngala.\"", "start": 3280.14, "duration": 2.93}, {"text": "But that's wrong.", "start": 3283.07, "duration": 1.41}, {"text": "So the fact is this is\nthe one we want to win.", "start": 3284.48, "duration": 3.16}, {"text": "And it's hard to see, once we've\nposited these conditions, how", "start": 3287.64, "duration": 4.91}, {"text": "we can get this to win.", "start": 3292.55, "duration": 1.59}, {"text": "This seems like it ought\nto be better once we've", "start": 3294.14, "duration": 3.09}, {"text": "posited these conditions.", "start": 3297.23, "duration": 1.27}, {"text": "So the puzzle-- and there's\nsomething people work on", "start": 3298.5, "duration": 2.167}, {"text": "is try to figure out,\nwhy is that second one", "start": 3300.667, "duration": 2.503}, {"text": "better than the third one?", "start": 3303.17, "duration": 1.59}, {"text": "Yeah.", "start": 3304.76, "duration": 0.66}, {"text": "STUDENT: How about we rephrase\nthe no final \"u\" rule?", "start": 3305.42, "duration": 2.403}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah.", "start": 3307.823, "duration": 0.917}, {"text": "STUDENT: We rephrase it as\nno final \"u\" unless it's", "start": 3308.74, "duration": 2.79}, {"text": "original form ends with a \"k.\"", "start": 3311.53, "duration": 1.56}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Ah, OK.", "start": 3313.09, "duration": 1.0}, {"text": "So we could have\na rule that says--", "start": 3314.09, "duration": 1.62}, {"text": "that's nice.", "start": 3315.71, "duration": 0.99}, {"text": "We could say, no final \"u.\"", "start": 3316.7, "duration": 2.68}, {"text": "This is another way of\nsaying what you just said.", "start": 3319.38, "duration": 2.57}, {"text": "No final \"u\" that was\nfinal in original form.", "start": 3321.95, "duration": 7.005}, {"text": "Yep.", "start": 3332.08, "duration": 0.63}, {"text": "So we need more capital\nletters, but it's OK.", "start": 3332.71, "duration": 3.12}, {"text": "So yes, if we state\nit that way, then this", "start": 3335.83, "duration": 6.87}, {"text": "passes that version of it.", "start": 3342.7, "duration": 2.59}, {"text": "And as long as we have some\nother condition that says,", "start": 3345.29, "duration": 2.36}, {"text": "don't change vowels\njust for the fun of it,", "start": 3347.65, "duration": 1.89}, {"text": "don't change \"u\" because you\nwant to, which we surely need,", "start": 3349.54, "duration": 4.3}, {"text": "right?", "start": 3353.84, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "If you give Lardil\na word that has", "start": 3354.34, "duration": 3.09}, {"text": "an \"u\" in it that's not at the\nend, it's not going to change.", "start": 3357.43, "duration": 4.11}, {"text": "Then yes, then this would win.", "start": 3361.54, "duration": 2.25}, {"text": "That's right.", "start": 3363.79, "duration": 0.84}, {"text": "That is indeed one of the kinds\nof things people do in order", "start": 3364.63, "duration": 3.09}, {"text": "to handle this kind of problem.", "start": 3367.72, "duration": 1.32}, {"text": "They make these conditions\nmore complicated because now", "start": 3369.04, "duration": 5.61}, {"text": "the conditions we've had so\nfar are all about the form that", "start": 3374.65, "duration": 4.17}, {"text": "gets pronounced.", "start": 3378.82, "duration": 1.06}, {"text": "They say things like the\nform that gets pronounced", "start": 3379.88, "duration": 2.36}, {"text": "had better not end in\na \"k,\" or the form that", "start": 3382.24, "duration": 2.07}, {"text": "gets pronounced had better\nnot end in a voiced obstruent", "start": 3384.31, "duration": 2.37}, {"text": "if we're doing Polish,\nor it'd better not", "start": 3386.68, "duration": 2.822}, {"text": "have two stridents at\nthe end of the word", "start": 3389.502, "duration": 1.708}, {"text": "in a language like English.", "start": 3391.21, "duration": 1.597}, {"text": "This is a more\ncomplicated constraint.", "start": 3392.807, "duration": 1.583}, {"text": "It says it had better not\nend in this kind of sound", "start": 3394.39, "duration": 3.66}, {"text": "if it ended in\nthis kind of sound", "start": 3398.05, "duration": 2.55}, {"text": "originally, before we started.", "start": 3400.6, "duration": 3.45}, {"text": "So there's an actual debate\ngoing on in optimality theory", "start": 3404.05, "duration": 4.38}, {"text": "about whether we want to allow\nourselves that power, allowing", "start": 3408.43, "duration": 2.772}, {"text": "constraints that\nmake reference not", "start": 3411.202, "duration": 1.458}, {"text": "just to the pronounced version\nbut to an earlier version.", "start": 3412.66, "duration": 2.553}, {"text": "But you're absolutely right.", "start": 3415.213, "duration": 1.167}, {"text": "That's a move people\nmake, people argue for.", "start": 3416.38, "duration": 3.78}, {"text": "I'm bringing this\nup just to show you", "start": 3420.16, "duration": 1.83}, {"text": "there's this tension\nbetween these two ways", "start": 3421.99, "duration": 2.01}, {"text": "of thinking about phonology.", "start": 3424.0, "duration": 2.07}, {"text": "And you've just raised one\nof the ways, one of the ways", "start": 3426.07, "duration": 3.06}, {"text": "that, indeed, has been\ntaken in the literature", "start": 3429.13, "duration": 2.94}, {"text": "to try to figure out how\nto deal with this tension.", "start": 3432.07, "duration": 3.16}, {"text": "But if you thought\nthat linguistics", "start": 3435.23, "duration": 2.06}, {"text": "was finished, like we\nunderstood everything, no.", "start": 3437.29, "duration": 3.0}, {"text": "Yeah, so this is one\nof the kinds of things", "start": 3440.29, "duration": 2.25}, {"text": "that linguists\nstill fight about--", "start": 3442.54, "duration": 2.22}, {"text": "how to deal with these\nkinds of tensions.", "start": 3444.76, "duration": 1.92}, {"text": "Yes?", "start": 3446.68, "duration": 1.79}, {"text": "STUDENT: I think we can still\nthink of it as an assembly", "start": 3448.47, "duration": 2.57}, {"text": "line.", "start": 3451.04, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah.", "start": 3451.54, "duration": 0.917}, {"text": "STUDENT: If we think of\nit as an assembly line,", "start": 3452.457, "duration": 2.413}, {"text": "and we throw at that, we can\nmake it like a priority then.", "start": 3454.87, "duration": 3.91}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Uh-huh.", "start": 3458.78, "duration": 1.0}, {"text": "STUDENT: We can make it\nlike an assembly language.", "start": 3459.78, "duration": 2.72}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Uh-huh.", "start": 3462.5, "duration": 1.0}, {"text": "STUDENT: We can form rules.", "start": 3463.5, "duration": 1.435}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Yes.", "start": 3464.935, "duration": 0.875}, {"text": "STUDENT: Actually\nenforce the priority.", "start": 3465.81, "duration": 1.773}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah, yeah.", "start": 3467.583, "duration": 1.167}, {"text": "Yeah, so that is another\nmove that people make.", "start": 3468.75, "duration": 3.12}, {"text": "Sorry, this slide has gone away.", "start": 3471.87, "duration": 1.95}, {"text": "That is another move that\npeople make, where they say,", "start": 3477.98, "duration": 4.15}, {"text": "well, there are various ways\nof interpreting what you just", "start": 3482.13, "duration": 2.69}, {"text": "said.", "start": 3484.82, "duration": 1.02}, {"text": "One move that people made,\nespecially early on when people", "start": 3485.84, "duration": 4.332}, {"text": "were worried about this\nproblem in optimality theory,", "start": 3490.172, "duration": 2.208}, {"text": "was to say we're\ngoing to do something", "start": 3492.38, "duration": 3.48}, {"text": "in optimality theory that\nallows us to simulate", "start": 3495.86, "duration": 2.91}, {"text": "having rules in an order.", "start": 3498.77, "duration": 1.74}, {"text": "So what we'll do is we'll have\na word go through the tableaux", "start": 3500.51, "duration": 4.32}, {"text": "more than once.", "start": 3504.83, "duration": 1.77}, {"text": "Or the conditions can\nbe in different orders", "start": 3506.6, "duration": 4.41}, {"text": "in the different tableaux.", "start": 3511.01, "duration": 1.29}, {"text": "So we'll have a\ntableau first that", "start": 3512.3, "duration": 2.91}, {"text": "says final \"k\" is\nvery bad, let's say.", "start": 3515.21, "duration": 4.23}, {"text": "And it doesn't have\nfinal \"u\" is bad, right?", "start": 3519.44, "duration": 3.84}, {"text": "And then we'll have\nanother tableau", "start": 3523.28, "duration": 1.5}, {"text": "that maybe doesn't have\nfinal \"k\" is very bad,", "start": 3524.78, "duration": 2.07}, {"text": "but has final \"u\" is bad, right?", "start": 3526.85, "duration": 2.49}, {"text": "And that's a way to\nsimulate ordered rules,", "start": 3529.34, "duration": 3.48}, {"text": "basically, is to\nsay we go through", "start": 3532.82, "duration": 1.71}, {"text": "tableaux multiple times.", "start": 3534.53, "duration": 1.59}, {"text": "And the tableaux look\ndifferent from each other.", "start": 3536.12, "duration": 2.095}, {"text": "They have different\nconditions in them,", "start": 3538.215, "duration": 1.625}, {"text": "or they have the conditions\nin different orders.", "start": 3539.84, "duration": 2.0}, {"text": "That's one way to talk about it.", "start": 3541.84, "duration": 1.88}, {"text": "You might have had a\nmore clever idea, though,", "start": 3543.72, "duration": 2.28}, {"text": "which is the tableaux--", "start": 3546.0, "duration": 2.12}, {"text": "I was talking as though these\nrules are ranked with respect", "start": 3548.12, "duration": 4.742}, {"text": "to each other.", "start": 3552.862, "duration": 0.583}, {"text": "You know which ones\nare more important", "start": 3553.445, "duration": 1.583}, {"text": "than which other ones.", "start": 3555.028, "duration": 0.922}, {"text": "But optimality theory--\npeople are generally", "start": 3555.95, "duration": 2.22}, {"text": "talking not as though\nthose happen one at a time.", "start": 3558.17, "duration": 4.65}, {"text": "It's just you're considering\nall these possibilities.", "start": 3562.82, "duration": 2.94}, {"text": "And you decide which one is\nbest by all of these conditions.", "start": 3565.76, "duration": 3.127}, {"text": "You sound like you're thinking\nabout something different", "start": 3568.887, "duration": 2.333}, {"text": "where you would say you'd\ngo back to the simple one", "start": 3571.22, "duration": 3.66}, {"text": "and you'd say, we\nstart with \"ngaluk.\"", "start": 3574.88, "duration": 2.1}, {"text": "And what we want is something\nthat says something like,", "start": 3579.86, "duration": 3.84}, {"text": "well, I should have put\nstar final \"u\" first.", "start": 3583.7, "duration": 3.81}, {"text": "I'll just reverse these.", "start": 3587.51, "duration": 1.635}, {"text": "We have all of our\ncandidates here.", "start": 3594.16, "duration": 2.85}, {"text": "And we first consider\na star final \"u.\"", "start": 3597.01, "duration": 2.92}, {"text": "Uh-oh.", "start": 3599.93, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "But if we consider\na star final \"u,\"", "start": 3600.43, "duration": 1.77}, {"text": "star final \"u\" will\nlook at \"ngalu,\"", "start": 3602.2, "duration": 1.5}, {"text": "and it will knock it out, right?", "start": 3603.7, "duration": 2.37}, {"text": "So that will be bad right there.", "start": 3606.07, "duration": 2.25}, {"text": "And we won't ever get\nit back if we do that.", "start": 3608.32, "duration": 3.335}, {"text": "So what we want\nis something more", "start": 3611.655, "duration": 1.375}, {"text": "like using the tableaux\nto do something", "start": 3613.03, "duration": 2.7}, {"text": "like ordered rules,\nsomething that says", "start": 3615.73, "duration": 3.51}, {"text": "we look at this first thing.", "start": 3619.24, "duration": 1.2}, {"text": "And we are now basically\ndoing rules in an order.", "start": 3620.44, "duration": 4.778}, {"text": "We look at this first\nthing and we ask ourselves,", "start": 3625.218, "duration": 2.042}, {"text": "what's \"ngaluk\"?", "start": 3627.26, "duration": 0.667}, {"text": "Well, it doesn't\nviolate this first rule.", "start": 3627.927, "duration": 3.443}, {"text": "And so we'll keep it.", "start": 3631.37, "duration": 1.58}, {"text": "And then we'll\nconsider the next rule.", "start": 3632.95, "duration": 2.34}, {"text": "It does violate that rule.", "start": 3635.29, "duration": 1.18}, {"text": "And so we'll change it.", "start": 3636.47, "duration": 0.958}, {"text": "We'll make a minimal\nchange to it.", "start": 3637.428, "duration": 1.552}, {"text": "This is a way of converting\ntableaux into ordered rules,", "start": 3638.98, "duration": 2.8}, {"text": "I think.", "start": 3641.78, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "That's what we're now doing.", "start": 3642.28, "duration": 2.31}, {"text": "And it could be.", "start": 3644.59, "duration": 2.825}, {"text": "These are all things to\nthink about-- open research", "start": 3647.415, "duration": 2.125}, {"text": "questions.", "start": 3649.54, "duration": 1.78}, {"text": "Cool.", "start": 3651.32, "duration": 1.661}, {"text": "OK, so the goal here\nwas to get all of you", "start": 3652.981, "duration": 2.199}, {"text": "to try to do better than\nlinguistics has so far done.", "start": 3655.18, "duration": 2.62}, {"text": "So right now we\nhave these two ways", "start": 3657.8, "duration": 1.49}, {"text": "of thinking about phonology.", "start": 3659.29, "duration": 1.23}, {"text": "And there are in some kind\nof conflict with each other.", "start": 3660.52, "duration": 2.31}, {"text": "And there's active work\non trying to figure out", "start": 3662.83, "duration": 1.958}, {"text": "how to get them to mesh.", "start": 3664.788, "duration": 1.192}, {"text": "OK.", "start": 3670.74, "duration": 1.35}, {"text": "Cool.", "start": 3672.09, "duration": 1.5}, {"text": "Oops.", "start": 3673.59, "duration": 0.57}, {"text": "Where are we?", "start": 3674.16, "duration": 2.16}, {"text": "Here we are.", "start": 3676.32, "duration": 1.095}, {"text": "Sonorants and\nobstruents, we did that.", "start": 3677.415, "duration": 2.035}, {"text": "We did that.", "start": 3679.45, "duration": 1.233}, {"text": "OK, so let me introduce you--", "start": 3680.683, "duration": 3.647}, {"text": "we're running--\nyeah, yeah, yeah.", "start": 3684.33, "duration": 1.62}, {"text": "Let me introduce you to\nanother class of sounds.", "start": 3685.95, "duration": 6.15}, {"text": "Again, the point is to\nshow you ways in which it's", "start": 3692.1, "duration": 4.62}, {"text": "useful to categorize sounds.", "start": 3696.72, "duration": 1.74}, {"text": "And the way to try to\nconvince you of that", "start": 3698.46, "duration": 1.83}, {"text": "is to show you phenomena that\ncare about certain classes", "start": 3700.29, "duration": 4.14}, {"text": "of sounds and not others.", "start": 3704.43, "duration": 1.98}, {"text": "Here are a bunch of\nArabic nouns together", "start": 3706.41, "duration": 2.79}, {"text": "with their definite article,\nwhich you can see is \"al.\"", "start": 3709.2, "duration": 3.78}, {"text": "English has borrowed a\nbunch of Arabic words", "start": 3712.98, "duration": 2.67}, {"text": "that have kept this \"al.\"", "start": 3715.65, "duration": 1.17}, {"text": "So we have words like \"algebra,\"\nfor example, or \"algorithm,\"", "start": 3716.82, "duration": 3.06}, {"text": "where the \"al-\" at the end\nis this word for \"the.\"", "start": 3719.88, "duration": 4.65}, {"text": "So here are some Arabic\nnouns with the word for \"the\"", "start": 3724.53, "duration": 2.22}, {"text": "in front of them.", "start": 3726.75, "duration": 1.62}, {"text": "But there's this other class of\nnouns, where the word for \"the\"", "start": 3728.37, "duration": 4.62}, {"text": "changes.", "start": 3732.99, "duration": 0.73}, {"text": "It's no longer \"al.\"", "start": 3733.72, "duration": 2.21}, {"text": "What it gets-- it\nstill starts with \"a,\"", "start": 3735.93, "duration": 2.43}, {"text": "but the consonant in it becomes\na copy of the consonant that's", "start": 3738.36, "duration": 3.9}, {"text": "after it.", "start": 3742.26, "duration": 1.42}, {"text": "So the word for sun,\nwhich is [ARABIC]..", "start": 3743.68, "duration": 3.11}, {"text": "The sun is [ARABIC].", "start": 3746.79, "duration": 1.59}, {"text": "It's not \"al-\" [ARABIC].", "start": 3748.38, "duration": 1.908}, {"text": "Here I am pretending\nto speak Arabic.", "start": 3750.288, "duration": 1.542}, {"text": "Is there anyone here who\nactually speaks Arabic?", "start": 3751.83, "duration": 3.45}, {"text": "OK, cool.", "start": 3755.28, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "I'll just keep pretending, then.", "start": 3755.78, "duration": 2.844}, {"text": "OK.", "start": 3758.624, "duration": 1.306}, {"text": "This is a classic observation.", "start": 3759.93, "duration": 1.25}, {"text": "Arabic linguists noticed\nthis about their language.", "start": 3761.18, "duration": 3.93}, {"text": "They name and noticed\nthe relevant condition", "start": 3765.11, "duration": 3.423}, {"text": "is that there are certain\nkinds of sounds that", "start": 3768.533, "duration": 1.917}, {"text": "get the phenomenon on the right,\nwhere the definite article ends", "start": 3770.45, "duration": 3.51}, {"text": "in a copy of the first\nconsonant of the following noun,", "start": 3773.96, "duration": 4.26}, {"text": "and other consonants\nthat don't do that.", "start": 3778.22, "duration": 1.8}, {"text": "They're called \"moon\nletters\" and \"sun letters\"", "start": 3780.02, "duration": 3.15}, {"text": "in the Arabic\ntradition because well,", "start": 3783.17, "duration": 2.97}, {"text": "\"moon\" is one of the words\nin the column on the left.", "start": 3786.14, "duration": 2.605}, {"text": "And \"sun\" is one of the words\nin the column on the right.", "start": 3788.745, "duration": 2.375}, {"text": "It's a mnemonic for\nthese classes of sounds.", "start": 3791.12, "duration": 3.58}, {"text": "So the moon letters are\nletters like \"kuh,\" and \"fuh,\"", "start": 3794.7, "duration": 3.17}, {"text": "and \"k,\" and \"h,\"\nand glottal stop.", "start": 3797.87, "duration": 4.03}, {"text": "And the sun letters are sounds\nlike \"sh,\" \"d,\" \"z,\" \"n,\"", "start": 3801.9, "duration": 3.84}, {"text": "and \"th.\"", "start": 3805.74, "duration": 0.73}, {"text": "The sun letters-- yes.", "start": 3812.82, "duration": 1.41}, {"text": "The sun letters are the ones\nthat I've got in the box there.", "start": 3814.23, "duration": 4.32}, {"text": "They are what are\ncalled coronals.", "start": 3818.55, "duration": 2.46}, {"text": "So coronals are the\ninterdentals and alveolars", "start": 3821.01, "duration": 3.09}, {"text": "and the postalveolars.", "start": 3824.1, "duration": 1.87}, {"text": "If you think about them--", "start": 3825.97, "duration": 1.53}, {"text": "so feel free to sit there\nmaking those noises to yourself", "start": 3827.5, "duration": 3.5}, {"text": "if you want to--", "start": 3831.0, "duration": 2.21}, {"text": "what all of them do is make\na consonant sound that's", "start": 3833.21, "duration": 3.94}, {"text": "articulated with the tip or\nthe blade of your tongue--", "start": 3837.15, "duration": 2.59}, {"text": "so if the front\nof your tongue is", "start": 3839.74, "duration": 1.61}, {"text": "touching some part of the top\nof your mouth or other places.", "start": 3841.35, "duration": 4.48}, {"text": "So the interdentals--\nyour tongue", "start": 3845.83, "duration": 1.55}, {"text": "is sticking out between your\nteeth, or the alveolars,", "start": 3847.38, "duration": 2.43}, {"text": "or the postalveolars--\nthe tip of your tongue", "start": 3849.81, "duration": 2.67}, {"text": "or the blade of your tongue\nis coming into contact almost", "start": 3852.48, "duration": 3.27}, {"text": "with the top of your mouth as\nopposed to, say, bilabials,", "start": 3855.75, "duration": 4.475}, {"text": "where your tongue can do\nwhatever the heck it feels", "start": 3860.225, "duration": 2.125}, {"text": "like, or velars, which involve\nyour tongue, or uvulars,", "start": 3862.35, "duration": 5.07}, {"text": "which involve your tongue.", "start": 3867.42, "duration": 1.14}, {"text": "But it's the back\nof your tongue, \"k,\"", "start": 3868.56, "duration": 2.46}, {"text": "or \"g,\" as opposed to the\nfront of your tongue, which", "start": 3871.02, "duration": 2.238}, {"text": "is what you're using\nfor things like \"t,\"", "start": 3873.258, "duration": 1.708}, {"text": "and \"d,\" and \"f,\" and\n\"th\" and \"sh\" and \"zh.\"", "start": 3874.966, "duration": 3.824}, {"text": "Is that clear?", "start": 3878.79, "duration": 0.87}, {"text": "That distinction clear?", "start": 3879.66, "duration": 1.68}, {"text": "And Arabic gives this a\nnice illustration of this.", "start": 3881.34, "duration": 6.0}, {"text": "The coronal sounds are the\nones that are the sun letters.", "start": 3887.34, "duration": 3.09}, {"text": "They're the ones where\nthe last consonant", "start": 3890.43, "duration": 3.87}, {"text": "of the definite article\njust becomes a copy", "start": 3894.3, "duration": 2.1}, {"text": "of the following consonant.", "start": 3896.4, "duration": 1.77}, {"text": "Notice that the last consonant\nof the indefinite article", "start": 3898.17, "duration": 2.61}, {"text": "underlyingly is \"l,\"\nwhich is itself coronal.", "start": 3900.78, "duration": 3.6}, {"text": "So it's like the end\nof the definite article", "start": 3904.38, "duration": 3.69}, {"text": "is going to be coronal.", "start": 3908.07, "duration": 1.56}, {"text": "If nothing else happens,\nit's going to be \"l,\"", "start": 3909.63, "duration": 2.353}, {"text": "But if there's a\ncoronal right after it,", "start": 3911.983, "duration": 1.667}, {"text": "it just becomes a copy\nof the following coronal.", "start": 3913.65, "duration": 2.28}, {"text": "Does that make sense?", "start": 3915.93, "duration": 1.8}, {"text": "That's what's going on\nin all of these examples.", "start": 3917.73, "duration": 2.71}, {"text": "So with \"moon,\" and \"mare,\"\nand \"book,\" and \"war,\"", "start": 3920.44, "duration": 2.12}, {"text": "and \"father,\" the \"l\"\nof the definite article", "start": 3922.56, "duration": 3.09}, {"text": "can't become a copy of\nthe following consonant", "start": 3925.65, "duration": 2.64}, {"text": "and remain coronal,\nwhereas in the sun letters,", "start": 3928.29, "duration": 4.08}, {"text": "the ones on the\nright, by copying", "start": 3932.37, "duration": 1.86}, {"text": "the following consonant, the\n\"l\" of the definite article", "start": 3934.23, "duration": 3.24}, {"text": "is still a coronal.", "start": 3937.47, "duration": 2.79}, {"text": "[ELECTRONIC CHIME]", "start": 3940.26, "duration": 0.75}, {"text": "Bling.", "start": 3941.01, "duration": 1.44}, {"text": "Somebody had a great\nidea about that.", "start": 3942.45, "duration": 1.59}, {"text": "So that's what's going on\nin these Arabic examples.", "start": 3946.92, "duration": 2.855}, {"text": "A rule that we could have for\nthe Arabic definite article--", "start": 3952.802, "duration": 2.458}, {"text": "yes, I just said this.", "start": 3955.26, "duration": 0.81}, {"text": "Thank you.", "start": 3956.07, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "\"l\" is also coronal.", "start": 3956.57, "duration": 1.443}, {"text": "A rule we could have for\nthe Arabic definite article", "start": 3958.013, "duration": 2.167}, {"text": "would say in the\ndefinite article,", "start": 3960.18, "duration": 2.22}, {"text": "an \"l\" becomes a copy of a\nfollowing coronal consonant.", "start": 3962.4, "duration": 4.21}, {"text": "So we have a variable,\nconsonant subscript \"i\"", "start": 3966.61, "duration": 4.1}, {"text": "which says whatever the\nfollowing consonant is if it's", "start": 3970.71, "duration": 3.21}, {"text": "coronal, the \"l' will also\nget the value consonant sub i,", "start": 3973.92, "duration": 5.28}, {"text": "but it'll have the same form\nas the following consonant.", "start": 3979.2, "duration": 3.31}, {"text": "Yeah?", "start": 3982.51, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "STUDENT: I had a\nquestion about coronals.", "start": 3983.01, "duration": 1.74}, {"text": "So what I noticed\nis the sun letters", "start": 3984.75, "duration": 4.232}, {"text": "are the letters that you can\nmaintain for a long time,", "start": 3988.982, "duration": 2.25}, {"text": "like \"sh,\" and like the\n\"sh,\" like [ARABIC] in sun,", "start": 3991.232, "duration": 4.528}, {"text": "for \"d\" in [ARABIC].", "start": 3995.76, "duration": 2.253}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah.", "start": 3998.013, "duration": 0.917}, {"text": "STUDENT: You maintain\nthem for a long time.", "start": 3998.93, "duration": 1.65}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah.", "start": 4000.58, "duration": 0.917}, {"text": "STUDENT: And Arabic\nactually has [ARABIC],,", "start": 4001.497, "duration": 2.713}, {"text": "which duplicates one letter.", "start": 4004.21, "duration": 2.173}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah.", "start": 4006.383, "duration": 0.917}, {"text": "STUDENT: So what I'm\nthinking is that when", "start": 4007.3, "duration": 2.31}, {"text": "you can duplicate the letter,\nyou just duplicate it.", "start": 4009.61, "duration": 2.275}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Uh-huh.", "start": 4011.885, "duration": 0.415}, {"text": "STUDENT: With [ARABIC],,\nand other words.", "start": 4012.3, "duration": 1.81}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah.", "start": 4014.11, "duration": 1.14}, {"text": "STUDENT: But for [ARABIC],, just\nthe moon, you can't do that.", "start": 4015.25, "duration": 5.07}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah.", "start": 4020.32, "duration": 1.05}, {"text": "But there are--", "start": 4021.37, "duration": 1.14}, {"text": "STUDENT: Do you see what\nI'm saying with that?", "start": 4022.51, "duration": 0.78}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: I\nsee what you mean.", "start": 4023.29, "duration": 1.542}, {"text": "But look.", "start": 4024.832, "duration": 0.528}, {"text": "There are consonants like \"p,\"\nand \"t,\" and \"k,\" which are all", "start": 4025.36, "duration": 6.87}, {"text": "stops.", "start": 4032.23, "duration": 0.96}, {"text": "But \"t\" is coronal and \"p\"\nand \"k\" are not, right?", "start": 4033.19, "duration": 4.26}, {"text": "And so all of those are\nequally hard to maintain", "start": 4037.45, "duration": 3.42}, {"text": "for a long time, I think.", "start": 4040.87, "duration": 1.32}, {"text": "Or similarly, I think\nwhat we're hoping--", "start": 4042.19, "duration": 1.95}, {"text": "and you can stop me\nif this is not true--", "start": 4044.14, "duration": 2.13}, {"text": "is that if there are Arabic\nwords that start with \"m,\"", "start": 4046.27, "duration": 4.89}, {"text": "you'll get al\nbefore an \"m,\" yeah?", "start": 4051.16, "duration": 4.05}, {"text": "But for Arabic words\nthat start with \"n,\"", "start": 4055.21, "duration": 2.34}, {"text": "you get a copy of the \"n,\" yeah?", "start": 4057.55, "duration": 2.22}, {"text": "And again, those are all\nequally easy to hold on", "start": 4059.77, "duration": 3.57}, {"text": "for a long time.", "start": 4063.34, "duration": 1.02}, {"text": "So this is a good\nexample of science.", "start": 4064.36, "duration": 1.86}, {"text": "You had a good hypothesis.", "start": 4066.22, "duration": 1.39}, {"text": "And now we're\nfinding data, yeah.", "start": 4067.61, "duration": 2.15}, {"text": "And I should have\ncalled on you to do", "start": 4069.76, "duration": 1.77}, {"text": "to say these Arabic words.", "start": 4071.53, "duration": 1.86}, {"text": "Yeah, Joseph?", "start": 4073.39, "duration": 1.233}, {"text": "STUDENT: So you mentioned\nthat the English language", "start": 4074.623, "duration": 3.139}, {"text": "has borrowed quite a\nfew words from Arabic.", "start": 4077.762, "duration": 2.251}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah.", "start": 4080.013, "duration": 0.917}, {"text": "STUDENT: And we accidentally\nbrought the definite article", "start": 4080.93, "duration": 4.05}, {"text": "with it.", "start": 4084.98, "duration": 0.89}, {"text": "So the word \"algebra.\"", "start": 4085.87, "duration": 1.1}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Yep.", "start": 4086.97, "duration": 1.896}, {"text": "STUDENT: \"Algebra.\"", "start": 4088.866, "duration": 1.416}, {"text": "At least, the\nEnglish pronunciation", "start": 4090.282, "duration": 2.36}, {"text": "starts with coronal.", "start": 4092.642, "duration": 1.575}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Oh, yeah.", "start": 4094.217, "duration": 1.083}, {"text": "But in Arabic, I\nthink it doesn't.", "start": 4095.3, "duration": 1.62}, {"text": "So maybe you know.", "start": 4096.92, "duration": 3.359}, {"text": "Do you know know what\n\"algebra\" is in Arabic?", "start": 4100.279, "duration": 2.461}, {"text": "STUDENT: I believe\nit's [ARABIC]..", "start": 4102.74, "duration": 1.688}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: [ARABIC]", "start": 4104.428, "duration": 1.042}, {"text": "STUDENT: [ARABIC]", "start": 4105.47, "duration": 0.708}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: Oh, OK.", "start": 4106.178, "duration": 1.062}, {"text": "So I got it backwards.", "start": 4107.24, "duration": 0.989}, {"text": "Yeah, so we kept the \"l,\"\nWe didn't do the change.", "start": 4108.229, "duration": 3.871}, {"text": "So it starts with a \"j,\"\nstarts with a coronal.", "start": 4112.1, "duration": 2.882}, {"text": "But it didn't do the change.", "start": 4114.982, "duration": 1.167}, {"text": "I wonder whether we\nborrowed it before Arabic", "start": 4116.149, "duration": 2.67}, {"text": "did this sound change.", "start": 4118.819, "duration": 1.901}, {"text": "I have no idea.", "start": 4120.72, "duration": 1.349}, {"text": "I don't know enough about\nthe history of Arabic.", "start": 4122.069, "duration": 2.471}, {"text": "Cool.", "start": 4124.54, "duration": 1.73}, {"text": "Yep.", "start": 4126.27, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "All right.", "start": 4131.609, "duration": 3.141}, {"text": "So this is one rule.", "start": 4134.75, "duration": 2.43}, {"text": "It's a very common rule,\nwhere one sound becomes more", "start": 4137.18, "duration": 3.0}, {"text": "like another sound.", "start": 4140.18, "duration": 1.11}, {"text": "It's called assimilation.", "start": 4141.29, "duration": 2.5}, {"text": "And in this\nparticular case, it's", "start": 4143.79, "duration": 2.75}, {"text": "what's sometimes called\ntotal assimilation, where", "start": 4146.54, "duration": 2.64}, {"text": "one sound just becomes a\ncomplete copy of another sound.", "start": 4149.18, "duration": 3.36}, {"text": "We'll see other cases\nwhere one sound just", "start": 4152.54, "duration": 3.18}, {"text": "changes in ways that\nresemble a nearby sound.", "start": 4155.72, "duration": 4.38}, {"text": "Why do you do assimilation?", "start": 4160.1, "duration": 1.379}, {"text": "Languages do assimilation\nall the time.", "start": 4161.479, "duration": 1.991}, {"text": "And it's not hard to have\npretheoretical notions", "start": 4163.47, "duration": 3.62}, {"text": "about why, right?", "start": 4167.09, "duration": 1.26}, {"text": "You're saving wear and\ntear on your articulators.", "start": 4168.35, "duration": 3.81}, {"text": "So\" making it so that your\narticulators-- your tongue,", "start": 4172.16, "duration": 2.76}, {"text": "your lips, your velum don't have\nto do as much moving around.", "start": 4174.92, "duration": 5.85}, {"text": "Things don't move as far\nor don't move at all.", "start": 4180.77, "duration": 4.572}, {"text": "It probably also makes\nperception easier in the sense", "start": 4185.342, "duration": 2.208}, {"text": "that if you're speaking\nArabic and instead of an \"l\"--", "start": 4187.55, "duration": 6.3}, {"text": "so let's take the sun.", "start": 4193.85, "duration": 2.64}, {"text": "If you know that the word\nfor \"sun\" is [ARABIC],,", "start": 4199.19, "duration": 4.19}, {"text": "and you've got this\nthing before it,", "start": 4203.38, "duration": 4.35}, {"text": "basically, it's\nas though you only", "start": 4207.73, "duration": 2.04}, {"text": "need to give your hearer\nenough information", "start": 4209.77, "duration": 2.31}, {"text": "to help them to\nknow that they're", "start": 4212.08, "duration": 1.74}, {"text": "hearing a definite article\nbefore the word for sun.", "start": 4213.82, "duration": 3.36}, {"text": "And Arabic has\ndecided it's enough", "start": 4217.18, "duration": 3.09}, {"text": "if you hear the glottal stop and\nthe vowel, and then a coronal.", "start": 4220.27, "duration": 5.16}, {"text": "Underlyingly, that\ncoronal, maybe, is an \"l.\"", "start": 4225.43, "duration": 2.55}, {"text": "But as long as we\nkeep it coronal,", "start": 4227.98, "duration": 1.53}, {"text": "we've given the hearer enough\nthat they get to hear it.", "start": 4229.51, "duration": 3.04}, {"text": "And in fact, we give\nthe hearer, in a sense,", "start": 4232.55, "duration": 3.17}, {"text": "two shots at hearing the\nbeginning of the word for sun.", "start": 4235.72, "duration": 3.42}, {"text": "So we'll lengthen that sound.", "start": 4239.14, "duration": 3.78}, {"text": "We'll pronounce it twice.", "start": 4242.92, "duration": 2.43}, {"text": "So we're redistributing\nthe signal, in a way,", "start": 4245.35, "duration": 4.26}, {"text": "to the hearer to make\ntheir life arguably easier,", "start": 4249.61, "duration": 3.818}, {"text": "giving up some of what makes\nthe definite article distinctive", "start": 4253.428, "duration": 2.542}, {"text": "in order to emphasize\nsome of the beginning", "start": 4255.97, "duration": 2.58}, {"text": "of the word for sun.", "start": 4258.55, "duration": 0.84}, {"text": "Yeah.", "start": 4259.39, "duration": 1.95}, {"text": "Questions about any of this?", "start": 4261.34, "duration": 1.48}, {"text": "Yes.", "start": 4262.82, "duration": 0.5}, {"text": "STUDENT: So would\nyou say generally", "start": 4263.32, "duration": 1.458}, {"text": "that the focus is just to\nfacilitate the pronunciation", "start": 4264.778, "duration": 3.202}, {"text": "of the word easier.", "start": 4267.98, "duration": 1.72}, {"text": "NORVIN RICHARDS: So\nI was trying to float", "start": 4269.7, "duration": 2.64}, {"text": "the idea that it's partly to\nmake the pronunciation easier.", "start": 4272.34, "duration": 3.18}, {"text": "It's so that your\narticulators are not having", "start": 4275.52, "duration": 2.34}, {"text": "to move as fast or as far.", "start": 4277.86, "duration": 2.25}, {"text": "But it might also make\nperception, in some ways,", "start": 4280.11, "duration": 4.02}, {"text": "easier in a case like this.", "start": 4284.13, "duration": 2.11}, {"text": "So the idea is we'll give up\nsome of the special properties", "start": 4286.24, "duration": 4.4}, {"text": "of the definite article in\nfavor of emphasizing or holding", "start": 4290.64, "duration": 3.81}, {"text": "for longer the special\nproperties of the word for sun,", "start": 4294.45, "duration": 4.14}, {"text": "or whatever, the\nconsonant that's", "start": 4298.59, "duration": 1.47}, {"text": "at the beginning of\nthe following noun.", "start": 4300.06, "duration": 4.2}, {"text": "So we'll emphasize\nsome parts of the--", "start": 4304.26, "duration": 3.18}, {"text": "in some ways, the least\npredictable part of this.", "start": 4307.44, "duration": 2.07}, {"text": "You presumably hear definite\narticles all the time.", "start": 4309.51, "duration": 2.125}, {"text": "It's not so important that you\nget lots of clues to the fact", "start": 4311.635, "duration": 3.365}, {"text": "that this is a definite article.", "start": 4315.0, "duration": 1.44}, {"text": "The nouns are going to vary.", "start": 4316.44, "duration": 1.56}, {"text": "You'll hear more different\nkinds of nouns, yeah.", "start": 4318.0, "duration": 4.3}, {"text": "Yep.", "start": 4322.3, "duration": 0.72}, {"text": "OK, cool.", "start": 4323.02, "duration": 0.977}, {"text": "This is probably a\ngood place to stop.", "start": 4323.997, "duration": 1.583}, {"text": "So let's stop here.", "start": 4325.58, "duration": 0.792}, {"text": "And have a good weekend.", "start": 4326.372, "duration": 1.878}, {"text": "And I'll see you guys next week.", "start": 4328.25, "duration": 3.43}]