Input: 8 Most previous studies have measured QOL narrowly by focusing on income, an approach that researchers have often criticized. Diener & Suh (1997) elaborate on the limitations of the income-only QOL approach, include the failure of increased income to guarantee happiness or to reduce several deprivations experienced by the poor. These criticisms paved the way for broader multidimensional QOL assessments (Alkire & Foster, 2011a; Nussbaum & Sen, 1993). Multidimensional QOL assessment is critical in a situation of forced displacement. Refugees may be economically engaged yet have low life satisfaction due to exploitation or multidimensional deprivations in nutrition, health, education, employment, and shelter (Becchetti & Rossetti, 2009; Sand & Gruber, 2018). These deprivations disproportionally affect refugees ’ QOL compared to the host population. The level at which these issues affect refugees living in camps may also differ from how they affect refugees living out of camps. Another issue is that the income indicator alone may not provide reliable information about refugee welfare. For example, refugees may not be truthful about their earnings if they conceive that the purpose of the survey is to plan for refugee assistance or resettlement. Therefore, for policy consideration and proper targeting, the multidimensional QOL indicator is appropriate in understanding refugees'deprivations, whether they live in or out of camps. Usage context: primary mention, supporting mention, background mention.

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Input: Page 15 of 51 Figure 10: Education profile of Part-time employees. (Mid-1990s / Mid-2010s) Source: Own calculations based on Household surveys On the other hand, in the case of temporary employment, the improvement of the educational profile is more evident and generalized than in part-time employment (Figure 10). In fact, in all the cases in which temporary employment was identified, taken together, the share of workers at the secondary or higher education increased in proportion in the last two decades. The countries in which the improvements in the education profile are less deep are Chile, where the participation of workers with secondary education decreased in the last two decades, even though this decrease is more than compensated by the greater proportion of tertiary workers, and El Salvador, where the share of workers with tertiary education remains almost constant. 0 % 10 % 20 % 30 % 40 % 50 % 60 % 70 % Argentina Uruguay Brazil Chile Peru Bolivia Dominican Republic Mexico El Salvador Incomplete primary (starting point) Incomplete primary (ending point) Primary (starting point) Primary (ending point) Secondary (starting point) Secondary (ending point) Tertiary (starting point) Tertiary (ending point)

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Input: 20 capacity to offer these services. Many may be at risk of violence or trafficking. These are very important aspects from the perspective of welfare economists interested in measuring well ‐ being but these measurements are complex and not usually included in multidimensional indicators of deprivation or poverty. The dimensions of deprivations to consider are more numerous and more complex to measure. Again, there is very little research in welfare economics dedicated to the special needs of these populations. Risks and vulnerabilities. The analysis of risk and vulnerability is also much more complex in the context of the forcibly displaced. Welfare economics has only approached these topics recently, in the past decade or so. Essentially, the idea is to measure the risk of being poor or falling poor in the future using cross ‐ section or panel data studying spells of poverty over time. This is work that requires accurate and complex data sets that would be rarely available in a refugee or IDP context. More importantly, the nature of the problem changes. Refugees and IDPs are by definition more at risk and more vulnerable than regular populations and these vulnerabilities are not only linked to skills and efforts but to legal status, discrimination, limited mobility and other factors that are unique or much more acute with refugees and IDPs. Usage context: primary mention, background mention, supporting mention.

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Input:
2. Regulatory Environment and Governance

biometric and individual data of asylum-seekers in the UNHCR-managed refugee management database,
ensuring that this process remains distinct from the registration of an asylum application carried out strictly
by CNARR.

Article 31 of the 2020 Law and Article 73 of the 2023 Decree outline that refugees are entitled by the
competent authorities to be issued with civil status documents including birth certificates, death certificates
and marriage certificates on par with nationals. Furthermore, the specific legal framework on civil status
[documents consists of the National Civil Status Code and Law No. 008/PR/2013 of 10 May 2013, governing](http://citizenshiprightsafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Tchad-Loi-no-13-08-Etat-Civil-10-mai-2013.pdf)
civil status organizations in the Republic of Chad. Under Decree No. 660/PR/PM/MATSP/2015, establishing
the modalities of application of the Law of 10 May 2013, all births in Chad are subject to a mandatory
registration requirement. In line with this universal principle of civil registration, all foreigners, including
refugees and asylum-seekers to whom vital events have occurred in Chad, are allowed to benefit from civil
registry services on par with nationals. Additionally, [Ordinance No. 002/PR/2020](https://citizenshiprightsafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Tchad-Ordonnance-002-PR-2020-Etat-Civil-14-fevrier-2020.pdf) on the organization of civil
status in the Republic of Chad has extended the registration delay for births to three months.

UNHCR-managed refugee management database

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Input:
HIV behavioural surveillance surveys 155

BSSs are expensive and time consuming. In conflict and post-conflict settings,
the costs of BSSs vary according to population and geographic size, but generally
cost at least US$50,000 for a typical refugee camp when conducted by qualified
specialists (source: UNHCR based on 11 BSSs in five countries from 2004 to
2005). Anecdotally, some organizations having insufficient funding undertook
surveys on their own or with inexperienced consultants; these surveys often had
poor results. Therefore, adequate funding is needed before such surveys are
undertaken.
BSSs collect crucial HIV/AIDS data to inform local and national interventions
as well as for programme monitoring and evaluation, and for the allocation of
scarce resources. Scientifically sound and reproducible studies with structured
and detailed reports are needed. Our results showed that organizations that are
specifically trained and have extensive experience in doing these surveys, such as
CDC, undertook surveys and produced reports that were superior to those of
NGOs. As was previously recommended for nutrition surveys in humanitarian
emergencies, NGOs, governments, and UN agencies interested in undertaking
BSSs in conflict and post-conflict settings must ensure that the process is
developed and directed by qualified and experienced experts (Spiegel et al.
2004). This may require hiring organizations that specialize in undertaking such
surveys. The decision to undertake such surveys should be made in a coordinated
fashion with all relevant organizations, governments and affected populations.
Persons writing such proposals should be aware of the financial, time and
logistical constraints in correctly undertaking BSSs. Donors should only fund
realistic and technically sound proposals. Systematic training and ongoing
advocacy on these issues among NGOs, UN agencies, governments and donors
is needed. An inventory of international experts that can assist in planning and
undertaking field missions should be developed.
Unlike nutrition surveys in humanitarian settings (Spiegel et al. 2004), there is
currently no standard questionnaire, methodology nor practical manual on how
to undertake BSSs in conflict and post-conflict settings. Many BSSs are
undertaken on a nationwide scale with large samples that require significant
technical

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Input:
nutrition surveys in humanitarian settings (Spiegel et al. 2004), there is
currently no standard questionnaire, methodology nor practical manual on how
to undertake BSSs in conflict and post-conflict settings. Many BSSs are
undertaken on a nationwide scale with large samples that require significant
technical expertise and resources (e.g. demographic and health surveys with an
HIV component). The FHI BSS guidelines for repeated behavioural surveys in
populations at risk of HIV (Family Health International 2000) are often used as
the standard manual for undertaking BSSs. However, this 350 page manual
describes how BSSs can be undertaken in numerous different situations and is not
designed to be a ‘how to manual’ such as those designed for nutrition surveys in
humanitarian emergencies (Me´decins Sans Frontie´res 1995, Save the Children
2004). Furthermore, conflict and post-conflict situations are unique and require
different information from other populations (Spiegel 2004, UNHCR 2005).
These include questions on displacement and interaction with surrounding host
populations as well as sensitive questions on sexual exploitation and violence.
Recognizing this need, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees in
collaboration with the World Bank, UNAIDS and the Great Lakes Initiative on

demographic and health surveys with an
HIV component

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Input: Page 9 of 51 Figure 2: Prevalence of NSE by categories of occupations ISCO. (Mid-2010s) Source: Own calculations based on Household surveys When these results are analyzed by the type of NSE, we find significant differences between the trends in Part-time and Temporary employment. On the one hand, there is a stable or growing prevalence of part-time employment among the salaried employees, where Uruguay is the only exception, characterized by a decrease in the incidence of this type of employment (Figure 3). In the cases of Peru and Bolivia, we find almost the same prevalence of part-time employment as two decades ago while in the remaining countries (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, El Salvador and the Dominican Republic) there is a greater prevalence of part-time employment. Likewise, the prevalence of temporary employment shows a downward trend in most of the analyzed countries in the last 20 years (Figure 4). In fact, three of the five countries in which temporary employment could be identified show a significant drop in the prevalence of this type of employment (Argentina, Brazil, and Chile). El Salvador presents a stable incidence of temporary employment, while Mexico is the only country in our sample for which there is an increase in this type of NSE. Usage context: background mention, primary mention, supporting mention.

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Input: 19 children and 61 % of caregivers prefer to remain in Italy. Adolescents between the ages of 15 and 19 express a greater desire to continue living in Italy compared to children aged between 9 and 14. Another survey conducted across Europe from June to December 2022 shows that only 8 % of Ukrainian refugees planned to settle outside Ukraine (Adema et al., 2024). Compared to other foreign children in Italy, the aspirations of Ukrainian refugees to return to Ukraine seems signiϐicantly higher: indeed, a recent study from ISTAT on children 11 to 19 years old shows that only 11 % of foreign children wish to return to their home country (ISTAT, 2024). The relatively strong desire to return to Ukraine can have negative effects in refugee parents'educational decisions, particularly in encouraging their children to learn the language of the host country and in enrolling in school (Dryden-Peterson et al., 2019; Zengin and Atas-Akdemir, 2020). Figure 6- Aspirations and identity of refugee caregivers and students (Source: World Bank Survey on Ukrainian refugees in Italy) Many students facing uncertain futures try to stay connected to both educational systems. Findings from the World Bank survey indicate that 25 % of children are engaging in online Ukrainian schooling while being enrolled and attending Italian schools. Usage context: background mention, primary mention, supporting mention.

World Bank Survey on Ukrainian refugees in Italy

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Input: 9 Methods Data sources Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS): Individual-Level Data The DHS Program has been collecting data since 1984 in over 90 countries. The surveys examine fertility, family planning, maternal and child health, gender dynamics, HIV / AIDS, malaria, and nutrition. A core standard questionnaire is administered in all countries, with some variation to ensure that questions are culturally appropriate and relevant. This project uses DHS data from 2010 in Colombia and 2007 in Liberia. These surveys were chosen because they represent data collection that has occurred after or during a period of active conflict, and have Geographic Information System (GIS) information about the cluster where the women were sampled. 2 The DHS surveys use a two-stage cluster sampling design that first randomly selects clusters and then randomly selects households within the cluster. Only one woman per household is eligible to take the domestic violence module for privacy concerns. The DHS Women ’ s Questionnaire collects data on women aged 15 to 49 years. Data on interpersonal and partner violence is collected as part of the DHS Domestic Violence (DV) Module, now applied in conjunction with the Women ’ s Individual Questionnaire. 3 Dependent Variables This study examines three outcomes: lifetime IPV, past-year IPV and injury resulting from IPV, each is described below. Usage context: supporting mention, background mention, primary mention.

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Input: These systems employ a combination of data collection techniques including key respondent interviews, focus group discussions, registration, observations and physical counts, samplings and other statistical methodologies. For examples, UNHCR ’ s population tracking systems identifies and trains local NGOs to monitor key locations such as IDP settlements, bus stations and roads to report on movements. The accuracy of data from movement tracking systems is subject to several caveats. These include: limited access to locations and routes due to insecurity; vast geographical areas to monitor; mixed population flows that include refugees, IDPs, pastoral and seasonal movements and economic migrants; massive population flows that overwhelm monitoring capacity; disinclination of individuals to provide information when there is no assistance being offered; pressures from communities to inflate figures to maximize future assistance; and political pressures to suppress accurate reporting on IDP movements. Additionally, due to the fluid nature of displacement in many contexts and the likelihood of recurring displacements, it is not possible to use movement data to provide estimates of population stocks. Population censuses National population and housing censuses often provide the most comprehensive source of population data and offer the potential for estimating numbers of forcibly displaced people. To estimate the size of displaced populations a census would need to include questions on country (and / or place) or birth, year of (internal) 70 Other data collection methods may be used such as movement tracking systems, registration, big data etc. Usage context: supporting mention, background mention, primary mention.

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Input:
factor between nightlights and economic activity as measured by Gross Domestic Prod uct (GDP). Using World Bank data on GDP in Parity Purchasing Power (PPP) in 2011

The data source for the terrain roughness is the Global Land Cover Dataset 2000 and for the topography characteristics is the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission database.

The local wind speeds experienced due to a hurricane are derived from a spatial hurricane windstorm model developed by the World Bank Group Latin America and the Caribbean Disaster Risk Management team (Pita et al., 2015). The model estimates maximum wind speeds at the height of 10 meters with a spatial resolution of 1 km [2] for observed hurricanes and tropical storms in Central America during our sample period.

The focus in the paper is on one specific family of household surveys, the Living Standard

Measurement Study (LSMS). This is one prominent type of household survey widely

Shuttle Radar Topography Mission database

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Input: General population registers In a small but growing number of countries, information from the central population register is the main source of migration statistics. 80 While population registers may generate statistics on both internal and international migration (if they record changes of residence, and international arrivals and departures) they do not typically record reasons for movement. However, it may be possible to link data from the central population register to those from immigration or border authorities to identify refugees and asylum- 76 Using standard ILO definitions, Labor Force Surveys collect data on work-related issues and provide a basis for measuring employment and unemployment indicators. They are typically conducted monthly in developed countries and quarterly or annually in developing countries. 77 Supported by USAID and implemented by ICF International, the DHS Program has collected, analyzed and disseminated data on population, health, HIV and nutrition through more than 300 surveys in over 90 countries. 78 MICS is an initiative of UNICEF that assists countries in collecting and analyzing health and education data in order to fill data gaps for monitoring the situation of children and women. 79 Many refugee hosting countries issue a form of identification, either specific to refugees or based on national identification documents or those issued to non-national residents. In many cases where such documents are not issued, refugee identity cards are issued in collaboration with UNHCR. 80 A population register provides a mechanism for the continuous recording of selected data on the resident population including a unique identification number, date of birth, sex, marital status, place of birth, place of residence, citizenship and language and possibly also socio-economic data, such as occupation or education. Usage context: primary mention, background mention, supporting mention.

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Input: obtained from the multilevel logistic model. Thus, I am conﬁdent that I did not lose substantial statistical information by dichotomizing this variable. 6. 2 Independent Variables 6. 2. 1 Socio-Demographic Variables I control for standard socio-demographic variables that can aﬀect citizens ’ acceptance of government ’ s right to make people pay taxes. A question prob- ing respondents on their household income was not included in the fourth round of Afrobarometer surveys. Asking respondents to quantify their in- come can be problematic in the context of developing economies, where in- dividuals are often embedded in barter or commodity exchange, rather than, market economies. There are, however, reasonably good proxies including whether respondents own a television, radio, car, and mobile phone, and use the internet. Age, education, employment, and urban or rural residence are demographic factors that also aﬀect household resources. 6. 2. 2 Experience with Paying Taxes or Fees It is diﬃcult to assess just how ubiquitous taxes are in ordinary Africans ’ lives. There has not been any systematic eﬀort to take stock of the types and amount of taxes citizens pay across Africa. Similar to pre-modern European states, African states ’ revenue raising capacity is generally low. Usage context: background mention, primary mention, supporting mention.

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Input: VII Figures Figure 1. Registry and Program Rollout: RAMV Census Registration, PEP Application, and Data Collection 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 SAMPLE April 6, 2018 RAMV registry starts June 8, 2018 RAMV registry ends July 25, 2018 Residency permit (Permiso Especial de Permanencia – PEP) for irregular refugees registered in the RAMV is announced August 2, 2018 PEP program starts December 21, 2018 PEP program ends October 2020 Survey collection starts February 2021 Survey collection ends 442, 462 refugees registered in 395 municipalities in Colombia (35 % of the territory) Around 281, 307 people received the PEP document 38 Usage context: background mention, primary mention, supporting mention.

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Input:
REGIONAL BUREAU FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA

**2022 VOLUNTARY REPATRIATION IN SOUTHERN AFRICA REGION**

As of 30 September 2022

MAP OF VOLUNTARY REPATRIATION WHERE THE FLOW INVOLVE 5 POCs OR MORE

KEY FIGURES

15,042

Total Individuals
repatrieted since

January 2022

Individuals repatrieted

**within Southern Africa**

**Region** since January

2022

6,786 8,256

Individuals repatrieted

**from Southern Africa**

**Region** to other countries
outside of the region since

January 2022

VOLREP* WHERE THE FLOW INVOLVE 5 POCs OR MORE

TRENDS

MONTHLY REPATRIATION SINCE JANUARY

**3,874**

ANNUAL REPATRIATION SINCE 2019

*VolRep = Voluntary Repatriation  PoCs = Persons of Concern Source : UNHCR PRIMES   Author : DIMA/RBSA    Data sources: UNHCR PRIMES.  For more information or to contribute, please contact UNHCR RBSA DIMA (rsarbdima@unhcr.org)

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Input: In both waves, the selected households to be interviewed are those UNHCR considers to be most vulnerable in terms of education, specific needs and the use of livelihood coping strategies, 7 thus, they are a nonrandom sample of all registered Syrian households in Jordan. During Home Visits, data on household expenditures, aid, income, schooling, and other demographics are collected. Each wave of data is a snapshot of a different nonrandom sample of registered refugees because the pool of registered households changed over time. However, because of data confidentiality, we could not link records across years. For this reason, we treat each wave as an independent sample of cross-sectional data. We compare 204, 941 individuals in 54, 900 cases (households) in the 2013 wave, with 195, 930 individuals in 43, 292 cases in 2018. We focus on comparisons between different types of households; however, we use individual characteristics to determine the household categories. A case is formed when a Principal Applicant (PA) registers at a UNHCR office seeking asylum. Initially the self- identified PA reports all members of the household and their demographic characteristics, which are recorded in ProGres. Subsequently UNHCR carries out individual interviews with each family 7 See UNHCR (2018b) available at https: / / data2. unhcr. org / en / documents / download / 65143. Usage context: primary mention, supporting mention, background mention.

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Input: Second, there are cases where the current study reports data by nationality, but the corresponding figure in the Trends in International Migrant Stock refers to the foreign born. This situation generally arises when a census does not report the number of foreign-born migrants on a bilateral basis. Examples include Austria and Côte d ‘ Ivoire. Third, differences in the years to which the data refer can generate large disparities. For example, this study uses the 1966 data for Australia, whereas Trends in International Migrant Stock reports data for 1970. Overall, however, the fact that the totals are remarkably close in every decade adds credence to the estimates here. IV. THE EVOLUTION OF GLOBAL BILATERAL MIGRATION The greatest strengths of the global migration matrices are their bilateral coverage, the number of decades covered, and the disaggregation by gender. These data are too rich for a full analysis of all movements between all pairs of countries. Instead, this section summarizes the major trends in the evolution of bilateral migrant stocks, based primarily on World Bank regions. 25 Global Trends The migration matrix for the 1960 census round reflects a realigning world in the postcolonial era. Over the 1960-2000 period, the composition of world migration 25 Appendix 1 details the World Bank regions: South Asia, East Asia and Pacific, Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, Europe and Central Asia, and Middle East and North Africa. High-income Middle East and North Africa refers to the predominantly oil producing countries in the Persian Gulf (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates) and to Israel. Usage context: primary mention, background mention, supporting mention.

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Input: Figure 5: Part-time employment by age group. (Mid-1990s / Mid-2010s) Source: Own calculations based on Household surveys 0 % 10 % 20 % 30 % 40 % 50 % 60 % 70 % 80 % 90 % 100 % 1990s 2010s 1990s 2010s 1990s 2010s 1990s 2010s 1990s 2010s 1990s 2010s 1990s 2010s 1990s 2010s 1990s 2010s Argentina Uruguay Brazil Chile Peru Bolivia Dominican Republic Mexico El Salvador > 64 years old 50 ‐ 64 40 ‐ 49 25 ‐ 39 15 ‐ 24 Usage context: supporting mention, background mention, primary mention.

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Input: Page 15 of 51 Figure 10: Education profile of Part-time employees. (Mid-1990s / Mid-2010s) Source: Own calculations based on Household surveys On the other hand, in the case of temporary employment, the improvement of the educational profile is more evident and generalized than in part-time employment (Figure 10). In fact, in all the cases in which temporary employment was identified, taken together, the share of workers at the secondary or higher education increased in proportion in the last two decades. The countries in which the improvements in the education profile are less deep are Chile, where the participation of workers with secondary education decreased in the last two decades, even though this decrease is more than compensated by the greater proportion of tertiary workers, and El Salvador, where the share of workers with tertiary education remains almost constant. 0 % 10 % 20 % 30 % 40 % 50 % 60 % 70 % Argentina Uruguay Brazil Chile Peru Bolivia Dominican Republic Mexico El Salvador Incomplete primary (starting point) Incomplete primary (ending point) Primary (starting point) Primary (ending point) Secondary (starting point) Secondary (ending point) Tertiary (starting point) Tertiary (ending point) Usage context: background mention, primary mention, supporting mention.

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Input: 23 The Kakuma refugee camp was established in 1992 in response to the inflow of 23, 000 Sudanese refugees (Jamal 2000). The camp is now home to over 100, 000 refugees from South Sudan, Burundi, Ethiopia, Somalia, and the DRC (UNHCR, 2012). The ongoing unrest in South Sudan is likely to exacerbate the refugee situation in the upcoming year. Moreover, the restrictions imposed by the government on refugee movement and employment makes the Kakuma population completely dependent on assistance provided by international organizations present on the field (Jamal 2000) The evidence on the impact of refugees in Kenya is quite limited. However, the Nordic Agency for Development and Ecology (NORDECO 2010) provides a detailed description, backed by sound descriptive statistics, on the impact of Dadaab refugee camps on host communities. Despite the very different structure of the local economy, mainly driven by pastoralist livelihoods, a pattern somewhat similar to the Tanzanian case is observed. According to NORDECO (2010), the aggregated economic impact is positive. It is estimated that about USD 3 million annual income accrues to the host community thanks to livestock and milk sales to the refugee camps. Trade and employment opportunities have also been reported around Dadaab camps in Kenya.

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Input: 23 and females. 10 The results are shown in table S. 1 in the supplemental appendix. The baseline effects of basic schools on educational attainment and their effects on mobility are stronger and often more significant than those estimated in table 4 for both males and females. A second concern is that Jordan received a large influx of Palestinian refugees in the aftermath of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War. While refugees benefited from the UNRWA basic schools, their educational attainment and intergenerational educational mobility were perhaps subject to a different set of constraints than those facing other Jordanians. Thus, as a robustness check, individuals who are likely to be Palestinian refugees were excluded from the sample. Since the JLMPS 2010 does not allow directly identifying Palestinian refugees who are now mostly Jordanian citizens, two indirect methods were employed to identify individuals who are likely to be Palestinian refugees. Method 1 excludes individuals born in subdistricts where the percentage of individuals who were ever enrolled (or are currently enrolled) in an UNRWA school exceeds ten percent out of all individuals below 36 years of age in the sample. Method 2 excludes individuals born in subdistricts where the percentage of UNRWA schools exceeds ten percent of the total number of schools. The results for the restricted sample according to both methods are shown in tables S. 2 and S. 3 respectively. Usage context: supporting mention, background mention, primary mention.

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Input: itative exercise empowered focus group participants to guide the research and conceptualization. The results from these exercises then dictating the deﬁnition and measurement strategy for social cohesion in the quantitative assessment. The participatory research strategy was based mainly on structured focus group discussions. The project conducted consultations in seven territoires with the objective to develop localized understandings of what elements were important to social cohesion in eastern DRC. Participants were selected from civil society and the public sector. 96 individuals participated in these exercises (Table 1), 55 % of whom were men and 45 % of whom were women. 6 Location (Groupement) Date Number Participants Goma City 06 Oct 2017 11 Bukavu City 13 Oct 2017 13 Nyabibwe (Kalehe) 12 Oct 2017 14 Ishungu & Lughendo (Kabare) 12 Oct 2017 15 Kamisimbi (Walungu) 16 Oct 2017 18 Wassa (Walikale) 20 Oct 2017 12 Biiri (Masisi) 03 Nov 2017 13 Table 1: Descriptive Information on Focus Groups The focus group discussions began with an open discussion on social cohesion designed to ascertain participants familiarity with the concept. The facilitator further asked participants to write down words or concepts participants related to social cohesion. These words were written on individual post-its, which were then posted on a wall.

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Input: Specifically, a 1 percent increase of the refugees ’ presence5 leads to a 2. 7 and 15. 9 percent increase in the diversification of livelihood activities as a secondary occupation and value of livestock product sale, respectively. It should be noted that this analysis is taking place during a period where refugees in Ethiopia were prohibited by law from seeking work outside designated camps. This has changed after 2019 because of the revised Ethiopian Refugee Law. These effects tend to be heterogeneous across regions and to a limited extent, vary depending on the gender of the household head. The negative effects tend to be concentrated in Gambella, a region that hosts most of the refugee population in Ethiopia and where the refugee population is as large as the population of the region. Overall, compared to women-headed households, households with a male head seem to benefit through increased diversification of activities as a secondary 4 Region refers to the administration level 1 from the Database of Global Administrative Areas (GADM). The nearest region to the refugee camp is identified as the one that has the shortest straight distance to the refugee camp among all neighboring regions in the major refugee source countries. 5 As explained above, refugee presence is the number of refugees (population) in the nearest refugee camp to the household location weighted by the household ’ s inverted distance to the camp. Usage context: primary mention, supporting mention, background mention.

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Input: Produced by the Research Support Team Abstract The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent. Policy Research Working Paper 7253 This paper is a product of the Poverty Global Practice Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http: / / econ. worldbank. org. The authors may be contacted at jlendorfer @ worldbank. org and jhoogeveen @ worldbank. org. This paper analyzes the impact of the 2012 crisis in Mali on internally displaced people, refugees and returnees. It uses information from a face-to-face household survey as well as follow-up interviews with its respondents via mobile phones.

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Input: 2 1. INTRODUCTION Refugees pose a massive moral, political and economic challenge for potential host countries. 1 The scale of the challenge is larger than ever, with 60 million people forcibly displaced by conflicts across the world (UNHCR, 2014). War in Syria has produced more refugees than any other conflict of the past two decades: around 4. 6 million have fled the country, with an additional 7. 6 million internally displaced. 2 About 2. 5 million Syrians have found refuge in Turkey, making it the largest refugee-hosting country worldwide. This paper combines newly available data on the distribution of Syrian refugees across Turkey and the Turkish Labour Force Survey to assess the impact on Turkish employment and wages. The large majority (85 percent) of Syrians have left the refugee camps and entered the Turkish labor market. 3 They are overwhelmingly employed informally, since they were not issued work permits. This makes their arrival a well-defined supply shock to informal labor, and a particularly good context in which to test the predictions of basic economic theory. We instrument for refugee flows using travel distance between 13 origin governorates in Syria and 26 Turkish subregions (338 origin-destination pairs). This allows us to also control for distance from the Syrian border, and thus any confounding factors that are correlated with proximity to Syria. Usage context: supporting mention, background mention, primary mention.

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Input: The original questionnaire was adjusted and trimmed because of the challenges posed by phone surveys. We decided not to collect data for the entire household roster, and collected the labor module only for the respondent and one other member of the nuclear family. 18 In total, we collected information from 3, 455 Venezuelan families living in Colombia. This sample included families with some members who were Colombian, either from birth or 16The call was rescheduled when the respondent was not available. When ineligible respondents were called, the team included them in a rafﬂe for 50, 000 COP (approximately $ USD 18). 17As discussed above, PEP was also awarded in previous waves to forced migrants who entered Colombia using a passport and therefore had regular migratory status. By asking if respondents had a Venezuelan passport, the team ensured the exclusion of other PEP holders who were typically wealthier. 18The nuclear family includes the household head, partner, children, parents, parents-in-law, daughters-in- law, and sons-in-law. 57 Usage context: background mention, primary mention, supporting mention.

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Input:
Strzepek K & McCluskey A, 2006. District level hydroclimatic time series and scenario analysis to assess the impacts of climate change on regional water resources and agriculture in Africa. CEEPA Discussion Paper No 13, Centre for Environmental Economics and Policy in Africa, University of Pretoria.

#### 2 The Survey Data   Progressing in the e¤orts to better understand the development economics of public  debt management strategies across di¤erent country groups and individual coun tries, the Banking and Debt Management Department of the World Bank conducted  a survey on public debt management strategies.

#### 5 Conclusion   This paper analyzed survey data on public debt management strategies across income  groups, regions and levels of indebtedness using graphical tools.

As mentioned in the introduction, we see this paper as a ...rst attempt to charac terize the variations in the survey data on public debt management strategies across  countries where establishing a regularly repeated survey would be incredibly bene... cial.

total government debt to GDP, should result in an e¤ort to consolidate government

...nances and adopt a debt management strategy. One can also expect that if this

indicator reaches high levels the government may give up on debt management and

survey on public debt management strategies

survey data on public debt management strategies

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Input: 20 40 60 80 100 120 In camp Addis Ababa Total In camp Addis Ababa Total Primary GER Secondary GER Hosts Refugees Percent Figure 2.11: Gross Enrollment Rate (GER) Source: World Bank Staff based on SESRE 2023. 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 In camp Addis Ababa Total In camp Addis Ababa Total Primary NER Secondary NER Hosts Refugees Percent Figure 2.12: Net Enrollment Rate (NER) Source: World Bank Staff based on SESRE 2023. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Hosts Refugees Hosts Refugees Hosts Refugees In camp Addis Ababa Total Primary school (15 to 18 years) Secondary school (19 to 24 years) Percent Figure 2.13: Share of children and youth above school age in education Source: World Bank Staff based on SESRE 2023. Sociodemographic Profile 17 family unwillingness is higher among refugee girls compared to boys (Annex D, Figure D.5). Refugee parents are less likely to send their children to secondary school in part because the opportunity cost of schooling becomes higher since children going to school cannot help support the family (UNHCR, 2020a). Across refugees, Somali refugee children of secondary school age do not attend school due to family unwillingness (52 percent). On the other

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Input: We use the sum of conflict events occurring in the historic homeland of ethnic group e in the previous year t − 1, denoted as Conflictet − 1, and we use the mean distance between the historic homeland of ethnic group e and the border of country d to predict the number of refugees of a certain ethnic group e moving from country o to d at time t. 22 In order to be consistent with EPR-ER data construction, we restrict our analysis to all origin – destination country pairs that are at a maximum distance ≤ 950 km from each other. Predicted numbers of refugees are then transformed into predicted shares for the three largest groups to follow the logic used by the EPR-ER dataset. We then plug in these predicted shares in the following way: X \PredictedRefcet = Refocdt ∗ \Shareodet. (6) The predicted shares of refugees per camp c are then used to compute (as documented above) refugee diversity indices to be used as instrumental variables. The first-stage equations corresponding to the 2SLS-equivalent of Equation 1 can be expressed as 20We conduct a robustness check on Equation 5, replacing the dyadic origin – destination fixed effects with separate origin and destination fixed effects (Section 5. 4). 21More information on LEDA can be found in Appendix A. 1. 22The construction of the IV follows a long tradition in using the gravity model to predict bilateral migration flows (Ravenstein, 1985, 1989; Crozet, 2004; Mayda, 2010; Garcia et al., 2015; Beine et al., 2016). In our analysis, a major difference is that we have an additional dimension: the ethnic group e. 20 Usage context: background mention, supporting mention, primary mention.

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Input: Survey instruments enable detailed questions to be asked about the characteristics and situations of households, and if they identify displaced populations based on self-reported migration history (including patterns and causes) they can enable the disaggregation of detailed data by displacement status. Additionally, more innovative tools and technologies for data collection, analysis and compilation should be explored and leveraged. For example, new methodologies (such as high resolution satellite imagery and unmanned drones) may expand the coverage of data collection efforts in insecure or inaccessible areas. Additionally, new techniques could be explored to improve the collection of robust data on flows of refugees and IDPs. Organizations such as the World Bank, UNHCR, IOM and IDMC are already exploring and in some cases are beginning to use more innovative data collection tools. These techniques include: 99 Several standardized international sample surveys have been designed for special purposes including Living Standards Measurement Studies, Labor Force Surveys, Demographic and Health Surveys, and Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys. The advantage of these surveys is that they cover a wide range of countries and are conducted in a regular or systematic manner Usage context: primary mention, background mention, supporting mention.

Labor Force Surveys
Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys
Demographic and Health Surveys
Living Standards Measurement Studies

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Input: The lack of certainty means children are trying to prepare for further studies (e. g., in universities) in two separate systems with varying requirements. The survey results indicate that students enrolled in both systems spend as much time in Italian schools as those attending only Italian schools, averaging 31 hours per week. However, students participating in both systems spend an additional 8 hours per week on online Ukrainian classes. This puts an extra burden on these children. Connectedness to Italy is correlated with demographic characteristics and social environment of refugee children. Additionally, Table 6 shows that making new friends in the country of destination and speaking Italian are strongly associated with higher connection to Italy. The mental distress resulting from displacement is a key barrier to educational integration for many Ukrainian refugees in Italy. The link between poor mental health and low school attendance and performance is widely acknowledged in the literature (see Fiining et al., 2019 for a systematic review). In the World Bank survey data, children and caregivers reported signs of mental distress, with 16 % of children and 24 % of refugee caregivers reported experiencing psychological distress 61 % 35 % 31 % 68 % 50 % 36 % 23 % 68 % 59 % 26 % 26 % 59 % Would like to continue living in Italy Would like to move back to Ukraine Feel strongly connected to Italy Feel strongly connected to Ukraine Caregivers (N = 283) Children between 9 and 14 years old (N = 141) Children between 15 and 20 years old (N = 96) Usage context: supporting mention, primary mention, background mention.

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Input: These calculations conﬁrm our earlier assessment. 5 Conclusion Combining data from a household survey and an 11 % census of the population, we have estimated destination choice regressions for Nepalese internal migrants. Results show that population density, social proximity, and access to amenities exert a strong inﬂuence on migrants ’ choice of destination. These results conﬁrm earlier work on the factors aﬀecting the subjective welfare cost of isolation (Fafchamps and Shilpi, 2008). 29

household survey
11 % census of the population

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Input: The initiative includes four components, namely: a) training professionals to work with young men in the area of health and gender-equity using a set of manuals and videos; b) social marketing of condoms; c) promoting health services; and d) evaluating changes in gender norms. In 2002, PROMUNDO and Horizons began a 2-year evaluation to measure the effectiveness of two different approaches, compared to a control site. Researchers have developed a"Gender-Equitable Men"(Leichert) scale with 24 items for measuring attitudes. Methods include pre and post-tests as well as a six-month follow-up community-based survey. In addition, they are gathering qualitative information among men and their female partners. Preliminary results suggest that the program has been successful at increasing gender equitable norms and reducing behavior that puts men at increased risk of HIV / AIDS. ReproSalud (Peru): Manuela Ramos launched ReproSalud in 1995 as a USAID-funded rural reproductive health program. ReproSalud used participatory rural appraisal (PLA) to help women's groups identify women's reproductive health needs and to organize community meetings to design strategies to address those needs. Domestic violence and forced sex within marriage emerged as important problems in those communities. In response, ReproSalud organized workshops for women and men on gender issues, carried out community awareness campaigns and established a microcredit program for women.

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Input: the original variables used to predict fragility as controls without changing results. It is only in the post-war period that exclusion and refugees become a factor that inﬂuences foreign investment ﬂows. Finally, the results we ﬁnd are robust across all datasets of foreign investment we use. These results make it at least plausible that political exclusion and refugees matter because they predict a relapse to more intense violence. As ﬁnal piece of evidence for this idea we use data on political short and mid-term credit risk from the Belgian insurer Delcredere Ducroire (ONDD). We collected data on political risk evaluations from ONDD who, according to their annual report, insured transactions worth about 7 billion EUR in 2011. The variable we use measures the risk of a credit default for rea- sons beyond the control of the debtor, i. e. due to political or ﬁnancial macroeconomic events. We choose this variable because it provides the most consistent time-series in the ONDD data. ONDD measures both short- and mid-term risk on a scale from 1 (low risk) to 7 (high risk). Table 12, columns (1) and (4) show that risk ratings are decreasing in peacetime. Note that, as before, we control for country ﬁxed eﬀects which implies that we look at changes within country.

data on political short and mid-term credit risk

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Input: 15 resulting in government forces recapturing rebel held territory, establishment of a rebel base or headquarters, rebel activity that is not battle related (e. g. presence or the killing of civilians), and territorial transfers. The dataset consists of 4, 145 battle events for the 1960 – 2004 period. In the present analysis, we use 2, 530 of these. The remaining events were dropped as they either were in countries not included in the analysis, or because information was missing for one of the key variables. Each conflict event is associated with geographic coordinates and a date of occurrence. This information allows for spatial and temporal modeling of conflict events. The dataset used in this article covers 14 countries in Central Africa. 6 of them had a conflict in the 1960 – 2004 period according to the Uppsala / PRIO Armed Conflict Dataset (Gleditsch et al., 2002): Angola, Burundi, Republic of Congo (Brazzaville), Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire), Rwanda, and Uganda. Usage context: primary mention, supporting mention, background mention.

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Input: 16 5. 3 Desire to return (Y / N) Keeping our attention on refugees and IDPs, we wanted to deepen our understanding about their migration plans. In particular, we would like to discover which characteristics are associated with the desire to return to Northern Mali. To this end, we estimated a probit model using the same regressors as in the previous sections. The dependent variable was set equal to one when the respondent was considering the possibility to eventually go back to the North, zero otherwise. The estimated marginal effects have been reported in Table 3 for all respondents (Column 1-2), as well as for only the household heads or their spouses (Column 3-4). The strongest predictor of a planned future return was refugee status: individuals living abroad in refugee camps were up to 25 percentage points more willing to go back than IDPs. Joining this result with those on unemployment presented in the descriptive statistics, we may wonder whether this desire to go back home may have resulted from a more general malaise experienced by these respondents forced to migrate and halted in a limbo not fully integrated with the local community and labor market. Usage context: supporting mention, primary mention, background mention.

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Input: Produced by the Research Support Team Abstract The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent. Policy Research Working Paper 6832 This paper presents findings from the impact evaluation of the Economic Empowerment of Adolescent Girls and Young Women (EPAG) project in Liberia. The EPAG project was launched by the Liberian Ministry of Gender and Development in 2009 with the goal of increasing the employment and income of 2, 500 young Liberian women by providing livelihood and life skills training and facilitating their transition to productive work. The analysis in this paper is based on data collected during two rounds of quantitative surveys in 2010 and 2011, the second of which was conducted six months after the classroom-based phase of the training program ended.

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Input:
Table 9 presents the effects of mining on asset wealth and on asset wealth inequality. Wealth

data are available in the form of a wealth index, but only for the two last DHS surveys.

active*mine -0.086*** -0.055** 3.705 -0.058 -0.032 0.125**
(0.025) (0.025) (2.898) (0.086) (0.032) (0.051)

Mean dep var 0.715 0.705 45.71 0.491 0.259 0.028

_Note:_ The table uses GLSS data for Ghana for the survey years 1998, 2005, 2012. The sample is restricted to
women and men aged 15-49.

previous analyses have found evidence for parallel pre-trends in infant mortality and night lights (Benshaul-Tolonen, 2019) for gold mining countries in West and East Africa (including Ghana).

We use rich geocoded data with information on households and mining production over time to evaluate the gold boom at the local and district levels in difference-in-differences analyses.

presents the details from a new, 1997 household budget survey in Egypt. This sunrey,

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Input: Figure 4: Refugees and Asylum-Seekers by Migratory Path 1951 – 2015 Source: UNHCR Statistical Online Population Database, UNHCR Global Trends 2015 Usage context: supporting mention, primary mention, background mention.

UNHCR Statistical Online Population Database

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Input: agriculture, livestock value chain, energy, firewood, and microfinance (Betts et al., 2020). In the north of the country, UNHCR worked with various partners to provide Eritrean refugees with vocational skills training, tools, and start-up capital for crafts, such as leather products, weaving, and tailoring. UNHCR records indicate that more than 8,000 Eritrean refugees received such training, which could explain the high share of Eritreans working in crafts and related trades in the SESRE. As another example, the German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ) has a multi-million-dollar program to improve quality and access to vocational training for refugees and Ethiopians across all refugee-hosting regions (Giordano et al., 2021). World Bank programs include the Economic Opportunities Program (EOP) and the Urban Safety Net and Jobs Project (UPSNJP), which provide economic opportunities for Ethiopians and refugees through various social protection and labor market interventions like public works employment and job search assistance. How effective have these livelihoods and vocational training programs for refugees been in Ethiopia? This question is difficult to answer due to lack of consolidated information on programs, the number of beneficiaries, and the economic outcomes of beneficiaries. Case-study evaluations indicate that vocational training programs have helped to increase incomes, diversify

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Input: not included because they are possibly aﬀected by migration. 9 In contrast, age, education, and caste status can be regarded as exogenous to the migration decisions of adult males. Equation (4) is estimated using correct sampling weights. 10 Regression estimates for equation (4) are summarized in Table 2 where we show α as well as the average and standard error of δs, βs and χs. The coeﬃcients eδi and eηi are large and jointly signiﬁcant. There is considerable variation across districts not only in average log income and consumption but also in the income or consumption premia associated with education and high caste. These results are used to construct, for each of the 16, 000 or so work migrants in the census, a measure of the income or consumption they can expect to achieve in each of the possible destination districts. Formally, this measure is calculated as: g E [yhs | zh] = eδs + eβs (Eh s − Es) + eχs (Hh s − Hs) (5) where Eh s and Hh s are the education and high caste dummy for migrant h. Age is ignored from the calculation since work migrants typically migrate around the same age, i. e., in early adulthood. Usage context: background mention, supporting mention, primary mention.

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Input:
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the CDM: parties in NA1 countries could carry out GHG mitigation which could be paid for by parties in
A1 countries, thereby equivalently reducing the GHG emissions obligation in the latter. Since GHG
mitigation costs have been far lower in non-Annex 1 countries than in A1 countries, such trades have
been highly beneficial to both groups. The aggregate amount of CER issuance under the CDM by today is
more than 1,600 million tons CO2-e; see UNFCCC (website).

A similar rationale and functioning can be found for JI.

The JI market has, however, turned out to be far less active than the CDM market, with smaller aggregate volumes for emissions reduction units (ERUs) so far. Still, as of today more than 850 million tons of CO2e has been reached in terms of issuance.

Only a quick glance at data from the CDM market reveals that offset prices (per ton of CO2-e) achieved by project hosts have varied a lot across both projects and host countries, and have often (or even typically) been substantially below the respective (policy bloc-internal) quota prices.

Rosendahl and Strand (2011) have simulated likely leakage levels, and come up with "best estimates" for leakage of around 30% of credited emissions reductions, as a rough average for the CDM projects carried out by 2010 (when disregarding HFC-23 related projects).

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Input: (0.098) (0.055) (0.066) Educ: Completed post-sec. -0.074 -0.073 -0.055 (0.103) (0.050) (0.106) Agrees on improved local services 0.408*** 0.116** (0.103) (0.055) Years in Ethiopia 0.002 (0.005) Agrees hosts culturally similar 0.215*** (0.055) Region Fixed Effects Yes Yes Yes N 1724 1666 1613 Source: World Bank Staff based on SESRE 2023. The Attitudes Index is the average of 10 questions regarding beliefs about refugees’ character, the rights they should receive, and their impact on the host community, standardized to a mean of 0 and SD of 1, where positive indicates better attitudes. Trusts Refugees is the binary response of hosts to “Do you think most refugees in Ethiopia are trustworthy?” and Trusts Hosts is the binary response of refugees to “Do you think most Ethiopians are trustworthy?”. Standard errors clustered at the EA level. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01 Annexes 122 Table D.19: Regression analysis of social integration outcomes (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Has in Ethiopia: Easy to do: Family Friend Market Interactions Social Interactions Sharing Resources Male 0.007 0.067** 0.033 0.010 -0.076** (0.017) (0.033) (0.027) (0.036) (0.035) Age Under 30 - - - - - Age 30-44 -0.030 0.033 0.007 0.004 -0.048*

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Input:
We collected all available HIV BSSs and reproductive health KAP surveys with an
HIV component in refugee, IDP, host population, returnee, conflict and postconflict settings. This was accomplished by undertaking a literature review using
PubMed, by searching the internet for key words (i.e. HIV, behavioural
surveillance survey, BSS, knowledge, attitudes practice, KAP, refugee, internally
displaced person, IDP, returnee, conflict and post-conflict), and by contacting
UN offices in affected countries and non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
which undertake such surveys (e.g. Reproductive Health Response in Conflict
Consortium, International Rescue Committee) and organizations which specialize
in undertaking such surveys (e.g. Family Health International [FHI], US Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]). When titles or abstracts of surveys
were found, but the actual report was not available, authors and organizations
responsible for the report were contacted directly. Inclusion criteria were any BSS
or KAP survey with a quantitative HIV component undertaken among affected
populations, listed above, where a written report was available. Exclusion criteria
were surveys with an HIV component in the affected populations that were solely
qualitative, and nationwide surveys that may have included one or more of the
affected populations but where results were not disaggregated to differentiate
them from the overall population, and where reports were unavailable.
The survey reports were collected, evaluated, categorized and entered into an
EpiInfo 3.2.2 (CDC, Atlanta, GA; version 4/26/2004) database under four broad
categories: background; methodology; report; and indicators. Sampling procedures were classified as reproducible if the population-based sampling defined a
sampling frame and used probabilistic sampling, including proportional to
population size (PPS) sampling if cluster sampling was used during the first
stage, and all persons in the household within the stated age range were surveyed.
Additional indicators for the quality of survey methodology were assessed,
including essential steps of survey preparation and report writing.
Internationally-accepted standardized indicators were recorded as being

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Input:
sampling was used during the first
stage, and all persons in the household within the stated age range were surveyed.
Additional indicators for the quality of survey methodology were assessed,
including essential steps of survey preparation and report writing.
Internationally-accepted standardized indicators were recorded as being
included in the survey if the wording was the same or similar to the indicators
in Table I. If information regarding survey methodology or indicators was not
provided in the reports, it was recorded as non-reproducible or accepted
indicators not used, respectively.

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Input:
The primary data source of undernutrition in this study is the Ethiopia Mini Demographic and Health Survey

(EMDHS) 2014 [2]. The EMDHS 2014 is a stratified nationally representative survey, including 5,579 children

1. Consensus C Copenhagen Consensus 2012 : Expert panel findings.
2. Agency CS (2014 ) The Ethiopia Mini Demographic and Health Survey (EMDHS).
3. Ethiopia GotFDRo (2013) National Nutrition Programme June 2013-June 2015.
4. Andrew Sunil R, Christopher G, Jessica T (2012) Combating Malnutrition in Ethiopia : An Evidence-Based Approach for

Ethiopia Mini Demographic and Health Survey

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Input: 2 Over the past three or four decades, the Arab world has experienced a massive expansion in educational attainment. According to the Barro and Lee educational attainment dataset, seven out of the top 20 countries in terms of increase in number of years of schooling from 1980 to 2010 were Arab countries (Barro and Lee 2013). 1 Jordan, the subject of this paper, had the seventh highest increase in educational attainment in the world, with an increase of about five years in the average years of schooling over the period. This increase is widely believed to be attributable to a massive public investment in the supply of schooling in the postindependence period in the context of a state-led development model, which virtually guaranteed employment in the public sector for graduates (Assaad 2014; Saleh 2016). The rapid increase in educational attainment has continued unabated despite the fall in returns to education that accompanied the demise in the state-led model and its employment guarantee schemes (Pritchett 2001). A slew of recent literature on the drivers of the Arab Spring protests, some of which occurred in Jordan, has identified the low economic returns to this massive increase in education as the single most important cause of the uprisings (Goldstone 2011; Campante and Chor 2012a, 2012b, 2014; Sanborn and Thyne 2014).

Barro and Lee educational attainment dataset

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Input: because of nationalization. 19 To guarantee that the results were not confounded by access to the labor market and other services by these Colombians, the sample was stratiﬁed to exclude families with a Colombian citizen 10 years of age or older, and with a member who held PEP from a different wave. The structure of the survey is explained below: 1. Screening Module: the screening was designed to be done in a ﬁrst call to determine the family ’ s eligibility for the survey. The screening and the survey were to be an- swered by any adult in the nuclear family of the person who was originally contacted. The person who answered the survey became the main respondent and would be the only one to provide information for themselves. In turn, they had to answer the survey, from a third-person perspective, for all other family members. In the screening, the main respondent was asked for their age, place of birth, Venezue- lan ID number, current city of residence, whether they had a Venezuelan passport, and if they had registered in the RAMV census in 2018. If the contact came from the sam- pling frame of irregular migrants, they were asked if they had PEP and for the date of their arrival in Colombia. For the census sample, this information was available. Usage context: background mention, supporting mention, primary mention.

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Input: First, there is reason to believe that better service delivery may aﬀect citizens ’ willingness to defer to the tax department only through its eﬀect on improved outcomes that matter for citizens ’ livelihoods. Unless improved services and infrastructure have a positive impact on citizens ’ welfare, indi- viduals are unlikely to credit the government for these outputs (Sacks and Levi, 2010). The Afrobarometer ’ s objective measures of service delivery only denote the presence or absence of infrastructure and services. The data do not indicate the condition of the services and infrastructure. Citizens may perceive and reward relative improvements or sanction de- teriorations in services, rather than the absolute level of service quality they receive. If services deteriorate or improve, taxpayers may alter their beliefs about governments ’ performance and should attempt to adjust their terms 10I also tested whether there is a relationship between the presence of a concrete road, health clinic, post oﬃce and electricity grid in the enumeration areas and respondents ’ willingness to pay taxes. None of these objective indicators except for the presence of an electricity grid were signiﬁcant at the p < 0. 05 level. The presence of an electricity grid is negatively associated with the willingness to defer to the tax department. 17 Usage context: primary mention, background mention, supporting mention.

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Input: month placement and support phase in which the trainees were supported in their transition to self or wage employment. Upon recruitment, the participants are assigned to a"Job Skills (JS)"track or a"Business Development Services (BDS)"track. When possible, the participant's track preference was honored; however, the demand for the Job Skills track greatly exceeded the supply, so the remaining trainees were placed into the BDS track. In the first round of training, the proportion of Job Skills track places was limited to 35 % of the total training places available given the expectation that few wage jobs will be available in the Liberian job market. The Job Skills track provided training in six areas: 1) hospitality, 2) professional cleaning / waste management, 3) office / computer skills, 4) professional house / office painting, 5) security guard services, and 6) professional driving. These areas were determined based on independent labor market assessments, a review of the available market data, and input from EPAG ’ s private sector partners. All Job Skills trainees received training in entrepreneurship skills as well. The BDS training taught young women how to identify micro-enterprise opportunities based on an assessment of market needs, and how to grow and manage any existing businesses they already had. Usage context: primary mention, supporting mention, background mention.

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Input: where more positive indicates greater control. The internal control index uses four questions regarding personal control over destiny. The chance index uses five questions regarding the role of chance or determinism. The role of the powerful others index is 1 question on whether others determine fate. Refugees’ Aspirations 42 T his chapter examines the state of welfare and poverty levels of refugees and host communities in Ethiopia. The emphasis on refugees and host communities acknowledges both groups’ mutual—and sometimes interdependent— development needs. We assess multiple dimensions of welfare and poverty of refugees and hosts in Ethiopia using household-level consumption data. The data presents a comprehensive set of social and economic indicators to determine poverty incidence, food security, and standard of living. In addition to refugees overall, we look at welfare differences across refugee groups—Eritreans, Somalis, and South Sudanese—and compare differences in contexts and situations. In more detail, we analyze (i) poverty incidence and inequality, (ii) expenditure patterns, (iii) multidimensional poverty, and (iv) food security, perception of standard of living, and shocks. The chapter also provides a poverty profile and determinants of the welfare of refugees and host community households and estimate of the cost of basic needs for refugees. Insights

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Input:
villages in total), based on the 2008 national census.

LC questionnaire and a 12-month AMAD recall had been included in the national ECVMA  survey implemented in 2011 by the 'Institut National de la Statistique' (INS) of Niger, with

via the AMD and LC methods are observed in the data collected via the national ECVMA  survey, which did not include a benchmark measure as did the Dantlait survey.

**Figure 3.** _Comparison of mean, median and standard deviation measures of milk off-take_ _estimates from AMD and LC methods in Dantlait and ECVMA surveys (liters)_

_Source: Dantlait and ECVMA surveys_

2008 national census
national ECVMA  survey
ECVMA survey

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Input: nizations such as UNHCR, and national and international non-governmental organizations. Data is compiled from a number of sources, including but not restricted to individual registration of refugees and asylum seekers (information typically includes name, gender, date of birth, country of origin, marital status, and place of displacement), tracking of population movement in situa- tions where the movement is ﬂuid or continuous, standardized surveys such as Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS) surveys, Labor Force Surveys (LFS), Demographic and Health Sur- veys (DHS), and Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), administrative records and registries. Yet, data collection is a difﬁcult exercise, due to both methodological issues (UNHCR 2014) and practical challenges, especially in situations of heightened insecurity or mass refugee situations. To date, UNHCR maintains the most comprehensive statistical database under a uniform methodology. UNHCR publishes annual data on refugee ﬂows and stocks by countries of resi- dence and origin dating back to 1951, shortly after the Ofﬁce was established. UNHCR publishes annual statistical reports ranging from “ Global Trends ”, “ Mid-year trends ”, “ Asylum trends ”, to a “ Statistical Yearbook ”. There is a consensus that these data provide the most reliable source of information (Sarzin 2016). Usage context: background mention, primary mention, supporting mention.

Living Standards Measurement Study
Labor Force Surveys
Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys

individual registration of refugees and asylum seekers

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Input: (0.0550) (0.0550) (0.0550) (0.0551) (0.0550) HH own cart 0.0953* 0.0953* 0.0953* 0.0953* 0.09562* 0.0953* (0.0421) (0.0421) (0.0421) (0.0421) (0.0423) (0.0421) HH ran out of fooda -0.0859** -0.0859** -0.0859** -0.0859** -0.09167** -0.0859** (0.0304) (0.0304) (0.0304) (0.0304) (0.0300) (0.0304) Local demography and economy activity Most land cover: agricultureb -0.0798+ -0.0798+ -0.0798+ -0.0798+ -0.07447 -0.0798+ (0.0475) (0.0475) (0.0475) (0.0475) (0.0482) (0.0475) Distance to bank -0.0400 -0.0400 -0.0400 -0.0400 -0.0400 (0.0250) (0.0250) (0.0250) (0.0250) (0.0250) Internal migration: Rural-Urbanc -0.0876*** -0.0391* (0.0262) (0.0157) Local labor market Annexes 118 LFPR 0.0337* 0.0370*** (0.0139) (0.0091) Share of wage employment 0.0427+ (0.0239) Unemployment rate -0.0290** (0.0106) Share of employment in the service sector 0.0429** (0.0077) Share of employment in the trade sector 0.0665*** (0.0147) Share

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Input: ) Unemployment rate -0.0290** (0.0106) Share of employment in the service sector 0.0429** (0.0077) Share of employment in the trade sector 0.0665*** (0.0147) Share of employment in the manufacturing sector 0.0269 (0.0237) Share of employment in the agriculture sector 0.0206 (0.0131) Proximity and access to market Level two -0.3414** (0.1143) Level three -0.3308** (0.1127) Level four -0.2098** (0.0814) Distance to Zone city (Km) -0.0030* (0.0013) Market accessibility indicator 0.4056** (0.1381) Observations 2024 2024 2024 2024 2205 2024 Chi-square test 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 R2 0.1373 0.1373 0.1373 0.1373 0.1172 0.1373 Source: World Bank Staff based on SESRE 2023. Note: Average marginal effects are estimated. a

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Input: 18 the local data on physical geography and population from the raster data. These data can then be imported into statistical programs for analysis. We aggregate all data up to a grid of 8. 6x8. 6km squares. Each grid square is assigned attributes of the country it is in along with information from data disaggregated to the level of the individual squares. Figure 3 illustrates this grid as a fictive country somewhat smaller than the average size in our dataset (50x50 squares, or 430x430 km) with a fairly representative but stylized population distribution. The country has three major cities, one of which is the capital, and two smaller ones. A rebel group has its headquarters at the Eastern border. The ACLED data for the Central African conflicts were aggregated up to the 8. 6x8. 6km squares and merged with information on other explanatory variables aggregated to the same level. Usage context: background mention, supporting mention, primary mention.

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Input: In principle, individual registration of IDPs is not used to determine the ‘ status ’ of an IDP, since IDPs have the same rights and entitlements as other citizens and do not need to apply or be granted a special legal status. 66 Rather, registration of IDPs can provide a basis for: (a) establishing the number, location, and key demographic characteristics of displaced populations; (b) providing protection and assistance; (c) keeping track of family relationships; (d) preventing fraudulent access to scarce humanitarian assistance; (e) facilitating the issuance of temporary identity cards to replace lost personal documentation (Brookings 2008); and (f) providing social security benefits. 67 Full IDP registration by international organizations is not 62 By the end of 2014, individual refugee registration was the source of about 77 percent of the data on refugees; estimation accounted for 13 percent of data, combined estimation and registration for 5 percent and other sources for 5 percent (UNHCR 2016). 63 UNHCR may undertake registration activities when national governments do not have the capacity to do so. 64 Additional data can also be recorded such as education and occupation. 65 Insufficient budgetary resources, staff, training or materials. 66 Countries with national legislation that provides a legal status for IDPs are an exception to this international standard. 67 The scope of data collected depends on the objectives of the registration exercise, for example in Kenya, registration of individuals displaced by the 2007 and 2008 post-election violence excluded ‘ integrated ’ IDPs, i. e. those who had Usage context: background mention, supporting mention, primary mention.

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Input: Without army protection most parts of the North, especially Kidal remain inaccessible to those working for the central and local government. 3 Armed bandits are active and IED explosions as well as violent attacks on the MINUSMA peacekeeping forces are regular occurrences. Under these circumstances, data collection is very difficult. INSTAT, the National Bureau of Statistics, has not been in a position to collect information from northern Mali since the beginning of the crisis. To our knowledge, our surveys implemented by a private survey entity, GISSE, are the only systematic and representative effort to collect data in north Mali since the crisis. They offer a unique database providing a crucial perspective that would otherwise not be reflected in academic analyses and policy level decision-making, and a perspective that is indispensable in any attempt at understanding the situation in Northern Mali. 4 Preceding the Accord on Peace and Reconciliation in Mali (Accord pour la paix et la réconciliation au Mali) (hereafter, the Peace Accord) of May and June 2015, four peace accords had been signed between the government and Toureg and Arab armed groups in 1 Kel Tamasheq (those who speak Tamasheq) is synonymous for Tuareq. 2 Francis David (2013): The regional impact of the armed conflict and French intervention in Mali. NOREF, Norwegian Peacebuilding Resource Centre. 3 Assessing Recovery and Development Priorities in Mali ’ s Conflict-Affected Regions. Draft Report of the Joint Assessment Mission for Northern Mali (January 2016), p. 15-16. 4 All data can be downloaded from www. gisse. org.

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Input: Such a channel would be consistent with psychology literature on behavioral activation, or the act of scheduling structured activities as a means of combatting depression (Cuijpers, van Straten, and Warmerdam (2007)). To explore this question, we supply a random subset of the employed with a calendar marking every date of work (Appendix Figure A5). The re- mainder receive a blank calendar and are instead informed weekly about their schedule. We ﬁnd no impact of a schedule on respondent well-being or decision-making (Appendix Table A7). Despite this exercise, we cannot causally estimate the role of the structure alone on well-being, as the structure imposed by regular employment is coextensive with employment itself. Indeed, our measure of stability, which asks respondents how secure they feel at the moment and expect to feel in the future, increases substantially among the employed relative to both control and cash arms. Time use Does employment improve well-being by allowing participants to substitute time away from unsavory or psychosocially costly activities? Appendix Table A8 presents how cash and work arms use their time. We document no signiﬁcant diﬀerence between the two arms in the number of hours that respondents report spending across a variety of activities. Usage context: primary mention, background mention, supporting mention.

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Input: 7 Database. Where both censuses and population registers are available, censuses receive priority. Censuses, generally conducted decennially, are retrospective tools for surveying an entire population (or in some cases, a representative sample) at a single point in time. In addition to their universal coverage, their greatest strength is the inclusion of questions on place of birth and nationality. Censuses also typically aim to enumerate the resident population, whether documented or undocumented (Bilsborrow and others 1997). So although some migrants have a strong incentive to provide false information to enumerators, many undocumented migrants will be captured in these matrices. 7 The size and scope of the census questionnaires vary enormously, both over time and in different destination countries. And there is potential variation in the quality of censuses both across countries and over time. Richer countries have many resources at their disposal to design questionnaires, train interviewers, employ statisticians, and disseminate results. Researchers have little choice but to accept the data at face value. However, where the underlying census is clearly substandard (when there are errors that are obviously not coding errors or not easily corrected), these data are omitted from the analysis. Popular in many parts of Europe, population registers are continuous reporting systems providing up-to-date demographic and socioeconomic information for everyone surveyed. Usage context: background mention, primary mention, supporting mention.

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Input: 23 The Kakuma refugee camp was established in 1992 in response to the inflow of 23, 000 Sudanese refugees (Jamal 2000). The camp is now home to over 100, 000 refugees from South Sudan, Burundi, Ethiopia, Somalia, and the DRC (UNHCR, 2012). The ongoing unrest in South Sudan is likely to exacerbate the refugee situation in the upcoming year. Moreover, the restrictions imposed by the government on refugee movement and employment makes the Kakuma population completely dependent on assistance provided by international organizations present on the field (Jamal 2000) The evidence on the impact of refugees in Kenya is quite limited. However, the Nordic Agency for Development and Ecology (NORDECO 2010) provides a detailed description, backed by sound descriptive statistics, on the impact of Dadaab refugee camps on host communities. Despite the very different structure of the local economy, mainly driven by pastoralist livelihoods, a pattern somewhat similar to the Tanzanian case is observed. According to NORDECO (2010), the aggregated economic impact is positive. It is estimated that about USD 3 million annual income accrues to the host community thanks to livestock and milk sales to the refugee camps. Trade and employment opportunities have also been reported around Dadaab camps in Kenya. Usage context: background mention, primary mention, supporting mention.

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Input:
a country belongs to. The regional classi...cation corresponds to that used throughout the graphical analysis in section 2. [16] When constructing the regional dummy

of public sector (government) in economic performance of a country. One may expect

that a larger share of government on real GDP would result in a greater e¤ort to

stabilize government ...nances in the sake of greater macroeconomic stability. Sim
ilarly, if government actions are important for an economy the public will require

Household survey data point towards a large and possibly widening gap between rural and urban levels of consumption and recent increases in poverty. After decreasing from 59.7% in 1992 to 37.4% in 1999/2000, rural poverty increased to 41.1% in 2002/2003.

The data for our study come from the 2005/2006 Uganda National Household Survey (UNHS), fieldwork for which was conducted by the Uganda Bureau of Statistics from May 2005 to April 2006. The survey collected information at the community, household, and parcel level for about 7,500 households in 753 EAs including 30 IDP camps.

The 2002 population census was used as a sample frame. Following stratification into urban (30%) and rural (70%) sub samples, enumeration areas (EAs) were chosen with the probability of selection being proportional to size.

2005/2006 Uganda National Household Survey (UNHS)

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